n I

I

E

SWEDISH FUNDS-IN-TRUST TF - INT 74 (SWE)

Manual of

FAO/SWE jJ!F 142

LOGGING AND TRANSPORT IN EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS

based on the work of '11¥) u '0 ' II

Liss-Bjorn Fahraeus

Forest Logging and Transport Branch

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

ROME, 1974

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FOREIVORD

The Forest Logging and Transport Branch of the FAO Forestry Department is preparing manuals on v10rking techniques and production and costs in logging and transport in forestry. The object of these manuals is primarily to provide data for forestry in developing countries where to date very little has been systematically compiled and published.

One manual has recently been published : "Logging and Log Transport in Tropical High Forest" and is available in English, French and Spanish.

A manual on "Logging and Log Transport in Man-Made Forests in Developing Countries" dealing with coniferous plantations, has recently been published as a preliminary document in English only. The present document on Eucalyptus plantations is also a preliminary document and is being printed in English only. A third document on Logging in Steep Terrain will follow shortly, again in English only. These three documents will eventually be-revised, updated and consolidated into one manual which will be issued in English, French and Spanish.

The present document has been prepared by Mr Liss-Bjorn F~hraeus while working as an associate expert with the Forest Logging and Transport Branch. FAO Forestry Department is indebted to those forest enterprises who kindly arranged visits to their current logging operations, as well as those who provided data by correspondence.

This document was made possible by Funds-in-Trust from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).

H. Steinlin Director

Forest Resources Division

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 - BACKGROUND

Chapter 3 - PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Chapter 4 - SOURCE OF INFORMATION

Field Studies b.y the Writer Information on Request FAO Documentation Other Information

Chapter 5 - LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Chapter 6 - FACTORS AFFECTING LOGGING AND TRANSPORT

6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.3.1 6.1.3.2 6.1.3.3 6.1.3.4 6.1.4 6.2

Silvicultural Programmes - Stand, T~ee and Log Data Row Plantations Industrial Plantations Maximum Volume Production Stands Establishment - Spacing Regeneration Stump Treatment - Tending Production:-Stand, Tree and Log Data Technical Quality Production Stands Management

Chapter 7 - LOGGING PRODUCTION DATA

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

General Discussion Felling Crosscutting De branching Debarking Slash Piling

Chapter 8 - TRANSPORT

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.3.3.1 8.3.3.2 8.3.3.3 8.3.3.4 8.4 8.5

General Concentration of Wood -Piling, Stacking Short Distance Transport Manual Transport Animal Transport Mechanical Transport General Forwarding Skidding Winching Long Distance Transport Road Density

2

3

3 3 3 3

3

4

4 4 5 5 5 5 6 7

10 11

12

12 13 14 17 17 19

21

21 ::!1 22 23 23 23 23 25 27 27 31 31

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APPliliDIXES

Appendix A LIST OF REFERENCES 35

Appendix B SOME PRODUCTION EXAMPLES FROM EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN INDIA, MOROCCO, PORTUGAL, SPAIN AND SOUTH AFRICA 36

Appendix C APPROXIMATE RATE OF AIR DRYING OF DEBARKED EUCALYPTUS GRANDIS SHORTWOOD IN STACKS IN NATAL MIDLANDS, SOUTH AFRICA 43

Appendix D AN EXAMPLE OF LOGGING AND LOG TRANSPORT IN EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN BRAZIL 44

DBH

H1o

( 3)" ha m3 m3 s

m3 ob

m3 ub

HP

(A)

( 2) 1US$

-vii -

TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS .AND LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

breast height diameter

dominating tree height at 10 years of age. Siteolaes definition used by Gelbi, Portugal

(three) inches

hectare

oubio meter

oubio meter solid

cubic meter aver bark

oubio meter under bark

cubic meter, stacked volume

1.6 - 1.8 steres

horse power

refers to list of references It If 11 It II

6 Cr$, brazilian cruzeiros June 1973

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1. INTRODUCTION

This report forms part of a current study aimed at producing a consolidated manual on logging and log transport in man-made forests in developing countries. Previous work, has been concentrated on coniferous plantations, mainly tropical pines, and in order to make the results available without delay a working document in English.on logging in man-made forests has already been printed. This report is confined to Eucalyptus. It deals, in more detail, only vrl th the aspects v1hich are specific for Eucalyptus plantations and which differ from those of the pines, Principles and basic data for machine cost and road density calculations are for instance omitted. Long distance transport by truck is generally the same and has not been repeated, only a few additional aspects have been given. The same applies partly to short distance transport like the use of the skidder1 farm tractor, animals etc.

2 , BACKGROUND

The rapid increment and high volume production of many Eucalyptus species has led to vast plantations throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In 1965 fast growing plantation forests covered around 6 million hectares, According to FAO foreca~ts (most optimistic alternative) the area is expected to amount to 9.6 million hectares in 1975 and about '17 million in 1980, Some t\'lo million hectares of the 1965 area was Eucalyptus, distributed as shovm in Table 1.

Australia New Zealand North America Latin America

Africa

Europe

Asia

Table 1

Distribution of main Eucalyptus plantations - 1965

( 1000 ha)

of which in Brazil Uruguay Argentina Chile

of which in South Africa Madagascar Northwest Africa Central Africa East Africa

of which in Spain Portugal

of which in India

Total Area

540 100 65 50

190 150 200 100 50

100 180

80

15 10 25

800

700

350

100

2 000

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. The ra?id grm-1th of Eucalyptus, generally speaking, causes brittle heart and s~r~rucage wh1ch are d~trimental to the quality of wood. Growth is therefore primarily a1m1ng at ~olume o7 f1b7e production and to a minor extent for savm-wood, veneer and pl~~od ~h1c~ requ1re.h1gh technical quality wood. A FAO enquiry in 1970 (2) showed a ut1l1zat1on 1n the ma1n Eucalyptus producing countries of Europe as presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Input volumes of Eucalyptus for industrial and other uses - 1969

( 1000 m\)

Sawnwood Other Plywood Wood- Mining Fibre- ·Particle industrial Fuel-

Country Total Veneer pulp timber board board uses wood

Israel 35.0 2.6 3.4 '10.0 8.2 0.8 Italy 35 31 1 1 2 Portugal 960 150 800 11 Spain 804 112 378 351 12

2.8 11 8.o11 Turkey 16 3.4 3.8

11 Includes residues utilization

Only 268 .. 000 m3 or 14% of this volume is used for sawnwood, plywood and veneer. The utilization in the South African Republic was in 1968 as follows: Pulpwood 44%, mining timber 38%, sawn timber 7%, poles e% and firewood 5%· The trend, although with great variations, is the same throughout the world-that only a minor part is grown for high quality wood. The implication with regard to forest operations is the difference in · dimensions and way of growing.

Pulpwood, mining timber and other assortments with :ow requirements as to technical quality are grown for maximum production on short rotation~ 6-15(-20) years with clear­outs only. The yield consists of small trees (0.05-0.25 m /tree) but reasonable to high volume per hectare (70-300(-500) m3/hectare). .

Sawlog, veneerlog and 4igher quality pole production aim at larger dimensions. Rotations of 15-35 years are applied and thinnings and pruning are used to improve the ~ality. End crops have reasonable volumes whereas thinnings often yield only 40-50 m3/heotare. Tree and log dimensions are, however, considerably larger than in the pul~ wood harvest. ' ·

3. PURpOSE OF THE STUDY

Although vast plantations already exist many are very young and a great part is presently maturing for harvesting of the first rotation. A wealth of literature is available on the silvioultural and genetic aspects and on the technical and chemical aspects of the vmod but very little has been published regarding logging and transport.

Stand, tree and log dimensions are parameters with a major impact on the productivity of forest operations and consequently on the choice of methods and equipment. Sufficiently well-quantified and/or adequately defined data are very scanty. They can, however, to some extente, be extracted or recalculated from data presented for other purposes.

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Available production and cost data are generally so-called gross data or average data valid for instance for a company as a whole, for a season of felling, for a number of mixed species etc. Direct research reports on the subject are lacking and the more detailed lcnovl-ho>'l 11hich no doubt exists with more serious enterprises is generally not being released,

The purpose of this study has therefore been:

~~ c)

d)

e)

to search, gather and present any relevant data; to analyse define and quantify parameters with imp~ct on forest operations; to indicate and quantify the influence of those factors on output of various work operations; to provide guidelines for the choice of logging and transport systems and equipment and to give production examples and estimates on the various work operations.

4• SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The report is based on the following sources of information:

4.1 Field Studies by the l'iri ter

Forest operations in Eucalyptus plantations have been studied during field visits to the following countries: Chile, Israel, Morocco, Spain and Swaziland, 11here a number of companies, institutions and persons have provided valuable information and statistics. In a private capacity the writer has also visited some industrial plantations in the South African Republic.

4.2 Infonnation on Re~~-

On request the following companies have provided detailed information on their operations: Celbi regarding operations in central Portugal; Champion Papel e Celulosa s.A. regarding operations in Sao Paulo, Braziij and Borregaard og Kiaer Skoger regarding operations in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

4.3 FAO Documentation

This contains FAG-sponsored feasibility studies for forest industries establishment in India and Zambia.

4·4 Other Information

See list of references: Appendix A

5. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Natural forests are not included in this study)only plantations. As explained in chapter 6 emphasis is on "maximum volume production stands" whereas "technical quality production stands" and rovl plantations are covered in less detail. Some 70 different Eucalyptus species are used for plantation. Naturally only a few have been covered. Some data may refer to mixed or even to Eucalyptus without any specification as to species. Geographical limitations are defined in chapter 4·

As mentioned in the introduction, aspects of a more general validity, not specific for Eucalyptus, and already treated in the vmrlcing document "Logging and Log Transport in Man-Made Forests in Developing Countries" 1 are not repeated in this report.

Data are often obtained in unprecise or even obscure terms and units1 making comparisons and cross-checking difficult or even impossible, It is 1 for example, often 1U1clear w·hether the volume of trees or stands is the total including top and bark or the commercial volume over or lUlder bark. Working days may be expressed as a 9-hour day or an 8-hour day or 5, 7 effec-t! ve hours etc, Production figures may be expressed in number of trees processed per day or as man days per cubic metre where some sort of recalculation via cubic metre per tree is required for a comparison·.

As detailed information on production output ·is generally scanty it has been urgent to present as much as possible of all reasonably accurate data obtained, For comparisons some recalculations have been necessary but are kept to a minimum in view· of the danger of arriving at misleading results by using unclearly defined conversion factors.

The presentation is therefore to some extent a collection of examples rather than consolidated findings in terms of distinct correlation curves. It is planned to collect further data and deepen the analysis before final consolidation. It \-Tould then be advantageous to present as much original data as possible and to give also sufficient specifications as to related conditioning parameters,

6. FACTORS AFFECTING LOGGING llND TRANSPORT

Different silvicultural regimes aim at and result in great differences as to stand, tree and log characteristics having a direct and major impact on choice of methods for, and output of1 logging and transport operations. Variations of the felling programme are, on the other hand, a mean for stand treatment and development. As a background for understanding of the mutual impacts involved, a description of some silvicultural aspects is given below.

Short rotations and seasonal because of difficult debarking are impact on management and planning. operations. Related questions are

felling because of care for coppice regrorrth and sometimes examples of specific features of Euce.lyptus growing \·Ti th Training has a major impact on the productivity of forest

discussed under 6.2 Management below.

6,1 SilvicuHural Programmes - Stand, Tree and Log Data

According to the \vay of establishmen:t and purpose of production, Eucalyptus grolrlng can be subdivided as belowl

A. Na·~ural Stands

B. Plantations

1. Indus·trial plan~ationa

Maximum volume production stands Technical quality production stands

2. Row plantations

This study considers only Euce,lyptus plantations and concentrates on the most important groups, the industrial plantations establishe.d primarily for ;.;ood produoUon.

6.1.1 Row plantations

Row plantations involve such growth rrhere wood production is not the only or not even the main purpose, for instance wind-breaks to protect other forest stands, agricultural crops, towns, villages eto., shade .and shelter belts along roads, around farms and for animals, planting for sand and soil fixation etc. Planting is in one to. six or even more l~ws, providing a highly dispersed production which, however, in certain countries like Israel and Italy all together me.kes up not a negligible total production~

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The many variations as to treatment and species involved, often different from those used in industrial plantations, provide too many variations in stand and tree characteristics to be covered in this report. Where stand and tree data are available, felling and conversion production should be possible to calculate on the basis of the data provided in chapter 7• Commonly row plantations are easily accessible, near to the roads i'lhere transport should be a minor problem and the loi't degree of vmod concentration is the only important factor to consider.

6.1.2 Industrial Plantations

Calculations on Eucalyptus globulus growing for pulpwood in Portugal shows that the economical rotations with 8 percent calculation interest coincided very closely with the culmination of the mean annual volume increment. With 10 percent interest the economical culmination was a little earlier and with 6 percent a little later, the difference, however, being insignificant. Stands aimed at utilization without specific demand as to dimensions are generally grown on rotations that produce maximum commercial volume of wood with due consideration as to reasonable size of trees and logs. Rotations vary from 5-7 years on better sites, up to and above 20 on poorer ones. No thinnings are applied, only clear cuttings. When the purpose is to produce sai'llogs, veneerlogs,telephone poles and other assortments demanding special dimensions and higher technical quality of wood,other silvioul tural programmes are implied usually being longer :cotations of 15 to 35 years including thinning and pruning.

Initial este,blishment is planting ( oe,n occasionally also be solving). Regenere:tion is by utilize,tion of stmnp sprouts or oopp1.oe.

Maximum volume production stands is the most import~:mt produc-tion fonn e,nd is therefore treated first and in more dete,il. Technioa,l quality production stands e,re treated only regarding such aspects the,t differ f:t"om maximmn volumo production ste,nd"s.

6.1.3 Maximum Volume Production Stands

Planting after careful site preparation, in parallel rorm with regular 'spacing varies from 1. 75 x 1. 75 m ·i;o 3 x 3 m. Dense stands of 1. 75 x 1. 75 m r1ere es·tablished in the north of Spain around 1950. South African practice varies from 2 x 2 to 3 x 3 m. Morocco, Portugal and Spain have all had a development from 2 x 2 m to todays domine,t:!.ng 3 x 3 m, resulting in improved diameter growth but someHhat decreased volume procluo'tion. Where lorries in South Africa drive into the stand for loading, spacing of every 10th roH to 3. 7 m ( 12 feet) to avoid stump damage is recommended. Considering ·the almost standardized 1·1heel vddth of forestry tractors at 2.5 - 2.6 m, H appears that in future plan·tations, spacing in planned road locations, will have to be around 3.5 m to avoid stump damage. 6. 1 • 3, 2 Re€Jen.era"tioll

ll!ost Eucalyptus species produce readily after ou·tting stmnp sprouts or coppice utilized for regeneration. Af"ter ·tending (sometimes called thinning or coppice reduc-tion) one to five sprouts on each stump ewe left to fonn ·the n€m stand. It is unavoidable the,t some stumps die. The missing regeneration is compensated by more grovling stems on adjacent surviving stumps. In Bra,zil 1 Morocco, Portugal, Sou·th Africa, and the sou·th of Spain it is generally recognized that after 3 regenerations (4 rotations) stump quality and quantity have deteriorated so that new planting is required. Careful wte,nd and stump treatment in Israel and northern Spain have, on the other hand, resulted in satisfactory regenerations on the same stumps over five and more rotations.

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6.1.3.3 Stump Tree,tment - Tending

Eucalyptus is a typical light tree1 and those with delayed development and shaded ones are rapidly depressed. lJhen the height increment is as high as 3-6 m per year this depression occurs very soon. It is therefore indispensable to give all sprouts or stems an equal start through careful stump treatment and systematic tending.

Clean around the Sturn~: Tops, branches, bark and other litter have to be removed from the stumps so that neither physical hindrance nor shade will affect the young sprouts.

Stump Diameter: Small diameter stumps, produce only a few successful sprouts. Big stumps have a thick bark, causing an inferior wind resistance of the sprouts, and a larger surface to heal over1 increasing the risk of fungal infections. South African experience indicates best results from 10-20 om diameter stumps.

He~.£_f StlUn.:e: Sprouts are usually more securely attached, the nearer they are to the root collar and ground level, and wind firmness is increased by callus growth around its base, vThioh develops more rapidly over smoothly cut stumps. Very lo\·T cutting increases, however, the stump diameter. A smoothly cut 5-10 om high stump is therefore recommended, preferably 11i th slightly lee,nint:;; surface for water runoff. This may require an additional savling operation if not properly made at the felling,

Tools for Fellin..fi: Both Australian and South African experiences shoVI significant differences both in coppice survival and future gro•-vth betw·een axe-felled and se,w-felled primarily because of loosening the bark, damaging the cambium and its grovTth-ini tiating tissues and increasing the risk of fungal infections. In Morocco the introduction of the povTersaw· had been held back because of alleged inferior regeneration e,fter powersaVI felling as compared VIi th bovT-saw· felling, a phenomenon not known by the author to have been experienced anyVIhere else,

Tending: The coppice is reduced to the planned number of stems for the forthcoming rotation, often in tvm steps, because of the risk of wind-felling. The first treatment is at 3.5 - 4·5 m average height of the coppice in South Africa, 4-6 m in the no~Gh of Spain. Criteria for choice of stems are as follows:

1. Spacing:

A. try to keep up originally planted number of stems

B. when more than one stem is left on a stump consider:

best location VIith regard to wind resistance widest possible spacing betHeen the s·tems

2. Diameter growth

3. Height growth

4• Quality aspect such as type of branches, double top etc.

Tools used are axes or hatchets. The work is done by a team of 4 - 6 plus a foreman. Average work input in the north of Spain is 2.5 to 3 mandays/hectare in stands ;rith 2500-3300 stumps per hectare. In stands with big losses of stumps, undergroHth often appears8 increasing difficulty of workand the input to 3.5 to 4 mandaysjhectare. In South Africa the follovling work output is expected:

Initial reduction to 3 s·tems per stump Reduction from 3 to 2 stems per stump Reduction from 2 to 1 stems per s·tump

250 stc~ps/manday 200 H H

150 " "

The time for the tending should be confined to the pe,rt of the year \vi th the least danger of \vind-throw and frost damage.

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6.1.3.4 Production- Stand, Tree and Log Data

In Appendix B, production examples from India, Morocco, Portugal, Spain and South Africa are presented, providing basic stand and tree data. The data from Morocco are valid for the first rotation only and the same applies most probably to the Portuguese and Spanish data.

It is generally accepted, although there are no firm records to prove it, that average annual yield decreases fairly regularly with each rotation after the second cutting (1). For E. globulus spaced 3 x 3 on poor deep soils in Portugal production trends are as in Table 3.

Year

10 20 30 40

Table 3

Production trends for Eucalyptus globulus spaced 3 x 3m, Portugal

Operation Volume out per ha, m3

first clear cutting 100 second II II 120 third II II 80-100 fourth II II 80 and below

After the first cutting most trees coppice well and with the root system fully developed particularly the early years of the new rotation show a very rapid growth. The fall in production during later rotations is mainly due to failure to coppice.

In Morocco it is practice to leave two stems per stump from the second rotation onwards and at low density of surviving stumps even more stems in order to compensate the fall in production due to missing stumps. In spite of this the production trend is reported to be similar to that shown in Table 3 from second rotation onwards (B). Stand data are available for the first rotation only. Going out from these data and assuming that not all stems in the consecutive rotations are suocessful,volume production and volume per tree might develop as in Table 4•

Year

12 24 36 48

Table 4

.Volume production and tree size development for

Eucalyptus oamaldulensis on average siteclass, Morocco

Operation m3/ha s'tems/ha m3/stem

first clear cutting 90 1' 100 o.o8 second II 11 90 1 600 0.06 third " 11 75 1 600 0.05 fourth II It 65 1 400 0.04

Volume per stem is decreasing from the already low figure of 0.08 m3/tree to 0.04 a trend to be considered when predicting yields using volume tables based on first rotation only.

A trial \vi th varied numbers of stems per stump is reported from Muguga, Kenya ( 4). E. saligna is grown for fuel wood. Original planting is 1 300 ·trees per hectare and average production is around 20 m3/hectare per year. 18 months old coppice were reduced as follolvSX A .. no reduction = average 5·5 surviving stems per stump; B "' reduction to 3 stems; C = reduction to 2 stems and D = reduction to 1 stem per stump. Result of harvesting at the age of 8 is shown in Table 5·

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Table 2.

Trial with varied number of stem left per stump of Eucalyptus ealigna2 Kenya

(Result per 100 stumps)

Treatment

Variable Unit Control 3 stems 2 stems 1 stem

Stump survival % 97 97 92 99 Merchantable trees No 237 227 172 99 Mercha1l:table trees 9 in% of total No. % 44 78 93 100 Mean DBH om 10.4 10.9 11.7 13·5 Yield u.b. to 5 em top m3 13.0 13.9 12.5 9·7 Volume per tree m3 0.055 0.061 0.073 0.098

The example shows the same trend regarding tree size as in Table 4· It indicates also that 1 300 stems do not fully utilize the potentials of the site,

Champion Papel e Celulose S.A. reports the follo\rlng yields from their Eucalyptus grandis plantations near Sao Paulo, Brazill

First out (7th year) Second cut (14th year) Third out (21th year)

200 stare/hectare 180 II II

160 If If

(118m~) ( 106 m ) ( 94 m3)

The future might, however, look different as fertilizers are planned to be used to raise the production,

Table 6 shows the characteristics of a number of stands types at the time of clear felling. Examples 1 to 6 from Portugal appear to be based on samples from the first rotation only, Examples 7 to 11 are more of the gross data type representing the average of a region or country) certainly containing great variations. Example 12 is an example of row plantation in six parallel rows along each side of the road on very fertile soil in north Israel.

The Portuguese example sho\vs clearly the impact of spacing on t-he development of breast height diameter, on volume per tree and on the branchiness.

Total volume to harvest is of reasonable size, 70-100 m3 on poorer sites and 150-300 and above on better sites. Harvesting of Eucalyptus is hmvever obviously a ·problem of a small sized wood. Excluding examples 1 and 2 from Portugal which are clearly above average sites the stem volume is in the order of 0.05 - 0.20 m3/tree and in terms of 2m pulpwood logs there are 30-100 pieces per solid cubic metre.

!able 6

Exa.m~les of stand tZEes of Euca.lzEtus at time for clear felling

South Spain :Brazil · Co~_;ey PORTUGAL Africa. South North Morocco Sao Paulo Israel

Example No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Species 11 A A A A A A :a A A+C c D c

(H'10 "" dominating height at 10 years)

Site class 27 23 19 15 - - Aver. Aver. Aver. III - very good

2500- 1000-Spacing trees/ha 1100 1100 1100 1100 2250 2400 1750 1100 3200 2000 1667 ro-t'i"

plantation

Age at felling year 12 13 15 17 -- - 8 9-12 12 13 7 12

Tolume :felled •3/ha 480 365 270 185 165 300 135 70-80 210 80 110 500

Mean Dlm om.o.b. 20.6 19.1 17-5 15.8 11.2 12.5 15 13-16 12-13 12-15 15 \.0

r

Stump diameter om 26.0 24.2 22.2 20.4 14·5 16.2 15-35

Average tree height m 30.0 25.0 21.0 18.5 18.7 23.0 17 18 15 18 25 -

Height of merchantable wood m 25.8 21.3 16.8 14.8 14.6 18.6 11-12 14 15

Heigla to lowest green branch m 12.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 n.o 15.0

Average volume per tree m3 0.43 0.33 0.24 0.17 0.07 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.05- 0.07 0.33 0.08

Average Vll)lume per 2m log m3 0.033 0.031 0.029 0.023· 0.010 0.014 o.on 0.016 0.009-0 •010 0.012 0.010

:Bark volume 17 18 19 20 22 21 19 13 15 ( 12-21)

Fom:factor 0.430 0.433 0.440 0.448 0.465 0.460 0.453-0.4§6

11 A • !.· globulusi :a = !· saligna.; c a !· camaldulensis; D "" !· grandis

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6.1.4 ~~cal Quality Production Stands

Technical quality production stands basically aim at growth of special dimensions, usually larger, sui table for veneerlogs 1 saw·logs and poles and of high quality vwod vli th regard to straightness and minimum tendency to shrink or split during processing. This is partly achieved by selecting special and appropriate species, partly by adaptation af the silvicultural regime normally with longer rotations, the application of thinning and pruning and the use of suitable spacing 2 x 3m, or 2 x 3.5 m corresponding to 1 670 and 1 430trees/ha. The example below from Zambia aiming at rapid growth of large dimensions with less considerations as to quality is spaced 3.6 x 3.6 m (12 x 12 feet).

Table 7 shows one silvicultural regime for~· grandis/saliBVa recommended by the Wattle Research Institute in South Africa (c). ,

Age in years

~hinning regime _for Euoal;yptus grandis/saligna, South Africa

Stems Percentage Estimated DBH remaining thinning of thinnings om

-------------·----~~h~a~----·----------·--------------------0

6 - 7 9 -10

12 -13 15 -16 18 -19 21 -22

30

330 990 740 490 250 150 100

0

25 25 33 50 40 33

100

11 - 17 18 - 20 22 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 30 32 - 36 56 - 61

The regime is based on the finding that in the case of ~· grandis, irrespective of spacing, inferior wood with pronounced growth stresses is produced during the first fifteen years. In order to minimize the inferior wood and increase the proportion of better quality wood laid on the stems after fifteen years the first thinnings are light and delayed until yield of pulp wood or mining timber is achieved.

This regime differs from the ones presently applied with heavy thinning designed to produce 36- 48 om (15-18 in) logs of light weight timber ove~ 15-18 year rotations. This latter regime has the advantage of versatility in being adaptable to short term changes in market demand for different log sizes but the drawback of increased proportion of inferior core wood produced.

The coppice from thinned trees may be killed but is normally kept and tended for best utilization of the potential of the site. Light poles, mining timber and pulpwood are taken out as intermediate crops. If light poles are aimed at clearfelling1 the last thinning takes place not later than 6-7 years before the olearfelling and coppice reduction to one stem per stump, within 18 month after thinning. The regime thus involves a great number of variations as to dimensions and assortments produoedtdiffioult to review in detail.

A regime practised in Zambia aiming at rapid production primarily of large dimensions l'li th less emphasis on high technical quality is shown in Table 8,

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Table 8

Sawn t•imber production, Eucalyptus grandis, Zambia

Age !{eight DBH Trees/ha Volume Volume Proportion Average sawlog year m m felled felled per tree saw logs dimensions

No. m3u.b.to 311 m3 u.b. % top diam length om m

First thinning 3 18 16 430 40 0.085 4 15 2.4 Second thinning 5 23 22 235 60 0.25 50 18 3.7 Third thinning 6 25 26 135 45' 0.33 63 19 3.8 Clear fell 8 27 30 160 12 0.47 77 22 4·4

Total 960 220

Coppice are killed successively. The old stumps are not taken away and new planting takes place in the previous plantation rows in between the old stumps.

A variation on this model uses 300 stems per a~re (740 per hectare). First thinning at 3 years removes every third row a reduction to 200 stems. Second thinning at 5 years ~s a reduction to 100 stems. Clear felling at 8 years produces trees of the size 0.5-0.8 m •

F~om a harvesting point of view those regimes have the advantages of large tree and log dimensions, being more economical in the felling conversion and transport operations, but the drawbacks of repeated cuttings,in extreme oa~es3ever,y second year as an average, and the yield at each thinning occasion is very low 40-70 m only. .

Remaining trees in thinnings provide a hindrance for felling and transport. No quantification of this impact has been obtained but the hindrance appears to be much less than, for instance, in pine thinning because of, firstly, the form and the generally short length of the Eucalyptus crown and secondly, the low density often in order of 900-1 300 trees per hectare. In row thinninga the hindrance for felling is negligible.

6.2 Management

Management of Eucalyptus harvesting in the sense of planning and control of the operations show·s only few particular features distinctly different from those of harvesting

_ Pi!le ~I>~.an~a tiona._ To ~~ cons_idered ~s _ t~~ _di ff<:rence. of d~b~~ki~ di ffi ()Ul ties 1 sometimes "being such that f'Or practical and economic reas.ou the operations are· stopped during longer or

~shorter periods:. n'eing -highly dependent on l~cal. phjrsica,l and- eoonomfo oondi tiona, --- .. this will have to be analysed locally fr?m case to case. For moredetails see chapter 7•5 Debarking belot'l. ·

Another factor to consider is the development of coppice regrowth which may restrict ~elling and particularly coppice tending to certain periods depending on local conditions as frost,drought-periods 9 strong mind reasons, etc.

A third factor is the short rotations and, in case of sawlog production, frequent thinning, in extrema oases every second year. One practical consequence is that the entire roadnet has to be maintained to adequate standard almost continuously.

- 12 -

Chapters 1 and 8 below present production data for various opera~ions. Utilization of those data for planning and costing the operations requires detailed knovtledge of the time utilization,of the level of skill of the l~orkers and quantif~cation of the physical conditioning factors. Some aspects of time utilization and on training and level of skill of the workers are given in presenting a practical example from Brazil in Appendix D.

1· LOGGING PRODUCTION DATA

7.1 General Discussion

As a background for the presentation below of logging systems, work operations and production data some prerequisites and typical features of Eucalyptus logging are summarized, referring mainly to ·~he dominating maximum volume production stands.

1. Form of cutting 2. Yield per cutting 3, Tree size 4• Logsize 5· Marking of assortments 6. Wood utilization

7• Seasonal work·

8. Coppice regrowth

Olearoutting. (occasionally thinning) Reasonable to high 70-300 (-500) mJ/ha Small 0.05-0.25 m3/tree Very small 0.01-0.03 m3/log Low requirement of skill needed Standard length in combination with small :trees in the cause of high percent of waste

Care for coppice development (drought, frost) and excessively difficult hand barking may cause temporary stop in logging operations

Special care needed in both felling and transport operations

The easy work of debranching (few and thin branches) lends itself very well to axe work in particular where trained powersavT operators · are lacking. The axe is a proper tool for easy debarking and being the dominating tool for this operation, debarking and debranching are generally combined into a one man operation. Felling with axe is not recommended. Specialized workers using powersaws can achieve veF~ high production in · felling and crosscutting. This high output cannot hewever, be maintained by one man during the whole work day, Two models for logging have therefore developed. One is the ttamall team" of 3-5 men of whom one or two can handle the powersaw. With over~oapacity on felling and crosscutting the powersaw operator participates the rest of the time in debranohing, debarking, slash piling etc. .The other model uses larger teams with speoiali zation. Felling is done by two men alternating .on the powersavr sometimes with an additional helper. Crosscutting has the same organization as felling. Tvto independent crews can be used,or one and the same oan be doing both felling and crosscutting. Debranohing, debarking, slash piling are a single man axe operation, by teams of 8-15 men adapted to the produoti vi ty of fellingf crosscutting. · · .

Depending mainly on the need for debarking and seasoning the sequences of logging operations var,y as shoVTn in Table 9·

-13-

Table 9

Sequences of logging operations preceding the long distance

transport of various Eucalyptus assortments

Assortment 2 3 4 5 6

Pulpwood ~l FE CUT BR/BA DRY1/ TRP FE CUT BR/BA T;I/- green wood to industry FE BR/BA DRY TRP-8 CUT TRP-L

Mining timberl FE BR/BA arrange forYDRY currl/ 'I'RP horizontal 6-8

Poles drying weeks

Sawloga l FE BR CUT TRP- within 24 hours to the mill if possible

Veneerlog

Legend% FE = felling; CUT ~ crosscutting; BR = debranching; BA = debarking; DRY = seasoning; TRP-8; Short dis·tanoe transport 1 TRP-L "' Long diste,nce tr1;1nsport; TRP = Short and/or long distance transport. Sle,sh-piling and stock-piling is not considered in this table.

1/ Freshly felled pulpvmod is generally preferred by the industry. Decree,sed cost of tre,nspor"t for seasoned logs must hqm>ver be considered.

g/ To remain or become straight poles must lie in a flat and supported position in their entire length during seasoning. High quality poles nmst dry in the shade and on high supports to avoid fungi infections. This may call for a tree-length transport ·to location of seasoning.

2/ When fully dried and before o':rosscutting eaoh end of h:!.gh quality poles is. tightly banded i·li th iron strings to restrict end spli tUng. ·

Comprehensive and more specific production data have been obtained from six sources mainly listed A - F in Appendix A. In the rwiev1 below of production of various work elements the corresponding letters(A)-{F)have been used to indicate the origin of the figures on which the ourves have been established. For background informa·tion see Appendix A.

7.2 Felling

In i'lell treated stands there is almost no under-bush hampering the felling. Branch type and form of the oro1m is suoh that hangups seldom occur, not even in thinnings. Diameters are uniform and generally small, stump diameters normally in ·the range of 10-30 om. Because of these favourable prerequisites, ver,y high productivity of felling is reached in particular by means of poi'rersalv.

Hampering factors are mainly twos firstly the need for careful stump treatment to s~cure regeneration because of which the axe is not recommended for felling; secondly, the very intensive and monotonous v10rk of felling is simply too hard for a full day with one man only on the po1versavr. Thus the two models as mentioned above have developed.

- 14 -

Specialized felling machines are dimensioned to handle stump diameter up to 50 em. Because of the adaptation also to those of larger dimen$ions 1 present machines do not possess the necessary speed for felling of the generally small dimensions of Eucalyptus stands competitively with pot~ersatv felling. Small sized machines adapted to the actual diameter range might be developed but presently the only tools for felling are ·the power­saw and the handsaws, in particular, the bo'lv-saw.

Four to seven rows or a strip of 12-14 m is worked at a time. Felling for tree length is parallel to the direction of transport, Felling for shortwood is across the direction of transport, concentrating top and branches in one row along each side of the strip and the wood towards the centre line of the strip. By felling a first tree across the general direction of felling and the other trees on top of this, an uplifted and supported position is achieved providing improved work position for the consecutive operations crosscutting or debranching/debarking.

Graph 1 shows examples of production in felling. The differences between the curves is great but is largely explained by the differences in length of working days, composition of working team and level of training. Due to the risk of arriving at misleading results in using uncertain conversion factors for recalculating the curves to comparable units, it has been preferred to present the results with as little recalculations as possible and instead present and discuss the related prerequisites as follows:

For general background see A-F Appendix A. Curves A 11 and 12 show the expected output from an average >·mrker during 9 hour day. Work is oarri ed oi,l.t 'Qy two men alternating on the saw, Skilled workers may finish the "task" within 6 - 7 hours and usually then stop the tvork for that day.

B 11 and 12 shows firstly a significant difference between two species §• globulus and rostrata. They show the high production that can be achieved when felling is spread over the day into several short intervals. As the figures are the result of limited time- studies on the entire logging operation broken dotm on tvork elements the exact level of the curve may be questioned.

C 11 and 12 refers to seasonal workers whom it can be assumed he,ve been given less training than the workers in A and B.

1LJ1 is a calculated curve referring to single man powersaw felling for subsequen·t mechanized processing. Effective work hours are defined as 5·7 hours per day. It indicates the difficulty to keep up the effectivity during a full i'lOrking ctay.

7.3 Crossoutting

Crosscutting of higher value assortments such as poles, veneer and sawlogs 1 is preceded by marking by a special marker plus an assis·tant. Pulpwood and dlining Umber is usually cut 'to standard length 1 m, 2m, 2.4 m, 2.6 m eto., of which 2.4 and 2.6 mare adaptations to the maximum allowable width of trucks used. This marking does not require any particular skill and ifll, in the case of large specialized logging teems, done by 'two men alternating on the saw, sometimes assisted by a third man. When crosscutting is done before seaJ~oning,orew is normally the SL"Jl!El as for felling. The tools used are powersaw or bowsaw.

The plaoe of crosscutting in the sequence of logging operation!!! is shown in Table 9. The Wattle Research Institute (c) states that the productivity of crosscutting wet timber is about 40 percent high~r than that of airdr,v timber.

Graph 2 shows examples of production in crosscutting 2.4 m ~tlpwood logs. The production is highly dependent on the length of the trees. Curve A 21 corresponds to the conditions given for A 11 felling above, B 21 and 22 to B 11 and 12 above. Reme,rkable is the small difference between C 22 powersaw crosscutting and C 23 bowsaw crosscutting under the same conditions, which supports the assumption tha·t the worlcers have a low level of training.

No OF

TREES

PER DAY

GRAPH 1

2000 --t----+----\

All

A 12

500

10

- 15 -

FELLING OF EUCALYPTUS

PRODUCTION PER WORK DAY

0 c 12

POWERS A W FELLING

All

BU B 12

2 MEN ALTERNATE ON THE SAW, 9-HOURS WORK DAY E. GLOBULUS 1 E. ROSTRATA} FELLING AS PART OF THE WORK, 1-2 HOURS PER DAY ONLY. CONVERTED TO PRO­DUCTION PER 8-HOURS WORK DAY.

C 11 SEASONAL WORKER, 8-HOURS DAY. D 11 SINGLE MAN FELLING A FULL DAY

OF 5. 7 EFFECTIVE WORK HOURS.

BOWSAW FELLING

A 12 SAl'vlE AS A 11 ABOVE. C 12 SAME AS C 11 ABOVE.

30 DB H, em

:>< C§ ::..: p;:;

~ ~ z ·~

~ !:; u "' (/)

0 p;:; u

~ .... 0

~ ~ z

No OF TREES

PER DAY

1500

1000

500

GRAPH 2

A 21

' 10

~ 16 -

CROSSCUTTING OF EUCALYPTUS PULP WOOD

PRODUCTION PER WORK DAY

POWERSAW WORK

A 21 2 MEN ALTERNATE ON THE SAW, 9-HOURS WORK DAY

B 21 E. GLOBULUS } B 22 E. ROSTRATA FELLING AS PART

OF THE WORK, 1-2 HOURS PER DAY ONLY. <J:ONVERTED TO PRO-DUCTION PER 8-HOURS WORK DAY,

c 21 WET WOOD} c 22 DRY WOOD SEASONAL WORKER,

8-HOURS DAY.

BOWSAW WORK

c 23 SAME AS C 22 ABOVE.

0 c 21

G c 22 0 c 23

15 20 DBH,cm

-17-

7•4 Debranching

Only rarely quantifications of branchiness are found. Table 6 gives some figures from Portuga~ indicating that spacing to 1 100 trees per hectare results in roughly 50-60 percent of commercial stem length without green branches and spacing to 2 200-2 400 gives 89-90 percent branch-free stem length. As branches are furthermore very few and thin as compared with, for instance, pines, debranohing is a comparatively limited and easy operation. The benefits of substituting the axe 'I'd th the power-saw is marginal' and the application of presently existing mechanical debranchers is not realistic.

. The axe being the dominating tool also for debarking, the two operations are normally combined into a one man operation. Production figures for this is given under 7•5 debarking below. The Wattle Research Institute (c) states a production of up to 160 trees per man-day for separate debranohing (DBH m 15om, height 17m).

7 • 5 Debarking

Reasons for debarlcingg

1. Certain types of wood processing cannot tolerate bark.

2. To decrease volume and weight to transport. (Approximate rate of airdrying is shown in Appendix c)

Reasons not to debarkx

1. The operation is costly and should be calculated against gains in transport cost when barking is not necessary.

2. Rapid seasoning increases the frequency of ends-splitting. Veneer and saw-logs are not debarked. High quality poles may for the same reason be left with the butt end unbarked.

3. Utilization of the bark. Recent findings in Portugal show that for instance ~· globulus bark can be used in certain cellulose processes contributing to the yield as fibre content .. is not negligible. This has not yet come into practice and practically all pulpwood at roadside is still being debarked.

Long fi"brous strips of bark create great problems in mechanical ring-debarkers. Production is reduoeu by frequent and time consuming stops to clean the outcast.

Results from machine-barking of 2.4 om pulp-wood at roadside in southern Spain is sho'l'm in Table 10. The production is roughly Y3 of that achieved in debarking Pine.

Table 10

Debarking production, mechanical ring=debarker, 2.4 m Eucalyptus

pulp-wood at roadside. 3 men crew, southern Spain

DBH of the stand om <:: 12

12 - 14 14 - 20 20 - 25

A locally null.de machine, Mandus, in South Africa h rep0rhd to give promhing ruultl!l teohnioally. Feedl!lr spted through this machine is however only on• third aa compared with the C~~mbio. Awaiting b@tter meohanical l!IOlut:l.ons manual debarking r®m&ins dominant.

- 18 -

The follovdng discussion therefore refers to manual debarking and when nothing else is mentioned the \vcrk operation includes also debranching. The axe is the dominating tool but also hatchets, vineyard spades, spoon-shaped wooden instruments etc., are used. Specialized debarking spades are seldom employed and may involve a potential for increased e ffi oi ency.

The ease for debarking depends on several factors such as bark characteristics, seal;lon of felling and time elapse between felling and debarking.

Bark characteristics vary with species, site class, stand density, breast height diameter etc. Local observations are needed to establish relevant data. Some examples of volume percentage are given in Graph 3. Bark thickness increases with increasing breast height diameter. When expressed as percentage of over bark volume the relative bark volume decreases with increasing stem diameter, Curves No, 2 and 3 indicate that there might be differences in bark characteristics between rotations. The samples are, hoVTever, from t'lvo different localities. Curve No, 4 from South Africa has been established on the indications 20 percent at 5 em DBH, 11 percent at 56 em, thereafter constant.

~

~

~ ~ ~ ~ :;

GRAPH 3 RELATIVE BARK VOLUME IN PERCENT OF OVER BARK TREE VOLUME

% BARK 1 EUCALYPTUS TERETICORNIS , UTTAR PRADESH 9 INDIA

40

1 10

10 20

2

3

4

" " "

30

GLOBULUS , 1st ROTATION, PORTUGAL

" , 2nd ROTATION, PORTUGAL

GRANDIS 0 SOUTH AFRICA

40 I

. 50 DBH, em

Debarking is very easy during periods of sap floVT and more intensive biological activity whereas winter (cold) and drought periods cause difficulties. Differences are of the magnitude of 40 to 80 percent higher input required under diffioul t condi tiona.

·- 19 -

The length of periods with eas~ or difficult debarking has to be established locally, In South~rn Spain with cold vlinters ~although no frost) and d:cy summers easy debarking of !lJ.• globulus is March/May and September/November up to a total average of 7 months. Easy debarking of E. rostrata coincides vii th those periods but totals 5 months only. In the South of Brazil, Porto Alegre, however, difficult debarking occurs in warm summer months while most trees are easy to debark during winter time.

Particularly during sap flow, difficulties of debarking increase rapidly with time elapse after felling, and already a few hours delay causes a significant difference. It can ·be noted in this connection that immediately after debarking during sap flow the logs are ve:cy slippery. Stacking is therefore delayed at least a few hours. The wet status can, on the other hand be utilized for an easy first phase of manual downhill skidding.

Graph No, 4 shows production examples of debarking including debranching in the number of trees per man-day related to the average DBH of the stand.

Curves A 41 and A 42 show the expected output from an average worker during a 9 hours day. Skilled workers may finish the 11task" in a shorter time and usually then stop the work for that day. Workers specialize in debarking and debranching only. Curves B 41 to B 44 show firstly the significant differences between the species ~· glcbulus and rostrata and secondly the gre~t differences between "easy" and "difficult" debarking. Working day is 8 hours. Work is in small 3 - 4 men team performing all work elements from felling to piling of the wood. C 41 and C 42 refers to seasonal workers. The small difference between the two points shows how limited the work with 4ebranching is.

7.6 Slashpiling

Slashpiling is the piling of tops and branches in rows normally one along each side of the felling strip spaced 8 to 14 m. To allow easy access the rows are broken by 10 m gaps every 50 m.

Reasons for s1ashpiling

1. Get rid of the slash in order to simplify logging and transport operations

2. Improve growth conditions for the stump sprouts

3. Lower the risk of fire

4. A concentration and preparation in case burning of slash is applied

Reasons not to slashpile

1. In .case of soils vli th lovr bearing capacity (wet clay) the slash oan be spread within the tractor tracks to increase the bearing capacity and protect the roots from mechanical damage.

2. On exposed and d:cy sites slash may be left spread over the forest floor for maximum protection against evaporation.

It is important that slash does not cover the stumps hampering the development of the coppice. Slashpiling is a minor work provided that tops and branches are concentrated in the rows by means of a systematized directed felling. The Wattle Research Institute (o) states a production of slash piling of up to 800 trees per man-day in rows 12 m apart in stands with DBH 15 om, height 17 m.

~ Q·

::.: ~ 0 ~I

~I

~~ ~· ~~

~: .... ~· Oi

~

No OF TREES PER I

DAY

120

100

-

80

60

40

GRAPH 4

A41

A42

- 20-

MANUAL DEBARKING AND DEBRANCHING OF EUCALYPTUS

PRODUCTION PER WORK DAY

A41 E, SALIGNA, WET WOOD 1 9 HOURS WORK DAY

10

DRY WOOD t II II II II

GLOBULUS , EASY CONDITIONS , 8 HOURS DAY

, DIFFICULT

CAMAIDULENSIS, EASY

II

II

II ,DIFFICULT II

E, SAUGNA

if

II

E. DEBARKING ONLY

II

II

D41 E, GRANDIS t DEBARKING ONLY

15 20

II

II

II

DBH 9 em

- 21 -

8. 'I'RJINSPORT

8.1 General

Transport operations can be grouped into four main types. Firstly, directed felling dealt with in connection with logging above. Secondly, piling or stacking, a necessary operation particularly in case of small sized wood, Thirdly, transport from stump area to roadside defined as short distance transport. Fourthly, long distance transport mainly by truck on prepared roads. The thr.ee latter operations are dealt with separately below.

8.2 Concentration of l·TOod - pi lin~, stacking

All transport methods except manual forwarding benefit from high'wood concentrations• but requirements var,y with loading method and type of equipment. Concentration of wood is a heavy manual operation, considering the small and light (seasoned) dimensions of Eucalyptus -however easier than that of pine.

Hand loading of tractor trailers and trucks requires high rrood concentration, generally stacked along the entire transport track. Packsaoking1 the transport with bundles uplifted but attached only to the winohline, requires a bundlesize of 1 m3 for ski~ders, 0.5 m3 for farm-tractors. Large hydraulic truck cranes require around 0.5 m3 concentrated

3heaps whereas

the smaller cranes and higher mobility of the fo~1arder can suffice with 0.25 m heaps.

Productivity of wood concentration is a function of volume per hectare and size of logs. Based on data from large operations in _south Spain (B) the impact of low volume per hectare related to various levels of wood concentration is shown in G,raph No. 5·

Graph No. 6 is from Sou·lih Africa (A) sho~ing the impact of log size on stacking production for mule skidding and tractor transport.

STACKING AND BUNDLING EUCALYPTUS SHORT WOOD

m3 GRAPH 5 m,j GRAPH I

PER til PER

f3 DAY DAY

g ()()

~ 20 30 til

~ f3 g ~ ()()

te 2 ~ § 15 z 20

§ 3

~ 4 fil

~ ~

~ ~ 10 u 10 u ~ ~ 2 0. 50 m3 HEAPS til

til

1. 00 m 3 BUNDLES ~ ~ . ' 3

4 1 meter HIGH STACKS

~ r 10 30 50 70m3 ~ 2 3 I I

6

VOLUME FELLED PER HECTARE AVERAGE LOG SIZE8 CUBIC FEET

- 22 -

8.3 Short distance transport

Short distance transport is grouped into three types: A) forwarding, B) skidding and C) cable transport. Forr1arding and skidding use power-units mobile on the fores·t fl'oor. Cable transport has a stationer,y power unit and transport is fully suspended or one end of the load uplifted by means of cables. Forwarding is carr,ying load free from ground \'lhereas skidding is dragging on the ground or >vi th part of load uplifted. Main methods and equipment are listed and described belov1.

Method - Equipment

A. Forrmrding

1. Manual

2. Farm tractor-trailer

3. Small forwarder

4• Large forwarder

5· Truck

B. Skidding

1. Animal

Description

Handcarr,ying to roads~de

Farm tractor of 30-50 (-70) HP. Trailer 2-wheel or 4-whee~ loading 5-8 (-10) ton. Loading manually or by mechanical or hydraulic crane.

4 to 6 wheel drive special forest tractor. Platform carr,ying 5-9 ton load, Loading uith hydraulic crane.

Same as above but carrying 10-15 ton in the terrain

Eucalyptus plantations are frequently in favourable terrain where trucks can enter to stump area. No trailer is used in terrain. Loading manual or by mechanical or hydraulic crane,

Horse, mule or oxen. Generally tree-length transport.

2. Farm tractor-winch Farm tractor of 30-50 ( -70) HP. Single or double drum winch and even without winch. Logs attached to tractor by chains to a drav1bar or hanging in 1'linchline.

3. Skidder - wirechokers Articulated 4->·lheel drive special forest tractor, single drum winch occasionally double drum, Wire chokers. Adapted to tree length transport. Another application is transport of short-wood bundles uplifted in the >vinchline so-called paoksacking. (In principle a forwarding method)

4• Skidder choker-chains Same as above but separated as a special met~od because of using taglines, usually 3, each with 10-15 (~20) chain­chokers, because of 'lvhioh and high man-power input loading is kept to minimum time.

C, Cable-j;ransport .., 11Winching11

1. Farm tractor single drum winch

· 2. Farm tractor double drum winch

3. Other cable systems

Farm tractor 30-70 HP. Winohline 40-120 m7 wire or ohainchokers.

Same as above but increased production working two 'l'l'inchlines simultaneously.

Specialized equipment for transport distances longer than 100 m. Cable systems being generally ver,y costly and particularly in small sized vmod 7 have only margina,l applications in Eucalyptus transport. This report deals with methods C 1 and 2 only,, oalhd. Winching.

-23 -

The various methods are reviev1ed belo'I'T and in Graph No. 12 on page 30 are a number of production examples for various methods reviewed in one and the same graph •.

8.3.1 Manual transport

Manual forwarding is the carrying of wood with man-power from stump area to roadside, It is a heavy type of work and confined to short distances of around 50 m, seldom exceeding 100m. Log size not to exceed 2.3 cubic feet ( 40-45 kg) for single man work. Graph No. 7 valid for smooth grounds in South Afrioa (A) shows the input needed over distance and variations of the slope.

HOURS

PER m3

GRAPH 7 MANUAL FORWARDING OF EUCALYPTUS 0 2, 6 m LOGS

EFFECTIVE WORK HOURS PER m 3, SINGlE MAN WORK,

AVERAGE LOG 1, 4 cubic foot ( 25 kg)

MAiCIMUM LoG 2, 3 cubic foot ( 4~ kg. ) . .

3-------~------~~---------------------r--~~~

30 50 70 ' 90 110 130m

AVERAGE TRANSPORT DISTANCE

Manual fon1arding should not be confused either with stacking and piling as a preparation for mechanized transport or with manual skidding. Maximum slope in Graph No. 7 is ·4o%. On steeper ground debarked and wet logs tend to slide by themselves, Gravity is utilized for sliding them down manually. This is a oommon practice, for instance in the north of Spain. It is seldom made as a separate operation. A first short transport is made immediately the log is debarked and still slippery. The final 'I'Tork is confined to rainy days or early mornings with dew.

8.3.2 Animal transport

Animal transport of Eucalyptus does not differ from that of pine and is not . elaborated on in this report. See publication (5) in List of References, Pe35•

8.3.3 Mechanical transport

8.3.3.1 General

Eucalyptus transport is characterized by very amall trees and logs, reasonable to high volume per hectare and few assortments of wood.

- 24-

The two most important and intercorrelated problems of small sized wood handling are firstly organization of terminal operations, loading, reloading and unloading and secondly, creation of large loads for longer transports.

Preparations for loading are in two phases, firs-tly, piling or bundle making normally in the absence of the transport machine. Secondly, direct loading ;vhen the machine is present and its time cost has to be considered.

vlhenever trucking is the natural long distance (road) transport and condi tiona permit the truck to drive into and load at stump areas, this is done. The low productivity of cable trapsport restricts this method to terrain not trafficable with ground tractors.

The choice of adequate equipment among remaining methods is a matter of technical ability, method of transport, tree length or short vlood, and cost relation between man­power and machines.

Forwarder and skidder are both specialized forest machines superior to .~ tractors for managing slope, terrain obstacles and viet grounds. The tvm latter criteria are difficult to quantify whereas the ability to trafficate slope is roughly as follo\'lsg Farm tractor from 25% downhill to 15% uphill; forwarder from 45 downhill to 30% uphill; skidder to 60% downhill. On slopes steeper than 30% logs tend to slide off the forwarder because of which load has to be reduced. ·

More than 15 chokers are difficult to use on one >rinchline. Applied to tree data, presented in table 6, 15 stems \'lould give a maximum tree-length load for average conditions in South Africa, of 1.5 m3 (0.1 m3/tree), Spain 1.0-1.2 m3, Morocco 0.9-1.2 m3 and better stands in Portugal 3.6 m3. These small loads are tolerable for very short Skidding distances only.

Also Eacksacking is strongly affected by small sized wood. Not only is the work to prepare the bundle costly, but it is dif:t;icul t to handle bundles \'lith a large number of pieces, and to retrieve a lost bundle is time-consuming. A rule in cable transport says "not more than 10-12 pieces to a bundle"• Even four times this figure give only a 0.5 m3 bundle of Eucalypt pulp-vlood. The advantage of the double drum vlinch taking 2 bundles is apparent in this connection.

The longer the transport distance the more important it is to transport a big load. Skidding is consequently confined to very short distances 50-150 (-200). Its application on longer distances is mainly on ground too steep for other tractors.

The very high production which in spite of the small loads oan be achieved by skidders is due to the ability of quick loading and unloading. The hydraulic loader on the fowarder and handloading are very difficult to speed up when a certain level of wood concentration is reached, generally available in Eucalypt plantations. By using tagline, chokerchains and high man-power input loading/unloading of skidders can become very short. The tagline .is a separat,a 15 m long >rire to l'lhich 10-15 sliding ohokerchains are attached. Attachments to winch wire is with a quick coupling. Ohokerchains provide a more secure grip of the logs than .Urechokers, but are more difficult to release from loads l'lith many pieces. Two men draw out the tagline and pre-choke the trees. When tractors arrive the only operations are, to draw out and release one tagline, ·i;o hook on the one prepared and to winch it in. Two men take oare of the load at the landing, release the loaded tagline, hook on an empty tagline for return to stump area, and pile the wood. A minimum of three taglines are required, one at the landing, one at the stump area and one under transport. Obviously this high labour input can be used only with cheap labour. With the common wage level in developing countries of 2-4 dollars per day, there is no doubt that this method is economic. At cost level of industrialized countries its application is on very short distances only, and normal practice is the traditional method .Uth wirechokers and maximum 1 chokerman.

- 25 -

The three main alternatives are farm tractor-trailer 1-.lth a purchase price in the order of 10 000 dollars, an hourly machine cost of ~~4, the small forwarder costing $40_000 or $16 per hour and the large forwarder for $60 000 and $21 per hour. Where labour is cheap and terrain conditions permit, the farm tractor is the natural choice. Cost-wise the forwarder seems to be justified only at the salary levels of the industrialized co1mtries. Justifications for the fo~Tarder are shortage of labour and aggravated terrain conditions too difficult for the farmtractor.

The large fo~tarder can carry up to 15-18 ton on roads (12-15 in terrain) and travel 15 km/hour. Load-size is competitive 1-.Lth medium size trucks but spe~d is inferior. vfuere the truck cannot go into stump area and transport distance to industries is less than 20 km, fonvarder transport direct to industry is a realistic alternative to short distance transport plus trucking, the break-even point,however, to be calculated from case to case.

Production figures for a largz fo~rder on 500 m average transport distance on gentle ground and stand data, as specified for stand type No. 1, Portugal, in Table 6 is reported to be 18 m3, for stand type 2-17 m3, No. 3-16 m3, No. 4 -14 m3 and stand No. 5 also 14 m3 per effective machine hour. (No. 9 Graph 12)

Corresponding production with a small forl'larder is given to 11 1 11 1 10 1 9 and 9 m3

per effective hour respectively. (No. 8 Graph 12). The first small forwarder, introduced in southern Spain, (B) a Volvo BM 462, gave after half a year the result shown in Graph No. 8. Stand and tree data is stand type No. 8 in Table 6. It is significant that work is confined to more difficult terrain. On easier ground a farm tractor-trailer is used. It is to be noted that because of the configuration of the terrain, and gullies with narrow bottoms, roads were located on rid~es and most transport was uphill. See also the results from-small forwarder transport in Brazil presented in Appendix D.

Average transport distance for farm tractor-trailer in southern Spain (B) is 800-1000 m. Machine input w~~ reported as average for Summer (dry conditions) and Winter (,vret conditions) split into slopes less and above 15% as in Table 11.

Ta.bh 11

Machine input, farm tra.otor-trailer transport southern Spain

Slope

Machine hours per m3

0.23

0.26

Winter

0.29

0.36

HOURS

PER '·m3

0.5

~ ~0.4 Cl) g;

~ ~0.3 ~ 0 ;s: ·~ ~ (.) 1-0.2 ~ "" ~

I 0.1

GRAPH 8

400

FORWARDING EUCALYPTUS PULP WOOD, 2. 3 m LOGS

EFFECTIVE MASHINE HOURS PER m3 SMALL FORWARDER, VOLVO BM 462 GENERALLY UPHILL TRANSPORT I

25-30%

v-15 ~15-20% ~I I . ·~ ·~"'

~~~~~510% I ~ I ::::;:::or-~ .:: 5;, SLOPE

800 1200 1600 2000 meter

AVERAGE TRANSPORT DISTANCE

I 1\)

0\

'I

- 27 -

8.3.3.3 Skidding

The. three main alternatives are farm tractor-winch, with a purchase price in the order of $10.000 and an hourly machine cost of $4. Skidder-wirechokers and skidder-ohoker-chaina, both for $30 000 or $10 per hour. -

On easy grounds, with 4 men for choking/unchoking, a 30-HP ,_f'armtractor in South3Afrioa

needs the input per m 3 short wood transported as shown in Graph No.9. Converted to m per machine/hour the same is shown in Graph No.12, curve No.2.

GRAPH 9 SKIDDING 2. 4 m EUCALYPTUS PULPVVOOD

HOURS 30 HP FARMTRACTOR, CHAINCHOKERS ATTACHED TO DRAWBAR, ({) ·PER a m3 CREW IS 1 + 4 MEN. ~ ~

~ 0.10-

g . 08-

~ .06 til

~ ~ £-< u ~ 1"-l

AvERAGE SKIDDING DISTANCE

Based on one maxi~m and one minimum figure only curve No.3 in Graph No.12 has been drawn, being the production of tree length of a 70-HP skidder with 3 taglines x 15 choker­chains and 4 men assisting.

Graph No.10 shows the impact of slope and stand diameter on input per m3 for ~~idder­wirechoker with 1 choker man, Graph No.11 shows the same for packsaoking in southern Spain (B). Corresponding figures in Graph No.12 are number 4 and 6. Because of terrain and road alignment, skidding is mainly uphill in this example, above 30-35%, however, downhill. Point No.5 in Graph 12 is tree length skidding with skidder-wirechoker in Portugal and good ground and stand data corresponding to stand types No.4 and 6 in Table 6.

As the small sized wood technically restricts the load, generally to below 2 mj, the size of the slcldder depends on terrain difficulties mainly. On flat ground 50 HP is sufficient and more than 70 HP is rarely needed.

8.3.3.4 Winohi~

Winching is the use of tractors stationed on the road winching up wood on slopes too steep to traffioate with tractors. Downhill winching is inpraotioable. The cheapest machine with enough power is used, being farm tractor with 30-70 HP. The skidder is generally too expensive for this work. Winohline is up to 100 m. Normal working range is 30-60 m. Daily or hourly production is very stable at the level given as an average by the Wattle Research Institute (c), as follows&

Heavy farm tractor, double-drum winch, driver plus two men, tree length air-dry timber. Average production is 32 tons per day or 7·5 m3 per effective work hour, point 11 1 Graph 12,

Same conditions for light farm tractor single-drum winch produces 18 tons per day or 4 m3 per effective hour, point 12, Graph 12.

GRAPH 10

HOURS

PER

m3

0,4

• 3

,2

,1

HOURS

PER

m3

100

- 28 -

SKIDDING TREELENGTH EUCALYPTUS PULP WOOD

EFFECTIVE MASHINE HOURS PER m 3

75 HP SKIDDER ~ WiRESHOKERS LOAD SIZE 0,5- 1,5 m

GRAPH 10 a

GRAPH lOb

' 200

UPHILL SKIDDING, 35 - 50% HOW­EVER DOWNHILL

DB H 14-20 em

SLOPE 25 - 35%

300 400

35-50%

25-35%

15 - 25% SLOPE

500 m

,;;;12 em

14-20 em

.;:;, 25 em DB H

500 m

AVERAGE SKIDDING DISTANCE

- 29 -

GRAPH 11 PACKSACKING PREBUNDLED EUCALYM'US SHORT WOOD

EFFECTIVE MASHINE HOURS PER m3 75 HP SKIDDER

3 BUNDLE SIZE 1 m UPHILL TRANSPORT, 35 ~SO% HOW~ EVER DOWNHILL

HOURS

PER GRAPH 11 a DB H 14 • 20 em m3

0.4

35-50% • 3 25-35%

• 2 15 - 25% SLOPE

.1 -

c<> 100 200 300 400 500 m a ~ Vl

~ 0 :r: ~ H :r: Vl

~ ~ HOURS E-<

GRAPH 11 b u PER SLOPE 25 - 35%

E m3

0,5

.4 ""'12 em

• 3 14- 20 em

• 2 .

,1

100 200 300 400 500 m

AVERAGE SKIDDING DISTANCE

1 m3

\

- PER

HOUR

L \ -\~

\ 20-\-,

\ -, 13

2

GRAPH 12

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

90

11

12

- 30-

SHORT DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF EUCALYPTUS

MANUAL FORWARDING 1 GRAPH 7

SKIDDING SHORTWOOD 1 GRAPH 9 1 FARMTRACTOR- DRAWBAR 1 + 4 MEN , GOOD CONDITIONS

TREELENGTH 1 SKIDDER - CHOKERCHAINS 1 (C) 1 1 + 4 MEN 1 GOOD CONDITIONS

II II

II

1 GRAPH 10 1 SKIDDER - WIRECHOKERS 1 + 1 MEN 1 UPHILL 25 - 35 %

1 SKIDDER - WIRECHOKERS 1 (D) 1 1 + 1 MEN 1 GOOD CONDITIONS

PACKSACKING 1 m3 BUNDLES 1 GRAPH 11 1 SKIDDER - WIRECHOKERS 1 + 1 MEN 1 UPHILL 25 - 35 %

FORWARDING SHORTWOOD 1 GRAPH 8, SMALL FORWARDER

II II

II II

II II

a) UPHILL '!G. 5 % b) II 15-20% c) 11 25-30% SMALL FORWARDER 1 (D) EASY CONDITIONS LARGE FORWARDER 1 (D)

EASY CONDITIONS FARMTRACTOR - TRAILER 1 (B) a) SUMMER ,DOWNHILL < 15% b) II II >15% c) WINTER 1 <15 % d) II II >15%

WINCHING TREELENGTH, HEAVY FARMTRACTOR 1 (C) 1 1 + 2 MEN 1 DOUBLE DRUM WINCH

11 SHORTWOOD1 LEIGHT FARMTRACTOR, {C) 1 1 + 2 MEN 1 SINGLE DRUM WINCH

7 a

7b

7 c

1000 1200 1400 1600 meter

AVERAGE TRANSPORT DISTANCE

- 31 -

8.4 Long Distance Transport

Long distance transport of Eucalyptus does not in general differ very much from that of Pine. As many Eucalyptus plantations have been established on smooth and plain terrain, i.e~ in south Spain and Morocco on the coastal sandy plains 1it is often possible to drive the tntok into the stand for loading. Whenever this is practical, it is usually economic.

Although many industrial processes would prefer raw wood for cheaper processing and higher recovery, it appears to be common practice to debark by hand in the forest all pulpwood,mining timber etc. for the considerable decrease in weight and volume to transport especially where labour is cheap. Below are given some examples on manual loading:

Hand loading a 12-ton truck load in south Spain (B) was reported to take 1.5 hour for 4 men, corresponding to a production of 2 tons per man/hour.

Hand loading a 10-ton truck in Swaziland by 10 men was reported to take 30-40 minutes corresponding to 1.5 tons per man/hour.

Manual loading by Champion Papel e Celulose S.A. in Brazil is reported to be 7.5-8.0 stares per man/hour, corresponding to around 3 tons per man/hour.·

The Wattle Research Institute (c) states a production of up to 7 tons per day for manual loading of shortwood or light poles at roadside and at railroad. The three previous examples refer to occasional work when logging crews stop logging for loading a truck1 whereas this last example with considerably lower production indicates that a high intensity in manual loading is diffioul t to maintain during a full day. All examples refer to dey wood.

Manual unloading is in the magnitude of double the production·as compared with loading.

8.5 Road Density

Optimum road density is derived from the following formulas

Road density

c "' variable

~ ~ amount of wood extracted per unit area

T = allowance for winding7 extraction roads

V = allowance for winding, truck roads

K"' road cost per unit area

Based on the assumptions below some examples of optimum road density have been calculated, as shown in table 12. All cost figures are in US$.

c ~ variable cost of extractions

farm·tractor

large forwarder $ 1. 0 per ton per km

skidder $ 3.0 per ton per km .1/ 1/ high cost mainly due to small load, 1.5 m3•

amount of wood extracted per unit areaz

high production= 17 m3/ha and year. 2 30 years production capitalized to year 1 = 20.000 tons per km.

low production~ 8 m3/ha and year. 230 years production capitalized to year 1 = 10 000 tons per km •

- 32-

T = allowance for winding, extraction roadss

low road cost 1.3

high road cost 1.5

V = allowance for winding, truck roads&

low road cost 1.3

high road cost 1.3

K = road cost per unit length:

low road cost $ 500 per km

high road cost $ 4 000 par km

Table 12

Calculated optimum ro~ density in Eucalyptus plantations

Farm tractor Large Forwarder Skidder

Conditions Distance Metre Distance Metre Distance Metre between road between road between road I'Oads, m. Per ha roads, m per ha roads, m per ha

High production 350 29 250 41 140 71 Low road cost

High production 900 11 625 16 370 27 ltigh road cost

Low production 500 20 350 29 200 50 Low road oost

Low production 1 250 8 900 11 525 19 High road cost

A 10 to 12 ton truck will, where possible to drive off road, have a variable cost of extraction in the same order as the farmtractor, $0.5 per ton per km. The very good terrain condition needed for this is usually correlated with low road construction cost. Corresponding optimum road density should thus be in the order of 20 to 30 m/ha.

Road densities met in practice are generally in the order of the highest figures in table 12 of 50 to 70 m/ha.

Celbi (D) reports the following road net "inside" the perimeter of the forest areas&

Density of roads, average 50 m/ha (30-100)

Type of road % of road net

Artery roads

Primary roads

Secondary roads

5 20

75

The secondary ·road net cannot be used during rainy periods (during 1/12 - 15/2) •

- 33 -

Champion Papal e Celulose S .• A. (E) provides the following exalllple from a plantation of 3 222 hal

Artery roads

Primary roads

Secondary roads

130 km

4km

24 km, again 50 m/ha

In the north of Spain, where plantations are generally on steep slopes 30-7o%, six­wheel drive old GMG-army trucks loading 8-9 tons are used for a first road transport to a depot. Short distance transport is skidding by h~d. Roads have been constructed every 70 m, a road density of 140m of low standard roads with maximum favourable slope of 22fo. Labour shortage and rapidly increasing wages level make hand skidding uneconomic. A combination of skidders and forwarders will have to be used for short distance transport. The depot system will have to be abolished and ordinary trucks used direct to the mill. The entire road-net will have to be changed as neither standard nor density nOT location in the terrain will meet the new requirements.

Appendix A

LIST OF RE!!'ERENCES

Under A-F below are presented the six sources from which more comprehensive and detailed data have been provided and to which references in the text are frequently made. A list of references numbered (1) 1 (2), etc. followsx

(A) A large forestry and forest industries company in the Republic of South Africa. Forest operations are year round in Eucalyptus and Pine. Workers are being system­atically trained. Logging is generally in large specialised teams. Production is expressed as expected output of an average worker on a 540 minutes working da¥• If this 11 task11 is achieved within shorter time than the scheduled 9 hours, no more work is normally done that day. Production figures are based on time studies.

(B) A large forest industries company in the south of Spain with its own Eucalyptus plantations. vlorkers are being given organized training. Logging is on 8-hour work­deys 'l'li th small teams of 3-4 men of whom one or two are trained on the powersaw. Production data are based on production records and limited time studies to break do1m the data on ;.tork elements. Production data for a specific work element is thus less accurate than

3 those referring to the tot!l logging operation. Origina,l data

given as mandays/m or man or machine hours/m •

(c) The Wattle Research Institute, Pietermaritzburg, Natal, South Africa, has in 1972 compiled the 11Handbook on Eucalypt Growing", The book contains also production data on forest operations. The handbook is produced for the guidance of proprietors of small plantationS' generally. Production figures therefore generally refer to seasonal work and v10rkers l'fith less training than those year round employed by larger companies.

(D) Informe;tion and date, provided by the Forest Department of the Port'Uguese Company Celbi regarding their operations in centra,l Portugal.

(E) Data provided by Champion Papal & Celulose S.A. regarding their operations in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

(F) Information and data provided by Borregaard og Kiaer Skager regarding Industria de Celulosa S.A. operations in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

(1) FAO. 1955

Eucalypts for ;elanti~. Rome. FAO Forestry and Forest Products Studies No. ll.

(2) United Nations. Economic Commission,for Europe. ECE/FAO papers presented to the

(3)

(4)

(5)

1971 Symposium on the production and industrial utilization of Euca~yptus. Geneva. Timber Bulletin for Euro:ee, Vol, 23, Supp. 5·

Reidaoker, A. Les taillis d'Eucalyptus e,u l•iaroo. Annales de la recherche 1973 foresti~re au Maroc, T-ome 13.

Howland, P. Effects of singling coppice in Eucalyptus saligna wood fuel crops 1969 at Muguga 1 Kenya. East African Agricultural and Forestry Journal,,

Vol. 35 1 No. 1.

FAO. 1974

Logging and ].o, t~port in man-made forests in develo:eing countries. Rome. FAO SWEf'I'F 116.

- 36-

SOME PRODUCTION EXAMPLES FROM EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN INDIA, MOROCCO, PORTUGAL, SPAIN AND SOUTH AFRICA

Appendi~

In this Appendix are presented some examples on production of Eucalyptus plantations in five countries providing more detailed information and completing the presentation in Table 6 and under item 6.1.3.4 - Production-Stand, Tree and Log Data- in the body of this report.

Country : India Region: Uttar Pradesh

Species : Eucalyptus tereticornis

Site class: Average

Tree volumes to 5 om top diame.ter under bark related

DBH Tree volume '(over bark}

om m3

6 0.007 8 0.020

10 0.039 12 0.064 14 0.096 16 0.134 18 0.179 20 0.230 22 0.288 24 0.351 26 0.423 28 0.500 30 0.582 32 0.672 34 0.769 36 0.870 38 0.980. 40 1.094

to DBH

Tree volume (under bark)

m3

0.004 0.014 0.028 0.047 0.072 0.101 0.135 0.175 0.219 0.260 0.323 0.383 0.448 0.518 0.593 0.672 0.756 0.846

-37 -

Country: Morocco

Species: Eucalyptus oamaldulensis

Age Average Average Volume Average No. of trees height breast increment per hectare

height diam. 3 m3 m em m o.b.

Site class: I

6 11 • 1 11.6 35 5.8 100 7 12.4 13.0 48 6.8 " 8 13.6 14.2 62 7.7 " 9 14.6 15.4 75 8.3 II

10 15.6 16.4 90 9.0 II

11 16.5 17.4 105 9.6 " 12 17.3 18.2 120 10.0 " 13 18.0 19.0 134 10.3 " 14 18.7 19.8 149 10.6 " 15 19.3 20.4 163 10.9 " 16 19.9 21.0 177 11. 1 II

Site class: II

6 10.4 10.8 29 4.9 100 7 11.5 12.0 39 5·5 11

8 12.5 13.2 49 6. 1 II

9 13.5 14.2 60 6.7 II

10 14.5 15.0 71 7. 1 " 11 15. 1 16.0 82 7·5 II

12 15.8 16.6 93 7.8 " 13 16.4 17 ·4 .104 8.0 " 14 16.9 17.8 113 8.0 II

15 17.4 18.4 122 8.1 II

16 17.8 18.8 130 8.1 " Site class: III

6 9.6 10.0 24 3.9 100 7 10.6 11.0 31 4·4 " 8 11.5 12.0 39 4.8 II

9 12.3 13.0 47 5-2 II

10 13.0 13.6 54 5·4 " 11 13.6 14.4 62 5.6 II

12 14.2 15.0 70 5.8 II

13 14.7 15.6 77 5·9 " 14 15. 1 16.0 82 5·9 II

15 15.4 16.2 87 5.8 " 16 15.7 16.6 92 5·7 II

(cont. d)

Age

Site

6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Site

6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15

. 16

class a

Average height

IV

8.9 9·7

10.5 11. 1 11.7 12.2 12.6 13.0 13.2 13 ·4 13.6

cla.ast V

8.1 8.8 9·4

10.0 10.4 10.7 11.0 11. 2 11.4 11.5 11.6

- 38 ~

Volume

9.2 19 10.0 24 10.6 30 11.6 35 12.2 41 12.8 47 13.2 50 13.6 54 14.0 57 14.2 59 14.4 62

8.4 15 9.2 18 9.8 22

10.4 26 10.8 29 11.2 32 11.4 34 11.8 36 12.0 38 12.0 39 12.2 40

Average increment

3.2 3·5 3.8 3.9 4.1 4·1 4.2 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.8

2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.5

No. of trees per hectare

100 II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

100 II

II

II

" II

II

II

II

II

II

- 39 -

Country a Portugal

Species& Eucalyptus globulus

Age Dominating Average Volume Average No. of trees height breast increment per hectare

height diam

3 m3 m om m o. b.

Site classs Ii10 (dominating height at 10 years) "' 27 m

4 16.0 13.1 100 25.0 100 6 20.0 15.8 185 30.8 II

8 24.0 17.7 280 35.0 II

10 27.0 19.4 380 38.0 ll

12 30.0 20.6 480 40.0 II

14 32.0 21.3 545 38.9 II

16 33.2 21.6 586 36.6 II

18 34.0 21.8 610 33.9 II

20 34.8 21.9 630 31.5 II

-Site class: H10 = 23 m

4 13.4 10.6 54 13.5 100 6 17.0 13.9 120 20.0 II

8 20.4 16.0 194 24.3 11

10 23.0 17.3 255 25.5 II

12 25o4 18.4 322 26.8 II

14 27.6 19.7 400 28.6 II

16 28.8 20.2 440 27.5 II

18 29.6 20.5 465 25.8 II

20 30.4 20.7 492 24.6 " Site class: H10 = 19 m

4 11.0 8.5 28 7.0 100 6 14.2 11.3 66 11.0 II

8 17 .o 13.9 120 15.0 II

10 19.0 15.1 160 16.0 II

12 21.0 16.4 210 17 ·5 II

14 23.0 17. 1 250 17.9 II

16 24.2 17.9 288 18.0 II

18 25.2 18.4 318 17.6 II

20 26.0 18.7 340 17.0 II

Site class a H10 "' 15 m

4 .8.6 6.4 12 3.0 100 6 11.2 8.7 30 5·0 ll

8 13.4 10.6 54 6.7 II

10 15.0 12. 1 80 8.0 n

12 17 .o 13.9 120 10.0 " 14 18.3 14.7 145 10.4 II

16 19.4 15.6 175 10.8 II

18 20.4 16. 1 195 10.8 II

20 21.2 16.5 214 10.7 II

( oont 'd)

- 40-

Age Domina tin~ Average Volume Average No. of trees height breast increment per hectare

height diam.

3 m3 m em m o.b.

Site class: H10 .. 11 m

4 6.4 6,2 8 2.0 100 6 8.4 6.~ 12 2.0 " 8 9.9 7.4 19 2.4 II

10 11.0 8.5 28 2.8 II

12 12,2 9.6 40 3.3 " 14 13.4 10.6 54 3.9 " 16 14·5 11.5 70 4.4 " 18 15.~ 12,3 83 4.6 " 20 16.0 12,8 95 4.8 II

Country: Spain

Species: Eucalyptus globulus

Age

Site

4 6 8

10 12 14 16 .

Site

4 6 8

10 12 14 16

class: I

class: II

Average height

11. 1 15.8 19.2 22.0 24.2 25·9 27.3

10.8 14.5 17 .o 19.0 20.4 21.5 22.6

Site class: III

4 10.2 6 13.0 8 14.7

10 16.0 12 16.9 14 17.7 16 18.2

Site ole,ssx IV

4 9.2 6 11. 1 8 12.2

10 13.0 12 13.6 14 14.0 16 14.4

Regiom Santander

Volume Average increment

9.2 110 27.5 11.4 226 31·1 12.9 336 42.0 14.0 443 44.3 14.9 537 44.8 15.6 617 44.1 16.2 687 42.9

8.8 104 26.0 10.7 190 31.7 11.9 262 32.8 12.7 329 32.9 13.3 380 31.7 13.8 423 30.2 14.3 463 28.9

8.3 93 23.3 9.8 152 25.3

10.7 195 24.4 11.3 232 23.2 11.8 259 21.6 12.2 285 20.4 12.5 301 18.8

7.6 75 18.8 8.8 110 18.3 9.4 134 16.8 9·9 152 15.2

10.2 167 13.9 10.5 177 12.6 10.8 187 11.7

No. of trees per hectare

2 700 2 651 2 604 2 557 2 511 2 466 2 421

2 800 2 750 2_700 2 652 2 604 2 557 2 511

2 900 2 848 2 797 2 746 2 697 2 648 2 601

3 000 2 946 2 893 2 841 2 790 2 740 2 640

DBHob

INCHES

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

8

6

5

4

3

2

VOLTJME u b

CUBIC FEET

400

8

6

5

4

3

2

.8

.6

.5

.4

.3

.2

.1

- 42-

ALIGNMENT CHART FOR

EUCALYPTUS SALIGNA IN

SOUTH AFRICA

BASED ON 357 SAMPLE TREES

MEASURED BY THE FOREST

RESEARCH SECTION.

B. BRENT JAN/ 1957

HEIGHT

FEET

20

~ 43 -

APPROXIMATE RATE OF AIR DRYING OF DEBARKED EUCALYPI'US GRANDIS . SHORTWOOD IN STACKS IN NATAL MIDLANDS, SOUTH AFRICA

Appendix C

The following table is quoted from the Handbook on Eucalyptus Growing, compiled by the Wattle Research Institute in South Africa. It refers to stacked wood. The rate of drying shortvTood left lying in the plantation will be faster than \'Then closely stacked.

Number of weeks after felling Percentage moisture Timber and debarking contents· l'Teig~t

{cven-d~ basis) kgLm

0 101. 1 925 81.1 833

2 70.0 782 3 62.6 748 4 57.8 724

5 53.0 704 6 50.4 692

7 48.3 682 8 46.7 675

9 45·9 671 10 44.8 666 11 43.7 661" 12 42.6 656

Oven dry NIL 460

AJ?l?endix D

AN EXAMPLE OF LOGGING AND LOG TRANSPORT IN EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS IN BRAZIL

Below are presented some selected data from a large industrial logging and transport operation in Eucalyptus plantations in Rio Grande do Sul, the southeznmost state of Bra,zil. The operations started a·t the beginning of 1972. The example has been chosen because of thl!l rather complete information on development month by mon·th of logging prodttdion. An analysis of tha figures gives some inter®sting aspects of somo planning and management problems.

Tho info:rmation has be®n provided by Borregaard og Kia{}r Skoger9 No:nm;v, regarding the tmder·takinp by Industria de Celulose S.A., Sup<~rintendenftlia Flores·tal, Porto Aleg-r@, Brazil. Complementary information is qttoted from the a:diole 111!orregaexd in Brazil" in tbe forestry magazine Norsk Skogsbruk No.2, 1973.

3 ' Unit of wood is stare. No conversion factor to m solid w~s given by Borregaard.

Conversion factor used in this presentation is 1. 7 stares per rn solid. Exchange rate for May/June 1973 \'laS Cr $6 per 1 US $. ·

1. Size of Qperation 2 Organization

The official start of the 200 000 year ton unbleached rmlphat® m3lluloB® mill \'las March 1972. Wood is partly purohased 1 par-tly harvea't~d by mea,nB ef own organization adap-tecl to the yearly production of 600 000 stares (350. 000 m s). The forest rmpe:r.i.n'bendency :iiJ divided into the following departmen·trH

1) Planning, administra·tion and control

2) Wood Purchase

3) Logging

4) Transportation

5) Reforestation

Administrative personnel input was not givllln 'but the Logging Depar·tm®nt employs 800 cutters, 25 tractor operators and 150 additional men for various work.

2. Main Conditioning Factors

2.1 Climateg Average rainfall is 1000-1500 mrn per year, fairly well spread over the year. Summer rainfall ma;y be vary heavy. Temperature varies from oocadonal frost nights to 40°01 with a monthly average variation of 15-25°C, 'l'ri"th difficuH hea;l; in coml>ini#-tion with high humidity during summer months. ·

2.2 Terrain and Soils Terrain is generally flat ·to :rolling only occasions,lly rg·teep. The low plains with dominating clay have a very poor b~aring capacity for heavy machinery under and after rain.

2.3 Transport Conditionsa The main public road niiat is of good r;rba.ndard &ln<'l is asphalted. s~oondacy roads are gravelled, oft~n slippery in rainy periods, but oart normally be used the whole year• Maximum total ·truck weight is 40 ton, maxirnmn hngth 1 18 m. Loading limit is 10 ton per single axle, 16 ton on double. Insid~ forests th® road net is usually of 11 very poor qu.ali ty11 •

- 45 -

Tlventy percent of forwarder time is lost by rain when the bearing capacity is too lorl for heavy machines or when the tractor is stuck in the mud. Average· tractor transport distance not indicated,

2.4 Stands Trees a~: Presented figures refer to felling of older stands bought by the company. Only some indioa:l;ing figures are given. Only clearout 1 no thinning is applied,

Specie:

~vood density:

Production:

DBH g

Volume per hectare2

J-'og length:

Debarkingg

~~ tereticornis ~· robusta, ~· ~~ etc

1000 kgjm3 solid green qood

3 15~20 m /heota,re per year

from 10 - 50 om

October 1972 0.5 stere/tree (0,3 m3) 3 December 1972 0.25 stere/tree (0.15 m)

Up to 500 steres ( 300 m3s)

2 m pulp1·10od exclusively

Up to December 1972 iOO'fi, handbarked January ~ September 1973 60 - 100% handbarked (see figul>e 1) After September 1973 10o% "

2.5 TE~ Forest~ Labour Force

2.5.1 [~y~y: 'Labour is abundant but has to date shown big turnover. Some ·15 percent leave each month, so around 100 new cutters have to be employed e~nd -trained monthly.

2.5.2 !1_o:c"l<:.i.!lJL!i~~g 8 hours six days per week ordinary time. 2 hours five l'tayr3 a, \'leek extra time, '.l'hi s time is the scheduled work-place time outside which lies "b:Lme for meals and travel.

A small time-study on logging in a stand with DBH "smaller than average" on "no barking difficulties" gave the following result~

Opere,tion

Ft"lll:i.ng and. conversion Barking Pi.Hng Delay

Total

Percent of Nork~place-time

20 50 15 15

10o%

Rain mainly, plus othe:t' reasons not 'to rJork

Total

Percent of time paid for (scheduled time)

14 35 10.5 10.5

30

Delay 'time for forvmrder ~·mrk is 5o% of \'lhl.ch 3o% for repair and l'lai ting for spare par·ts. The bo,lance of 20% 1s mainly re,in-time and ·time v1hen ·the tractor is stuck in the mud.

2. 5. 3 ent s stem& Government decreed minimum p~:~~ym<!lrd 1·ras M~"Y 1973 about US$40 per month Or 50 • Soci/i!,l rightlll for rural workerll! a:t'e lif®\i" compared 'I'd th indullltrial workers. Piece-rate eystems e~re e~pplied re!'ntHing in highe:t' income in the order as sho'l'm below.

Unqualified worker Well tri.\ined outter Pol'H~rsaw operator, work as group leade:t' T:t~otor operators Foremen, technicians Departmen·t lead.ers e.nd eAssistan·ts

3e Methods, Production and Costs

40 $/mon:th 60 - 100$ 80 - 130$ 80 - 120$ 11

250 ~ 400$ 400 -1200$.

3.1 O:r~~tzation- Equipmentt Logging is year-round and spread over 11 zones each employin~-16 logging crews consisting of one powersaw operator plus 6-7 workers with an axe. The powersaw operator fells and may out the largest branches. After axe­debranohing the powersaw operator cross-outs into 2 m logs. Axe-debarlcing, concentration and stackpiling along the 4 m,wide tractor track follows.

Short distance transport is to 80 percent with forwarder {Valmet 865/870, 88 HP, 6 ton load) and to 2o% by oxen. L<ilading into trucks is direct from the forwarder with its hydraulic crane.

Long distance transport is mainly by truck. A small amount has gone by train or small barges (capacity 40 m3 and larger). A few company-owned special trucks are used but most wood is transported on small hired 6-15 ton trucks. Diste;nce varies from 5-300 km with an average around 100-120 km.

The total oost of wood at millsi'te for July 1973 WIMil abo1xt 40 distributed as follows1

Cutting and piling Forwarding including loading on truok Truck transport Road construction ~.ml m""intenanoti:l Administration, 'Vmod-hanclling e:t imhu:Jtr~

stumpage etc.

11.00 7·50

12.00 0.50 9o00

Department administration 6 Cutting !irn.perrlsion aud foremen 9 Personnel t:N~.nspor"G, m1.1.terial (listrl btl·ticm 10 Powersaw9 haudtools 15 800 outt®ra ( a!i!,lari®fil 9 vao111:tions 9 social t<?®lfar®) 60

"' ""' 0:::

""'

STERES II PER

HOUR

t; l-0.4

0:::

@ z <!; 0.3

FIGURE 1. LOGGING IN EUCALYPTUS PLANTATIONS, RIO GRANDE DO SUL, BRAZIL

PRODl!CTION IN STERES ( m3 STACKED 2m WOOD)

.-.-­- ' .)-~-::-=---=;..._ 2)

I WORK PLACE TIME

-- 1)

:2: 0:::

""' 0...

TOTAL TIME PAID BY THE COMPANY

fJ g § 8::

~ g

UNBARKED WOOD I PERCENT OF MONTHLY PRODUCTION

-;..o 3 19 23 31 41 39 26 22 6 0

0.1 I I I I

TOTAL PRODUCTION PER MONTH - 1000 STERES 21 27 31 28 37 39 43 47 47 54 42 39 41 (26) 45 37 63 65 56 60 50 59

I I I I I I I I I I I

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D J F M A M J J A s 0

1972 1973

1) PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT TRENDS (ESTABliSHED BY AUTHOR OF THIS REPORT)

2) ACTUAL PRODUCTION (GIVEN BY ORIGINATOR)

MONTH I I

N D

l

-!'> -.1

- 48-

FIGURE 2 , FORWARDING EUCALYPTUS PULP WOOD , 2 m LOGS , RIO GRANDE DO SUL, BRAZIL

STERES PER HOUR

16

14 ----

12

VALMET 865 / 870, PRODUCTION PER HOUR,

WORK PLACE Tllv!E

10 ---------+------------r----------~------------+-----------

TOTAL TIME PAID BY THE COMPANY

8

6

4

- 2

MONTH

A s 0 N D J F M A M A 1972 1973

- 49 -

4. Comments

. Figure 1 shol'ls the logging production and figure 2 the forwarder production. 1 indicates the impact on production of training, time utiliZEJ.tion and

VIOl.:riations in tree and log data etc.

, This impact is of course the complex result of various combinations of those conditioning faotora Hhich unfortunately are only scarcely indicated. The trends and ·thEJ magnitude of variations are however of interest to analyse. The general trend being a rapid increase during the first year of operation followed by a more moderate increase during the second year is the result of training. The incree,se is in the order of 270 percent in 1t year from 1 .7 stares/hour January 1972 to 4• 6 nrteros/hour June/July 1973, counted on work-place time. Counted on total time increase is from 1.2 Jan 1972 to 3.2 June/July 1973, again 27ofo• The differenoe, due to rain, e,ooidenta, sickness, vacation etc., of 30 percent between work-place time and total time has remained unchanged. As none of these factors can be easily or drastically ohL~nged it appears realistic to consider those 30 percent as rather fixed.

The 15 percent delay time within work place time (see 2.5.2 above) is a rather normal figure. Further improvemen,ts are thus to be gained through increased work efficiency ~nthin the 60 percent productive ones available within the scheduled time.

The publication "Logging and Log Transport in Man-Made Forest in Developing Coun·tries11(5) states the follomng expected output in starting up logging and transport opere:tions as influenced by aoquisi tion of skill and experience in percentage of out­rmt of experienced ore~J.

•r;r:<dning Input

Sme,ll r.ioderB.te Intensive

0 - 6

Period after starting up

Months

6 - 12

50 - 6ofo 60 - 7o%

-7o%

12 - 24

60 - 7o% 70 - 80%

-80%

24-

It is understood that in this case a rather intensive training programme is applied. According to the above table an output of some 7ofo could be expected after 18 months of operations, June/July 1973 when the production is reported to be roughly 4.6 steres/ hour t'1ork place time, Level of experienced crew would be 6.5 stare/hour to be expected porhe,pfJ towards the end of 1974, after 3 full years of operation. Ste.rting production in January 1972 was only 25 percent of this and assuming the same resource input the di:Pac-t costs v1ere four times as high per unit produced.

'rhe figure of 15% turnover and need for recruitment and training of 100 new cutters per month is given. If applicable on the entire labour cadre a complete n(lJw Bet-up would be made every 6-7 months. This is oertainly not the case) but kno~dedge as to what peroem-ta,ge of the cadre the turnover figure referred to is necessary in order to plan ·th® Jc:caining and predict the future production.

From October 1972 to December 1972 production fell from 4.2 to 2.7 stares/hour, ~ome 35 percent. Reason given is a drop in tree-size from 0,5 ateres/tree (0.3 m3) to 0, 25 B·teres ( 0.15 m3) • Assuming that those volumes correspond to a DBH of 25 and 18 em rMpeotively a calculation baaed on the curves in graphs 1, 2 and 4 in the body of ·~his report gives a drop of some 37 percent.

From January 1973 onwards the proportion of debarked Hood varies considerably and fJo does the production. The great variations are a clear indication of the need for management purposes to have access to accurate data on all conditioning factors. If the industry has not a sufficient storage of raw material a drop in logging production of 30 per cent over two months can become critical for the production of the mill.

- 50-

The forwarding production Ji'inalJ,y is diffic1,1l t to evaluate as no indication of transport distance is given. The comments by originator quoted below may speak for themselves. 11The tota~ capacity of the tractors has been too low and according to this the costs too high, The total cost per ~tere loaded on trucks is about Cr$ 7.50 (June 1st/73). Other transporters doing their own loading are paid Or$ 2,0 per stere for this work, Ox-cart drivers are mainly paid less than the average costs for tractor transportation, but their transport distances also mainly are shorter," One appal,"ent reason for the lo\•1 production is the difficulties of cutting down the very high down time, 5o% of the total time.

MR/F5450/E/1. 75/1/1000