Dudario de estructuras comparadas en inglés y español

8/10/2019 Dudario de estructuras comparadas en ingls y espaol

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DudarioEstructuras Comparadas

2014

Giselle BarberaProf. Mariano Quinterno

24/10/2014


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Morphology

Concept

Morphology is the study of word structure, word formation, word derivation and word

inflexion.

Morphemes and Lexemes

The lexeme (lexeme) works at a semantic level and is the principal unit in a word,

while the morpheme (morfema)is the smallest unit of meaning.

Morphemes can be classified as follows:

1. Because of their dependence on other units of meaning:

Free (libres):They can function independently as words. This is the case

of the prepositions, the conjunctions and the determiners.

Bound (dependientes): They can only function when attached to a

lexeme or free morpheme.2. Because of their function:

Inflectional (flexivos):They do not change the category of the word, but

they change its meaning or class. They can be verbal, adjectival or

nominal.

Derivational (derivativos): They change the category of the word by

adding suffixes(sufijos) andprefixes(prefijos).

Inflectional morphemes

ENGLISH

NounsPlural s

Possessive s

The books

Johnsbook

Loslibros

El libro de John

Verbs

Inflection 3rd person

singular s

Progressive form ing

Past form ed

Past participle form en/-

ed

He readswell

He is working

He worked

He has eaten/studied

Lee bien

Est trabajando

Trabaj

Ha comido/estudiado

Adjectives

Comparative er

Superlative -est

Hes tallerthan you

Hes the tallest boy of his

age

Es msalto que vos

Es el chico de su edad ms

alto

SPANISH

NounsPerson Nia/Nio Girl/Boy


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Number Libros Books

Verbs

Person

Number

Tense

(T) corras

(Ellos) corran

(l) trabajaba

(You) were running

(They) were running

(He) workedAdjectives

Person

Number

Grade

Hermosa

Hermosos

l es menosinteligente que

yo

Beautiful

Beautiful

He is lessintelligent thanI

am

Derivational morphemes

Suffixes:they are bound and go after the lexeme. They carry the word stress. In

some cases, the suffixes in English and Spanish are very similar. However, in

some other cases, the morphological processes follow the rules of the English

language:

ENGLISH

Suffix Derivation Example

-er verb to noun worker

-ful noun to adjective faithful

-en adjective to verb fallen

-less noun to adjective heartless

-ness adjective to noun happiness

-ing verb to noun shooting

-ing verb to adjective tiring

-ly adjective to adverb quietly

SPANISH

Suffix Derivation Example

-ear noun to verb agujerear

-oso/a noun to adjective maravilloso-mente adjective to adverb alentadoramente

-on changes the noun person casn

Prefixes: they go before the lexeme. In Spanish they are soundless, unlike in

English. In English, also, there is a group of prefixes which do not affect the

lexical category of the word; they are called negative prefixes.

Prefix Derivation Example

mis- verb to verb misinterpret

un- adjective to adjective unconscious


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un- verb to verb untie

Interfixes and infixes: Interfixes are added between the prefixes and the

suffixes to avoid cacophony between two sounds and homonymy. They are

soundless and they lack meaning. There are two types of interfixes:o To avoid hiatus: for example, in Spanish, the interfix c is added between

cafeand itoto avoid a hiatus in cafeito (the resultant word is cafecito)

o With differentiating purpose: added to distinguish between two words

with a different meaning. For example: carnicero (person) to

differentiate him from carnero(animal)

Infixesoccur inside a lexeme and add grammatical or referential meaning.


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The Verb

DefinitionThe verb is a lexical word which, along with the noun, constitutes one of the key parts in a

sentence and one of the pillars on which discourse is organized. In accordance with Mara

Marta Garca Negroni, the verb is the nucleus of the predicate in a sentence:Mara compr/estren/luci/se probun vestido azul.

Peter went to the cinema last night.

Verbs hold different categories of number, person, mood, tense, aspect and voice. Its

morphological structure is made up of:

a)

A lexeme or root and

b) A group of morphemes, which flex to form the different categories already mentioned

above.

Differences between English and Spanish verbs

It is necessary to point out that English verbs are made up of a set of independentmorphemes, which have meaning when they are in isolation. However, Spanish

language is known to belong to the category of flectional languages, the morphemes of

which (both, tense/aspect morphemes and person/number morphemes) cannot be

separated from the verbal root (unlike English verbs), thus forming a morphological

unit.

Hablo/Hablar/Hablaremos

I am speaking/He orShe will speak/We will speak

Non- conjugated/non-finite forms of the verb

They do not indicate tense, person or numberSPANISH

In Spanish they are called verboides. They are made up of the verbal root followed by

their own ending. There are three non-conjugated (or non- finite) forms:

Infinitivo/Infinitive:It is the conventional citation form of the verb (i.e. how it

appears in dictionaries and the form by which the whole paradigm is

represented).

In Spanish, the infinitivois signaled by the suffix rafter the theme vowel (vocal

temtica). The variations produced by the theme vowel allow organizing the

different verbs in three distinct terminations:

o First termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-a/ followed by

morpheme /-r/ (cantar, fumar, bailar)

o Second termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-e/ and morpheme

/-r/ (tejer, cocer, comer)

o Third termination: formed by the thematic vowel /-i/ followed by

morpheme /-r/. (venir, seguir, reprimir).

These terminations fall under one of the two types of infinitives called infinitivo

simple.


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The other class of the infinitive is the so called infinitivo compuesto, which is

composed of the verb haber in the infinitive mood followed by a verb in past

participle (Haber viajadoen crucero fue una de las mejores cosas)

It may function as a verb or as a noun.

Viajara Italia es lo que ms deseo. (Verb)Elfumares perjudicial para la salud. (Noun)

In English, there also exist three non-conjugated or non-finite verbal forms:

bare and full Infinitive, gerund and participle.

Bare infinitive is used:

With pure modal verbs:

- I can speakEnglish fluently.

- My sister should weara seat belt whenever she drives a car.

After Id rather:

-

Id rathernot discusswith my parents.- Id ratherdiefirst.

After letand make(only in the active voice):

- Paul made me goto the cinema in the morning.

- I let my motherfeedthe dogs.

After perception verbs:

- I saw her leavethe classroom.

Full infinitive is used:

As a subject:

-

To gofor a walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors.

As a Direct Object to the verb (only after certain verbs1):

- The doctor has cometo checkyou up for blood pressure.

Aftertooor enough:

- She is too tallto bein fifth grade.

- I think Im old enough to enterthe casino, Im eighteen!

To indicate purpose:

- I went to the bank to geta check.

After WH-words:- I dont know who to consult.

After let and make(only in the passive voice)

- I was made to repeatthe exercise.

- Paul was let to seehis daughter again after all these years.

After certain adjectives:

- Unfortunately, I was unableto workfor over a week.

- I am really tired. Im readyto goto bed.

Gerund: The gerund in English is part of the infinitive in Spanish.

1After certain verbs such as: let, need, make, see; we use the bare infinitive (the infinitive without

to)


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Smokingis prohibited

Difference between Gerund and Present Participle

My passion isplayingtennis (Gerund).

My son is playingtennis (Present Participle).

The English gerund is translated in Spanish as an infinitive. Nevertheless, inSpanish we use the gerundioto translate the present participle.

The gerund is used:

As subject:

- Cookingis fun.

- Eatingfruits and vegetables is good for your health.

As direct object:

- I suggest goingto the cinema.

- Francisco enjoys swimmingmore than spending time with his girlfriend

Diana. With prepositions:

- I admit tohavingkilled my wife.

- I look forward to seeing you soon.

As adjective:

- Awalkingstick.(Classifier)

Participles

Present participle:

Uses:

With perception verbs:

- I felt the ground shakingfor about half a minute.

As an adjective:

- Sleepingbeauty.

- Interestingbook.

As a verb:

- Peter is playingtennis right now.

- My sisteris annoying me very much.

Gerundio: It is like the present participle in English. It may be functioning as an

adjective or as an adverb, but it is still a verb.

Ana se recibi con honores estudiandomucho. (Adverb)

En la plaza haba niosjugando. (Adjective)

Uses:

Simultaneity:

- Estudi escuchandomsica.

Adverbial function:

- Canta desafinando.

In supplementary propositions:- Ana, viendoque no tena otra salida, opt por decir la verdad.


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When it refers to the direct object on the main sentence with a predicative

function:

- Vieron a Matas corriendoen el recreo.

In absolute constructions:

-

Leyendo, Juan, no entenders lo suficiente. (condicional)- Sabiendoque l estara, no nos fuimos de vacaciones. (causal)

As part of verbal phrases:

- Viene trayendobolsas muy pesadas.

- Pablo anda conociendogente nueva.

Past participle: The regular verbs are signaled by the suffix ed. Then there are the

irregular ones. In Spanish, the past participle is the participiowhich ends with the

suffixes adoand ido.

Uses:

As a verb:- Peter has bought an umbrella.

- I have figured out what Mary is planning.

As an adjective:

- He is an interestedperson.

- We were boredwith the movie.

Conjugated verbs

Grammatical categories

Verbs admit different categories:

Tense: It refers to the time when an action is performed. An action or event

may belong to the present, past or future.

Mood: Grammatical mood refers to a group of verbal forms used to express

modality. Modality is divided into two types:

- Modality in a sentence level: it applies to the different types of

sentences (declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative, exclamation,

etc.)

- Verbal modality: It relates to modal verbs. (see the modality section

below)Semantically, modality expresses the attitude of the speaker in the presence of

the action performed by verbs.

a) Indicative moodwill be used in both, English and Spanish, when the action

is considered real or objective.

b) If the action is regarded as a result of an internal process influenced by fear,

desire, doubt, necessity and possibility, subjunctive mood will be used in

both languages.

c) If the action is considered as an order or plea, Imperative mood will be

used in both languages.With regards to syntax:


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a) Indicative moodis regarded as an independent mood.

b) Subjunctive mood, instead, is a dependent mood; not only of verbs or

adverbs denoting desire, fear, possibility or doubt, but also of subordinate

periods, when there is not intervention of the speakers subjectivity in the

process:Las conversaciones se terminaron sin que hubieraacuerdo

In English,Subjunctive moodmay be defined as the one that denotes

condition, hypothesis, possibility, etc. and not as a mood that denotes real

facts.

Aspect of verbs

It is related to the progression or concretion of an action. It relates to the development

of an action.

There are two grammatical aspects:

Perfective: when the action is concluded. Imperfective: it is focused on the progression of the action, regardless of its

beginning and ending.

English:

- I ran(perfectivo).

- I was running(imperfectivo).

The aspect may appear in the semantic content of a lexeme (lexical aspect):

There are four types of events:

States: statics (un estado es un evento que no ocurre, sino que se da): saber,

conocer, querer.

Activities or processess: Dynamic events, non limited (ocurre y progresa en el

tiempo): correr, caminar, leer, escribir.

Fullfillment: Dynamic event, limited (progresa hacia un lmite interno): Escribir

una carta, correr una maratn.

Achievements: Dynamic event, limitated (de duracin breve, culmina en un

punto): alcanzar la cima, nacer.

Telicity

Verbs may be: Telic: they are presented as having an endpoint. They need to be perfective.

Atelic: they are not presented as having an endpoint. They are imperfective.

Passive voice

It presents an action executed by an agent to a patient, which suffers the action.

Spanish

PASIVA ANALTICA: verbo ser o estar participio (el delincuente fue detenido por

la polica)

PASIVA REFLEJA O PASIVA CON SE:

-

It is only possible in third person- Subject is postponed


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E.g. Se alquila departamento.

Ingls: The agent is preceded by the preposition by.

Subject + finite form of to be+ Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

E.g. they were caught by the police

Verb classificationa) Transitive and intransitive verbs

Transitive verbs: they need the presence of a direct object, which receives the

action, to make sense.

He conseguidodos entradas para el teatro

I bakedsome cookies

Intransitive verbs: They do not need a direct object to make sense.

Juan delinque

I laughed/cried

In Spanish, intransitivity is shown through the self-reflexive form se (se rompi,se caer).

Semantically

b) Regular and irregular verbs

English: regular verbs are formed by the suffix /-ed/ to form the past simple and

past participle.

Irregular verbs do not follow any rule. These verbs suffer changes in the root when

they are conjugated into de past simple and past participle.

Spanish: Los verbos irregulares son aquellos que en su conjugacin sufren

alteraciones respecto de los modelos representados por cualquiera de las tres

conjugaciones regulares.2(Caber: Yo quepo, yo cupe, yo cabr). Pueden afectar al

lexema, a los morfemas o a ambos a la vez.

Personal or impersonal verbs

Spanish: Impersonal verbs in their original sense are conjugated into the third person

of the singular (verbos meteorolgicos o climticos: llueve, nieva, etc.)

English: Impersonal verbs are are expressed through the use of itor they (It snowed

yesterday)

Acontecer, suceder, ocurrir, constar, parecer (terciopersonales)

They are conjugated only into the third person

- Meparecebien.

In English, these kinds of verbs are preceded by it(happen, seem, occur)

- It happenedsuddenly.

Impersonal sentences with verbs such as seem or look are expressed by a process

called clefting (the sentence is formed by a main clause and a subordinate clause to

express a meaning that could be expressed through a simple sentence.

It seems you are tired (you are tired)

c)

Copulative verbs2(Garca Negroni M. M., 2004)


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Spanish: ser, estar, parecer, resultar (poseen un significado mnimo de forma que

aaden muy poco al sujeto y por ello son casi prescindibles).

- La casa es azul (La casa azul)

Rigen al predicativo, mutable o sustituible por el pronombre tono lo(La casa lo es)

English: A copulative verb is be, which is equivalent to ser or estar in Spanish- The house is far away


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Modality

Concept

Modality may be defined as a semantic category, which expresses subjectivity into

language. From a semantic point of view, grammatical mood, which indicates modality,

expresses the attitude of the speaker, when they are in the presence of a verbal

action.Indicative mood:Whether the action is considered as real or objective, this mood will

be used by English as well as Spanish language.

Subjunctive mood: Whether the action is regarded as the result of an internal process

governed by fear, desire, doubt, possibility or necessity, This mood will be used in both

languages.

Imperative mood: Whether the action is regarded as a command or a plea, this mood

will be used in English as well as in Spanish.

Grammatical mood

a) Modality in a sentential level: This kind of modality is related to the different

types of sentences, Such as declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative,

exclamation, etc.

b) Verbal modality: It is related to modal verbs.

Classification of modality

The modal verbs have three main functions: epistemic, deontic and alethic

Epistemic: it has to do with whether something is true or not (true and false

facts)Epistemic modal verbs indicate:

a) Ability:

- Can/cant: I can speak English fluently/ Julia, take care of my brother, he

cant swim very well

- Could: I couldnt finish my maths exam, Im sure I didnt pass (No pude

terminar mi examen de matemticas, seguro desaprob)

Beware of could: Could is translated in Spanish as poda or podra depending on

the context. Never translate it as pude.

-

Couldnt: It CAN be translated as pude: I couldnt finish the report (no pudeterminar el informe)

b) Logical conclusions

Certainty: Must I must do my homework for tomorrow or my teacher will be angry

(debo hacer mi tarea para maana o mi profesora se va a enojar)

Probability: May John may be in his office by this time (Es probable que John est en

su oficina ahora)

Possibility: Might my sister might have forgotten her handkerchief at school (Es

posible que mi hermana se haya olvidado su pauelo en el colegio)


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Impossibility: Cant I tried, but I cant stand my schoolmate anymore, hes such an

annoying guy! (Lo intent pero no puedo soportar a mi compaero de clases, es muy

molesto!)

Deontic: It is related with what is right and what it isnt.

a)

Obligation: Differences with regards to must and have to- Must: It is regarded as an internal obligation to the speaker

Yo creo que algo puede ser bueno para vos o para m.

I must leave.

- Have to: it is used to express an external obligation to the speaker. It is an

obligation imposed by another person or by the law. It has to do with

inevitability

I have to wear a helmet.

b) Prohibition:

-

Mustnt: You mustnt arrive late.c) Lack of obligation:

- Dont have/need to: You dont have/need to call every time you want to come

home.

d) Advice:

- Should: You should wear a sweater, its very cold outside.

- Ought to:to express the view that something is the right thing to do, because

its morally correct, polite, or someones duty. Implica una cuestin moral. You

ought to admit that you made a mistake

-

Had better: warning.Youd better go to the doctor or...e) Offer: Would you like some water? (Se usa some cuando se espera que la

persona diga que s)

Would you like any water?(Cuando se usa any, respuesta puede ser afirmativa o

negativa. No est esperando un s)

- Shall I give you? (Informal)

- Ill give you a hand

f) Suggestion:

- Shall we go to the theatre?

-

We could go to the theatre

g) Necessity:

- You dont need to talk to do it

- You neednt do it

In the past there are some differences with regards to didnt need and neednt:

1) I didnt need to buy a car (And I didnt do it)

2) You neednt have gone to my aunts house (but you did it anyway)

h) Criticism:

- You should have accompanied her to the doctor

i) Request:


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- Can/could you bring me a glass of water?

- Will/Would you please open the window?

j) Dilemma:

- Should I stay or should I go?

k)

Commandments/formal contracts:- You shall not kill

- The party shall be responsible for

l) Tener la obligacin de

- Be to : You are to go to the supermarket

- Be supposed to: You are supposed to watch your sister while Im out

- Be obliged to: Peter is obliged to use a uniform every day.

Alethic:

It is related to predictability, to the future.

Will: Will you go to Crdoba?May: She may be in Italy next summer

Might: She might be in Italy next summer

Wont: You wont receive any money from me!

Adverbios de enunciado y adverbios de enunciacin

De acuerdo con Emile Benveniste, cuando el enunciador se sirve de la lengua para

influir de algn modo sobre el comportamiento del alocutario, dispone para ellos

de un aparato de funciones:

- La interrogacin: Enunciacin construida para suscitar una respuesta

-

La intimacin: Enunciacin contruida para suscitar una accin del t.- La asercin: Enunciacin que apunta a comunicar una certeza.

Estos procedimientos que le permiten al locutor situarse con respecto a su

interlocutor se conocen bajo el nombre de modalidades de enunciacin. A esta

categora perteneces tambin ciertos adverbios que se caracterizan por calificar la

enunciacin en la que aparecen: Francamente, sinceramente, confidencialmente

- Sinceramente, el amarillo te queda mal (hace referencia al acontecimiento

enunciativo)

- Honestly, she did not come

Simultneamente, afirma Benveniste, el locutor dispone de una serie de modalidades

formales como:

- Ciertos adverbios modales:probablemente, sin duda, quizs

Que le permiten expresar sus actitudes respecto de lo que dice o enuncia

(esperanza, deseo, aprensin, etc.). Estas modalidades reciben el nombre de

modalidades de enunciado.

- Sinceramente/francamente su discurso fue espantoso

- Luckily, she did not come


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The Subjunctive MoodThe first aspect to take into account about the subjunctive mood (SUBJ) is that it is

used in hypothetical situations; this is the main difference it presents with respect to

the indicative mood (IND), which is used when we talk about facts.

Subjunctive markers in English

There are four markers which trigger the subjunctive mood:

1. Bare Infinitive

2. Were

3. Past Tense Forms

4. Modals

1. Bare Infinitive

She insists that he go(SUBJ)to the club everyday.

Insiste en que vaya(SUBJ)al club todos los das.On this example, the subjunctive can be easily noticed because the construction used

(3rd person singular + bare infinitive) is incorrect in the indicative mood. Given this,

there is only one correct way to translate this sentence into Spanish.

However, the bare infinitive, when used as a marker of the subjunctive with persons

other than 1st person singular or 3rd person singular, can be ambiguous (A), as in the

following examples:

She insists that they go (SUBJ/IND)to the club everyday. (A)

Ella insiste en que vayan (SUBJ)/van (IND) al club todos los das.

In the aforementioned example, the key which triggers the subjunctive is theimposition of the speakers will, whereas the indicative mood would simply state a

fact.

2. Were

In informal language, it is replaced by was. It is important to point out that it is only

recognizable as a marker of the subjunctive mood when used with 1st and 3rd persons

singular, due to the fact that, as happens with the bare infinitive, it could be

ambiguous when used with persons other than 1st or 3rd singular (its form remains

the same as the one used for the indicative).

She walks as if she was/were (SUBJ)a model. (The verb implies that she is not a

model, but walks as one)

Camina como sifuera/fuese (SUBJ) una modelo.

Cf.

She walks as she is (IND)a model.(The verb implies the fact that she is a model)

Camina como la modelo que es (IND).

3. Past Tense

In this case, we could be faced with ambiguity, as in the example below:

She insisted they went (SUBJ/IND)to the club everyday. (A)

Insista en quefueran (SUBJ)/iban (IND)al club todos los das.


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Other examples to take into account:

Wish: I wish I had (SUBJ)a car ->Desearatener (IND)un auto (In Spanish it is

indicative because the desire is a fact, although having a car is hypothetical)

If only I had (SUBJ) a car -> Ojal tuviera (SUBJ) un auto

I wish I had been (SUBJ) to the party -> Deseara haber ido (IND)a lafiesta

Rather: Id rather she came (SUBJ)-> Preferira que viniera (SUBJ)

Its (high) time: Its high time you left (SUBJ)-> Es hora de que te vayas (SUBJ)

4. Modals

In English, modals are used to convey mood (M), Tense (Tn), and Modality proper

(Mp). Nonetheless, in Spanish, mood and tense are morphologically marked, so

modals are only used to indicate modality proper.

ENGLISH SPANISH

1. Mood (M) -

2. Tense (Tn) -

3. Modality proper

(Mp)

Modality proper

(Mp)

a) Mood

a. I demand that he should (M)go.

b. Pido que (se) vaya.

b) Tense

a. He would (Tn)go if you asked him.

b. l (se) ira si se lo pidieras.

c) Modality Proper

a. He should (Mp: Advisability)leave now.

Debera (Mp: Advisability)irse ahora.

Other ways to convey the Subjunctive in English

1. Connectives

a) Compounds withever

Whatevershe did(IND), it was never enough for him.Hiciera lo que (ella) hiciera (SUBJ), para l nunca era suficiente.

b) Even if

Even ifshe went (SUBJ) with us, she shouldve paid the ticket.

Aunque (ella) hubiese ido (SUBJ) con nosotros, tendra que haber pagado el

boleto.

2. Infinitive

This is one of the most ambiguous ways to mark the subjunctive.

Borges went to Switzerland to die there (A).

Borges fue a Suizapara morir all (A).(If there is no hint to disambiguate, it iscorrect to keep the ambiguity in the translation)


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b. b. Uncertainty

c. c. Feelings

a. Volition

And in Tommys suggestion (K: volition) that Andy ask (SUBJ) for his solicitorshelp, there was fair indication of what the detectives would do next.

Y la sugerencia (K: volition) de Tommy de que Andy llamara (SUBJ) a su

abogadoindicaba que sera lo prximo que haran los detectives.

b. Uncertainty

You are saying that Mrs. Lambert organized a wedding without any assurance

(K: uncertainty) that there was (IND) a bridegroom?

Ests diciendo que la Sra. Lambert organiz una boda sin la seguridad (K:

uncertainty) de que hubiera (SUBJ) novio?

c. FeelingsIt is my hope(K: feeling) that you are enjoying (IND) the reception.

Es mi deseo (K: feeling) que estn disfrutando (SUBJ) de la reunin.

3. Noun Clause as Adjectival Complement

ADJECTIVE HEAD

English Spanish

a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)

b. b. Uncertainty

c. c. Feelings

a. Volition

I was adamant (K: volition) that hed be appointed (SUBJ).

Me mantuve firme (K: volition) en que fuera elegido (SUBJ).

b. Uncertainty

Monk was not sure(K: uncertainty) if he had spoken (IND) impulsively.

Monk no estaba seguro (K: uncertainty) de que no hubiera hablado (SUBJ)

impulsivamente.

c. FeelingsI am very happy(K: feeling) that my daughter is marrying (IND) Henry.

Estoy muy contento (K: feeling) deque mi hija se case (SUBJ) con Henry.

4. Noun Clause as Subjective Complement

SUBJECT

English Spanish

a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)

b. b. Uncertainty

c. c. Feelings


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a. Volition

The suggestion (K: volition) was that she accompany (SUBJ) several

government officials to the morgue.

La sugerencia (K: volition) fue que acompaara (SUBJ) a varios funcionariospblicos a la morgue.

b. Uncertainty

My doubt(K: uncertainty) is that this was (IND) what he intended to do.

Mi duda (K: uncertainty) es que esto fuera (SUBJ) lo que l haba querido

hacer.

c. Feelings

My hope(K: feeling) is that you are having (IND) a wonderful time in Punta del

Este.

Les deseo (K: feeling) que la estn pasando (SUBJ) de maravilla en Punta delEste.

When the subject is co-referent in both clauses, we replace the noun clause by an

infinitival phrase in Spanish:

Im sorry I made you talk about her.

Lamento haberte hecho hablar de ella.

5. Noun Clauses in Extraposition

In this type of clauses, the key is the Complement (C): either the Subjective

Complement (SC), functioning as Real Subject in Extraposition (RSEP); or the Objective

Complement (OC), functioning as Real Direct Object in Extraposition (RDOEP).

SC/OC

English Spanish

a. Point of view:

1.

2. future Tm reference

a. Point of view:

1. present Tm reference

2. future Tm reference

b. Necessity b. Necessity

c. c. Uncertainty

a. Point of view

Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just

judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view future Tm reference) that

she should espouse (SUBJ) its cause. (RDOEP)

Su ta Maud lleg. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es el castigo que se

merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view future Tm reference) que ella

abrace (SUBJ) su causa. (RDOEP) (A)

Cf.


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Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just

judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view present Tm reference) that

she should [Emphasis] espouse (IND) its cause.(RDOEP)

Su ta Maud lleg. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es realmente el castigo

que se merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view presente Tm reference)queella abrace (SUBJ) su causa.(RDOEP) (A)

In Spanish, there is no way to express emphasis through mood, since future and

present Tm reference always require subjunctive.

b. Necessity

The landing site must be 100 yards wide by 250 yards deep. It is essential (K:

necessity) that it be (SUBJ) clear of mines and artificial obstacles.

La pista de aterrizaje debe tener 100 yardas de ancho por 250 de largo. Es

fundamental (K: necessity) que est (SUBJ) libre de minas y de cualquier otro

tipo de obstculos.In English it is very common to find an infinitival clause as (RSEP):

Since everybody involved is an experienced police officer, it will not be necessary

(K: necessity) for me to tell (INF) you that the best way to blow this

investigation is to let those scumbags even suspect somebodys taking a close

look at them.

Como todos los involucrados son policas experimentados, no ser necesario (K:

necessity) que les diga (SUBJ) que la mejor manera de hacer fracasar esta

investigacin es dejar que esa escoria siquiera sospeche que estn bajo la

mira.

The idea of subjunctive conveyed in English by the infinitival clause is rendered in

Spanish by a noun clause. Nevertheless, other possible translation would be:

Como todos los involucrados son policas experimentados, no ser necesario (K:

necessity) decirles (INF) que la mejor manera de hacer fracasar esta

investigacin es dejar que esa escoria siquiera sospeche que estn bajo la

mira.

I. IF

IF introducing noun clauses is the same as THAT; as well as their Spanish versions, SI y

QUE.

() my client will sue for custody of his son if and when your Petition for Divorce

reaches the courts. He still earnestly hopes to avoid this eventuality by

persuading you to return to the matrimonial home. In the interim, he suggests

that it will be the fairest, most appropriate, and most beneficial arrangement

(K: point of view future Tm reference)if Leo is moved (IND) immediately to

Brocks Preparatory School, where both his parents will be free to visit him on

equal terms. (RSEP)

() mi cliente pedir la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de

divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todava honestamente espera evitar esta


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eventualidad persuadindola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,

cree que ser el arreglo ms justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view

future Tm reference) que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brooks

Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrn visitarlo en igualdad de

condiciones. (RSEP)Cf.

() mi cliente pedir la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de

divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todava honestamente espera evitar esta


cree que el arreglo ms justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view future

Tm reference) es que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brooks

Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrn visitarlo en igualdad de

condiciones. (SC)

but,() mi cliente pedir la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de

divorcio llegue a los tribunals. Todava honestamente espera evitar esta


cree que ser el ms justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view future Tm

reference) si Leo es trasladado (SUBJ in meaning but IND in form) de

inmediato a Brooks Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrn visitarlo

en igualdad de condiciones. (RSEP) In this case, es trasladado is the correct

option because Spanish language does not allow SI to be followed by the

subjunctive form when the verb in the clause is in the present tense.c. Uncertainty

In English, the subjunctive mood is not required when the subjective complement (SC)

expresses uncertainty.

David knew then what he had to do although it was possible (K: uncertainty)

that he might (Mp: possibility) never get (IND) Emily to forgive her husband.

David supo entonces qu tena que hacer aunque saba que era posible (K:

uncertainty) que nunca pudiera (Mp: possibility) lograr (SUBJ) que Emily

perdonara a su esposo.

In this case, the presence of might in the English sentence conveys Modality Proper,

whereas in Spanish, this feature is conveyed in the verb.

However, there are some cases in which the semantic components of the keys are not

easily identified:

Its crucial (K: point of view?/necessity?) that you do (IND?/SUBJ?) whatever is

necessary to get yourself to a place where you can take the profile Im

developing.

Es fundamental (K: necessity/point of view present/future Tm reference)que

hagas (SUBJ) lo que sea necesario (A) para conseguir un lugar al que puedas

llevar la mascarilla que estoy preparando.


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Please note that this dilemma does not appear in Spanish, given that in this language

both necessity and point of view trigger the subjunctive. As a consequence, the

problem of identifying the keys is shifted to the reader.

Connectives

a.ComplementizersI. That

This is the most typical connective introducing noun clauses.

I believe (that) they have to have long silly names like that because of the

American Kennel Club.

Creo que tienen que tener nombres largos y tontos como ese por el American

Kennel Club.

II. Whether

Why should we care (K: feeling) whether Switzerland returns (IND) what are

often insignificant amounts of money to Jews?Por qu debera importarnos (K: feeling) si Suiza devuelve (IND)/que Suiza

devuelva (SUBJ) lo que a menudo son insignificantes sumas de dinero a los

judos?

After SI the indicative form must be used. Nonetheless, the mood is semantically

subjunctive.

III. Lest

This connective presents two characteristics:

i. It can only introduce:

noun clauses as DO of verbs containing a semantic feature of fear;

noun clauses in appositions of nouns denoting fear, or depending on verbs

of fear;

noun clauses as adjectival complement of adjectives of fear.

ii. The mood in the clause is always subjunctive.

Lest is always translated into Spanish as Que.

He feared (Vb) lest people should think (SUBJ) him unpractical.

Tema (K: feeling) que la gente lo creyera (SUBJ) poco prctico.

Though subjunctive is required in both languages, in English this is so because the

choice of lest triggers it, while in Spanish the mood is triggered by the feature of the

main verb.

IV. (Such) as (that)

It introduces noun clauses in apposition. It is translated into Spanish as como; tal

como:

You mustnt let people know shameful things, such as that your hair has fallen

out from chemotherapy.

No debes permitir que la gente se entere de cosas vergonzosas, como que se te

cay el pelo por la quimioterapia.V. But what


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This connector is equivalent to that, but it intruduces noun clauses as DO when the

main clause is negative.

Im not sure, my boy, but whatif you put it off, in Spanish itll be too late.

No estoy seguro, muchacho, de quesi lo pospone no ser demasiado tarde.

Relative ClausesIn Spanish, the antecedent triggers the subjunctive when it is not specific.

ANTECEDENT

Spanish

non specific

I want to know anything which might be (IND) relevant.

Quiero saber cualquier cosa (K: non specific) que pueda (SUBJ) ser relevante.

1. Nominal Relative Clauses

I reminded myself of what my father always says (IND).

Record lo (K: specific: aquellas cosas) que mi padre siempre dice (IND).

Cf.

I admire you even while I worry about what this is going to cost (IND) you.

Te admiro aunque estoy preocupada por lo (K: non specific: she doesnt know

the cost) que te vaya a costar (SUBJ)/Te admiro aunque estoy preocupada por

lo (K: specific: she knows the cost)que te va a costar (IND).

The lack of mood distinction in English may face the translator with a serious problema

of ambiguity.

Adverbial Clauses

These are an automatic choice in English, but a semantic one in Spanish.

ENGLISH: TYPE OF CLAUSE/SPANISH: VERB IN THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

English Spanish

a. Purpose a. Hypothetical meaning

b. Conditional (unreal) b.

c. Clauses introduced by as if/as though, lest c.

a. Purpose/Hypothetical meaningThe most common connector introducing this kind of clauses is so that/para que.

He hadnt hurt her, but she wanted to make him think he had so that he would

feel (SUBJ) guilty.

No la haba lastimado, no en realidad, pero quera hacerle creer que spara que

se sintiera (K: +hypothetical: unknown/still to happen) (SUBJ) culpable.

Nevertheless, the absence of any distinctive subjunctive marker, the context may

provide the information for the reader to conclude that the clause introduced by so

thatis result.

She drew the last line so that the sketch was (IND) finished (RESULT).


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Pronoun

Concept and Main Notions

From a semantic and functional point of view, the pronoun has been defined as a kind

of word that functions as a substitute of the noun or that defines beings and objects

without naming them.

It is important to take into account that:

a) Pronouns do not always substitute a noun (only personal pronouns include the

participants to the conversation into the discourse).

b) Pronouns per se refer to another element in a textual or situational context.

REFERENCE

Endophoric (textual) Exophoric (situational)

When an element from the text refers to another elementappearing in the same text. Also called deictics, refer toanother element from outside

the text.

Anaphoric Cataphoric

It refers to something that

has already appeared in the

text.

It refers to something that

will further appear in the text.

Only personal pronounsadmitcase and person morphemes:

SPANISHCase Function 1st person 2nd person 3rd person

Nominative Subject Yo T/vos l/ella

Acusative Direct Object Me Te Lo/la (se)

Dative Indirect Object Me Te Le (se)

Prepositional DO/IO/other M Ti l/ella (s)

Instrumental CC

instrument/company

Conmigo Contigo Consigo

There are some pronouns which function as nouns, however;

They do not carry the same meaning: as the person, these pronouns may

present some grammatical features, indicate exact or imprecise number and

show deictic features;

They do not go together with determinatives: they function independently;

They do not go together with modifiers: they do not admit adjectives as

modifiers;

They cannot go together with suffixes and preffixes;

They constitute a closed classification: no new pronouns can be created;


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They are referential discoursive elements: they constitute the coherence in the

text by means of anaphoric and cataphoric reference.

Pronoun Morphologic, Semantic and Syntactical Classification

- Semantic classification in Spanish and in English:

Spanish EnglishPronombres

personales/Personal

pronouns

l vendr pronto. He will arrive soon.

Pronombres

indefinidos/Indefinite

pronouns

Cualquiera puede

hacerlo.Anyone can do it.

Pronombres

posesivos/Possesive

pronouns

La casa es ma. The house is mine.

Pronombres

demostrativos/Demonstrative

pronouns

Aquella es Luca. That is Lucy.

Pronombres

relativos/Relative pronouns

El autor que escribi

esta novela.

The autor who/that

wrote this novel.

Pronombres interrogativos y

exclamativos/Interrogative &

Exclamative pronouns

Qu bonito! How nice!

Pronombres

reflexivos/Reflexive pronounsLo hice yo misma. I did it myself.

Pronombres

recprocos/Reciprocal

pronouns

Se miraron el uno al

otro.

They looked at each

other.

Personal Pronouns

They are the only words which replace the noun. They are semantically bound to the

designation of a being, object or situation. From a morphological point of view, inSpanish, they admit gender, number, person and case morphemes; in English,

however, they do not admit gender and number morphemes.

SPANISH ENGLISH

Singular Plural Singular Plural

1ra

persona

Sujeto Yo Nosotros/nosotras I We

Objeto Me Nos Me Us

TrminoM,

conmigoNosotros/nosotras

2da Sujeto T/vos Vosotros/vosotras You You


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persona Objeto Te Os You You

Trmino Ti, contigo Vosotros, vosotras

3ra

persona

Sujeto l/ella/ello Ellos/ellas He/she/it They

Objeto Lo/la/lo Los/las Him/her/it Them

Trmino l/ella/ello Ellos/ellas

En espaol, el pronombre tono loes masculino cuando su referente es un sustantivo

masculino y es neutro cuando se refiere a cosas imprecisas, contenidos oracionales o

sustituye atributos (Te lo advert; No lo comprendo; Mara lo era). En ingls, el

pronombre neutro it reemplaza a referentes singulares definidos o indefinidos,

conceptos abstractos o entidades que no tienen sexo determinado, por ejemplo, los

bebs (A child needs its mother) o los animales.

El lesmo: Fenmeno que consiste en el uso de los pronombres le y les en lugar de lo y

los. La RAE acepta el lesmo masculino de persona en singular pero no el de animal o

cosa (A Pedro lo llam por telfono = A Pedro le llam por telfono). Leo lesno pueden

reemplazar a lao las. El lesmo de cortesa consiste en el reemplazo de leo lespor lo

referido a usted, ustedes.

El lasmo: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente los pronombres la y las de objeto

directo en lugar de los pronombres ley lesde objeto indirecto.

El losmo: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente los pronombres lo y los de objeto

directo en lugar de ley les de objeto indirecto.

Pronombres posesivos

Denotan propiedad, posesin o pertenencia de alguien o de algo respecto a cualquiera

de las tres personas gramaticales que actan como poseedores y a las que se refieren.

En espaol, los posesivos admiten morfemas de gnero y nmero y efectan la

distincin nominal entre un poseedor (mo, ma) y varios poseedores (nuestro,

nuestra). Funcionan como adjetivos o sustantivo. En ingls, los pronombres posesivos

pueden sustituir al poseedor (This is the childs bag = This bag is his) o bien a toda la

frase posesiva (This is his). A diferencia del espaol, no marcan distinciones nominales

en relacin al objeto posedo (This bag is his/These bags are his).

En espaol, el uso procltico, la forma apocopada de los posesivos afecta a los que serefieren a un solo poseedor, salvo en la tercera persona (El abrigo mo = Mi abrigo; La

pileta tuya = Tu pileta). El apocopado acepta variacin en nmero, pero es

genricamente invariable. En ingls, esta variacin ha sido clasificada como forma

adjetiva del pronombre posesivo con caractersticas morfolgicas propias y ocupa una

posicin sintctica como modificador del sustantivo.

Sistema de los posesivos en espaol

Formas plenas Formas

apocopadas

Singular Plural Singular pluralMasculino Femenino Masculino Femenino


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1

persona

Un

poseedor

Mo Ma Mo Mas Mi Mis

Varios

poseedores

Nuestro Nuestra Nuestros Nuestras

2persona

Unposeedor

Tuyo Tuya Tuyos Tuyas Tu Tus

Varios

poseedores

Vuestro Vuestra Vuestros Vuestras

3

persona

Suyo Suya Suyos Suyas Su sus

Sistema de los posesivos en ingls

Pronombres Adjetivos

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Masculino Femenino Masculino Femenino

1

persona

Un

poseedor o

varios

poseedores

Mine Ours My Our

2

persona

Un

poseedor o

varios

poseedores

Yours Yours Your Your

3

persona

Un

poseedor o

varios

poseedores

His Hers Theirs His Her their

Pronombres demostrativos

Son palabras que expresan deixis (referencia) y que dependen de un marco referencial

que es externo al texto. Son empleados para la referencia espacial que rodea alhablante. En ingls, as como en espaol, los demostrativos permiten expresar

distancia en el espacio o en el tiempo mediante una gradacin que va desde la

cercana (Este armario/This cupboard) a la lejana (Aquel cuadro/That picture). En

espaol, los demostrativos admiten morfemas de gnero (masculino, femenino y

neutro) y nmero, mientras que en ingls solo existen las categoras: cercano singular

(this), cercano plural (these), distante singular (that) y distante plural (those).

Espaol Ingls

Singular Plural Singula

r

Plura

l


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Masculin

o

Femenin

o

Neutro Msaculin

o

Femenin

o

Proximida

d

Este Esta Esto Estos Estas This Thes

e

Distanciamedia

Ese Esa Eso Esos Esas

Lejana Aquel Aquella Aquell

o

Aquellos Aquellas That Thos

e

Los demostrativos pueden desempearse en funcin de adjetivo o sustantivo. En

ingls, pueden modificar a u sustantivo, cumpliendo una funcin adjetiva (This book is

interesting/I like those pants), pero tambin pueden reemplazar al sustantivo en

funcin pronominal (This is good/I like those).

Tambin existen demostrativos adverbiales, que cumplen la funcin de referir espacial

y temporalmente dentro del discurso.Proximidad Distancia media Lejana

Espaol Ingls Espaol Ingls Espaol Ingls

Este This Ese Aquel That

Aqu Now, here,

hither,

hence

Ah All There,

thiter,

thence

Los pronombres demostrativos y el seguimiento referencial: El seguimiento de la

referencia es un componente esencial en la coherencia, ya que garantiza un anclaje o

conectividad de los elementos del texto que le garantiza al lector un acceso ms rpido

a la representacin del texto. Cuantas ms conexiones existan a nivel textual, ms fcil

el acceso. Los marcadores discursivos que actan como referentes para indicar la

relacin espacial y temporal de los participantes del discurso son:

- Los interlocutores (I, you, we, all)

- Otros referentes (this one, that one, that one over there)

- Locacin geogrfica (here, there, way over there)

-

Locacin temporal (more, then, long ago, in the future, today, this week,yesterday, etc)

Pronombres indefinidos

Aluden a conceptos como el de cantidad pero de manera imprecise e indeterminada.

Se oponen por ellos a los numerales. Funcionan como adjetivos, sustantivos o

adverbios y no tienen valor dectico. (Hay muchas tablas con ejemplos en las pginas

135, 136 y 137 del captulo de pronombres.)

Pronombres relativos

Sirven para reproducir la parte de un discurso de otro y a la vez introducir un perodo

subordinado, evitando la repeticin del sustantivo que reemplazan. En espaol haycinco pronombres relativos: que, cual, quien, cuyo, cuanto, a los que se aaden las


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formas adverbiales de valor asimismo relativo: donde, cuando, como. Pueden

funcionar como sustantivos, adjetivos o adverbios. Algunos son invariables y otros

admiten variacin en gnero y nmero. En ingls, los pronombres relativos son: who,

whom, whose, whoever, whosoever, whomever, which, whatever, that.Ambos idiomas

distinguen entre antecedente animado o humano (who)y antecedente inanimado o nohumano (which). Los pronombres en ingls no varan en la marcacin de caso, excepto

para la forma who, que expresa con el pronombre whose el posesivo y con el

pronombre whomel caso objetivo.

Singular Plural

Masculino Femenino Neutro Masculino Femenino

Que

That

Cual

Which on

Cuales

Which onesQuien

Who

Quienes

Who

Cuyo

Whose

Cuya

Whose

Cuanto

How much

Cuantos

How many

Cuantas

How many

El que

Whoever

La que

Whoever

Lo que

Whichever

Los que

Whoever

Las que

Whoever

Donde/dondequiera

Where/whichever

Cuando/cuandoquiera

When/whenever

Como/comoquiera

What/whatever

Pronombres enfticos

Aunque habitualmente se distingue entre relativos e interrogativos o exclamativos, en

realidad son las mismas formas que se distribuyen en dos series: una tona,

correspondiente a los relativos, y otra tnica, que constituye la de los interrogativos ylos exclamativos. As las formas de los pronombres interrogativos y exclamativos

coinciden con las del relativo, aunque se diferencian en su carcter tnico en la

pronunciacin del acento diacrtico en la escritura: qu, cul, quin, cunto, dnde,

cundo, cmo.

Reflexives

In English, reflexive pronouns en in self or selves, so that Obj pronoun there is a

contrasting reflexive counterpart: me vs. myself, you vs yourself. In Spanish, the

contrast is marked only in the third person (including Ud./Uds.): le(s), lo(s), la(s) vs. se,

and in the standard language, a l (ella/Ud./ellos/Uds) vs. a s (consigo).Pseudo reflecive or spurious se:(Les di la llaveLes la di Se las di)


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Te enteraste: cierto conato o fuerza con que se vence algn estorbo.

An important of such inchoatives is that their state (once entered) is expressed by

estar + participle:

Process State

Se durmi: she fell asleep Est dormida: shes asleep, sleepingSe muri: she died Est muerta: shes dead

Se cas: she got married Est casada: shes married

However, there remain many verbs whose reflexives convey other meanings in other

structures. (quedar: be left/be quedarse: stay/remain; ir:go irse: go away/leave;

llevar: carryllevarsecon: get along with, etc.)

Intransitivizing se:

Ella se detuvo en el andn. She stopped on the platform.

Los vasos se rompen. Glasses break.

El barco se hundir. The boat will sink.

Many English verbs can be used transitively (with DO) or intransitively (without DO)

with the special semantic contrast of X caused Y to verb vs. Y verbed by itself: Joe

stopped her (caused her to stop) vs. She stopped. The Spanish counterparts to such

verbs generally take se for the intransitive sense. Spanish seems to use a reflexive

when the Subj acts upon itself while English optionally deletes its reflexive.

Reflexive se of emotional reaction: Se alegra mucho de esto. Shes very happy

about this.

The psych verbs in this group forma large, important set: aburrir(se), alegrar(se),

animar(se), asombrar(se), deprimir(se), enojar(se), etc. When nonreflexive, the cause

of the emotional reaction is cast as the verbs Subj, and the experiencer is cast as Obj:

Esto les aburre/sorprende. This bores/surprise them.When reflexive, such verbs cast

the experiencer as Subj and the cause of the reaction as an optional PP: Ellos se

aburrieron(de la tele) They got bored (with TV); Ella se sorprendi(de que vinieras).

She was surprised(that you were coming).

Causative se: Juan se oper anoche. John had an operation lastnight.

The verbs in this group are few: operarse,bautizarse, retratarse, vacunarse cortarse (el

pelo), and some others. Sehere indicates that the Subj causes something to be done

for or upon himself/herself. Since these verbs are transitive, they can also occur

nonreflexively: el medico oper a Juan.

Passive and impersonal se:

Se cierra la puerta a la una. The door is closed at 1:00; one closes the door at 1:00.

Se habla espaol. Spanish is spoken; one speaks/you speak Spanish.

Passive sediffers from impersonal sein several ways. First, many speakers see secerr

lapuertaas so passive in its force that they add an agent phrase as in true passives: secerr la puerta por el guarda = la puerta fue cerrada por el guarda. Second, impersonal


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seis distinct from passives because it can be used in true passives: sees juzgado por la

posteridad(one is judged by posterity). Third, passive seonly accompanies transitive

verbs (intransitive cannot be passivized: *fui venido), in which case it converges with

intransitive se. Impersonal se, in contrast, accompanies either kind of verb transitive or

intransitive, provided that a human subject is implied (*se llueve is odd for the samereason as *ella llueve):

Se viva bien en aquel entonces. One/They lived well back then.

Se puede entrar? Can one enter?

Como se vive, se muere. One dies as one lives/You die as you live.

Fourth, with passive se the NP is the subject. The verb agrees with it, and this Subj

precedes or follows the verb like any other Subj or is dropped when deemphasized

(Silvia comi/Comi Silvia/Comi).

The more immediate problem is the lack of a single handy English equivalent for

impersonal/passive se. Formal English uses one whereas colloquial usage favors you orthey, which are also possible in Spanish. As an alternative to impersonal se, Spanish

likewise uses uno: es que no se tiene suficiente cuidado = es que uno no tiene suficiente

cuidado.

The true reflexive is distiguished from the passive/impersonal sense by employing

personal a for the latter: Nunca se mtar el tirano. The tyrant will never kill himself.;

Nunca se matar al tirano. People will never kill the tyrant.

Prominalizing with clitics:

Prominalization is the process whereby NPs are changed into pronouns. In English,

this process does not greatly affect word order, for pronouns occur in the samepositions as other NPs:

Mary gave her phone number to the man who asked her out.

She gave it to him.

In Spanish, though, position depends on the type of pronoun. Traditionally, two sets

are distinguished, the Subj/OP forms and the DO/IO forms:

Set 1: Subj/OP:yo, m, t, ti, Ud., l, ella, ello, nosotros (-as), vosotros (-as), Uds., ellos

(-as), s.

Set 2: DO and IO: me, te, le, lo, la, nos, os, los, les, las, se (all types).

Some of the key contrasts of Spanish clitics with English pronouns are the following:

1) They do not occupy NP positions in surface structure: Vi los animals. *Vi los.

2) They cannot be used apart from a verb: -A quin prefieres? -*Te.

3) They cannot be joined by conjunctions: *Te y me vieron. (English: They saw you

and me)

4) They generally do not share verbs: Puede lavarse y vestirse. *Puede lavar y

vestirse.

5) They cannot be emphasized as separate words.

Neutral: He introduced her to you. Te la present.


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Emphatic Subj: HE introduced her to you. l te la present. / Te la

present l.

Emphatic Obj: He introduced her to YOU. Te la present a ti. / A ti te la

present.

6)

Even when the Obj is spelled out as a specific pronoun or when the IO isnamed by a full NP, the clitic still accompanies the verb, a phenomenon called

clitic doubling:

*(Lo) vi a usted.

Aquellos tipos *(lo) tartan a uno como inferior.

A Sonia *(le) gustan las plantas.

*(Nos) lo dieron a m y a mi hermana.

*(Le) di los dulces a mi amigo.

An a-phrase is also used to emphasize a DO clitic (Me escogiste a m? Lo quieres a

l?) Consequently, a + NP may represent DO, IO, or a PP that is not an Obj of the verbat all, and its pronominalization is not obvious from form alone:

DO: atender a Clara atenderla;visitar a Clara visitarla

IO: hablar a Clara hablarle; server a Clara servirle

PP: regresar a Clara, regresar a ella; referirse a ella referirse a ella


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NounsNouns are the names of people, things or places. Many, but not all, have a plural as

well as a singular form, and frequently they are able to take an article or other

determiner.

They may be classified in the following manner:I. Proper nouns

Proper nouns include the names of people, countries, months, days, magazines,

animals, holidays, towns, villages, cities, buildings, streets, squares, continents,

geographical names (Mountains, lakes, some names of countries, islands, mountain

ranges, seas, rivers and other geographical features) and the names of other places

with an unique reference.

Proper nouns that take the definite article: Among the geographical names,

some names of countries (the Philippines), republics (the Peoples Republic of

China), kingdoms (the Kingdom of Nepal), islands (the Island of Skye), mountain

ranges (the Pyrenees), seas (the Mediterranean Sea), rivers (the North Sea),

and other geographical features (he Panama Canal) take the definite article.

Other kinds of proper nouns that take it are: names of newspapers (the Buenos

Aires Herald), public buildings and other places with a unique reference (the

Empire State), plural family names (The Simpsons), and plural names denoting

nationality (the Americans).

II. Common nouns

Common nouns denote classes or kinds of things. Sometimes, they denote abstract

qualities. They make up the majority of nouns and do not take a capital letter.

III. Collective nouns

Collective nouns may be replaced by the pronouns itor they, using a plural or singular

verb accordingly, while the noun itself remains unchanged.

Sometimes, there is a slight difference of meaning:

Dictionaries usually advise choosing a singular verb when one thinks of the group

collectively and a plural verb when one thinks of the individuals composing that group.

e.g.: The government is / are

Nouns denoting fish, animals or birds may be used collectively.Words denoting plants may be used in the singular with a collective sense.

English Spanish

A burning coal fell on therug

countable noun Un tizn cay en laalfombra

Coal is mined in Wales mass noun En Gales se extrae carbn


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Some nouns have a collective sense when they function as mass nouns and may

denote a single item when they act as countable nouns.

Gender

Gender is not merely a grammatical expression of sex but may be connected with the

need to differentiate between living and lifeless, big and small, etc. It is not alwaysevident from the morphology of the word in question but may influence the form of

other words. The distribution of words into different genders is often arbitrary. There

are few distinctions of gender in English and these are usually related to sex. While

English does not normally use suffixes to distinguish gender, Spanish does.

Kinds of gender in the noun

A. Nouns denoting personsmay be:

1. masculine

2. feminine

3.

dual4. common

5. collective

B. Nouns denoting non-personal

entitiesmay be:

1. higher animal: masculine

feminine2. higher organism

3. lower animal

A. 1.

2.

Masculine and feminine nouns

English distinguishes the male from the female sex in nouns by means of using

a completely different stem, composition or an adjunct.

Usually a suffix is added to the masculine form to form its feminine. Anexception to this rule is the word widower, where the suffix is added to the

feminine word to form the masculine.

When a separate word exists for a woman, sometimes it means she holds a

certain position or has a certain occupation and sometimes it means that she is

married to a man who holds that position or occupation. Nowadays the

different laws created to prevent discrimination based on gender promote the

use of gender neuter nouns such as the recently created compound

chairpersoninstead of chairmanor chairwoman.

Completely different words Add a suffix

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

husband wife actor actress

boy girl god goddess

son daughter duke duchess

Feminine endings

-ess Lioness

-ine Heroine-ina Czarina


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-ette Suffragette

3. Dual gender

This class of nouns has no separate names for one of the sexes. This class

includes many nouns formed from verbs and nationalities and words indicatingthe religion or politics of a person. If needed, the sex can be distinguished by

means of adding constructions such as a lady / a woman / a female

A. 4. Common gender

This class of nouns lies between personal and non-personal nouns and can take

the pronouns who / he / she / it. The choice depends on the context and the

relationship of the speaker with the noun in question. For example, a man may

refer to his car as shewhereas someone else would use the pronoun it. Some

nouns in this class are: baby, car, ship, and nouns denoting pets (dog, cat, etc.).

A.

5. Collective nounsThese nouns may be substituted by either a singular or a plural pronoun and

take a verb in the plural or the singular form, whichever agrees with the

pronoun of choice. E.g.: The government has / have decided to call elections.

B. 1. Higher animals

There exist male and female forms as well as dual forms for many animals.

Sometimes, the female form is used to refer to both sexes (especially in the

plural). Some words denoting felines form the feminine form by adding the -ess

ending.

B

.

2. Higher organisms

This class includes ships, cars, countries, and other nouns which speakers

occasionally substitute with personal pronouns as a sign of affection.

B. 3. Lower animals and inanimate nouns

Lower animals are usually substituted by the pronoun it. However, their sex is

sometimes indicated in the corresponding noun (both sexes / plural: rabbit,

male: buck-rabbit, feminine: doe-rabbit).

The sex of plants and flowers is not distinguished in English except for the carl

hemp(a masculine form used for the female plant because it is bigger) and its

counterpart thefimble hemp.

Countable Nouns and Mass Nouns

COUNTABLE NOUNS

Masculine Feminine Plural / both sexes

drake duck duck(s)

dog bitch dog(s)

stallion mare horse(s)


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Countable nouns may form the plural, take the indefinite article, take cardinals, be

used with some, be used in the plural with many, be used in the interrogative plural

with how manyand be used in the plural without the article to express general ideas

(Flowers bloom in the spring).

MASS NOUNSMass nouns do not form a plural unless they may be reclassified as countable nouns

(Would you like a beer? vs Too much beer is bad for you). They may, however, have a

plural sense (furniture).

Mass nouns do not usually take the indefinite article except when they are reclassified

as countable nouns (a glass of water). They are used with some in the singular and may

form phrases with muchand interrogatives with how much.

Sometimes, Spanish usage coincides, but often different words are used to express the

two concepts:

English Spanishgray hairs count noun canas

hair mass noun pelo

Typical partitives

Typical partitives are sometimes exclusive of some nouns.

a glass of

a bottle of

a can of

a slice of

a stick of

a lump of

a blade

a sheet of

a loaf of

a bar of

a slab of

General Partitives

General partitives are not restricted to specific nouns.

a bit of

a piece of

A lot of, not much, a little, a few

A lot of,not much,a little and a feware often used with the verb in the singularwhen

used with mass nouns:

There isa lot ofgold in that mine.

However, countable nounsuse them in the plural:Only a fewhours were allowed to me by fate.


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Not muchmay be used for negative statements:

There is not muchwine left.

A littlemay express the opposite of a lot offor mass nouns:

There is only a littlecoffee in the jug.

The opposite of a lot ofmay be a fewfor countable nouns:There are only a fewbooks on the shelf.

The Genitive

It may indicate that the noun which is inflected possesses the object which follows it

(the mans son). This is the specifying or possessive genitive.

It may express the class to which the non-inflected noun belongs (lambs wool). This is

the classifying or descriptive genitive.

It may indicate that the inflected noun carried out the action expressed by the noun

that follows it (the girls refusal). This is the subjective genitive.It may indicate that the inflected noun is the cause or origin of the noun that follows it

(uncles funny story). This is the genitive of origin.

It may indicate that the inflected noun suffers the action expressed by the noun that

follows it (the mans dismissal). This is the objective genitive

The -s genitive

An apostrophe followed by sis added to singular nouns:

Singular: Janes uncle/the girls bag/the childrens toys

Plural nouns which do not end in sadd only the apostrophe:

Plural: the horsesowners/the boysholidays

OTHER WORDS THAT TAKE ONLY THE APOSTROPHE

1. Greek or classical names of more than one syllable;

2. Many names which end with the sibilant /z/;

3. In fixed expressions for the sake of euphony;

The semi independent or elliptic genitive

In this construction the headword need not be repeated if it occurs earlier or later in

the sentence: He put his arm through his wifes

Sometimes the elliptic genitive is placed before the element ellipted: Maureens is a

happy family. This construction may be used predicatively with a form of the verb to

be:

Whose is this book? Its Michaels.

The post-genitive or double genitive

This structure combines the inflected genitive with the ofconstruction:

a friend of Toms

a relative of my uncles

The group genitiveThe genitive inflection is appended to the last element:


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His mother-in-lawshouse

The Duke of Kentsresidence

Other structures could have two different meanings according to whether one or both

elements carry the -ssuffix. In David and Marks dogs all the dogs belong to both of

them but in Davids and Marks dogswould mean that some dogs belong to David andsome to Mark. In the first case this structure is called group genitiveand in the second

example it is called coordinated genitive.

The local genitive

The local genitive is used

1. To denote residence (my mothers, the Browns)

2. With a proper noun to denote a department store, restaurant, church,

hospital, and other buildings or institutions, or added to a saints name

(Lyons Coffee House, Mc Donalds, St. Pauls Cathedral)

With a common noun to denote commercial establishments or places where aservice is rendered (the grocers, the chemists)

The apostrophe is omitted in the names of some towns named after saints, sometimes

even if a common noun follows the saints name. It is also omitted in some cases

where the building or institution has become familiar.

The periphrastic genitive

Of is the principal preposition used in the periphrastic genitive although constructions

with toare also possible: the lady-in-waiting to the Queen

Uses of the periphrastic genitive

Balance:The ofgenitive is not usually used with proper names unless balance is

required (The uncle of Peter and Jane, Peter and Janes uncle).

Prominence:Sometimes it is used to give prominence to the proper name (The

works of William Shakespeare).

Names or relatives: These nearly always take the -s genitive, even when

accompanied by a possessive pronoun. Sometimes the -of genitive is used to

give emphasis (The birth of his son was the cause of great joy).

Lower animals and inanimate nouns: The -of genitive is usually preferred with

nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns except for those

which may also take the -s genitive. Some of these nouns can form

constructions with both the -ofgenitive and the -s genitive (the surface of the

earth, the function of the brain). Some inanimate nouns only take the -of


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ArticlesENGLISH

Definite Indefinite

The A / an / some

Used with old / given

information or

information that has

been restated

generalizations

musical instruments

geographical names

that imply a group of

something

superlatives

Used with new

information

Most nationalities

Professions

To talk about the

religion or political

ideology of a person

Used with abstract

concepts and

generalizations

SPANISH

Definite Indefinite

El / la Un(os) / una(s)

Generalizations

Some geographical

names

superlatives

titles

The singular form has a

numerical sense. It

might mean a / an or

one

used with nouncomplements when

they are modified or in

figurative speech (e.g.

Es una Buena

profesora)

used with noun

complements, unless

theyre modified (e.g.

Es abogado)

in expressions of price,speed, ratio

fixed expressions (e.g.

Qu lstima!)


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El adjetivoLos adjetivos en ingls siempre van antepuestos al sustantivo?

Generalmente s, pero hay excepciones.

Los adjetivos affected, required, available, suggested, free, imaginable, necessary, open y

visible pueden ir antes o despus del sustantivo al que modifican.Los adjetivos "elect (president elect), incarnate (devil incarnate), minor (Asia minor) y

designate (ambassador designate) siempre deben ir despus del sustantivo.

Cmo se pueden clasificar los adjetivos?

Attributive: Son los adjetivos que van antes del sustantivo. Le dan un atributo al sustantivo

que modifican: A green door.

Predicative: Son los adjetivos que van despus de un verbo: She feels ill.

Postpositive: Son los adjetivos que van directamente despus del sustantivo al que

modifican: The devil incarnate.

Gradable & Non-gradable

Gradable:Adjectives or adverbs which can be set on a scale of more or less in terms of

their qualities, properties, states, conditions, relations, etc. (good, small, easily, nicely).

Gradable adjectives and adverbs can be premodified by degree adverbs (Thats an extremely

good camera.) and can take the comparative and superlative inflections (smaller, smallest),

or be preceded by more or most (more easily, most superior).

Non-gradable:Adjectives or adverbs that cannot be graded on a scale of more or less in

terms of the property they describe (dead/alive, male/female, truly, main, married). Non-

gradable adjectives and adverbs cannot take the comparative or superlative inflection, nor

can they be preceded or premodified by words like more, most, quite, rather, so, very

(more male, rather dead, very truly, very married are not possible).

Cul es el orden correcto de los adjetivos en ingls?

O S B A SH C O M P

Opinion Size Build Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose

These fantastic monumental strong old grey Indian log-carrying elephant.

(!)Se recomienda no usar ms de tres adjetivos juntos.

Elder vs. OlderElderslo se usa en posicin atributiva (their eldest daughter has arrived), mientras que

olderpuede ocupar cualquier posicin (thats the oldest cathedral of Argentina).

(!)Elder no se puede usar junto con than: My sister is Elder than me.My sister is older

than me.

Cmo se forman los adjetivos compuestos en ingls?

1. Nmero + sustantivo: A three-star hotel

2. Nmero + parte del cuerpo (+ed) + sustantivo: A one-eyed man

3. Adjetivo + participio: A fast-running/hard-working/bad-tempered employee

4. Adjetivo + parte del cuerpo (+ed): A fair-haired woman


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Adjetivos que parece adverbios (!)

Cuando el adjetivo termina enly no se pueden formar adverbios agregando nuevamente

li o ly, por lo tanto, hay que parafrasear la oracin. Algunos adjetivos terminados en -ly:

Ugly, costly, miserly, unruly, silly, orderly.

Por ejemplo: Friendly (adj.) -> Friendlily -> In a friendly way. | Silly -> Sillily -> In a sillymanner.


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La ortografa y la puntuacinPERIOD / PUNTO

. At the end of a sentence (a

statement or a command)

Punto y seguido. Punto y aparte. Punto final.

. After abbreviations Luego de las abreviaturas.

NEVER in titles, subtitles. NUNCA en ttulos o subttulos.

NEVER after exclamation or

interrogation marks.

NUNCA luego de signos de admiracin o de

pregunta.

NUNCA en las cifras que indican aos o nmero

de pgina.

NUNCA en las entradas de una enumeracin si

son breves (precedidas por nmeros, letras o

guiones).

NUNCA en las frases que sirven de epgrafe.

(!) Nmeros:

12 345 678 (12.345.678)

12.10 / 12:10

12.11

SEMICOLON / PUNTO Y COMA

; Between independent clauses when

ideas are closely connected (when it

replaces a coordinating conjunction).

= Espaol

; To separate items in a series when

they already have commas between

them.

= Espaol

COMMA / COMA

, To signal a short pause within a

sentence.

= Espaol

, After introductory words, phrases or

clauses, and before the subject of the

main clause. If the introductoryphrase is short, the comma can be

omitted.

Despus de oraciones subordinadas.

Si te parece, llamame maana.

Cuando llegues a la ciudad, si te parecellamame.

, Between independent clauses joined

by a coordinating conjunction. If the

clauses are short, the comma can be

omitted.

Entre construcciones verbales equivalentes o

que cumplen igual funcin sintctica, excepto

cuando estn precedidas por Y, E, NI, O y U.

Antes de abandonar el pas, visit a sus

amigos, don libros y fue de visita

, She came to the room, only to find

somebody on the ground

Sin embargo, se coloca coma delante de la

conjuncin cuando la construccin que esta


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encabeza expresa un contenido semntico (ya

sea temporal, consecutivo, etc.) diferente al

expresado por la secuencia anterior:

Arroj al fuego las cartas, un par de fotos y su

diario, *otra accin+ y luego huy de all, Happily, Cuando hay que indicar que un elemento se

relaciona no con la palabra inmediatamente

precedente, sino con otra ms alejada.

Logr su objetivo, felizmente.

, = English Delante o detrs de un vocativo.

Juan, llmame.

, = English Cuando se interviene el orden regular de los

componentes de la oracin.

Para no olvidarme, har un nudo en elpauelo.

, To separate items in a list. (For the

last two items, use and. The

comma can be omitted in this case.)

Separa trminos de una enunciacin

(sustantivos, adjetivos, verbos, adverbios, etc.)

, To separate words, phrases or

clauses which add information (e.g.

non-defining relative clauses or

appositions).

= Espaol

, To separate a quotation from the

rest of the sentence.

= Espaol

, After interjections. After Yes and

No.

= Espaol

(!) In the structure NEITHER NOR the

comma is not used.

Cuando la conjuncin el NI y se repite, debe

colocarse coma delante de cada uno de los

miembros coordinados:

No le gustan ni el aspecto, ni las costumbres

de la ciudad, ni la lengua., = English En lugar del verbo:

Los nios, en el jardn.

NEVER between the verb and the

subject.

Cuando los elementos que conforman la

enumeracin forman el sujeto y van

antepuestos al verbo, no se pone coma detrs

del ltimo:

Los gelogos, los arquelogos y los

antroplogos deben tener

NEVER between the verb and theobject.

= Spanish


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De tiempo Ayer, hoy, maana, antes,

ahora, despus, pronto,

tarde, nunca, etc.

Today, yesterday, then,

now, afterwards, son, late,

never, etc.

De modo Bien, regular, mal, as,

despacio, deprisa,suavemente,

especialmente,

astutamente, a oscuras, a

las claras, etc.

Well, wrong, so , slowly,

quickly, especially, slyly,clearly, etc.

De cantidad Mucho, poco, bastante, mas

menos, tanto, etc.

Much, Little, enough, more,

less, etc.

De afirmacin Si, tambin, ciertamente,

efectivamente, en verdad,

etc.

Yes, too, also, certainly,

definitively, really, etc.

De negacin No, tampoco, jams, etc. No, neither, (either), never,

etc.

De duda Quiz o quizs, tal vez,

acaso, probablemente, etc.

Maybe, probably, perhaps,

etc.

De deseo Ojala, as, etc. Hopefully, etc.

De exclusin, inclusin o

adicin

Solo, aun, inclusive,

adems, incluso,

nicamente, etc.

Only, even, besides, also,

etc.

De identidad Mismamente, cabalmente,

mismo, propiamente,

precisamente,

concretamente, etc.

Own, precisely, concretely,

etc.

De exclamacin Que, cun, etc. What, how, etc.

2) Algunos adverbios perteneces a varias clases semnticas:

Espaol Clase semntica Ingls

IgualHabla igual que vos.

Igual llueve maana.

De modo o de duda LikeHe talks lik you.

Horriblemente,

terriblemente,

extraordinariamente,

absolutamente, etc.

Horriblemente feo.

Terriblemente cansada.

De modo o de cantidad Horribly, terribly,

extraordinarily, absolutely,

etc.

Horribly sick.

Terribly tired.

Nunca y jams De tiempo y de negacin Nevermore, never again


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Nunca ms se vieron elfos

en la ciudad.

Nevermore were the elves

seen in that town.

Nada

No le gusto nada.

De negacin y de cantidad

As

Quiero hacerlo as.

As de moscas.

As te parta un rayo

De modo, de cantidad o de

deseo

Likewise

Im tempted to do likewise.

Bien

Est bien excedido de peso.

Est bien lejos.

De modo o de cantidad Way

He is way overweight.

3)

Algunos adverbios no pertenecen a ninguna de estas clases: viceversa, justo,justamente, contrariamente y siquiera.

Locuciones adverbialesadverbials

Son conjuntos sintcticos indivisibles de dos o ms palabras cuyo comportamiento es igual al

de un adverbio.

Algunas locuciones provienen del Latn, como ex profeso, grosso modo, in situ, ipso facto,

latu sensu, modus operandi, modus vivendi, motu proprio. En estos casos debe evitarse el

agregado de preposiciones: lo hizo ex profeso.


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PrepositionThe preposition is considered a key element for the organization of a sentence. It contains

grammatical information as to the relation between words with lexical meaning on their

own.

Characteristics:1) Functional/linking words: There are full prepositions which have lexical meaning

and empty prepositions which are merely a link between a word and a

complement.

In Spanish, such distinction is not very clear and mostly depends on the context, still you

could say that: ante, bajo, contra, desde, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, segn, sin, sobre and

tras may have lexical meaning on their own and a, con, de, en and por may be empty

prepositions.

2) The complement is always after the preposition.

In Spanish, unlike in English, the pronouns that are complements change position along with

the preposition.

De qupedido me ests hablando? = Vos me ests hablando de qupedido?

Specifyfromwhicharticle you are quoting = Specify the article you are quotingfrom.

3) Closed type of word: New prepositions cannot be created.

4) Prepositions can be simple (a, de,

Documents

Dudario de estructuras comparadas en inglés y español