Druids as a Cultural Icon (Alena Pohludková)

7/26/2019 Druids as a Cultural Icon (Alena Pohludkov)

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Masaryk University

Faculty of Arts

Department of Englishand American Studies

English Language and Literature

Alena Pohludkov

Druids as a Cultural Icon

Bachelors Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Michael Matthe !a"lor# Ph$ D$

2!


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I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,

using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

..Authors signature

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Acknoledgement

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' ould like to thank m" supervisor Michael Matthe !a"lor# Ph$D$ (or his advice

and help(ul guidance$

Ta)le o( *ontents

+$ Introduction"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""#

2" $he %evival of the Druids""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&

'" $he (eyday of the Druids) Fame"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!*

&$+$ The 'n(luence o( the ,omanticism$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$+-

&$%$ The Druids Supporting the British !ingdom$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$+.*" $he Alienation of the !+thCentury and the %e,eaving of the Myth"""""""""""2'

/$+$ The Disillusion ith the Druids$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$%/

/$%$ The Druids and 0niversal M"tholog"$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$%.

#" Conclusion"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'#

-" .i/liography""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'+

0" %esum1"""*2

&" %esum1 v 3e4tin5"""*'

!" IntroductionThe Druids are a group o( people (rom ancient histor" a)out hom e hear and

read a lot# )ut in realit" e kno hardl" an"thing a)out$ The pro)lem o( the Druids as

real historical people is that there is no tangi)le evidence o( their e1istence: the" le(t no

/


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ritings2 the" cannot )e envisaged# as there are no ancient pictures o( them2 nor are

there an" ph"sical remains that could )e positivel" linked to them$ As regards the

et"molog" o( the ord 3Druid#4 Philip Shallcrass argues that the ord 3Druid4 ma"

indeed derive (rom an 'ndo5European root 3dreo5vid4# meaning 3one ho knos the

truth4$ Alternativel"# it ma" )e that the 3dreo4 element is an intensive pre(i1 giving

Druid the meaning o( 3ver" ise one4$ 'n practice it as pro)a)l" understood to mean

simpl" 3ise one4# or 3philosopher5priest3 6Shallcrass7$ B" contrast# *hris 8itcom)e

remarks that the ,oman riter Plin" the Elder 69aius Plinius Secundus# %&%/5;. A$D$7

)elieved it to )e a cognate ith the 9reek ord 3drus4# meaning 3an oak4$ 3Dru5id4

com)ines the ord roots 3oak4 and 3knoledge4 63id4 means 3to kno4 or 3to see4 5

as in the Sanskrit 3vid47$ The oak 6together ith the roan and ha


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orks# )ut the Druids ere once a part o( 'rish culture$ The pro)lem o( these medieval

'rish te1ts is that the" ere ritten# perhaps even imaginativel" created# centuries a(ter

the 'rish converted to *hristianit"$ 'n that time# Druids )" de(inition did not e1ist$

Moreover# )e(ore the" ere *hristians the 'rish depended onl" on an oral tradition

a)out hich e cannot )e sure o( its accurac"$ These are all reasons h" it is ver"

di((icult to talk a)out the Druids as real historical people$

B" contrast# ,onald @utton claims that e can kno a great deal a)out the a"s

in hich the Druids have )een regarded# and acted out# in modern times# counting the

latter as )eginning in the "ears around +-?? 6The Druids1i7$ That is to sa" that the

important place hich )elongs to the Druids in the histor" does not )elong to a real

ancient people# )ut to legendar" (igures$ The present thesis (ocuses on ho the Druids

had )een represented and descri)ed in British literature since the earl" +C thcentur" to

the +.th centur"# particularl" ho the concept o( 3the Druids4 developed in the

consciousness o( British societ"$ The o)ective o( this paper is to e1amine hether the

Druids made (amiliar )" literature re(lect the real (igures o( ancient Druids or the" are

(a)rications that have little in common ith their real models$

arious images and uses o( the concept tell us a lot a)out the societ" o( a certain

period# as the" re(lect its social# cultural and intellectual aspects$ 3The image o( the

Druid )ecomes# in short# an image o( the societ" that proects it4 6Ackro"d7$ The revival

o( the Druids as a su)ect in the +Cth and +;th centuries as connected ith the

,enaissance search (or identit"$ The" ere )rought )ack and taken as a common ground

on hich a national identit" could )e created$ As the British ere alarmed )" having

reali


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e1citement a)out natural )eauties altered the Druids into m"stical and admira)le cave5

dellers ith a ide knoledge o( natural secrets$ 'n addition# the esta)lishment o(

9reat Britain in +;?; helped the Druids to consolidate their role as national ancestors#

since the identit" o( the English and Scots as one nation as )ased on them$ A(ter

e1periencing this he"da" o( their (ame# the Druids )ecame less popular in the +. th

centur"$ The lack o( evidence o( the Druids as ancient priests living in harmon" ith

nature and the radicalism that sei


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nothing particularl" e1otic or demonic a)out them$ There(ore there as simpl" no point

in riting a)out them 6Origins of Modern Druidry-7$

onetheless# this situation changed signi(icantl" in the +-thcentur" hen the

Druids came )ack to li(e$ The aaken o( the interest in the Druids as connected ith

the arrival o( the ,enaissance# as one o( its ke" concepts as the pursuit o( national

identit" grounded not onl" on common culture and language# )ut also on common

histor"$ Thus scholars started to look eagerl" into the ancient past in order to (ind

common ancestors hose )raver" and glor" ould provide histor" great enough (or a

nation to )e )ased on it$ Among them there ere the Druids$

As (ull scholarl" attention as turned to the ancient past in the uest (or the

national histor"# a ne approach o( stud"ing the histor" emerged: antiuarianism$ The

(ocus o( the antiuarianism as the distant past and detailed recordings o( its material

evidence$ Since the societ" o( the late Eli


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responds to the uest (or national identit"$ The other great ork as also historical and

geographical stud" o( the 'sles# #ritannia )" 8illiam *amden$ @e provided the

Eli


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Moreover# the ,omans ere those ho destro"ed the Druids$ Dra"tons aareness o(

this parado1 is also noticea)le in the poem:

That to the ,oman trust 6on his report that sta"7

=ur truth (rom him to learn# as ignorant o( oursAs e ere then o( his2 e1cept >tere o( his poers:

8ho our ise Druids here unmerci(ull" sle 6Dra"ton# ol$ + +-;7$

@o could dead Druids )e supposed to communicate the histor"# unaltered#

through centuries )" an oral traditionK As Dra"ton claims the Britons themselves ere

silent a)out their ancestors$ 9ildas# the oldest British author accessi)le# remarks that i(

an" histories o( Britain had )een ritten# )" his time it has long )een destro"ed or lost$

@e con(esses that hat he kne a)out the ancient Britain and its inha)itants as (rom

(oreign riters$ There(ore the te1ts o( ancient authors# such as *aesar or Plin"# ere the

onl" sources o( in(ormation a)out the ancient Druids until the ,enaissance$ 8hether

Dra"ton and his contemporaries liked it or not# the" had to rel" on ,oman te1ts to get

an" in(ormation a)out their distant past$ Then# parado1icall"# 3druids also represented

the poet>s anguished sense that this Iancient BritishJ culture had not )een preserved at

all3 6*urran /..7$ ,enaissance scholars attempted to )uild their national identit" and the

(uture o( their countr" on these reports# hoever accurate or close to realit" the" ere$

There(ore e can agree ith *urrans o)servation that the Druids are creatures )orn

(rom the ,enaissance discover" o( ,oman Britain 6/..7$

8hen Dra"ton mentions the Druids in the poem (or the (irst time he descri)es

them as people ho lived in darksome groves communicating ith sprites and took

peoples lives 6ol$ + &7$ The tradition and hard5heartedness o( human sacri(ices

practised )" the Druids is intensi(ied hen Dra"ton rites that instantl" the" take one

)od" the" go and take another one$ @oever# as the poem goes on# the image o( the

Druids that is emphasi


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cannot den" that the Druids sacri(iced people either to in gods (avour or to (oretell the

(uture$ et the purpose o( mentioning them throughout the hole poem is not to portra"

them as )ar)aric and )loodthirst"# )ut to put stress on their isdom and secret skills$ 'n

the ancient histor" o( Britain there are no other (igures ho ould so signi(icantl" stand

out (or their importance and ho scholars could dra upon than the Druids$ Hor the

,omans the" ere )ar)arians ho (oretold the (uture (rom entrails o( sacri(iced

humans# )ut at the same time ,oman authors riting a)out the Druids also mentioned

their ide knoledge o( religious as ell as pro(ane matters$ @e uses the Druids

)ecause the" help him 3esta)lish the monumental idea that things British are the oldest

and (inest around$ The ver" cultivation o( learning in Britain seemed to make the idea o(

continuit" more )elieva)le4 6*urran -%+7$ Dra"ton emphasi


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England the Druids ere also praised as the original (ounders o( the 0niversit" o(

*am)ridge 6Acro"d7$

evertheless# the Druidic practice o( sacri(ice has also its place in $oly%Olbion$

,eading Dra"tons description o( the sacri(icing o( people e can ith no dou)ts

perceive the horror o( the rituals$ =n the other hand# there is no aversion e1pressed$

8hat he creates is a sensation o( m"ster" hile descri)ing procedures o( sta))ing

people and o((ering them to gods or (oretelling the (uture either (rom their viscera or

convulsion o( d"ing )odies$ The poet understands human sacri(icing as part o( the secret

skills o( the Druids$ 'n the ninth song Dra"ton descri)es more thoroughl" one o( the

rituals: on the si1th da" o( the Moon hen the )eginning o( their "ear as approaching#

the" (ound an aged oak on hich mistletoe gre# erected there an altar and )rought to

hite )ulls$ The" placed them on the altar and sacri(iced them pra"ing to gods that the"

make their medicines poer(ul against all poisons and charms$

The (earless British Priests# under an aged oak#

Taking a milk5hite )ull# unstrained ith the "oke#

And ith an a1e o( gold (rom that Gove5sacred tree

The Mistletoe cut don2 then ith a )ended knee

=n th unhed altar laid# put to the hallod (ires:

And hilst in the sharp (lame the trem)ling (lesh e1pires#

As their strong (ur" movd 6hen all the rest adore7

Pronouncing their desires the sacri(ice )e(ore#

0p to th eternal heavn their )loodied hands did rear:

And# hilst the murmuring oods evn shuddred as ith (ear#

Preachd to the )eardless "outh# the souls immortal state#

To the other )odies still ho it should transmigrate#That to contempt o( death them strongl" might e1cite 6Dra"ton# ol$ % +/7$

Dra"ton does not portra" the Druids as )loodthirst" neither does he disdain

them$ @e speaks highl" o( them and depicts the rite ith great respect$ The Druids ere

great people upon hom Dra"ton dras in order to maintain the continuit" o( histor"$

@iller rites in his essa" that:

8hen Dra"ton dras a picture o( a Druid sacri(ice he ela)orates on Plin"sdescription to emphasi


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(lesh uivering in the (ire and savages in inspired and (ren


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considered central (igures o( European prehistor"$ et the he"da" o( their (ame as

a)out to come in the (olloing centur"$ =ne o( the reasons h" the Druids (ame

reached its peak in this period as ne opinions and ideas that in(luenced not onl"

literar" orks# )ut also peoples li(e5st"le$ 't as a centur" o( the ,omanticism$ People

)elieved in magic and astrolog"# and ere interested in ancient m"ths# their origins and

signi(ication$ The ,omanticists )elieved that isdom and )eaut" ere inherent part o(

ild nature$ People should seek natural places as the" ere the source o( 3cosmic

knoledge4 6@utton# The DruidsF+7 and inspiration$ Thence the Druids succeeded to

sei


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&$+$ The 'n(luence o( the ,omanticism

8ith the arrival o( the ,omanticism the vie o( the Druids as (urther altered

and re5(a)ricated )" imagination# e1citement and creativit" that e1alted )eauties o(

nature$ @iller sa"s in his essa" that the Druids ere artless# uncouth# even )ar)aric

)eings 6@iller ++7# )ut their (ear(ul rituals in dark groves gave them knoledge o(

natures secrets and m"steries that no one ould ever kno$ The" (ascinated the

,omanticists# ho anted to identi(" ith them# as the" )elieved that 3there as an

inherent isdom and virtue# as ell as )eaut"# poetr" and numinous divinit"# in ild

nature4 6@utton# The DruidsF+7$

The ork that gives us evidence o( the general interest in the Druids and

3imaginative concern4 68atson F.7 ith British culture is 8illiam Masons aractacus$

'n this epic poem# hich is considered the most renoned piece o( +F th5centur" heroic

literature# Mason narrates the stor" o( the British hero *aractacus that alongside the

Druids resisted the ,omans ho invaded Britain$ Even though the ork as )ased on

Tacituss account o( the ,oman conuest o( the 'sles# Mason mingles the assumed (acts

)e"ond recognition$ The in(luence o( the ,omanticism is perceived (rom the ver"

)eginning$ The poem starts ith a scene in hich the ,omans pause in the secret centre

o( the island in order to contemplate hat is happening )e(ore them$ Thus the author

thros the readers into dark oak groves surrounded )" caverns and cli((s$ During the

hole poem the" do not leave the ild nature# in hich the" dra near to its secrets and

meet the learned Druids$ 8hen the ,omans o)serve the groves ith a great oak and an

altar# the" associate the place ith )ar)arous superstitions# hich the" disdain2 )ut on

the other hand# the scene aes them$ The" are sure that 3there is a hidden poer# that

reigns >mid the lone maest" o( untamd nature# controuling so)er reason4 6Mason +7$

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Then the" are e1plained that this is a place here the Druids practise their m"sterious

and potent rituals$ Thus the ver" (irst account o( the priests e get is o( people ho live

in ild nature surrounded )" a hidden poer# hich allos them to learn natures

secrets$ Mason also mentions that the Druids ere skilled in the num)ers o( the universe

alluding thus to suppositions that the" ere (olloers o( P"thagorean principles$

As e read on# e can neither dou)t their importance in vie o( other

characters$ 8hen *aractacus discusses a"s o( saving the Druids sacred groves against

the ,oman attack# the chie( Druid reminds him that:

Thou art a !ing# a sovreign oer (rail man2' am a Druid# servant o( the 9ods2

Such service is a)ove such sovreignt"#

As ell thou knost: i( the" should prompt these lips

To interdict the thing thou darst to do#

8hat ould avail th" daring 6Mason %C7K

The service (or gods is much more important than to have poer over (rail mortal

people$ The position o( the Druids is superior to the *aractacuss one$ Mason attempts

to o((er the readers the )est o( )oth the Druidical and the ,oman orld$ Although the"

are so divers# the" )oth gave origin to British culture$ ,onald @utton rites in The

Druids that in this case# the eventual o"ous union o( Briton and ,oman adds the

)lessings o( civilisation and reason to the native British ualities o( heroism and

no)ilit"# and the resulting com)ination is 6eventuall"7 un)eata)le 6+F7$ The poet

portra"s the Druids as m"sterious# ise and valiant$ et ,omans are also descri)ed as

)rave and no)le$ evertheless# on the hole# the Druids are the most emphasised o( all

the characters$ The" are called 3illustrious and sons o( @eaven4 6Mason /.7$ The" are

authorit" to hom the other characters e1plain hat the" have done or the" are going to

do$ 8hen the ,omans are approaching# *aractacus states that the" cannot )e de(eated#

since the Druids and Britons are 3Truth and irtue4 6Mason -F7 opposed )" an arm" o(

villains$ The *horus# ho is )elieved to represent the chie( Druid# spur on the ,omans

+C


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to come )ecause he has no reason to (ear their pride$ The Druids are armed )" virtue )ut

hat can aid enraged ro))ers# the ,omansK

et as ise and skilled as the" are# Druids are also dreaded and unmerci(ul$

Since the )eginning e see that their rites as ell as the" themselves inspire ae in

their enemies$ A(ter all the horror that their (ur" aakes is their eapon against the

,omans$ The Bard that descri)es to the chie( Druid and *aractacus ho the ,omans

(led sa"s:

ear each a hite5ro)d Druid# hose stern voice

Thunderd deep e1ecrations on the (oe$

o akd our horrid s"mphon"# no all=ur harps terri(ic rang: Meanhile the grove

Trem)led# the altars shook# and thro our ranks

=ur sacred sisters rushd in sa)le ro)es#

8ith hair dishelvd and (uneral )rands

@urld round ith menacing (ur"$ =n the" rushd

'n (ierce and (rantic mood# as is their ont

Amid the magic rites# the" do to night

'n our deep dens )elo$ Motions like these

8ere never dard )e(ore in open air 6Mason ;+7

@ere Mason dras upon Tacituss description o( an event that reall" happened#

hoever some "ears a(ter: the ,oman attack on Mona and the Druids resistance$ Their

act as so terri("ing (or the ,omans and so signi(icant in the British histor" that it could

never )e (orgotten$ Tacitus descri)es the scene like this:

=n the shore stood the enem" host# ith its dense arra" o( armed men# among

hom dashed omen clad in )lack attire like Huries# ith hair dishevelled# aving

(laming torches$ All around ere Druids# raising their hands toards the sk" andshouting dread(ul curses# hich terri(ied our soldiers ho had never seen such a thing

)e(ore2 so that# as i( paral"sed# the" stood still and e1posed their )odies to ounds

6@utton# The Druids&7$

The Druids are commonl" ascri)ed three main characteristics: ise priests

skilled in natures secrets# unmerci(ul guardians o( their lore and ustice# and people

ho practised sacri(ices$ Mason dedicates long parts o( his poem to the Druids as

illustrious priests and dreaded guardians o( ustice# "et he skil(ull" omits the sacri(icing$

There is no mention that the priests ould predict the (uture (rom )lood or convulsions

+;


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o( d"ing people$ Mason alludes to sacri(icing onl" a (e times and he links that practice

to punishment o( )etra"al and o( enemies$ 8hen *aractacus speaks to captured ,oman

soldiers# he sa"s:

True "e are captives# and our countr"s sa(et"

Hor)ids# e give "ou )ack to li)ert":

8e give "e there(ore to the immortal gods#

To them e li(t "e in the radiant cloud

=( sacri(ice$ The" ma" in lim)s o( (reedom

,eplace "our (ree5)orn souls# and their high merc"

@apl" shall to some )etter orld advance "ou2

=r else in this restore that golden gi(t#

8hich lost# leaves li(e a )urden 6Mason ;/7$

'n this passage Mason clari(ies to the readers the Druidic )elie( in the

transmigration o( souls$ The sacri(ice ill ena)le the captives to )e li(ted up to the gods

that ill advance their (ree souls to a )etter orld$ The priests do not (ind their conduct

cruel$ =n the other hand# the" promote their enemies to some )etter place$ According to

Mason it is merc"$ *aractacus adds that i( he as taken a prisoner he ould like to get

similar (air treatment$ ,ichard @ooper remarks that such a )elie( resem)les P"thagorean

theor" o( immortalit" o( the soul$ @e o)serves that Lipsius dou)ts hether P"thagoras

received it (rom Druids# or the" (rom him# )ecause in his travels he conversed as ell

ith 9aulish as 'ndian Philosophers 63otes4 to Dra"ton# ol$ + %%7$

Mason responds ith this poem to the +Fth5centur" enthusiasm (or no)le

)ar)arians unspoiled )" civili


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antiuarian concern ith the continuation o( ancient traditions and the lack o( its

material evidence2 especiall" the ant o( tangi)le evidence a)out the e1istence o( the

Druids$ onetheless# then Gohn Au)re" started to associate a stone circle o( Ave)ur"

ith the ancient priests$ @e invented a m"th that as accepted as true$ Soon other

assertions hich linked the Druids to British structures and institutions emerged$ Peter

Ackro"d o)serves that Edard *oke discovered that the" ere the (ounders o( English

common la$ B" this stage the" could )e enlisted in an" cause hatsoever 6Ackro"d7$

The ancient priests )ecame a su)ect o( m"th5creating and the m"th5creating )ecame an

o)session$ Thanks to this o)session o( ascri)ing the Druids creations hich e1istence

could not )e denied the" ceased to )e (ictional and the" )ecame real$ The onl" thing

needed as medieval te1ts that ould mention the Druids learning and histor"$ Shortl"

several scholars declared that the" had discovered ritten evidence o( Druidic lore# the

most important o( them )eing 'olo Morgangs verses$ @oever# those scholars ere

(orgers and the documents ere (ake$ et no)od" noticed as the +F th centur" as

opportune (or (orger" due to 3the com)ination o( an energetic historical scholarship#

making (reuent genuine discoveries# ith an as "et immature a)ilit" to distinguish true

(rom (alse documents4 6@utton# The Druids%&7$

The Druids de(initel" )ecame an ine1trica)le part o( British histor" hen

8illiam Stuckle" pu)lished in +;&F $alaeographia "acra and"tonehenge, a Temple

restor&d to the #ritish Druids in +;/?$ 'n these orks he concludes that these great

people (rom ancient times must have )een connected to Stonehenge# hich is the most

(amous stone structure o( British landscape and hich also dates )ack to (ar histor"$

,onald @utton o)serves that Stuckle"s ideas )ecame the norm (or more than a centur"

and as a result o( all this# (or most o( the +Fth centur" Druids ere cele)rated as ise

+.


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and common ancestors )" the English# Scots and 8elsh alike 630nder the Spell o( the

Druids47$

'n Ode to 'iberty8illiam *ollins presents the Druids as spiritual ancestors o(

contemporar" British sovereignt"$ 'n the poem he looks (or the origins o( li)ert" and its

historical demonstrations (rom Antiuit" to his time$ Starting in ancient 9reece *ollins

contemplates the progress o( (reedom and he traces it in 'tal" as ell as in @olland and

he (inishes his ourne" in current Britain$ @e calls Britain 3the last a)ode4 6*ollins7 o(

(reedom suggesting thus that the British kingdom is the last o( the models o( li)ert" and

there(ore the )est$ Despite the historical progress o( the poem# hen *ollins gets to

Britain as the modern model o( independence# he goes )ack in histor" in order to allude

3to idealiDruid past that gave )irth to a British temple o( Li)ert"4 6Levine ---7$

*ollins rites:

Then too# >tis said# an hoar" pile#

Midst the green navel o( our 'sle#

Th" shrine in some religious ood#

= soul5en(orcing 9oddess# stood

There o(t the painted natives (eet#

8ere ont th" (orm celestial meet 6*ollins7$

This a" the poet accentuates the Druids as purve"ors and guardians o( li)ert"$

A(ter all# the" pla"ed an important role in the resistance to the ,omans$ @e associates

their natural (reedom ith the place here the" lived and practiced their rituals$ The

greatness o( the Druids consisted in their immediac" to the nature$ That as hat

admitted them to reveal her pro(ound secrets$ et *ollins remarks that the contemporar"

British hardl" kne an"thing a)out the Druids# neither hat did happen to them$

@oever# he does not intend to ascertain ho caused their end$ 'n pursuit o( uni("ing

the nation he has to (ind another a" o( restoring 3m"thologi


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8hich guide at once# and charm the Muse#

Be"ond "on )raided clouds that lie#

Paving the light5em)roiderd sk" 6*ollins7$

'( e consider the truth as a s"m)olical truth o( poetic imagination and its

creation# the poet illuminates to the +F thcentur" Englishmen the a" to the Druids#

hich is shado" and ma" )e alread" lost )" the centuries o( disregarding them$ Levine

claims that *ollinss more legendar" histor" recovers shado" supernatural lore (rom

the m"thological past to restore the place o( inspired patriotic poetr" in modern societ"

6--;7$ B" mingling (iction and realit"# and giving thus the ancient priests their place in

the poem *ollins revives them$ 8hat as )e(ore considered (iction no )ecame

3imaginative truth hich could e1press a s"stem o( values or ultimate realit" as the

particular poet might conceive it3 6!uhn +?.;7$ evertheless# the use o( (iction in the

poem can )e a metaphor 3(or an imper(ect orld o( hope# anticipation o( ne Li)ert"#

(reedom# and peace4 6Levine --.7$ 'n conclusion# *ollins uses his poetr" to indicate

hat deeds can contemporar" patriotic poetr" cele)rate or seek$

The +Fth5centur" authors aimed to reassert British national pride# hich could )e

done in various a"s$ =ne o( them as e1tolling o( the active resistance o( ancient

Britons to the ,omans$ ,ichard @ingle" and *hristina 0nin claim that in this conte1t

the most signi(icant ork as 8illiam *opers poem o( +;F%# #oadicea( )n Ode

6+-?7$ As a *eltic ueen that led a re)ellion against the ,omans# Boadicea )ecame one

o( the most important and popular (igures o( contemporar" literature and she as o(ten

dran upon )" scholars and artists$ The poem is important as ell )" the (act that

*oper connects the Boadiceas re)ellion ith the Druids# other protagonists o( active

resistance against the ,omans$ ,onald @utton sa"s that no ancient source mentioned the

Druids in connection ith it Ire)ellion led )" BoadiceaJ# )ut i( the" had)een associated

ith patriotic opposition to the ,omans then the" should have )een involved 6The

%+


22/43

Druids+F7$ Boadicea comes to the Druids in search o( counsel o( 3her countr"s gods4

6*oper7$ The Druid is terri(ied and grieves hat is happening$ evertheless# he

despises ,ome and (oretells indignantl" its don(all that ill )e 3deep in ruins as in

guilt4 6*oper7$ @e disapproves ,ome (everishl" and as a 3prophet o( empire4 6=en

+-%7 he predicts su)seuent (ame o( Britain:

Then the progen" that springs

Hrom the (orests o( our land#

Armed ith thunder# clad ith ings#

Shall a ider orld command 6*oper7$

The eagerness and (everishness ith hich the Druid speaks re(lects *opers 3)elie(

in uniueness that can shine through a line o( poetr" or prose ith the immediate e((ect

o( delight or terror4 6@artle" -%7$

The poem as ritten in the time hen Britain as e1panding its territor" and

its political am)ition as groing$ @ingle" and 0nin argue that Boadicea as adapted

to (it this conte1t )" suggesting that her actions had assisted ith the development o(

British imperialism 6+-?7$ The Druid (oresees the progen" as invinci)le as the (orests o(

Britain that are considered their origins$ There is no such poer(ul place as the place

here the Druids live in harmon" ith nature serving the gods$ Such origins ill arm

them ith thunders and give them ings$ B" the poem *oper responds to signi(icant

changes that ere happening in +F th5centur" England and he re(lects British thought and

character o( that period$

*" $he Alienation of the !+thCentury and the %e,eaving of the Myth

A(ter the Druids had )ecome an insepara)le part o( British identit" in the +F th

centur"# in the +.thcentur" the British ere less inclined to re(er to them$ Their image o(

respecta)le and ise ancestors as corrupted$ Despite all e((orts to make the British see

%%


23/43

them as ancient people o( deep knoledge o( nature and heaven# their image as savage

and )loodthirst" as idel" revived$ ,onald @utton claims that one o( the reasons h"

Druids )ecame less regarded as that the ictorians started to dou)t hether# admira)le

or not# the" had actuall" )een that important in British prehistor" 6@utton# The Druids

&/7$ =ne o( the most important sources a)out the Druids# the te1ts le(t )" *aesar# as

onl" to support the distrust o( the British in the historical signi(icance o( the ancient

priests$ 8hat discom(orted the scholars as the (act that the Druids (eatured onl" in one

section o( *aesars ork hich concerned native tradition$ evertheless# according to

the importance hich he attri)uted them# the" should have appeared remarka)l" in the

(ull description o( his conuest o( 9aul$ either the (aked te1ts a)out Druidic lore )"

'olo Morgang ere ver" use(ul in supporting the e1istence o( the Druids ith

evidence$ The discover" o( that the te1ts ere (alse (urther undermined the image o( the

Druids as signi(icant ancestors$

Looking (or )etter evidence o( the position o( the Druids in the ancient societ"

o( the island# the scholars had to seek in other ,oman or 9reek sources# )ecause there

ere no other te1ts documenting their e1istence$ onetheless# the accounts o( the

priests the" (ound in the documents ere largel" those o( )ar)arous people ho

practised sacri(ices$ 'n addition# the revolutionar" events as ell as British ars ith

Hrance and American ar o( 'ndependence# hich took place in the second hal( o( the

+Fthcentur"# a((ected ver" negativel" the Druidic image o( the +. thcentur"$ The Druids

started to represent )ar)arit" and cruelt" o( a ar con(lict or revolution$ People did not

ant to re(er to such (igures ith love and admiration$

et# o( course# the +. th centur" continued in tendencies and opinions o( the

preceding one$ Thus although the ne centur" turned to )e less (ortunate (or the Druids#

there still e1isted authors that continued the revival o( the antiuities$ The Druids kept

%&


24/43

)eing their heroes ho ena)led them to dra a connection )eteen the ancient times

and contemporaneit"# preserving this a" the ancient traditions$

'n the (olloing to chapters e ill have a closer look at )oth o( the

tendencies# hich in(luenced the contemporar" development o( the conception o( the

Druids$

/$+$ The Disillusion ith the Druids

8illiam 8ordsorth as one o( man" poets ho admired the Druids and their

lore$ 'n his poems he cele)rated 3the grandeur o( nature4 and 3the poer o( human

minds4 68ordsorth7$ Hor him the Druids ere an ideal com)ination o( )oth the nature

and the human spirit$ @e even called himsel( a Druid$ @oever# his visit to Hrance and

e1periencing the Hrench ,evolution in(luenced cruciall" his 3intellectual development

and the li(e o( his imagination4 6Stel


25/43

argues that the reason h" started to vie the Druids as radical and )lood"# even though

he had admired them at (irst# is that 8ordsorth thought that Druids religion had

degenerated 6+C/7$

'n the poem *uilt and "orrow he reevaluates the ancient British histor"$ A

vagrant anders in the countr" hen he reali


26/43

lore ere (rom 9reek and ,oman sources$ Thus# it is argua)le hether the Druids ere

seen so negativel" )ecause the 9reeks and ,omans perceived practices o( sacri(ices as

demonstration o( savager"# or# in case o( ,oman te1ts# it as )ecause the Druids posed

resistance$ =n the hole# there is no relia)le evidence in the ancient sources to con(irm

the place o( human sacri(ice in druidic tradition$ 38hat has reall" mattered has )een

their cultural impact# (or the" provide a damning portrait o( Druids in te1ts hich have

long )een among the most idel" read to survive (rom the ancient orld and the most

commonl" translated4 6,onald @utton# The Druids.F7$

'n the lines o( *uilt and "orrow there is no admire nor (ascination$ =n the

contrar"# 8ordsorth descri)es the su((ering and retchedness o( the victims$ The poet

himsel( sa"s that the monuments and traces o( antiuit"# scattered in a)undance over the

region# led him unavoida)l" to compare hat e kno or guess o( those remote times

ith certain aspects o( modern societ"# and ith calamities# principall" those

conseuent upon ar 68ordsorth +%?7$

@is preoccupation ith Druidical radicalism sheds )ad light on the nature# hich

surrounded the Druids and hich is insepara)l" connected ith them$ As 8ordsorth

reali


27/43

)lood" increased )" multiplication and during the centur" )ecame to predominate$

,onald @utton adds that those o( patriotic# ise or nature5loving hol" men and omen

aned 6The Druids+?;7$

The poem#oadicea)" Al(red Tenn"son is another e1ample o( imagining Druids

in a negative a"$ Tenn"son dras upon the *eltic ueen as ell as 8illiam *oper

did )e(ore$ @oever# in Tenn"sons poem Boadicea does not seek (or consolation in oak

groves# )ut she hersel( is portra"ed as a Druid priestess$ She speaks to British tri)es

challenging them to (ight against the ,oman legionaries that are destro"ing 3the grove

and altar o( the Druid and Druidess4 6Tenn"son7$ Boadicea calls the gods asking them to

hear hat is happening$ The" anser her# as she sa"s:

These have told us all their anger in miraculous utterances#

Thunder# a (l"ing (ire in heaven# a murmur heard aeriall"#

Phantom sound o( )los descending# moan o( an enem" massacred#

$$$

There as one ho atchd and told meOdon their statue o( ictor" (ell

6Tenn"son7$

She speaks (iercel" and (oments Britons to cruel vengeance$ All the thunder and the

moaning o( the enem" serve to inspire the people to more )rutal revenge and to

massacring o( the ,omans$ =( course# Boadicea assures them o( victor"$ She supports

her prophes" )" hat she heard 3in the darkness# at the m"stical ceremon"4 6Tenn"son7$

There she heard a terri)le Druid to sa":

Tho the ,oman eagle shado thee# tho the gathering enem" narro thee#Thou shalt a1 and he shall dindle# thou shalt )e the might" one "et

Thine the li)ert"# thine the glor"# thine the deeds to )e cele)rated#

Thine the m"riad5rolling ocean# light and shado illimita)le#

Thine the lands o( lasting summer# man"5)lossoming Paradises#

Thine the orth and thine the South and thine the )attle5thunder o( 9od

6Tenn"son7$

Tenn"sons as ell as *opers Druids (oretell the magnitude o( the British empire#

also recalling the ,oman eagle# hich Britain should surpass2 and enormous territor"

that ould spread all over the orld$ evertheless# it is noticea)le that Tenn"son calls

%;


28/43

the Druid prophetess terri)le$ This negative vie o( the Druids as ell as o( Boadicea#

ho )elongs to them# ma" )e e1plained in the conte1t o( )ar)arism that could )e seen in

contemporaneous Europe as ell as in the conte1t o( the alread" mentioned e1pansion

o( the British Empire$ Although )e(ore the British e1tolled the Druids (or their

opposition to the ,oman coloni


29/43

/$%$ The Druids and 0niversal M"tholog"

As it as said earlier# there ere authors in the earl" +. th centur" ho continued

the e((ort o( reviving *eltic antiuities$ 't as universal m"tholog" here the Druids

could still (ind a place$ Al)ert !uhn in his essa" 3English Deism and the Development

o( ,omantic M"thological S"ncretism4 argues that the m"tholog" o( the Druids ith

those o( the 9reeks# Eg"ptians# and other ancients# as )ound together )" truths hich

had issued (rom the (ountainhead o( patriarchal histor" and religion 6+++%7$ et it as

necessar" to adust the Druids to the Bi)le in order that the" ere accepted )" all

*hristians$ Thus# the" had )een made (olloers o( the original religion o( the @e)re

patriarchs$ 3'n this vie the" had )een the )est o( all ancient European pagans# the least

corrupted )" idolatr" and superstition$ This made them natural converts to *hristianit"#

creators o( an ancient British church3 6@utton#+nder the "pell of Druids7$ =ne o( the

most important supporters o( such a conception as 8illiam Stukele"$ To him the

Druids ere missionaries ho )rought the religious )elie( o( A)raham to the British

islands$ @e also argued that the arrangement o( the stone structures# hich he

considered Druidic ritual places# gave evidence o( that the ancient priests ere

practitioners o( the religion o( oah and A)raham$ This a" Stukele"s celtic studies# as

ell as those o( Toland# hich also included speculations on Druidic heritage# not onl"

encouraged interest in British m"tholog"# )ut pla"ed an important role in (orming it a

nota)le part o( the universal one$ Men o( various opinions and designs )ecame ver"

interested in the m"th as it as ne# (le1i)le and incorrupted$ Through the m"th the"

could (reel" interpret historical tradition as ell as religious doctrine$ The Druids (ound

a signi(icant place in the universal m"th )ecause the" ere )elieved# as Al)ert !uhn

sa"s# to )e the priests o( =riental colonies ho emigrated (rom 'ndia and ere the

%.


30/43

introducers o( the (irst or cadmean s"stem o( letters# and the )uilders o( Stonehenge# o(

*ranac# and o( other *"clopean orks in Asia and Europe 6+++-7$ 'n spite o( the (act

that the Druids started to )e perceived negativel" in the +. thcentur"# as prophetic (igures

the" ere still popular ith the riters$

The conception o( the Druids as British patriarchs reached its peak in 8illiam

Blakes prophetic poem erusalem( The !manation of the *iant )lbion$ 'n the poem

Blake deals ith the histor" o( man re5construing *hristian doctrine$ A$ L$ =en

e1plains in his )ook The -amous Druidserusalems theme as the predicament o(

Hallen Man# hose archet"pe# in this cosmogon"# is not Adam )ut >Al)ion# our

Ancestor# the epon"mous (irst inha)itant o( this island 6%%C7$ Blake considers British

'sles# and not Palestine# to )e the place here sacred histor" )egan$ As he gives Britain

a crucial role in the orld religious histor"# he stresses antiuities# hich originated in

this land$ 'n Blakes interpretation the Druids are descendants o( Al)ion and originators

o( universal religion# since all religions are one religion$ The" are ancestors o( A)raham

and those ho passed on the Ges some o( their )elie(s$ Blake e1presses most e1plicitl"

all ke" ideas o( his conception o( the universal m"th and the Druids principal

connection to it in the second chapter o(erusalem# in passage 3To the Ges4:

e are united = "e 'nha)itants o( Earth in =ne ,eligion: The ,eligion o( Gesus:

the most Ancient# the Eternal and the Everlasting 9ospel$ The 8icked ill turn

it to 8ickedness# the ,ighteous to ,ighteousness$ Amen @u


31/43

are )asicall" one m"th$ Thus# to comprehend the Druidic lore is to e1plicate the

universal m"th$ 't is not an unsu)stantiated statement since# as Blake claims# there is

evidence 3over the hole Earth4 preserved to that da"$

The Druid temples and oak groves are omnipresent$ evertheless# not in all cases

Blake re(ers to the Druids positivel"$ Although the" s"m)oliDruid stones2

its hori


32/43

mans ph"sical )eingJ# and the )urning o( the 8icker Man thus demonstrates the

ineptitude o( the Druids sacri(ice# (or )" destro"ing the human )od" the" achieve

nothing 6%%.7$

Blake as also in(luenced )" the events o( the +F thcentur"$erusalemre(lects his

)eing distur)ed )" the American ar o( 'ndependence as ell as Me1ican ar o(

'ndependence$ There is no dou)t that the most preoccup"ing as apoleonic ars#

hich ere immediate threat (or Britain:

The" sa America closNd out )" the =aks o( the estern shore2

And Tharmas dashNd on the ,ocks o( the Altars o( ictims in Me1ico$

'( e are rath(ul Al)ion ill destro" Gerusalem ith root" 9roves'( e are merci(ul# ourselves must su((er destruction on his =aks

8h" should e enter into our Spectres# to )ehold our on corruptions

= 9od o( Al)ion descend deliver Gerusalem (rom the =aken 9roves 6Blake# Gr$

/F7

either here do the Druids disappear (rom the )ackground$ Although Blake does not

mention them directl" )" their name# their presence is evident$ The poet uses oak# altars

and groves in connection ith the political events o( the second hal( o( the +F thand the

(irst hal( o( the +.thcenturies in order to descri)e hat happened or as happening$ The

oaks that closed estern shore on America s"m)oli


33/43

perception o( the priests$ A(ter the (all o( Al)ion the" got under the in(luence o( 0ri


34/43

their knoledge o( heavens together ith a *hristian prophet# ho lo"all" serves the

*hristian king$

'mportant is the moral vision o( theIdylls$ Tenn"son ants to give his readers a

spiritual ideal$ 'n the (orm o( an allegorical statue created )" Merlin on *amelot# the

readers are presented the spiritual development o( man till he reaches per(ection$ The

statue is dived into (our


35/43

sa" ith certaint" ho the" actuall" ere# hat their isdom or rites ere# or hat

status the" eno"ed in the societ" in hich the" e1isted$ 'n spite o( this (act the" cannot

)e denied their place in histor"$ et the" did not gain this place as real historical people#

)ut as (ictional (igures that ere created in ,enaissance$ Since then their image together

ith their glor"# isdom and rites have )een (a)ricated and reorked in various a"s

and (or various reasons$

Druids ere revived )" ,enaissance scholars ho ere looking (or heroes (rom

earl" British histor" that could )e considered common ancestors )" ever"one$ Druids

seemed to )e (igures great and admira)le enough to give all inha)itants sense o(

common national identit"$ This a" ancient British priests started to appear in maor

literar" orks o( that time$ The" ere appropriated )" ,aphael @olinshed and 8illiam

*amden in their historical orks )" hich the" reintroduced Druids into British minds

as the purve"ors o( national histor"$ Michael Dra"ton then continued cultivating the

image o( Druids as ise priests ith ide knoledge o( natures secrets# hose

uniueness and (earlessness should )e inspiration (or modern Britain$ Their historical

importance as (urther rein(orced )" the antiuarian preoccupation that the poer and

glor" o( the kingdom had )een destructed )" time$ This orr" is also re(lected in

Dra"tons$oly%Olbion$ @e used Druids to persuade his readers# and himsel( too# that

the ancient is not lost and that the antiuities had )een preserved$

'n the +Fthcentur" the image o( Druids as altered )" the ,omantic (ascination

and the dominance o( imagination as ell as )" the need to support nel" esta)lished

kingdom o( 9reat Britain$ o Druids ere seen as a s"m)ol o( an ideal connection o(

man and nature hich is source o( great isdom and inspiration$ ,onald @utton

e1plains the +Fth5centur" treatment o( the concept o( Druids sa"ing that the 9eorgian

poets had )een cele)rating a lost orld o( innocence and (reedom# hich taught the

&-


36/43

lesson that close personal communion ith nature could reveal pro(ound truths 6@utton

F;7$ An e1ample o( the cele)ration o( (reedom and nature is 8illiam Masons poem

aractacus$ 'n this ork# hich is )elieved to (inish the process o( appropriating Druids

)" the British# Druids are no)le savages ho dell in caves in immediate pro1imit" o(

dark oaken groves here the" can eno" (ree li(e in the nature$ 'n comparison ith

Dra"ton# Mason does not avoid re(erring to Druidic sacri(icing rituals$ @e interprets

sacri(icing as Druidic )elie( in e1istence o( a )etter place here the soul goes a(ter

)eing relieved (rom the human )od"$ Hurthermore# the practices are not connected ith

sla"ing o( innocent people# )ut enemies and traitors$ 't is not demonstration o( Druids

cruelt"# )ut their merc" and (air treating o( the enemies$

onetheless# in the +F thcentur" the concept o( Druids as also used (or political

reasons$ o# hen the" ere considered central (igures o( European prehistor"# their

role as to unite the English and Scots in one nation and to (acilitate the political

uni(ication o( the to countries$

Although Druids had )een implanted


37/43

vie o( Druids as can )e seen in 8illiam Tenn"sons #oadicea$ Although he dras

upon the same (igure as 8illiam *oper did )e(ore him# he does not portra" the *eltic

ueen as a patriot ho looks (or consolation in Druidic oaken groves$ She is a Druidic

priestess ho (oments British tri)es to )lood" revenge on the ,omans$ She is radical#

(rantic and hungers (or )lood$

Even though Druids )ecame to )e resented ith almost same passion as the" ere

made part o( British identit"# the antiuarian e((ort (or preserving the antiuities as not

(orgotten$ =ne o( the reasons as# as ,onald @utton claims# that the" preserved and

communicated a sense o( all that past# the deities and the land itsel( had provided to

make up an inheritance orth de(ending to the death 6The Druids+7$ Thus Druids ere

trans(ormed into ancient patriarchs ho came (rom @ol" Land )ringing ith them the

original religion o( the @e)res$ The" )ecame interoven in a m"th that as#

(urthermore# supported )" studies o( Stuckle" and Toland$ Al)ert !uhn argues that:

The m"ths o( the pagans and those o( the =ld Testament represented an original

religion hich as at once more reasona)le and more catholic than *hristianit"$

*hristianit" as not theone religion2 it as among man" hich at )asis ere united in

a core o( simple# natural# and universal truths 6+++-7$

There(ore# Druids ere not heathens that should )e hated )" the *hristians# )ut

religious people that ere at the )eginning o( all religions$ 'n 8illiam Blakes

erusalemBritain is seen as the original @ol" Land$ Bloodthirst" or not# Druids still had

their place in British culture and literature$

@aving )een once )uilt into the British culture# the" did not cease to )e its part

in the %?th or %+stcenturies$ Although the" do not serve "et to save the antiuities2

sustain union o( to countries that had developed in con(lict2 or to make a m"th# the"

are still popular topic o( )ooks and (ilms$ As the authors and (ilm makers have

continued the images that ere created in the centuries )e(ore# Druids are hol" men

&;


38/43

living in oaken groves that kno its pro(ound secrets and practise sacri(ices$ Hor

e1ample# Druids (eature in Terr" Prachetts Discoorld inha)iting countr" o( Llamedos$

'n +.;?s a group o( three British comedians# Bill =ddie# Tim Brooke5Ta"lor and

9raeme 9arden# dre upon Druids in an episode o( their series# hich is called 0acky

0ales$ either the structures o( icker men have )een (orgotten$ 'n +.;& ,o)in @ard"

made a (ilm The 0icker Man in hich a police o((icer looking (or a missing oman

travels to an isolated island o( Summerisle here the communit" o( the island lives in

harmon" ith nature and practise pagan rituals$ 'n the end the protagonist is caught in a

trap and )urnt in a gigantic icker man$ The (ilm as remade in %??C )" eil LaBute$

There is no dou)t that the Druids ho e are (amiliar ith have most pro)a)l"

ver" little in common ith the ancient people ho the" re(lect and ho lived thousands

o( "ears ago$ evertheless# these legendar" (igures# 3given the length o( time over

hich those images Io( admira)le ancestor and British patriarchsJ have )een dispersed#

and the sheer num)er o( orks em)od"ing them4 6@utton +%&72 )ecame an ine1trica)le

part o( Britains culture and (olklore$ *onsidering all the images Druids ere ascri)ed

(rom the +Cthto the +.thcenturies and all political and cultural uses the" served (or# there

can )e no dou)t that the" )ecame iconic (or Britain$

-" .i/liography

Acro"d# Peter$ 3Blood and Mistletoe: The @istor" o( the Druids in Britain )" ,onald

@utton3$ Times online$ %. April %??.$ 8e)$ F Ma" %?+?$

&F


39/43

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Rhttp:$)artle)"$com/+&%?$html

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London: Gohn ,ussell Smith# +F;C$ Print$

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40/43

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@utton# ,onald$ The Origins of Modern Druidry$ Lees: The =rder o( Bards# =vates

and Druids# %??-$ Print$

@utton# ,onald$ 30nder the Spell o( the Druids4$2istory Today$ Ma" %??.$ 8e)$ +-

Ma" %?+?$

Rhttp:histor"toda"$comMainArticle$asp1KmV&&&-/QamidV&?%F&&/.

!uhn# Al)ert G$ 3English Deism and the Development o( ,omantic M"thological

S"ncretism4$ $M'), 3ol. A5, 9o. 8$ +?./5+++C$ e ork: Modern Language

Association# +.-C$ Print$

Levine# 8$ 3*ollins# Thomson# and the 8hig Progress o( Li)ert"4$ "tudies in !nglish

'iterature, 58??%5=??, 3ol. B4, 9o. B$ --&5--;$ @ouston: ,ice 0niversit"# +.F/$ Print$

Mason# 8illiam$ aractacus( written on the model of the ancient *reek Tragedy.

Literature online$ 8e)$ %F April %?+?$

Rhttp:lion$chad"ck$co$uksearchHullte1t$doK

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+%;A.**B.*-QareaVDramaQ(orardVte1tsHTQarnVesQsi


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Rhttp:druidnetork$orgarticlesphilipshallcrass$html

Schneider# Matthe$ 38rung )" seet en(orcement: Druid Stones and the Pro)lem o(

Sacri(ice in British ,omanticism4$ )nthropetics C The !lectronic ournal of

*enerative )nthropology, 3ol. :, 9o. :.# n$d$ 8e)$ %? Gul" %?+?$

Rhttp:$anthropoetics$ucla$eduap?%?%keats$htm

Stel


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revival o( the su)ect o( the Druids in the ,enaissance as connected ith the

contemporar" search (or identit"$ Since then# the su)ect o( the Druids as reorked in

various a"s and (or various reasons$ 'n the ,enaissance the" )ecame national

ancestors$ 'n addition# the" consolidated their role as respecta)le ancestors in the +F th

centur"# since the" ere used to support the nel" esta)lished kingdom o( 9reat

Britain$ As the +Fthcentur" as the period o( the ,omanticism# the image o( the Druids

as (urther altered and the" )ecame to )e seen as a m"stical people ho lived in

harmon" ith the nature# hich permitted them to reveal its deepest secrets$ @oever#

the lack o( evidence o( the Druids e1istence# hich permitted that man" images o(

them )e created# and the radicalism o( that time caused the Druids to )e seen mainl" as

)lood" sacri(icers ho (oretold the (uture (rom the entrails o( slain men$ The Druids

)ecame victims i( their (ormer success$ evertheless# there ere still scholars ho

continued tendencies o( antiuarianism and made the Druids )e patriarchs ho had

)rought to Britain the original religion revealed )" Gehovah$ @aving )een )uilt once into

British consciousness# the" have never lost their place in it$

&" %esum1 v 3e4tin5

Tato )akalXsk prce se


43/43

stolet\$ Wnovuo)even\ t_matik" DruidZ v tomto o)do)\ souviselo s tehde`\m hledn\m

nrodn\ identit"$ =d +C$ stolet\ pak )"la t_matika DruidZ rZ

Documents

Druids as a Cultural Icon (Alena Pohludková)