Cold War Division of Cold War Division of GermanyGermany

HI136 History of GermanyHI136 History of Germany

ScheduleSchedule

1.1. Germany in 1945 – Germany in 1945 – die Stunde Nulldie Stunde Null (zero (zero hour)hour)

2.2. Occupation PoliciesOccupation Policies3.3. The First Berlin CrisisThe First Berlin Crisis4.4. The Second Berlin CrisisThe Second Berlin Crisis5.5. ConclusionConclusion

Liberation of the Concentration Camp Dachau

‘‘A badly managed disaster area’A badly managed disaster area’

Refugees arriving in Berlin, 1945 Black market raid in Berlin, 1945

The Formal DivisionThe Formal DivisionTeheran Feb. 1943: Germany will be divided and occupiedTeheran Feb. 1943: Germany will be divided and occupiedLondon Sept. 1944: three zones envisaged (joined by London Sept. 1944: three zones envisaged (joined by French in 1945)French in 1945)Potsdam July 1945: Germany to be single economic unit, Potsdam July 1945: Germany to be single economic unit, but administered by zonal commanders meeting in Allied but administered by zonal commanders meeting in Allied Control CouncilControl CouncilOfficially, temporary situation pending peace treaty, but de Officially, temporary situation pending peace treaty, but de facto consolidationfacto consolidation1947 Economic Council appears in western zones as proto-1947 Economic Council appears in western zones as proto-governmentgovernmentJune 1948 separate currencies introducedJune 1948 separate currencies introducedMay 1949 Federal Republic of (West) Germany announced; May 1949 Federal Republic of (West) Germany announced; Oct. 1949 German Democratic Republic (East) followsOct. 1949 German Democratic Republic (East) followsMay 1955 FRG joins NATO; GDR joins Warsaw PactMay 1955 FRG joins NATO; GDR joins Warsaw PactAugust 1961 Berlin Wall built cementing divisionAugust 1961 Berlin Wall built cementing division

PrinciplesPrinciples

DenazificationDenazificationDemocratisationDemocratisationDemilitarisationDemilitarisationDecentralisationDecentralisationDecartelisationDecartelisation(Dismantlement)(Dismantlement)

Soviet OccupationSoviet OccupationGradualist approach with creeping Sovietisation Gradualist approach with creeping Sovietisation (no one-party copy of USSR)(no one-party copy of USSR)Lack of planning, but ‘smash and grab’ (Beria) Lack of planning, but ‘smash and grab’ (Beria) versus ‘reconstruction’ (Tyulpanov) factionsversus ‘reconstruction’ (Tyulpanov) factionsMass rapes alienate womenMass rapes alienate womenNationalisation of industry popular (77% Nationalisation of industry popular (77% support), but dismantling of 30% of factories support), but dismantling of 30% of factories unpopular (approx. 30%)unpopular (approx. 30%)Land reform (popular among farmers, but set Land reform (popular among farmers, but set unilateral precedent, upsetting western partners)unilateral precedent, upsetting western partners)Refugees: USSR mainly blamed for inhumane Refugees: USSR mainly blamed for inhumane treatment of refugees, ca. 1.5 million die)treatment of refugees, ca. 1.5 million die)Norman Naimark, Norman Naimark, The Russians in GermanyThe Russians in Germany

Revisionist views of RussiaRevisionist views of RussiaStalin’s perceived desire for a deal on Germany Stalin’s perceived desire for a deal on Germany (united but neutral)(united but neutral)Message to KPD leaders in June 1945 that Message to KPD leaders in June 1945 that Germany would remain unitedGermany would remain unitedBrakes on separatist pressures from East Brakes on separatist pressures from East German leaders (June 1948)German leaders (June 1948)National unity offers (March 1952 Stalin Notes); National unity offers (March 1952 Stalin Notes); was this to try to scupper FRG integration into was this to try to scupper FRG integration into military bloc?military bloc?Rolf Steininger, Wilfried Loth, Rolf Steininger, Wilfried Loth, Stalin’s Unwanted Stalin’s Unwanted ChildChild

French OccupationFrench OccupationHopes for dismemberment of Hopes for dismemberment of Germany (RhinelandiaGermany (RhinelandiaInternational control of RuhrInternational control of RuhrOppose centralised institutionsOppose centralised institutionsNon-signatories to Potsdam (no Non-signatories to Potsdam (no refugees allowed into French refugees allowed into French Zone)Zone)Punitive reparations from Punitive reparations from German industry and forestryGerman industry and forestryOnly join Anglo-American Bizone Only join Anglo-American Bizone in 1948in 1948

General Koenig, French commander

British OccupationBritish OccupationApril 1946 British alarm at April 1946 British alarm at communist-SPD merger in Soviet communist-SPD merger in Soviet Zone (bid for all-zone superparty?)Zone (bid for all-zone superparty?)Mid-1946 British sterling crisis; Mid-1946 British sterling crisis; occupation becoming liabilityoccupation becoming liabilityInvite other occupiers to merge Invite other occupiers to merge zones (only US accept > Bizonia, zones (only US accept > Bizonia, Jan. 1947)Jan. 1947)Britain now seen as proactive & keen Britain now seen as proactive & keen to encourage firmer line from to encourage firmer line from Americans (Deighton, Americans (Deighton, The The Impossible PeaceImpossible Peace))Post-revisionist synthesis stresses Post-revisionist synthesis stresses regional actorsregional actors

Ernest Bevin, British foreign secretary

American OccupationAmerican OccupationJCS 1067: no fraternisation; population to JCS 1067: no fraternisation; population to be kept at subsistence levelbe kept at subsistence levelMay 1946: US halt reparations deliveries May 1946: US halt reparations deliveries to Soviet Zoneto Soviet ZoneByrnes’ speech (Sept. 1946): America Byrnes’ speech (Sept. 1946): America pledges to stay in Germany for long haulpledges to stay in Germany for long haul1947 governor Clay blocks moves to 1947 governor Clay blocks moves to nationalisation of industrynationalisation of industryCarolyn Eisenberg, Carolyn Eisenberg, Drawing the LineDrawing the Line, for a , for a critical view of the Americanscritical view of the Americans

Marshall Aid, June 1947-1952Marshall Aid, June 1947-1952West Germany as ‘locomotive’ to West Germany as ‘locomotive’ to economic recovery of western Europeeconomic recovery of western EuropeInternationalisation of economy to satisfy Internationalisation of economy to satisfy French security worriesFrench security worriesRenewed West German infrastructure of Renewed West German infrastructure of Ruhr minesRuhr minesWas it more psychological than real aid? Was it more psychological than real aid? (Werner Abelshauser v. Christoph (Werner Abelshauser v. Christoph Buchheim)Buchheim)Cf dismantling policy in eastern GermanyCf dismantling policy in eastern Germany

ScheduleSchedule

1.1. Germany in 1945 – Germany in 1945 – die Stunde Nulldie Stunde Null (zero (zero hour)hour)

2.2. Occupation PoliciesOccupation Policies3.3. The First Berlin CrisisThe First Berlin Crisis4.4. The Second Berlin CrisisThe Second Berlin Crisis5.5. ConclusionConclusion

Berlin: the quadripartite city

Berlin: cont.Berlin: cont.Liberated by USSR in April 1945 at cost of Liberated by USSR in April 1945 at cost of 100,000 casualties; western sectors 100,000 casualties; western sectors occupied July 1945occupied July 1945Formal access only recognised via airFormal access only recognised via airEasy access to West via open border, Easy access to West via open border, including U-Bahn or flown out of including U-Bahn or flown out of TempelhofTempelhof

Berlin AirliftBerlin AirliftSoviet concerns at western Soviet concerns at western preparations for separate West preparations for separate West German state (London talks from German state (London talks from Jan. 1948)Jan. 1948)Currency reform: June western Currency reform: June western Allies introduce deutschmark into Allies introduce deutschmark into western zones and West Berlinwestern zones and West BerlinSoviets retaliate with closure of Soviets retaliate with closure of access to West Berlinaccess to West BerlinGeneral Clay organises airlift with General Clay organises airlift with political support from Mayor Reuter; political support from Mayor Reuter; despite difficulties in autumn 1948, despite difficulties in autumn 1948, tonnages rise in Nov.tonnages rise in Nov.Propaganda debacle for EastPropaganda debacle for EastWestern Allies move from being Western Allies move from being ‘victor powers’ to ‘protector powers’‘victor powers’ to ‘protector powers’

American transport aircraft (‘raisin bomber’) lands at Tempelhof; note the children waiting for possible sweets thrown overboard

Berlin: the Divided CityBerlin: the Divided CityDuring blockade two city During blockade two city governmentsgovernmentsU-Bahn (West) & S-Bahn U-Bahn (West) & S-Bahn (East)(East)Currency speculationCurrency speculation‘‘Shopwindow Berlin’: Ku-Shopwindow Berlin’: Ku-Damm as showcase of Damm as showcase of western standard of livingwestern standard of livingEspionage centre (CIA Espionage centre (CIA Berlin tunnel, human Berlin tunnel, human intelligence)intelligence)Broadcasting: RIAS Broadcasting: RIAS American radioAmerican radio

Poster showing smuggling of currency between sectors

‘Beware RIAS poison’: communist anti-American poster warning of US broadcasts

ScheduleSchedule

1.1. Germany in 1945 – Germany in 1945 – die Stunde Nulldie Stunde Null (zero (zero hour)hour)

2.2. Occupation PoliciesOccupation Policies3.3. The First Berlin CrisisThe First Berlin Crisis4.4. The Second Berlin CrisisThe Second Berlin Crisis5.5. ConclusionConclusion

Refugees via Berlin & Inner-Refugees via Berlin & Inner-German borderGerman border

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

Refugees via Berlin

Flown out on scheduled flights

Flown out on Operation Stopwatch

Refugees via Demarcation Line

Demarcation Line closed

Khrushchev ultimatum

Sector boundary closure after 17 June

Berlin Crisis, 1958-61Berlin Crisis, 1958-61GDR’s desire for recognition by WestGDR’s desire for recognition by WestUSSR’s hopes for peace treaties & removal of USSR’s hopes for peace treaties & removal of atomic weaponry from FRGatomic weaponry from FRGKhrushchev ultimatum for West to leave West Khrushchev ultimatum for West to leave West Berlin within 6 monthsBerlin within 6 monthsWestern intransigence & threat of nuclear Western intransigence & threat of nuclear weapons to preserve West Berlin; but non-weapons to preserve West Berlin; but non-intervention in East Berlinintervention in East BerlinEconomic race to overtake West German Economic race to overtake West German economy falters in 1960economy falters in 1960Wall cheap alternative to subsidies by USSRWall cheap alternative to subsidies by USSR

Conclusion: Division of GermanyConclusion: Division of Germany

Traditional interpretation: Soviet Union is Traditional interpretation: Soviet Union is responsibleresponsibleRevisionist interpretation: USA are mainly Revisionist interpretation: USA are mainly responsibleresponsiblePost-revisionist interpretation: both sides Post-revisionist interpretation: both sides are responsibleare responsible