Drinking Water News For America’s Small Communities · Drinking Water News For America’s Small Communities Winter 1998 Volume 7, Issue 4 ... tries,” a Journal of American Water

On Tap Winter 1998 1

In This Issue

Drinking Water News For America’s Small Communities

Winter 1998Volume 7, Issue 4

On Tap is apublication of theNational Drinking

Water Clearinghouse,sponsored by the

Rural Utilities Service.

Reader Suggestion

by Harriet EmersonOn Tap EditorMohamed Lahlou, Ph.D.NDWC Technical Assistance Specialist

The history of humankind is the story ofwater—a tale of communities blooming along thebanks of rivers and edges of oceans. No civilizationflourishes without water andhuman survival depends ongood drinking water.

All the water that ever hasbeen or will ever be on Earth ishere now, and with only 1 percentof all that water available fordrinking, water conservationmakes sense. According toformer U.S. Senator Paul Simon’sTapped Out, the world’spopulation of 5.9 billion willdouble in the next 40 to 90 years.

“At least 300 million peoplelive in regions of severe watershortages. By the year 2025, itwill be three billion. Compound-ing these grim realities,” saysSimon, “is the fact that percapita world water consumptionis rising twice as fast as theworld’s population.”

According to DavidPrasifka’s Water Supply Planning, two billionpeople worldwide don’t have an adequate watersupply and three billion are without adequatesanitation. Exact figures are difficult to comeby, however, the numbers are staggering.

What is water conservation?We are in the midst of a national shift away

from the traditional water supply managementconcept that perpetuated an endless thirst for newwater sources, toward water demand managementand a holistic view of ecosystems.

The August 1998 Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) Water Conservation Plan

Guidelines state that “water conservation consistsof any beneficial reduction in water losses, waste,or use.” For water systems serving populationsof 10,000 or fewer, the Guidelines recommenduniversal metering, water accounting and losscontrol, costing and pricing, and information andeducation. (For a review of EPA’s Guidelines seepage 6. See also the Water Conservation MeasuresFact Sheet in the center pages.)

The American Water Works Association(AWWA), which haslong urged utilitiesto adopt efficientwater use policies,uses the term “totalwater management,”which it says“recognizes theparadigm shift fromconsidering wateravailable in unlimitedquantities to under-standing watersupply as a limitedresource.”

AWWA seesthis view of watermanagement as an“attempt by thewater supplyindustry to assurethat water resourcesare managed for the

greatest good of the people and the environmentand that all segments of society have a voicein the process.” It is a concept that considersintegration of the complete water cycle and holdsthat “land and water resource management mustbe integrated at the local level.”

In “Conservation in the Arabian Gulf Coun-tries,” a Journal of American Water WorksAssociation article, Adnan Akkad suggests that abetter term for water conservation is “effectivewater use,” because the term “conservation” maycarry the stigma of inconvenience and discomfort,

Conservation: It’s theFuture of Water

A storm rumbles over the Atlantic at VirginiaBeach, Virginia.

Picture by Harriet Emerson

SpecialWaterConserva-tion Issue

Continued on page 18

2 On Tap Winter 1998

Volume 7, Issue 4Winter 1998

Sponsored byRural Utilities Service

AdministratorWally B. Beyer

Loan SpecialistDonna Roderick

Established in 1991 at WestVirginia University, the NationalDrinking Water Clearinghouse

is funded by the Water andWaste Disposal Division of the

Rural Utilities Service.

National Drinking WaterClearinghouse

Manager, WVU EnvironmentalServices and Training Division

John L. Mori, Ph.D.

Program CoordinatorSanjay Saxena

Technical Assistance SpecialistsMohamed Lahlou, Ph.D.

Babu Srinivas Madabhushi

Managing EditorHarriet Emerson

Promotions EditorJamie Knotts

Senior Graphic DesignerEric Merrill

Staff Writers Kathy Jesperson

Margaret Caigan McKenzie

Program AssistantsSheila Anderson

Judy Clovis

On Tap is a free publication,produced four times a year

(February, May, August, andNovember). Articles, letters to

the editor, news items,photographs, or other materials

submitted for publication arewelcome. Please address

correspondence to:

Editor, On Tap, NDWCWest Virginia University

P.O. Box 6064Morgantown, WV 26506

(800) 624-8301(304) 293-4191

www.ndwc.wvu.edu

Permission to quote from orreproduce articles in this

publication is granted when dueacknowledgment is given.Please send a copy of the

publication in which informationwas used to the On Tap editor

at the address above.

The contents of this publicationdo not necessarily reflect the

views and policies of the RuralUtilities Service, nor doesmention of trade names or

commercial products constituteendorsement or

recommendation for use.ISSN 1061-9291

An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Institution

On Tap

Printed on recycled paper.

We devote this issue of On Tap to waterconservation, beginning with an overview of thesubject by On Tap Editor Harriet Emerson andTechnical Assistance Specialist Mohamed Lahlou,Ph.D., who wrote his doctoral dissertation on waterdemand management. (See page 1.)

Kathy Jesperson, National Drinking WaterClearinghouse (NDWC) staff writer looks attechnical assistance in California, our mostpopulous state and one that may very wellface future water problems. Many of thestate’s 31 million people are totally dependentupon water transported from somewhere else.(See page 4.)

In August, the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) published its WaterConservation Plan Guidelines as mandated inthe reauthorized Safe Drinking Water Act of1996. The Guidelines recommend that smalldrinking water systems implement fourconservation measures—metering, leakdetection, pricing policy, and public education.(See page 6 for a review.) Lahlou gives us a“Conservation Measures Fact Sheet” in lieuof his usual water treatment Tech Brief. (Seecenter pages.)

Thanks to John Flowers, an environmentalengineer with EPA, who reviewed our conservationissue. Flowers serves as Director of Water Alliancesfor Voluntary Efficiency (WAVE). (For informationabout this program, see page 24.)

Currently, Consumer Confidence Reports(CCR) are a hot topic. Jamie Knotts, NDWCpromotions editor, provides an overview of theCCR (see page 10). We plan to take a closer lookat the CCR and its impact on small systems. Ifyour community has had experiences with theCCR that you’d like to share with our readers,contact us at On Tap.

We bid a fond farewell to Technical AssistanceSpecialist Salam Murtada, who has moved south towork as an environmental engineer with NorthCarolina’s Department of Environment andNatural Resources. Murtada is now employed inthe Underground Storage Tanks (UST) Section ofthe state’s Waste Management Division. Wethank him for contributing the article on USTs.(See page 12.)

Michelle Moore, contributing writer,investigates an increasingly popular method ofwater-saving landscaping—xeriscaping.Moore, who writes a gardening column forthe Pittsburgh Post Gazette, is particularlywell suited to handle the topic as she has 13years experience in the field and is pursuing adegree in horticulture. (See page 13.)

A number of readers have requested informa-tion about desalination. Due to the expense,desalination is not a method widely used by smallsystems; however, in the future, the technologyshould improve and the use of desalination isbound to increase as population increases and

water quality decreases. Technical AssistantSpecialist Babu Srinivas Madabhushi answersdesalination questions. (See page 22.)

We provide a large conservation resourcesection in this issue, including a list of organizationsand Web sites for adults (see page 24) and conser-vation education for children. (See page 26.)

The NDWC employs several graduate studentswho perform research and help field technicalassistance calls. Vipin Bhardwaj has worked withthe NDWC since the beginning of the year andGanesh Kumar Subramanian began to work withus in August. Both have a background in chemicalengineering. Bhardwaj is pursuing a mastersdegree in environmental engineering andSubramanian in chemical engineering.

We’ve added a new icon to On Tap pages toindicate that a reader suggested an article orsubject. Look for this:

Conservation Is the Future of Water

Reader Suggestion

Contact On Tap Online

Do you have suggestions for On Tap? Call, writeto the address in the credit box at the left, or e-mail.

Managing EditorHarriet [email protected]

PromotionsJamie [email protected]

Rural Utilities Service (RUS) Deputy Administrator JohnRomano addressed National Rural Water Association Confer-ence attendees in Mobile, Alabama, at the end of October. Henoted that for the second time, the White House announcedWater 2000 funding affording rural drinking water issues highernational visibility. (For more about Water 2000, see page 3.)

Tech BriefsMohamed [email protected]

Q&ABabu Srinivas [email protected]


This summer Vice President Al Gore and U.S.Department of Agriculture (USDA) Secretary DanGlickman announced $155.8 million in grantsfor rural communities through Water 2000, statingthat 2.5 million people in more than 1,300 ruralcommunities nationwide have been helpedalready through this initiative. However, therelease says, at least 2.2 million rural Americansstill contend with critical quality and accessibilityproblems with their drinking water, including anestimated 730,000 people who have no runningwater in their homes.

“Safe, reliable drinking water is more than amatter of convenience,” Gore said when announc-ing the combination of grants and loans that will bedistributed under the Water 2000 initiative. “It’scritical to public health and economic develop-ment. Through Water 2000, we are helping tobuild and upgrade the basic infrastructure neededto sustain rural communities.”

The Centers for Disease Control and Preventionestimate that nearly one million Americans becomesick each year from drinking contaminated water.These illnesses, which are primarily intestinal, areboth dangerous and expensive, especially to infantsand people with suppressed immune systems.

Nearly five million more rural residents areaffected by less critical, but still significant, waterproblems, as defined by the Safe Drinking WaterAct (SDWA). Among these problems are under-sized or poorly protected water sources, a lackof adequate storage facilities, and antiquateddistribution systems. Leaks can cause problems inolder, existing systems. Leakage decreases waterpressure throughout the system, which mayincrease the likelihood of contamination.

Who benefits from Water 2000 funding?All Water 2000 funding goes toward building

new systems or improving and expanding existingsystems. The intention of the program is toresolve the problems of rural Americans whohave no drinking water in their homes, who aredrawing water from unclean or unsafe sources,or whose water supply is so inadequate that theyonly have sporadic water service, according toBart Handford, assistant to the administrator forthe USDA Rural Utilities Services (RUS).

RUS selects Water 2000 water and wastedisposal projects and funds them through appro-priations made by Congress. RUS also considersassistance provided to the neediest communitiesas falling in the Water 2000 category. Thoseprojects qualify for the lowest of its three interest

rates, because the median household income ofthe area served is lower than the poverty rate orless than 80 percent of the state median house-hold income.

Rural Areas Are Already Receiving HelpSeveral projects have already received funds

from Water 2000. The village of Kongiganak inBethel, Alaska, has treated surface water availableat a washeteria. Some residents catch rain in thesummer and melt ice in the winter to meet waterneeds. Homes are not plumbed, and honey buckets,receptacles in which waste is collected, are hauledby the villages to a pretreatment site at a sewagelagoon. The residents will benefit from an upgradeof the washeteria and treatment for wastewaterand honey bucket waste. The project will alsolocate and develop a potable water supply forthis remote, rural Alaskan village. This $800,000project will be funded with a USDA RuralDevelopment Rural Alaska Villages Grant of$300,000 and a grant from the State of Alaskaof $500,000.

The Old Leupp Water Line Extension projectin Navajo County, Arizona, is to be funded witha $126,000 loan and grant from RUS. The solewater main serving this area is not adequate tomeet the needs of residents. Low water pressure andfrequent breaks in the pipeline create reliabilityand health problems for customers. The situationis so bad that some families have had to resort tohauling water and using pit privies. A new waterline will be constructed that will serve homes onthe existing system and four additional homesthat, due to system problems, were previouslyunable to connect to the system.

The town of Tilton in Belknap County, NewHampshire, relies on individual subsurface septicsystems for waste disposal. Soil surveys haveshown that natural soils in the area are notsuitable for leach fields to properly treat waste-water from the septic systems. These inadequatesystems pose a threat to the nearby LakeWinnisquam and to wells supplying domesticwater to residents. The proposed project willreplace the malfunctioning and deficient septicsystems with eight-inch pipe, a six-inch forcemain, and two pump stations. This plant is alsopart of an effort to reduce, and eventuallyeliminate, pollution in nearby lakes.

Most of us can take for granted the availabilityof clean, safe drinking water. But these examples

Water 2000 Help Is On the Way to 87 Rural Communities

RUS Awards $155.8 Million in Assistance

Continued on page 5

N E W S & N O T E SN E W S & N O T E S

RUS InterestRates

The interest rates forthe first quarter offiscal year 1999apply to all RuralUtilities Services(RUS) water andwastewater loansissued from October1 through December31, 1998. Therates are:• poverty line, 4.5

percent;• intermediate, 4.75

percent; and,• market, 5.0

percent.For the phonenumber of your stateRural Developmentoffice, contact theNational DrinkingWater Clearinghouseat (800) 624-8301 or(304) 293-4191.


Northern District

Central District

San JoaquinDistrict

Southern District

by Kathy JespersonNDWC Staff Writer

Water conservation in California is no simpletask. Yet, neither is providing technical assistancedesigned to conserve the state’s limited watersupplies. Agriculture, theenvironment, and urbancommunities each placedistinct demands on thesestrained resources. And,since California isgrowing so rapidly, sois the demand for water.

According to theCalifornia Water Plan(CWP), if the state doesnot take tangible stepstoward water conserva-tion now, it will face aserious statewide watershortage by the year 2020.

“Water is California’s modern-day gold, andit is crucial that we ensure there will always beenough,” said Doug Wheeler, secretary ofresources, California Resources Agency, in aJanuary 1998 press release. “The state has avariety of options, such as conservation, recycling,groundwater storage, and off-stream storage thatwill make the most of our water supply.”

Technical Assistance Is ProvidedCalifornia provides technical assistance

for small systems through its Local AssistanceProgram via five offices, including its headquarters,

and four districts—Northern, Central, SanJoaquin, and Southern. Its technicalassistance program includes regularcommunication with local water systems,technical advice on management concerns,regular training options, and publications

that help answer technical assistancequestions.

Since 1991, the state also hashad a comprehensive water

conservation program inplace. Through the

program, Californiaprovides technical

assistance andincentives to

In California:

Technical Assistance Aids Water Conservation

Continued on next page

Dry cliffs rise along the classic California coastline atSan Gregorio Beach, an hour south of San Francisco.

Photo by Harriet Emerson

R E S O U R C E SR E S O U R C E S

encourage conservation measures. The programhelps local systems by:

• conducting water resources investigations;• supporting local surface and groundwater

projects that restore or enhance environ-mental resources;

• encouraging waterconservationprograms;

• promoting waterreclamation and useof recycled water;

• promoting conjunc-tive use of surfaceand groundwater;

• facilitating volun-tary water transfersthat do not harm fishor wildlife resources,cause overdraft, ordegrade watersupplies;

• operating a state drought center and waterbank; and

• encouraging effective land managementpractices in drainage problem areas.

Low-interest Loans Help ConservationCalifornia provides low-interest loans as one

of its water conservation incentives. “We’vegiven loans to communities for projects suchas installing meters, lining distribution lines toprevent water loss, replacing leaking distributionsystem controls, and installing low-flow flushtoilets,” said David Rolph, environmentalspecialist, California Department of WaterResources. “If the purpose is to minimize waterloss, we can usually find a way to fund theproject, as long as it meets the engineering/hydrologic feasibility and cost effectivenesseligibility criteria established for the program.

“We have three programs that providefinancing to local agencies—Water Conservationloans, Groundwater Recharge loans, and LocalProjects water supply construction loans andfeasibility study grants,” he continued. “A bigincentive for many communities is that the loansoffer a discounted interest rate for water conser-vation projects.”

Best Management Practices Save WaterAnother big part of California’s water

conservation program is what it calls Best

Precipitation varieswidely in California—amounts for selectedcities are indicatedbelow. Rain falls mostfrequently October–April in the North andNovember–March inthe South.

Eureka37.9”

Oakland23.9”

Bakersfield6.6”

Los Angeles11.9”

Source: WorldClimate.com


Management Practices (BMPs). BMPs arepolicies, programs, practices, rules, regulations,or ordinances as well as the use of devices,equipment, or facilities that result in conservationand more efficient use of water. A voluntary BMPprogram is implemented by the California UrbanWater Conservation Council. BMPs include:

• residential plumbing retrofit programs;• system water audits, leak detection,

and repair;• metering;• landscape conservation programs;• high-efficiency washing machine rebate

programs; and• public education programs.“Because water tends to be inexpensive, there

isn’t much effort put toward conserving it,” saidKeith Watkins, chief of water use efficiency,California Department of Water Resources.

According to Watkins, that’s why meteringand pricing are important to a water conservationprogram. “Requiring meters and billing custom-ers for how much water they actually use couldresult in a 20 percent reduction in water demandstatewide,” he said.

California Conserves Water for AgricultureIn California, water conservation also means

controlling agricultural water use. According tothe state’s Web site, “With irrigation, California’svalleys became the greatest food producing areaon earth. By the end of the 19th Century, the stateproduced an amazing volume of wheat, morecotton than any state but Texas, two-thirds of thenation’s oranges, more than 80 percent of thenation’s wine, and 90 percent of the lemons. Theagricultural products quickly exceeded in valueall the gold the state ever produced.”

With the rest of the nation depending onCalifornia for much of its produce, the state hasto ensure that there’s plenty of water for irrigationpurposes. “There’s been an effort to use recycledwater for irrigation,” said Watkins. “Also,irrigation districts must develop water plans,which are administered by the Agricultural WaterManagement Council. The plans should evaluatecurrent water management practices and designways for increasing efficiency.”

Population Affects ConservationFor a growing state, California must also

consider its increasing population. By 2020, thepopulation is expected to jump from 31 millioninhabitants to 47.5 million, according to the CWP.

“Growth issues become important whenyou’re talking about water conservation. Attemptsto limit growth sometimes work and sometimesdon’t. There really aren’t any simple answers,”said Watkins. “There’s been much growth in thedesert, and large chunks of prime agriculturalland have been converted for urban development.”

Urban water use is expected to increase from11 percent of California’s total water use to 15percent by 2020. According to the CWP, “Reli-able water supplies for the state’s industry andpopulation are vital to retain environmentalquality and the productivity of California’seconomy, the seventh largest in the world.”

For more information about California’stechnical assistance or water conservationprograms, tour the state’s Web site at http://wwwdwr.water.ca.gov/ or call Keith Watkinsat (916) 327-1808.

For more information about California’sloan programs, call David Rolph at (916)445-8259.

Continued from previous page

show the primitive conditions under which manypeople are still living here in the U.S. ThroughWater 2000, rural Americans will be able to enjoyconvenient, clean drinking water, too.

More information about Water 2000 may befound on USDA’s Web site at http://www.usda.gov/rus/watr2000/index.htm or bycontacting Bart Handford at (202) 720-1261. Youmay also e-mail him at [email protected] write to 1400 Independence Ave., SW Stop1538, Washington, DC 20250-1538.

The National Drinking Water Clearinghouse(NDWC) offers a compilation of On Tap andWater Sense articles titled the Water 2000Information Package. To obtain a copy, call theNDWC at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191 andrequest item #DWBLGN35. The cost is $1.90 pluspostage. Orders may also be placed via e-mail [email protected].

RUS Awards $155.8 Million in AssistanceContinued from page 3


“Growth issues

become important

when you’re talking

about water

conservation.”

Keith Watkins,chief of water use

efficiency, CaliforniaDepartment of Water

Resources.


Editor’s Note: The U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) Conservation Guidelines includemore than 200 pages of suggestions for systems ofall sizes. This On Tap review concentrates on theBasic Guidelines, which are recommended forpublic drinking water systems serving 10,000 orfewer people. We suggest that system managersorder the guidelines, which include dozens ofhelpful worksheets.

In August, the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) published voluntary guidelines forutilities to use when preparing a conservationplan as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act(SDWA) Amendments of 1996. The law requiredEPA’s guidelines to take into account system size,water availability, and climate.

Use of these guidelines is not required byfederal laws or regulations; however, beginningin August 1999, states may require public watersystems to prepare conservation plans as a conditionof qualifying for a loan under the drinking waterstate revolving loan fund (DWSRF), a financialprogram authorized as part of the 1996 SDWAAmendments.

These Guidelines are written for water systemmanagers; however, managers must comply withtheir own state, regional, or local regulatoryrequirements.

Ultimately, which guidelines are appropriateand how great the need is for conservationplanning depends upon factors and conditionsaffecting individual water systems. For example,smaller systems with constrained water suppliesmay want to go beyond Basic Guideline sugges-tions and institute EPA’s Intermediate Guidelines.(See table on page 9.)

What is the purpose of the guidelines?The EPA states that while the Guidelines are

not a federal requirement, they may “help bringconservation into the mainstream of water utilitycapital facility planning. The infrastructure needsof the nation’s water systems are great. Strategicuse of water conservation can help extend thevalue and life of infrastructure . . .” for both waterand wastewater supply facilities. The Guidelinesstate that conservation can extend water supplies,reduce utility operating costs, and reduce energyuse for customers and utilities. This in turnreduces greenhouse gas emissions, improveswater systems, maintains ecosystems, andprotects water resources.

“One of the chief purposes of conservation”the Guidelines state, “is that it can help systemsavoid, downsize, or postpone, water and waste-water projects.”

How are the guidelines organized?The guidelines are organized into six parts,

beginning with an introduction and an overviewof the organization. The next three sectionsconstitute a three-leveled structure for waterconservation measures—basic, intermediate,and advanced. The final section includes sixalphabetical appendices that provide very helpfulsupporting information, including detaileddescriptions of conservation measures, conserva-tion benchmarks, acronyms and a glossary,information resources, funding sources, andstate contacts.

What measures does EPA recommend?The EPA recommends that all water systems,

including those serving 10,000 or fewer peopleconsider implementing the following BasicGuidelines:

• universal metering,• water accounting and loss control,• costing and pricing, and• information and education.The EPA suggests water systems serving

between 10,000 and 100,0000 people considerinstituting Basic and Intermediate Guidelines:

• water-use audits,• retrofits,• pressure management, and• landscape efficiency.The EPA recommends water systems serving

more than 100,000 people consider institutingBasic, Intermediate, and Advanced Guidelines:

• replacements and promotions,• reuse and recycling,• water-use regulation, and• integrated resource management.

What can very small systems do?The guidelines encourage all systems to

consider the fullest range of planning methodsand conservation measures that is practical. Thefirst section includes recommendations for watersystems serving 3,300 or fewer people (approxi-mately 1,000 connections). While these verysmall systems may follow the Basic Guidelines,there is also a capacity development approachthat integrates water conservation assistance withthe state’s general capacity development program.

States may determine which conservationplanning approach to use for small water systemson a statewide or case-by-case basis. States areencouraged to use a capacity developmentapproach to help small systems develop andimplement basic conservation measures. Statesmay use funds from the 10 percent DWSRF

EPA Publishes Conservation Guidelines


R E G U L A T I O N SR E G U L A T I O N S


capacity development set-aside to providesystems with water conservation assistance if thestate has identified the systems in its capacitydevelopment strategy.

Under the SDWA, in order to avoid havingDWSRF funds withheld, by August 2000 eachstate must develop and implement a strategy toassist public water systems in acquiring andmaintaining technical, managerial, and financialcapacity.

Several basic conservation practices can bedirectly linked to the three basic capacity ele-ments. Under the capacity development approach,states encourage and assist small water systems inmaking a variety of conservation-oriented

improvements. According to the Guidelines,“States should provide technical assistance towater systems to help them implement at least thebasic elements of a conservation program.” If avery small system is not capacity-limited or wantsto implement more conservation measures, it mayuse the planning approach in the Basic Guidelines.

Systems Should Set Conservation GoalsIn beginning water conservation planning,

each water system needs to state its goals in termsof expected benefits for the water system and itscustomers. Planning goals might include elimi-nating, downsizing, or postponing the need forcapital projects; extending the life of existing

• Identification of measures for furtheranalysis

6. Analyze Benefits and Costs• Estimate of total implementation costs

and anticipated water savings• Cost effectiveness assessment for

recommended conservation measures• Comparison of implementation costs to

avoided supply-side costs7. Select Conservation Measures

• Selection criteria for choosing conserva-tion measures

• Identification of selected measures• Explanation for why recommended

measures will not be implemented• Strategy and timetable for implementing

conservation measures8. Integrate Resources and Modify

Forecasts• Modification of water demand and

supply capacity forecasts to reflectanticipated effects of conservation

• Discussion of the effects of conservationon planned water purchases, improve-ments, and additions

• Discussion of the effects of plannedconservation measures on water utilityrevenues

9. Present Implementation andEvaluation Strategy• Approaches for implementing and

evaluating the conservation plan• Certification of the conservation plan by

the system’s governing body

Source: EPA Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, 1998.

1. Specify Conservation Planning Goals• List of conservation planning goals and

their relationship to supply-side planning• Description of community involvement in

the goals-development process2. Develop a Water System Profile

• Inventory of existing facilities, productioncharacteristics, and water use

• Overview of conditions that might affectthe water system and conservationplanning

3. Prepare a Demand Forecast• Forecast of anticipated water demand

for future time periods• Adjustments to demand based on known

and measurable factors• Discussion of uncertainties and “what if”

(sensitivity) analysis4. Describe Planned Facilities

• Improvements planned for the watersystem over a reasonable planninghorizon

• Estimates of the total, annualized, andunit cost (per gallon) of planned supply-side improvements and additions

• Preliminary forecast of total installedwater capacity over the planning periodbased on anticipated improvements andadditions

5. Identify Water Conservation Measures• Review of conservation measures that

have been implemented or that areplanned for implementation

• Discussion of legal or other barriers toimplementing recommended measures

Contents of a Comprehensive Water Conservation Plan


Continued on page 8



facilities; avoiding new source water develop-ment costs; improving drought or emergencypreparedness; educating customers about thevalue of water; or protecting and preservingenvironmental resources.

The process of developing goals shouldinvolve community representation. Involving thecommunity in goal development and implementa-tion also serves an important public educationfunction and can greatly enhance the success ofthe program.

Modern resource planning emphasizes anopen process that gives all affected groups—stakeholders—an opportunity to express interestsand concerns.

Develop a Water System ProfileEach water system can begin to develop a

profile by taking an inventory of existing resourcesand conditions. Summarize the service and operat-ing characteristics of the water system, including anoverview of conditions and a description of climate,water availability, and other factors that might affectwater conservation planning.

The guidelines include a worksheet separatedinto service characteristics, annual water supply,service connections, water demand, average andpeak demand, and pricing. It helps assist managersin summarizing system conditions via questions,such as, is the system in a designated criticalwater supply area? Does the system have substan-tial unaccounted-for and lost water? Is the systemplanning substantial improvements?

Prepare a Demand ForecastThe guidelines recommend that each water

system prepare a forecast of anticipated waterdemand, taking into account variations in demandbased on types of water use, such as per capitawater use or per-connection or per-householdbasis. For forecasting purposes, per-connectionwater use is multiplied by the number of currentand projected connections. They suggest prepar-ing forecasts for five-year and ten-year timepoints. The longer the planning horizon, thegreater the uncertainty.

Identify, Evaluate Conservation MeasuresWater systems have access to a wide selection

of conservation measures, including supply-sideand demand-side management techniques forsaving water. Each system needs to identifyconservation measures and look at whether or nota specific measure is cost effective and whetheror not it complies with applicable laws and

regulations already, including state and localplumbing codes. Each conservation plan shouldindicate which measures will be implementednow or in the future and why. If a conservationmeasure won’t be implemented, managers shouldnote the primary reason why not.

All water systems regardless of size shouldconsider universal metering, water accountingand loss control, costing and pricing, and infor-mation and education.

Criteria that can be used to select conservationmeasures may include:

• program costs,• cost-effectiveness,• ease of implementation,• budgetary considerations,• staff resources and capability,• environmental impacts,• rate payer impacts,• environmental and social justice,• water rights and permits,• legal issues or constraints,• regulatory approvals,• public acceptance,• timeliness of savings, and• consistency with other programs.For each selection criterion, managers should

identify whether, how, and why the factor affectsthe feasibility of implementing one or moreconservation measures. Some factors might bemore important than others. Also, since conserva-tion measures can reduce water sales and utilityrevenues, each plan should briefly address howplanned conservation measures will affect waterutility revenues.

Present Implementation StrategyEach water system needs to prepare a strategy

and timetable for implementing and assessingconservation measures that includes a plan formonitoring and evaluation. This may includeregular communications meetings with commu-nity groups. Many systems update plans everyfive years.

For a discussion of conservation measuresrecommended for small systems, see the WaterConservation Measures Fact Sheet in thecenter pages.

To order a copy of EPA’s Water ConservationPlan Guidelines, call (800) 490-9198 and requestEPA-832-D-98-001. There is no charge for thispublication.

EPA Publishes Conservation Guidelines



Water Fact

On average, 50-70

percent of house-

hold water is used

outdoors for water-

ing lawns and

gardens. Plant low-

water-use grasses

and shrubs to cut

your lawn watering

by 20-50 percent.

Blue Thumb Project


Replacements andpromotions [B]

Reuse andrecycling [B]

Water-useregulation [B]

Integrated resourcemanagement [B]

• Rebates and incentives(nonresidential)

• Rebates and incentives(residential)

• Promotion of newtechnologies

• Industrial applications• Large-volume irrigation

applications• Selective residential

applications

• Water-use standards andregulations

• Requirements for newdevelopments

• Supply-side technologies• Demand-side technologies

Universal metering [B]

Water accountingand loss control [A]

Costing and pricing [B]

Information andeducation [B]

• Source-water metering• Service-connection

metering and reading• Meter public-use water

• Account for water• Repair known leaks

• Cost-of-service accounting• User charges• Metered rates

• Understandable water bill• Information available

• Fixed-interval meterreading

• Meter-accuracy analysis

• Analyze nonaccount water• Water system audit• Leak detection and repair

strategy• Automated sensors/

telemetry

• Cost analysis• Nonpromotional rates

• Informative water bill• Water-bill inserts• School program• Public-education program

• Test, calibrate, repair,and replace meters

• Loss-prevention program

• Advanced pricingmethods

• Workshops• Advisory committee

Water-use audits [B]

Retrofits [A]

Pressuremanagement [A]

Landscapeefficiency [P]

• Audits of large-volume users

• Large-landscapeaudits

• Retrofit kits available

• Systemwide pressuremanagement

• Promotion oflandscape efficiency

• Selective irrigationsubmetering

• Selective end-useaudits

• Distribution of retrofitkits

• Targeted programs

• Selective useof pressure-reducingvalves

• Landscape planningand renovation

• Irrigation manage-ment

← Advanced Guidelines → ← Intermediate Guidelines → ← Basic Guidelines →

Guidelines and Associated Conservation Measures

Source: U.S. EPA Water ConservationPlan Guidelines, 1998

[A] measure affects average-day demand[P] measure affects maximum-day (peak) demand)[B] measure affects both average and peak demand

LEVEL 3 MEASURES

LEVEL 2 MEASURES

LEVEL 1 MEASURESMeasures



by Jamie KnottsNDWC Promotions Editor

By October 1999, drinking water systemsmust provide their customers with their firstyearly Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) thatoutlines the water quality delivered to customers.Required by the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act(SDWA) Amendments, these reports givecustomers information about their water quality.

Because of unfamiliarity with the newrequirement, the American Water Works Associa-tion (AWWA) and the National Rural WaterAssociation (NRWA) have developed templatesthat systems can use to complete their CCR.These computer-based report-writing aids offerexamples and help systems present their data.

Know What Is RequiredAll community drinking water systems,

regardless of size, must provide CCR informationto their customers. The only difference betweensmall and large systems is the means of delivery.

Systems serving more than 10,000 customersare required to mail the CCR. Systems havingbetween 500 and 10,000 customers—if waivedby a state’s governor or tribal leader—can publishthe reports in a newspaper and notify customersthat it will not be mailed. These systems mustmake the reports available upon request. Systemsserving fewer than 500 may post the report in apublic place as long as they notify customers thatit is available and how they may access it.

A few key pieces of information that mustappear in reports include:

• a list of the type and location of the source(groundwater, surface water, combination ofthe two, or purchased from another system);

• a brief summary of how susceptibile thedrinking water source is to contamination;

• results of water quality tests if contami-nants are found;

• data presented in a whole number formatrather than in decimal calculations;

• definitions for phrases such as MaximumContaminant Level Goal, Variances, andothers;

• results if Cryptosporidium or radon hasbeen tested for and detected;

• an explanation of any violation thatoccurred; and

• a description of any variance or exemptiongiven to the utility.

What help is AWWA providing?AWWA’s CCR writing tool or CCRbuilder is

an Internet-based computer program that guidesusers through the process. CCRbuilder may beaccessed from a standard Web browser, allowingutilities to input data into the program. They maychoose to write the report in one sitting or inputdata as it becomes available and complete thereport at another time.

Users may choose to use the simple $75version, which includes everything necessary tocomplete a CCR, or purchase value-added features.Prices for the value-added services were notavailable at press time.

Lab reports typically display figures usingdecimals, but the CCR requires whole numbersbe used so consumers may understand thembetter. The software will complete all the neces-sary data transformations from decimal numbersto whole numbers.

Access CCRbuilder at http://www.CCRbuilder.com or at http://www.AWWA.org.

NRWA Offers CCR AssistanceJohn Trax, senior environmental engineer

with NRWA, says staff jointly wrote a draft CCRtemplate and tested it in three states using beforeand after phone surveys to gauge consumers’reactions. The purpose was to write a template forsystems to use that resulted in an easy-to-understand CCR.

“Basically it boils down to one simple thing—residents only really want to know if their wateris safe to drink,” Trax says. “All the technicalmumbo-jumbo in the report really isn’t understood.They told us they want the report, but they wantto know in simple terms if the water is safe.”

He says that with lessons learned from thestudy, NRWA’s computer-based template willhelp systems write a good report for consumers.Utilities can obtain the template on a disk fromtheir state rural water association. Users willproceed through 17 sections with step-by-stepinstructions.

NRWA will provide training for small systemsin the coming year through their state memberassociations. “We’re encouraging systems to getthe training early so they can complete their CCR’son time,” Trax says.

For your state’s rural water association, callthe National Drinking Water Clearinghouse at(800) 624-8301 and ask to speak with a technicalassistant.

Customer Confidence Reports

Systems Must Report Water Quality


For a copy ofthe ConsumerConfidence ReportFinal Rule, callthe Safe DrinkingWater Hotline at(800) 426-4791and request EPA816-Z-98-005.


by Kathy JespersonNDWC Staff Writer

Water conservation would be a serious mattereven if the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyweren’t required to publish guidelines under thereauthorized Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA).“We feel that water conservation is prettyimportant,” says Tom Franklin, chief of the smallsystems alternatives evaluation section, Pennsyl-vania Department of Environmental Protection.

Pennsylvania made a commitment to conservewater through a contract with the PennsylvaniaRural Water Association (PRWA). The state willuse funds provided by the reauthorized SDWA fortechnical assistance to small public water systemsto implement its water conservation program.

According to Franklin, the PRWA will performwater audits on community water systems andprovide water conservation materials for educatingsystem customers. They will also conduct hands-on training in using equipment that locates anddetects leaks.

The state’s water conservation program willhave a two-fold mission: to help the suppliereliminate water loss and to educate the consumer.“A good conservation program will cut down onloss and the resources that the system has to putinto treating water,” Franklin explains. “Per capitawater use is extremely high in some areas. Wedon’t always know if that’s from actual usage orfrom leaks. Some systems have a water loss muchhigher than 20 percent, and most loss comes fromleaks. Our conservation program will help systemsfind out where their losses are coming from.

“We hope to have the contract in place bythe end of the year,” says Franklin. “If PRWAcan show us the benefits of a water conservationprogram, we hope to have this as a continuingprogram.”

Oklahomans Use Water WiselyIn Oklahoma, water conservation is a way of

life. “If you’ve lived in Oklahoma any length oftime, you know how to use water,” says MikeHarrell, environmental engineer supervisor forpublic water supply, Oklahoma Department ofEnvironmental Quality.

Harrell says that although the state has noformal water conservation program, Oklahomanshave an adage: Use all the water you want—aslong as you use it wisely. “We went 93 days withless than a quarter inch of rain this year. Luckily,at the end of spring, most of the state’s streamsand lakes were at 98 to 99 percent capacity.

“We didn’t have any systems that were totallyout of water,” he continues. “We limited outdoorwater use—that usually means lawn watering.Most systems went with a voluntary odd/evenoutdoor water use plan, where certain areaswatered on odd days and others on even days.There were only a handful of systems that had tomove to a mandatory plan of no outdoor wateruse at all. There were 70 systems with some kindof restriction, and out of 1,200, that’s really nottoo bad.”

Oklahoma’s water conservation effortsinclude public education fact sheets and a droughttask force. “We get a lot of help from the mediaas well,” says Harrell. “Newspapers print articlesor information from the fact sheets so the publicwill know how to conserve water.

“The drought task force includes the state’sDepartment of Agriculture and the OklahomaWater Resources Board,” he explains. “Theyperform weekly water evaluations, soil moisturetests, and monitor stream levels. We’ve alsoworked with the Oklahoma Rural Water Associa-tion to develop a draft by-law to implementrationing. And the Oklahoma Municipal Leaguedrafted an ordinance that municipalities can use.So all in all, we’re pretty familiar with waterconservation.”

Water, Water Everywhere“We have an abundance of water in Idaho,”

says Steve Tanner, program supervisor withIdaho Department of Environmental Quality. “Wearen’t ignoring water conservation, but water is soplentiful here there’s not a lot of talk about it.”

Tanner says that there is an effort to getsystems to meter; however, many of the customersobject to it. “There are more than 1,000 systemsthat don’t charge a meter rate,” he says. “They arecoming around, but it’s been a slow process.”

Don Munkers, executive director, Idaho RuralWater Association, agrees, adding, “But we dohave concerns over water. The Snake RiverAquifer was once seen as an endless supplyof water, but it has been drawn down and therecharge doesn’t bring it back 100 percent. Also,we have seen an increase in population, and thereis a push toward conservation.

“We’d like to see systems develop ratestructures that are fair, which take usage intoconsideration,” he says. “Then we could get abetter account of our water.”

SDWA Advocates Water Conservation


“A good conservation

program will cut

down on loss and

the resources that

the system has to put

into treating water.”

Tom Franklin,chief of the small

systems alternativesevaluation section,

PennsylvaniaDepartment ofEnvironmental

Protection.


by Salam MurtadaEnvironmental EngineerUST SectionNorth Carolina Department of EnvironmentalHealth and Natural Resources

By December 22, 1998, all regulated under-ground storage tanks (USTs) must provide propercorrosion protection, spill, and overfill control inorder to comply with federal and state regulations.

According to the Federal Register (40 CFR280.12), this rule applies to tanks that containregulated substances and are at least 10 percentbeneath the surface of the ground. Regulatedsubstances include motor fuel, such as gasoline,kerosene, diesel, and hazardous substances. The

rule, however, does not coverseptic or wastewater collectionsystems, or flow-throughprocess tanks.

And interestingly enough,federal regulations exemptdomestic heating oil tanks frombeing regulated, despite the factthat they constitute almost twiceas many regulated USTs.

UST upgrade requirementsare specified at 40 CFR 280.20–280.34, which may be adoptedmore stringently by individualstates. The codes outline severaloptions UST owners may taketo meet required design andperformance standards.

Leaking USTs are a majorthreat to source water nationwide.In fact, a 1996 U.S. Environ-

mental Protection Agency (EPA) census estimatedthat 1.1 million federally regulated USTs buriedin 400,000 sites accounted for 317,000 reportedreleases.

Federal requirements were originally introducedin 1988, because of the extent of groundwatercontamination leaking USTs cause. All thoseresponsible for USTs should have been implement-ing a leak detection monitoring protocol since1993 to ensure that a system is tight, accordingto federal and state guidelines. Furthermore, USTowners and operators are required to verify thatsuch measures are met through standardizedreporting and record-keeping.

What if USTs don’t meet regulations?The number of releases is expected to increase

substantially after the 1998 deadline as many

USTs will be forced to close down, be removed,or be replaced.

If regulated UST systems do not comply withupgrade requirements by the December deadline,they may face closure, either temporarily—fornot more than 12 months during which the ownercan upgrade—or permanently, following com-plete removal of the UST and implementation oflimited site assessment. Should the soil samplestaken around the UST system indicate contamina-tion levels above acceptable limits, the owner willneed to implement a more comprehensive siteassessment, which may be followed by costlysoil and/or groundwater remediation.

Many states initiated trust fund programsthat pay cleanup costs, provided that the ownermaintains compliance throughout tank operation.However, due to cash flow problems and potentialinsolvency experienced by many, states areresorting to alternative funding mechanisms,such as allowing private insurance companiesto reimburse owners for cleanup costs. Theseinsurance companies will have to assess eligibil-ity criteria based on owner compliance as wellas financial responsibility.

Unfortunately, many small independentlyowned service stations may not be financiallycapable of meeting the upgrade requirementsor trust fund eligibility, particularly by statesadministering private insurance programs as theironly cleanup cost recovery. However, federal andstate assistance programs, such as the Bureauof Indian Affairs, Administration for NativeAmericans, Rural Development Administration,and others, do exist to help small and disadvan-taged UST owners.

You may download information on variousUST topics from EPA’s Web site at http://www.epa.gov/swerust1/pubs/index.htm.

ReferencesNorth Carolina Department of Environment, Health,

and Natural Resources. Division of Water Quality,Groundwater Section. “An Underground StorageTank: Compliance Inspection.”

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September 1988.“Underground Storage Tanks, Technical Require-ments. and State Program Approval.” Final Rule.Federal Register: 40 CFR Parts 280 and 281.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. January 1997.State Funds in Transition: Models for UndergroundStorage Tank Assurance Funds. EPA 510-B-97-002.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. September 1995.Financing Underground Storage Tank Work: Federaland State Assistance Programs EPA 510-B-95-010.

1998 UST Deadline Approaches

Groundwater Protection Is a Step Closer

The North Carolina Depart-ment of Natural Resourcesissues this sticker tofacilities that meetupgrade requirements.



by Michelle MooreNDWC Contributing Writer

It’s probably no surprise that a big jump inhousehold water use occurs in summer becausefolks are outdoors gardening and watering theirlawns. Traditional commercial landscapes alsoconsume plenty of water. These lush floraldisplays and broad expanses of turf dress up aneighborhood, but many popular landscapeplants are real water guzzlers.

A relatively new concept in landscaping hascropped up that was created to conserve water.“Xeriscaping,” a term coined (and trademarked)in Denver, Colorado, uses planting and designfeatures that are more suitable to a particularregion, whether in the arid West or the morevariable climate of the Northeast.

Water treatment facilities, large and small,are being called upon to encourage consumers toconsider using xeriscaping principles to decreasethe huge volume of water devoted to landscapeirrigation. Education through example is onesimple way a small facility can achieve watersavings—and make the treatment plant moreattractive in the process.

Creating a Sustainable LandscapeSome people mistakenly think that xeriscaping

means “xero-scaping” with nothing but a few cactiand rocks featured in a design. That’s not the case.Xeriscaping includes a much broader range ofchoices, and using xeriscaping principles canreduce outdoor water use by one-third.

“Xeriscape is an attractive, sustainablelandscape that conserves water,” Diane Radeke ofthe Colorado Springs Utilities Water ResourcesXeriscape Demonstration Garden says. “Inurban areas, 50 to 70 percent of all waterused [in arid states] is for the irrigation oflandscapes. If this usage can be reduced,it will help conserve an importantresource and save money both inmaintenance and water costs.”

Colorado Springs, Colorado, onlyreceives about 16 inches of precipita-tion annually, but people attempt togrow garden ornamentals therethat require at least an inch ofwater per week to flourish. In

other words, garden designs in the arid West andSouthwest are better suited to desert marigold andglobemallow than they are to delphinium and fox-glove, traditional garden plants in moister climates.

What exactly is xeriscaping?Seven principles define the basic ideals behind

this landscaping practice:• Planning and design,• Soil analysis,• Proper plant selection,• Practical turf areas,• Efficient irrigation,• Use of mulches, and• Appropriate maintenance.The first step in any landscaping project is

the creation of a workable and attractive design.Designing a Xeriscape is no different. Areas fortraffic, recreation, reflection, and gardeningpleasure are incorporated. Considerations, suchas amount of sunlight, views, and time devotedto maintenance need to be included in the plans.

“All gardens should begin on paper,” Radekesays. “It is so much easier to erase a plant thanto move it after it is planted in the wrong place.Also, plants perform better when they are groupedby their water needs. Planting a low waterrequiring plant next to a high demand plantresults in over-watering one and under-wateringthe other.”

Besides water needs, the soil’s nutrientavailability must be determined. Adding organicmaterial to the soil is usually necessary, andcompost or well-rotted manures also contribute

Xeriscaping TM Conserves Water


Xeriscaping is far from using just rocks andcactus. Any plant, such as this Gaillardia, fitsinto a xeriscape plan as long as it doesn’trequire a lot of supplemental water.

E D U C A T I O NE D U C A T I O N


Xeriscaping TM Conserves Water

Continued from page 13much to a soil’s texture and general good health.Keep in mind, though, that many plants native tosome areas of the West and Southwest are bettersuited to less fertile soil. Soil amendment applica-tions (lime, fertilizer, etc.) need to be adjustedaccording to the results of a soil test, availablethrough a state’s cooperative extension service.

Reduce Turf AreasChanging turf areas may be one of the more

difficult decisions in retrofitting to Xeriscape.People frequently believe turf requires lessmaintenance, but that’s not necessarily true. Tokeep a lawn green in the heat of summer is a lotof work, and takes a lot of water. Reducing thearea of high water-requiring turf to a morereasonable size is necessary.

Many turf grasses will naturally whither andbrown in the heat of a dry summer, going dormantuntil fall and winter rains rejuvenate them. Thisis a natural process, and watering only weakenstheir systems and causes problems. Grasses, such asKentucky bluegrass, just do not do well in an aridclimate like Phoenix, Arizona, or Albuquerque,New Mexico. With an average rainfall of lessthan nine inches of rain per year, does it makesense to plant grass that requires 40 or moreinches of water to remain green and healthy? Acompromise can be achieved by reducing areasof turf grass to play yards and walkways aroundlarger mulched beds of flowers, shrubs, andwater-saving groundcovers.

“Water-wise” Plants Have an AdvantageWater-wise plants start out with an advantage.

They are adapted to lower natural rainfall, sothey require much less applied water than do non-natives and more demanding ornamentals. Citiesencouraging xeriscaping usually have plant listsavailable for residents to refer to. Colorado Springshas lists of trees, shrubs, flowers, groundcovers,and grasses that are tailored for specific microcli-mates within the city’s borders. The list includes aplant’s water requirements, height and width, andother information.

“Plant lists were developed for each of the eightcommunities that include local and other westernnatives and non-native plants that would becompatible in that community,” Radeke said.“For commercial sites, the designer is requiredto use a specific percentage [60 percent] of theseidentified plants in their design, grouping plantsby their water needs.

This concept of grouping plants, called“zoning,” places drier-growing plants separatelyfrom those with higher water requirements. So,

when water does need to be applied, the rightamount can be added to the appropriate zone.

Water Early To Lessen EvaporationThe best time to irrigate is early in the morning

to reduce the evaporation versus absorption rate.Deep, infrequent waterings encourage roots topenetrate deeper into the soil, reaching down formoisture. Frequent, shallow watering causes rootgrowth closer to the soil surface, making rootsmore vulnerable to drying out.

Turf is best irrigated with a sprinkler system,while trees, shrubs, and garden beds are bestwatered by low-volume drip hoses, which emitwater at ground level where less evaporation cantake place. The type of irrigation system chosenshould be well thought out and designed to workfor the particular landscape features it will service.

To reduce the frequency of irrigating, mulchesshould be applied to garden beds. Mulch is abarrier (bark chips, shredded compost, or otherorganic material) over the garden’s surface. Inaddition to reducing direct evaporation from thesoil, mulches also help cool plant roots. Keepinga deep layer of mulch on landscaped beds providesorganic material that can be incorporated into thebed after it decomposes.

The last of the seven xeriscaping principlesis a basic tenet of all good gardening—diligentmaintenance. Mowing, pruning, weeding, pestcontrol, and fertilizing keep any landscape strongand healthy. Maintenance of irrigation systems isimperative to their functioning properly.

Towns Provide Incentives and EducationCities and towns across the South and West

have adopted various incentives and ordinancesto encourage xeriscaping to help protect theirdiminishing groundwater supplies. For instance,Albuquerque has a Xeriscape retrofit incentiveprogram that provides assistance for replacinghigh water-use landscaping with a more water-efficient plan. Eligible applicants can receive awater bill credit of $0.15 for every square footof qualifying landscape up to 1,667 square feet($250), with a minimum of 500 square feetneeded to participate.

In El Paso, Texas, the Texas AgriculturalExtension Service conducts public workshops,and the Master Gardeners have prepared programson water saving landscaping. “Sunscapers” is anine-session course taught at the CentennialMuseum at the University of Texas at El Pasothat includes “water-smart landscaping within thelarger context of conserving natural resources andliving in the desert.”

“Xeriscape principles

are really just good

horticultural practices

that can be applied

in all phases of

gardening.”

Diane Radeke,Colorado Springs

Utilities WaterResources Xeriscape

DemonstrationGarden




In Amarillo, Texas, an existing recycling centeradjacent to a solid waste transfer area had been“a bit of an eyesore,” Duane Strawn, a landscapearchitect with the parks department, said. Threecity departments cooperated to build and maintaina xeriscaping demonstration garden. Now, thispublic garden of drought-tolerant plants surroundsthe recycling operation.

The Idea Is Spreading The concepts of xeriscaping have become

more the norm than the exception in dry regionsof the U.S. In other parts of the country, such asFlorida and the Northeast, utilities have had todevise strategies for conserving groundwater inthe face of growing populations and pollution.

Radeke said that in 1990, when the XeriscapeDemonstration Garden was started, most peoplehad never heard of xeriscaping.

“In the early years we tracked the number ofpeople who visited the garden,” she said. “It was agood week when we had 20 people visit us. Nowour open houses bring hundreds of people, and weoften have more than 20 people visit on a weekday.Local schools, community organizations, and othergroups frequently arrange tours of the garden andthe adjacent water operations building.”

In Corpus Christi, Texas, a partnership betweencity departments and local nonprofit organiza-tions called the Xeriscape Coalition, is teachingresidents water-saving habits through an interac-tive outreach program. Their Xeriscape LearningCenter and Design Garden is a three-quarter-acrepublic garden at the Corpus Christi Museum ofScience and History that, in addition to the gardenitself, features two exhibits housed in separategazebos. The Water Story Gazebo introducesvisitors to the hydrologic cycle, water treatment,and conservation. The story of the city’s water

storage and delivery from the Nueces River Basinand a history and future look at water in SouthTexas are included in the displays. The Children’sGazebo has a number of activities intended tomake learning about water fun for kids.

Home gardening ideas are presented at theXeriscape Learning Center and Design Garden, aswell as displays comparing various mulches anddemonstrations of composting techniques and soilpreparation. One-page flyers explain the sevenprinciples of xeriscaping, plus a more detailed“Xeriscape-to-Go” idea packet helps residents getstarted with their own water-saving gardening plans.

Inspiring people to work together to decreasewater consumption can be challenging, especiallyin a small community with a tight budget. Thesecommon sense ideas using xeriscaping principlesshow a manageable way to achieve substantialwater savings, while still providing the little bitof paradise we seek in a garden.

For more information about xeriscaping checkthese Web sites based in different parts of the U.S.:

Groton, Connecticut:http://www.grotonutilities.com/conserv.htm#xeris

Southwest Florida:http://www.dep.state.fl.us/swfwmd/xeris/swfxeris.html

Denver, Colorado:http://www.water.denver.co.gov

Colorado Springs Utilities:http://www.csu.org/xeri/

Albuquerque, New Mexico:http://www.cabq.gov/resources/index.html

Xeriscape Landscaping, a U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency booklet, may be ordered fromthe National Small Flows Clearinghouse at(800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191. Request item#GNBLPE01. The item is free. Postal chargesare added to orders.


Are we Tapped Out ?

Former U.S. Senator Paul Simon takes a lookat global water use in his new book Tapped Out:The Coming World Crisis in Water and What WeCan Do About It. Simon, who heads the PublicPolicy Institute at Southern Illinois University,devotes the first half of his book to interestinginformation and statistics about population growthand water use in this country and around the world.

Simon’s suggestions for solving the waterproblem are conservation, desalination, pollution

and over-population control. Much of the secondhalf of his book is a call to put funding andresearch into desalination.

A hard cover edition of Tapped Out is availablefor $22.95 from Welcome Rain Publishers. You mayorder through Karen Strauss/Strauss Consultants,48 West 25th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NewYork 10010 or call (212) 367-8270. The book mayalso be ordered online at http://www.amazon.com.



Retrofit Programs Save Water

Retrofits Toilet tank displacement devices (for toilets 2 to 3 gpcd 1.5using > 3.5 gallons/flush)

Toilet retrofit 8 to 14 gpcd 1.5

Showerhead retrofit (aerator) 4 gpcd 1 to 3

Faucet retrofit (aerator) 5 gpcd 1 to 3

Fixture leak repair 0.5 gpcd 1

Governmental buildings (indoors) 5 percent na

na = not available gpcd = gallons per capita per day

Table 1: Benchmarks for Savings from RetrofittingReduction in Life span

Category Measure end use (years)

by Mohamed Lahlou, Ph.D.NDWC Technical Assistance SpecialistHarriet EmersonOn Tap, Editor

Retrofitting or updating older plumbingdevices to decrease water use is an efficient,effective, and immediate way to conserve water.Replacing toilets, taps, and shower fixtures withmore efficient ones is a logical step for communi-ties that want to reduce domestic water use.

Primarily due to the financial cost to systemsand individuals, retrofitting is listed as a Level 2Measure in the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) Water Conservation Plan Guide-lines. Water use audits, pressure management, andlandscape efficiency are also listed as Level 2Measures, which are recommended for systemsserving between 10,000 and 100,000 individualsThe EPA Guidelines suggest communities lookinto these measures after they have met the BasicGuidelines—deemed to make the most impact forthe least cost:

• universal metering,• water accounting and loss control,• costing and pricing, and• information and education.(See the Conservation Measures Fact Sheet

in the center pages for more information.)

Can a community encourage retrofitting?Retrofitting can be worth the time and money.

For example, a family of three, using simpleconservation devices installed on showers andtoilets, can save more than 16,000 gallons ofwater a year.

A side benefit of a retrofitting program is thatit increases public awareness of the need for

conservation. A community can achieve a morerapid replacement of plumbing fixtures eitherthrough incentives and free assistance, or throughregulatory penalties and requirements, or acombination of both. The following are actions acommunity can take to accomplish a more rapidretrofit of plumbing fixtures:

• Provide retrofit kits, consisting of water-saving devices for toilets and showers, plustoilet leak detectors and informationalliterature free to households.

• Offer a rebate program. Many cities in theU.S. offer cash rebates or credits on waterbills to those who replace plumbing fixtures.

• Provide assistance. Direct assistance withretrofitting can be achieved by sending aperson from the utility to an individualresidence or by contracting with trainedplumbers.

• Reinforce building and hook-up require-ments. A community can make certain thatbuilders do not hook up homes to cityservice unless they use water-saving devices.

Installation Requires Skilled PlumbersA major issue in retrofitting is making certain

well-trained plumbers are available to do the job.Many states and communities require that plumb-ers be certified. Repairing leaking domestic waterfixtures and retrofitting represent a large economicpotential for the plumbing trades sector (as wellas the consumers). Making sure plumbers areskilled will ensure that a large percentage of leakswill be fixed, and that repairs will last as long aspossible if not through the life of durable fixtures.

Replacement costs can be substantial. Makingsure the new parts used are more reliable and saveContinued on next page

Source: U.S. EPA Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, 1998Compiled from various sources. Actual water savings can vary substantially according to a number offactors. These data are provided for illustrative purposes only and may not be current or applicable. To theextent practical, planners should use regionally appropriate or system-specific assumptions and estimates.

T E C H N O L O G I E ST E C H N O L O G I E S


Efficient 1.5 gallons/flush 6.0 16.2 na naLow-flow 3.5 gallons/flush 14.0 37.8 8.0 21.6Conventional 5.5 gallons/flush 22.0 59.4 16.0 43.2Conventional 7.0 gallons/flush 28.0 75.6 22.0 59.4

Efficient 2.5 [1.7] gal/min 8.2 22.1 na naLow-flow 3.0 to 5.0 [2.6] gal/min 12.5 33.8 4.3 11.7Conventional 5.0 to 8.0 [3.4] gal/min 16.3 44.0 8.1 22.0

Efficient 2.5 [1.7] gal/min 6.8 18.4 na naLow-flow 3.0 [2.0] gal/min 8.0 21.6 1.2 3.2Conventional 3.0 to 7.0 [3.3] gal/min 13.2 36.6 6.4 17.2

Efficient Not applicable 21.0 56.7 na naLow-flow Not applicable 34.5 93.2 13.4 36.4Conventional Not applicable 54.5 147.2 33.5 90.4

[a] Efficient = post-1994Low-flow = post-1980Conventional = pre-1980

[b] For showerheads and faucets: maximumrated fixture capacity (measured fixturecapacity). Measured fixture capacityequals about two-thirds the maximum.

[c] Assumes four flushes per person perday; does not include losses throughleakage.

[d] Assumes 4.8 shower-use-minutes perperson per day.

[e] Assumes 4.0 faucet-use-minutes perperson per day.

Water use (gpd) Water savings (gpd)

Fixture [a] Fixture capacity [b] Per capita 2.7-person Per capita 2.7-personhousehold household

Table 2: Potential Water Savings From Efficient Fixtures

Toilets [c]

Showerheads [d]

Faucets [e]

Toilets, Showerheads, and Faucets Combined

more water than the current ones is essential tothe success of this task.

Water industry stakeholders, includingplumbing manufacturers, the water utility, watercustomers, and trade workers would do well tocome together to establish a cooperative programthat sets quality standards for fixtures and promotesplumbing maintenance and skills developmentamong trades people. Stakeholders can identifyand promote water efficient products and educatewater customers about the economic value ofthese products.

How can a system estimate savings?The savings from individual fixtures quickly

add up, providing many systems with a new“source” of water, thus reducing the need forcapacity expansion. Table 1, on the facing page,reports savings associated with retrofitting. Table2, below, gives potential water savings fromefficient fixtures.

Did you ever wonder what the savings are forupgrading the water-using fixtures in your home?Key your information into the Indoor WaterEfficiency Spreadsheet and find out. By select-ing certain variables, you may custom design thespreadsheet and know in advance what savingsyou’ll get after installing water-saving appliancesand fixtures. View the spreadsheet at http://solstice.crest.org/environment/gotwh/general/indoor-water/index.html.

Water Efficiency: Shopping for a GoodToilet or Showerhead? is a site that, located athttp://home.earthlink.net/~wliebold//, provides agood overview of low-flow toilets and water-savingshower heads. In addition to explaining the benefitsof these products, the site discusses consumersurveys that rate satisfaction with various toiletsand showerheads and include customers’ viewson efficiency and performance.


Source: Amy Vickers, “Water Use Efficiency Standards for Plumbing Fixtures: Benefits of National Legislation,” American Water WorksAssociation Journal. Vol. 82 (May 1990): 53; and U.S. EPA Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, 1998.

na = not applicable gpd = gallons per day

T E C H N O L O G I E ST E C H N O L O G I E S


conditions that occur with the more stringentforms of water use restrictions.

So Many People, So Little WaterThe 1997 Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)

video series Cadillac Desert, based on MarkReisner’s book by the same name, states that 80percent of the illnesses in developing countriescan be traced to poor drinking water and lack ofsanitation. According to a United Nations report,9,500 children die each day either because of lackof water or, more frequently, because of diseasescaused by polluted water.

In a PBS interview with Mike Malone, SandraPostel, director of the Global Water Policy Projectand author of The Last Oasis, comments, “Inmost of the countries in Africa and the MiddleEast, populations are going to double withinabout 30 years. We see enormous water scarcity,even at today’s levels of population, and inAfrica, extraordinary poverty.”

The British publication People and the Planetpredicts that by the year 2025 at least 65 nationswill experience severe water shortages. There’seven talk of water wars. Where? In terms of thepotential for conflict “the three major river basinsin the Middle East: the Jordan, the Nile, and theTigris-Euphrates,” says Postel.

In Tapped Out, Simon concurs. “MiddleEastern leaders who are usually reluctant to agreeon anything are unanimous in saying that severewater shortages lie ahead for that region, andunless this difficulty is solved, armed confronta-tion is almost inevitable.”

What about water scarcity in this country?“While our problems are not as severe in the

U.S. as in most nations,” says Simon, “three ofthe fastest growing large states—California,Texas, and Florida—also feel the squeeze onwater supplies and will soon face major difficulties.”

In a July 1998 article in The Atlantic Monthly“Travels Into America’s Future,” Robert Kaplancomments, “Any place with less than 20 inchesof rainfall a year—a category that includes almostall of the American West—will sustain humanpopulation only with difficulty . . . Nature itselfordained government help and supervision becausethe lands west of the 100th meridian [which runsthrough the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma,and Texas] receive, for the most part, less than 20inches of rain annually—the minimum requirednot only to sustain a human population, but alsofor agriculture without irrigation.

“And the discovery, mapping, and exploitationof aquifers in the first half of the twentieth century

has further postponed the day of reckoning forhumankind and nature in the West,” Kaplan adds.“But that day is coming.”

The history of the American West is a story ofdry earth and extraordinary engineering feats in theeffort to obtain water. “Even in the Pacific North-west, where they have a lot of it, the story of theWest is the story of water,” says Reisner, in a PBSinterview with Malone. “We’re always trying tomanipulate it, move it, send it from where it isto where it isn’t.”

California Is a Good ExampleThose who have lived through a drought or

water rationing understand the need to conserve.Anyone who has traveled the southern Californiacoast with its parched golden earth splintered infissures, or seen a noon sun evaporate spray overirrigated green patches of the Central Valleyunderstands the need for conservation.

Southern California, notes Simon, averages lessthan 10 inches of rain per year. (Other sources putthe amount at 11 inches.) And Los Angeles, witha population of approximately 14 million, he says,is drier than Beruit, Lebanon. Reisner notes thateven with all those people, Los Angeles only uses8–10 percent of the water in that state.

Where does all the water go? According tothe Water Resource Institute, approximately two-thirds of global water withdraws are used foragriculture and a quarter for industry.

In a November/December 1996 Mother Jonesarticle, “How Paradise Lost,” Gray Brechindiscusses California’s Central Valley, a 500-mile-long basin enclosed by the Sierra NevadaMountains to the east and the Coast Ranges to thewest. The northern third is known as the Sacra-mento Valley and the southern two-thirds, the SanJoaquin Valley. “Human ingenuity and capitalturned California into the greatest food and fiberfactory ever known,” he says.

Brechin says that by the turn of the century,most of the valley’s artesian wells had gone dryfrom continual overdraft and drought. “Pumpstook over, dropping water tables and stanchingthe flow of springs upon which wildlife depended.

“By 1902, Congress had passed the Reclama-tion Act, committing the federal government inperpetuity to building dams and canals to irrigatethe arid lands of the West.”

Reisner says that almost 1,400 dams werebuilt in California, although not all of these arehuge dams.

“We’ve totally re-engineered these systemsto the point that there’s virtually no naturalecosystem functioning anymore,” says Postel.

Conservation: It’s the Future of Water

Continued from page 1


C O V E R S T O R YC O V E R S T O R Y

“While our problems

are not as severe in

the U.S. as in most

nations, three of the

fastest growing large

states—California,

Texas, and Florida—

also feel the squeeze

on water supplies

and will soon face

major difficulties.”

Paul Simon,Tapped Out


Damming alters the environment by harness-ing wild rivers and often destroys wildlife habitats.Irrigation can leave huge deposits of salt. Brechinnotes that three million tons of salt are carriedannually into the San Joaquin Valley via federaland state aqueducts. Much of it is picked up bypumps and reapplied to the fields. A large part ofit, however, flows into Southern California tobecome drinking water.

The financial cost is extraordinary. Accordingto Brechin, “In 1988, a government economistcalculated that taxpayers had invested $6.8 billionin the federally run Central Valley Project in the50 years since its inception in 1937.”

But why should the rest of us conserve?Those in the East—its hills lush with broad-

leafed green trees—or people in states, such asIdaho with small populations and abundant watersupplies, may question the need for conservation.

Conserving water increases total amountsavailable and often eliminates the need to findnew sources. The 1998 EPA Guidelines state “theinfrastructure needs of the nation’s water systemsare great. Strategic use of water conservation canhelp extend the value and life of infrastructureassets used in both water supply and wastewatertreatment.”

How great are the system needs in this country?EPA’s 1997 Drinking Water Infrastructure NeedsSurvey estimates that over the next 20 years we willneed to spend $138.4 billion on infrastructure—small systems need $37.2 billion of that amount.

EPA’s 1996 Clean Water Needs Survey, whosestatistics are primarily based upon a databasecontaining information about 16,000 publiclyowned wastewater treatment facilities, estimatesthat $139.5 billion will be needed for the country’swastewater systems over the next 20 years. Ofthat amount, water quality program needs forcommunities with fewer than 10,000 people areestimated at $13.8 billion.

What about small systems?Conservation may look like income down

the drain to a small drinking water system in thebusiness of selling water. To consumers it maysimply sound like higher prices and restrictionof habits.

Loss of income is a very real consideration.In his book Water Conservation, WilliamMaddaus warns that one of the major concernswhen increasing water-use efficiency is thepossibility of an immediate reduction in utilityrevenues. Therefore, he says, skillful advance

planning is required to take into account con-servation-related reductions as they affectincreases in demand and revenue anticipatedfrom projected growth.

A 1994 AWWA white paper “Total WaterManagement” states, “Water is a renewable butfinite natural resource. Water conservationconsiderations should be a part of any utility’swater resources planning. Conservation, encom-passing supply and demand management, isappropriate to some degree for all utilities andnot just those in water-short areas.”

To convince the local population that waterconservation makes good water and economicpolicy, however, local water utilities will need toeducate consumers about the benefits of region-ally appropriate conservation measures andresources planning. Although, the paper adds,“this may be a daunting task for those utilitiesin areas where water resources are plentiful.”

In a 1993 Journal of the AWWA article, AmyVickers, one of the experts in the field, notes thatthere are benefits to conserving. “A key assump-tion underlying the potential incentive strategiesfor conservation is that increased water efficiencyis a substitute for water supply capacity and hasequivalent value in the market place.”

According to a 1992 EPA Office of Water,Statement of Principles on Efficient Water Use,“Efficient water use can have major environmental,public health, and economic benefits by helping toimprove water quality, maintain aquatic ecosystems,and protect drinking water resources. As we faceincreasing risk to ecosystems and their biologicalintegrity, the inextricable link between water qualityand water quantity becomes more important.

“Water efficiency is one way of addressingwater quality and quantity goals. The efficientuse of water can also prevent pollution byreducing wastewater flows, recycling industrialprocess water, reclaiming wastewater, and usingless energy.”

A few years ago, several members of theNational Drinking Water Clearinghouse toured acommunity water plant and were told the systemuses a block rate system in which cost decreasesas water use increases. Good for business, theysaid. “What about wastewater?” our engineerasked. “Not my problem,” was the operator’s wryresponse. It is becoming increasingly clear thatwater use or misuse is our problem.

Will states and communities conserve?According to an October press release by the

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the answer is




Water Fact

At least 300 million

people (in the world)

live in regions of

severe water

shortages. By the

year 2025, it will be

three billion.

Paul Simon,Tapped Out


“yes.” USGS statistics show that the nation isusing less water—2 percent less than we used in1990 and nearly 10 percent less than in 1980,despite a continuous increase in population overthat same time period.

After continual increases in the nation’sreported total use of surface water and ground-water from 1950 to 1980, water use declined andhas remained fairly constant since the mid-1980s,according to the USGS report.

In Urban Water Demand Management andPlanning, Duane Baumann states that in a surveyof 1,383 households in both humid and semiaridregions in the U.S., 86 percent perceived the needto conserve as moderately important to very

important. And conservation is impossiblewithout the support of the public.

“The nation is clearly using surface- andgroundwater resources more efficiently,” saysRobert Hirsch, USGS chief hydrologist. “Enhancedcitizen awareness of the value of water andconservation programs in many communitiesacross the country have helped to cut water use inspite of continued population growth. Improvedirrigation techniques and more efficient use ofwater by industry have contributed to reducedwater use as well.”

According to EPA’s Guidelines, as of late 1997,18 jurisdictions (primarily states) had institutedwater conservation planning guidelines for waterutilities. All of these planning guidelines—theEPA surveyed 12 of the 18—require that utilitiesaddress leak detection, metering, pricing, andpublic education. The measures most frequentlymentioned in statutes and guidelines are: meter-ing and meter repair, leak detection and repair,rate design and conservation pricing, plumbingretrofits and promotion of water-saving fixtures,public information and education, and landscaping.

Is conservation required by law? The answeris, that depends where you live. No, it’s notrequired by federal law. Your community watersystem won’t violate any EPA regulations forrefusing to implement water conservationmeasures. However, at their discretion, statesmay require drinking water systems to preparea plan consistent with federal or state guidelinesas a condition of qualifying for a loan under theDrinking Water State Revolving Loan Fund(DWSRF). EPA’s Guidelines contain a sectionthat lists the primacy agency, DWSRF agency,and water resource agency for each state.

What can we do to conserve?According to Darilek, one issue upon whichwater managers agree is that water conserva-tion needs to link water quantity and qualitytogether in a direct manner. Incorporatingwater conservation into water policy meansthat for a water conservation program to behighly effective, both quantity and qualityconsiderations and activities must beincluded in the program.

The EPA’s Office of Water stronglyencourages all sectors, including municipal,industrial, and agricultural, to achieveefficient water use. And, the planningapproach suggested by EPA’s 1998 WaterConservation Plan Guidelines is designedto be accessible and relatively inexpensive.

Think Creatively, Take Small StepsIn 1982, the EPA vetoed the proposed Two

Forks Dam in Colorado following protests byenvironmentalists determined to save wild riversand the habitat of the sand hill crane. Denverthen developed xeriscaping, which encourageslandscaping with plants that are either indigenousto an area (growing wild within 50 miles) or thatrequire very little supplemental irrigation. (Formore about xeriscaping see page 13.)

A September 1998 flyer from the EasternMunicipal Water District in Perris, California,encourages customers to turn down their wateringclocks in October. “Nearly 50 percent of thedomestic water used in Southern California goestoward watering lawns and landscaping aroundsingle-family homes. Reducing this type of usageby just 6 percent would be sufficient to providewater for 300,000 people.”

Wellesley, Massachusetts, created a verysuccessful conservation program through acomprehensive strategy that ties peak demandrates, full cost pricing, and public education. The

Conservation: It’s the Future of Water




Sunset reflects on Mobile Bay in Alabama.Photo by Harriet Emerson


program helped the community reduce its peakwater demand by 90 percent.

Under a set of 1989 state laws that were tobe phased in by 1991, Connecticut mandatedresidential retrofit programs for utilities servingmore than 1,000 customers; uniform plumbingefficiency standards for toilets, showerheads,urinals, and faucet aerators; and water conservationplanning as a prerequisite for state regulatorypermit actions, including rate increases. (See“Conservation Doesn’t Have To Hurt,” in theFall 1996 On Tap.)

Whenever possible, educate the public. (Seepage 24.) If you can’t get through to adults,consider the kids. More and more schools areincluding water conservation as an element ofeducation, and whatever children learn they takehome to their parents. (See page 26.)

Use Water More than OnceAn “AWWA Statement of Policy on Water

Supply Matters,” revised in 1995, says that firstand foremost AWWA believes that sources ofwater with best available quality should be usedfor potable purposes and encourages responsibleuse of reclaimed water in lieu of potable water fornonpotable uses.

Many areas of the country reclaim graywateror wastewater. The USGS report estimates that theamount of wastewater reclaimed in 1995 is morethan double the amount used in the 1970s and1980s. The release can be returned either to thenatural environment or reclaimed for beneficialuses, such as irrigation of golf courses and parks.Illinois and Ohio reported the largest release oftreated wastewater. Florida, California, and Arizonaalso reported large uses of reclaimed wastewater.

The 1993 National Geographic “Water: ThePower, Promise, and Turmoil of North America’sFresh Water,” includes an aerial view of anupscale community in Glendale, Arizona, lacedwith artificial lakes filled with treated wastewater.

Reisner says that California has done a fairlyserious job stretching its water supply throughconservation, especially in the agricultural sector,and that Los Angeles reclaims water by usingtertiary or reverse osmosis and uses much of itto water outdoor landscaping.

“The fact of the matter is we can’t affordto build these big projects anymore,” he adds.“They’re simply too expensive. The environmentaleffects of them are just so great, so profound, thatpolitically, I don’t think you can get them through.”

According to the Cadillac Desert video, Israelcurrently recycles two thirds of its wastewaterand reuses it to drip irrigate crops. Drip irrigation,

the video says, can save one third of what is usedin spray irrigation.

In the PBS interview, Postel says that“conservation, efficiency, recycling water, reusingwater—are in most cases now the most cost-effective and the most environmentally soundways of meeting new water needs. By far, they’remore cost-effective and more environmentallysound than all the supply-side solutions we’vebeen using in the past.

“And,” she says, “they’ve barely been tapped.We’ve been still focused very much on buildingdams and river diversions, and not looking at theseconservation alternatives. And they’re out there;they’re waiting in the wings; the technology isthere. The problem is we haven’t put in place theincentives through pricing, marketing, and othermarket mechanisms and regulations to get themout there, to get them used.”

ReferencesAkkad, Adnan A. 1990. Journal of American Water Works

Association. “Conservation in the Arabian GulfCountries.”

American Water Works Association. 1994. AWWA whitepaper “Total Water Management.” Denver: AmericanWater Works Association.

American Water Works Association. 1995. “AWWAStatement of Policy on Water Supply Matters.”Denver: American Water Works Association.

Baumann, Duane, J. Boland, and M. Hanemann. 1997.Urban Water Demand Management and Planning.New York: McGraw Hill.

Brechin, Gray. November/December 1996. Mother Jones.“How Paradise Lost.”

Kaplan, Robert. July 1998. The Atlantic Monthly. “TravelsInto America’s Future.”

Maddaus, William O. 1987. Water Conservation. Denver:American Water Works Association.

Prasifka, David W. 1994. Water Supply Planning. Malabar,Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Postel, Sandra. 1992. The Last Oasis: Facing WaterScarcity. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.

Public Broadcasting Service. 1997. Cadillac Desertvideo series.

Reisner, Marc. 1986. Cadillac Desert: The American Westand Its Disappearing Water. New York: VikingPenguin, Inc.

Simon, Paul. 1998. Tapped Out: The Coming World Crisisin Water and What We Can Do About It. New York:Welcome Rain Publishers.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. DrinkingWater Infrastructure Needs Survey. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. WaterConservation Plan Guidelines.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water.1992. “Statement of Principles on Efficient WaterUse.” Washington, DC: U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency.

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1995. “Estimated use ofwater in the United States in 1995,” (USGS Circular1200). Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.



“Conservation,

efficiency, recycling

water, reusing

water—are in most

cases now the most

cost-effective and the

most environmentally

sound ways of

meeting new

water needs.”

Sandra Postel,director, Global

Water Policy Project


by Babu Srinivas MadabhushiNDWC Technical Assistance Specialist

Desalination is a process that removes dissolvedminerals including salts from saline water andproduces potable water. Desalination is a naturaland continuous process and a part of the naturalwater cycle. Sea water evaporates and returns toearth as desalinated rainwater.

Why desalinate?Desalination has become increasingly impor-

tant in the last four decades due to the tendency,in recent years, for the world’s swelling populationto dwell in areas where supplies of high qualityfresh water sources are less than adequate. More-over, as there are a considerable number of salinesources available, desalination is becoming anattractive possibility. More than three quarters ofthe earth’s surface and more than 95 percent ofthe world’s water is either salty or brackish, andtherefore not potable. Desalination increasesthe range of water resources available for useby communities.

According to Ron Linsky of the NationalWater Research Institute in California, “thecountry needs to improve the reliability of itssupply. Water could be on the commoditiesmarket in the next century. We may ultimatelyface rationing or importing.”

Can I drink desalinated water?Yes, desalinated water can be used for drinking

purposes, groundwater recharge, and also forirrigation. During the Persian Gulf War, the U.S.Army used mobile units that could produce 3,000gallons of potable water per hour from brackishwater sources. If the desalinated water is to beused for domestic use, post treatment should bedone to ensure that treated water meets the healthand anti-corrosive standards.

How do I desalinate?A number of technologies, such as the mem-

brane process, distillation, and vacuum freezing,have been developed to perform desalination.Distillation and the membrane process are thetechniques used the most.

Nearly 60 percent of the world’s desalinationsystems use distillation, heating the salty water toproduce water vapor that is then condensed toform fresh water.

What are the distillation techniques?The most commonly used distillation methods

are multistage flash distillation (MSF), multipleeffect distillation (MED), and vapor compression(VC). In MSF, the raw water is heated and pressureis lowered, so that the water flashes into steam.This process is carried out in a number of stages,in which the pressure is gradually reduced. In theMED process, the raw water passes through anumber of evaporators connected in a series.Interestingly, the vapor in the earlier stage is usedto evaporate the water in the later stages. In theVC process, the raw water is evaporated, the vaporproduced is compressed, and the compressedvapor is used again for heating the additional rawwater. VC is generally used for small and mediumscale desalination units.

Can I use reverse osmosis to desalinate?Yes, there are several membrane processes,

such as reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis,which can be used for efficient desalination. InRO, the water is pumped through semipermeablemembranes to separate and remove the mineralsfrom the saline water. Before being pumpedthrough the membranes, the water is pretreatedto remove any particles that might clog membranepores. Suspended solids in the raw water can beremoved by using coagulation and filtration.

What is the desalinated water quality?Distillation plants produce water with total

dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations rangingfrom 1 to 50 milligrams per liter (mg/l) and ROplants produce water with TDS concentrationsranging from 10 to 500 mg/l.

The quality of the treated water depends onthe concentration of salts in the raw water, and, inthe case of RO, the membranes selected and thepressure applied. In distillation, the quality dependsupon the heating system, the pressures applied,etc. Quality of treated water can be improved byrepumping the water through the membranes.

Why is pretreatment required?Pretreatment is required to avoid substances

that could interfere with the process and reducedesalination efficiency. Bacteria can grow in ROand distillation plants, hence disinfection may berequired. Metals should be removed from the rawwater as they may contribute to corrosionproblems in distillation plants.

What is desalination?


Reader Suggestion

QUESTION & ANSWERQUESTION & ANSWER


Comparison of Distillation and ROAccording to some sources, the distillation

process produces better quality water moreeconomically than does RO. There is no break inoperation for cleaning and replacement. Pretreat-ment requirements are fewer for distillation, ascoagulation and filtration have to be carried outto prevent clogging of membrane pores in RO.Moreover, distillation plants do not producesecondary wastes from backwash of filters usedfor pretreatment.

But, in the case of RO, no heating is required,and hence, less energy is required. No corrosionproblem is faced. Simultaneously, RO can removeother contaminants and requires less space forinstallation of the equipment.

Is any secondary waste produced?Desalination plants produce liquid wastes

with high concentrations of salts, metals, etc.Liquid wastes may be discharged in the oceanafter making sure that they satisfy the dischargerequirements. Otherwise, they have to be treatedand disposed.

What is the energy requirement?The desalination process uses mainly electric-

ity and heat. The energy required depends on theraw water quality, temperature and the treatedwater quality, and on the process used.

How much does desalination cost?For brackish water, the treatment costs may

range from approximately $1 to $2.40 per 1,000gallons. The cost for sea water desalting isestimated at $4 to $16 per 1,000 gallons. Theseestimates are only provided to give an idea ofthe range of costs, but these costs vary with site-specific conditions.

ReferencesBuros, O.K. 1990. “The Desalting ABCs.” Saline Water

Conservation Research Department. Riyadh, SaudiArabia.

Porteous, Andrew. 1983. Desalination Technology,Development, and Practice. Applied SciencePublishers.

Howe, Everette D. 1974. Fundamentals of Desalination.Marcel Dekker Inc.

Bates, Lincoln. 1995. American City and County. “WaterIssues Prompt New Look at Desalination.”

If you have questions, comments, or wantfurther information about desalination,contact Madabhushi at (800) 624-8301 or(304) 293-4191. You may also e-mail him [email protected].


The Public Broadcasting System (PBS) hasproduced a fascinating four-videocassette docu-mentary Cadillac Desert that tells the story of the“epic struggle for water in the modern Americancivilization in the desert—the abundance it hasbrought, and the great risks it has created.”

The series, winner of the DuPont-ColumbiaJournalism Award, begins with the tale of howvisionary William Mulholland delivered a riverof water across the Mohave Desert to Los Angelesin 1913, then traces the 100-year effort to tamethe Colorado River and transform California’sCentral Valley into history’s most productiveagricultural region. Learn how America’s mightydams inspired similar projects overseas.

Chinatown, Roman Polanski’s fictionalized taleof greed and intrigue based on the Mulhollandproject, is included in the package. The moviestars Jack Nicholson and Faye Dunaway.

The series is based on Marc Reisner’s 1986book Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its

Disappearing Water, which Reisner spent 10years researching.

One video in the series—The Last Oasis:Facing Water Scarcity—is based on a book of thesame name by Sandra Postel, director of theGlobal Water Policy Project.

PBS offers the 6 hour and 20 minute seriesfor $99.95. You may order online at http://www.pbs.org/ or call PBS at (800) 645-4PBSand request item number A2729-WWV8.

A revised 1993 paperback version ofReisner’s Cadillac Desert: The American Westand Its Disappearing Water, a Penguin Book, isavailable in book stores or you may visit thepublisher’s Web site at http://www.penguin.com.

An updated 1997 version of Postel’s The LastOasis: Facing Water Scarcity, published by W.W.Norton and Company and edited by Linda Starke,is available in paperback at bookstores. All theabove items may also be purchased throughhttp://www.amazon.com.

Cadillac Desert Is Water History at its Best

What is desalination?



by Jamie KnottsNDWC Promotions Editor

Utilities looking for educational resources,conservation organizations, or ways to encouragewater conservation in their systems, shouldconsider contacting the following for information.

WaterWiser, the Water Efficiency Clearing-house, should be the first stop on the Web forthose interested in learning about conservation.The site offers an abundance of informationincluding book reviews, an efficiency-relatedcompany directory, a calendar of events forconservation activities, an online discussiongroup, and numerous links to other sites.

The site may be viewed at http://waterwiser.org/ or contact them at WaterWiser,6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235.Their phone number is (800) 559-9855.

Another comprehensive water conservationsite on the Internet is maintained by the U.S.Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Reclama-tion. The Virtual Water Conservation Center,at http://209.21.0.235/, offers a wide range ofinformation services, from regional issues in theGreat Plains and western states to educationallesson plans to water-management documentsthat may be downloaded. More than 35 links togeneral education, agriculture, nature, urban,government, educational resources, and kid’ssites are included.

A quick reading list of water saving tips maybe found at http://www.americanwater.com/49ways.htm. American Water and EnergySavers, Inc. provides 49 ways to save waterindoors and outdoors. The list can easily beused to educate customers about ways they canconserve water in their homes.

Utilities wanting to start a water conservationprogram should check out Drop by Drop, A How-To Guide: Starting a Water ConservationProgram, at http://www.jeonet.com/city/water.htm.This simple one-page Web site gives the basicsthat may help convince customers to conserve.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) offers a water saver management softwarepackage through its Water Alliances for Volun-tary Efficiency (WAVE) program. WAVE is anon-regulatory water efficiency partnership thatencourages commercial businesses and institu-tions to reduce water consumption. Membersreceive the easy-to-use PC-based WAVE-Saversoftware that can identify water and cost savingopportunities. WAVE-Saver was developed in

conjunction with leading water-use experts, andsponsored by the EPA and Metropolitan WaterDistrict of Southern California.

For software or more information aboutWAVE, contact John Flowers, director, EPA, 401M St. SW, Mail Stop 4204, Washington, DC20460. You may also call him at (202) 260-7288or e-mail [email protected].

The EPA’s publication Cleaner WaterThrough Conservation may be viewed onlineat http://www.epa.gov/OW/you/intro.html. Thedocument explains the relationship betweenwater quantity and quality, and discusses howdeveloping water-use efficiency programs canhelp states and local communities achieve cleanerwater by conserving.

The U.S. Geological Survey’s NationalWater-Use Information Program offers a widerange of water-use information on its site locatedat http://water.usgs.gov/public/watuse/. Theprogram compiles data about the nation’s wateruse in cooperation with local, state, and federalenvironmental agencies. The site includes docu-ments that may be downloaded, such as water-usemaps and tables, publications, and reports.

Xeriscaping has become a popular method forconserving water in landscaped areas. To learnmore, log on to the Xeriscape™ Colorado!, Inc.site at http://www.xeriscape.org/. This nonprofitmembership group promotes water savinglandscapes and offers a history, an overviewof xeriscaping fundamentals, and creativeapproaches others can use. (For more informationabout xeriscaping, see page 13.)

The Texas Water Resources Institute(TWRI), located at Texas A&M University inCollege Station, is at the center of water research,training, and technology transfer in Texas. Part ofa national network of institutes created by theWater Resources Research Act of 1964, TWRI’swork involves researching water quality andconservation issues, educating future scientists,and providing water resource information to thepublic and water professionals.

TWRI’s Web site at http://twri.tamu.edu/offers an extensive list of water-related technicalreport abstracts. Online versions of the reportsare not available; however, you may request freecopies through an online form. TWRI’s fourwater-resources-related newsletters—includingTexas Water Savers: News of Water Conservationand Reuse in Texas—are also available online.

Conservation Information Available

Web Sites, Organizations Provide Resources


Reader Suggestion



The WaterReuse Association of CaliforniaWeb site at http://www.webcom.com/h2o/ is a goodsource of information about water reclamation andrecycling, as a supplemental source of water. Byincreasing water reclamation and recycling, theassociation hopes to augment California’s limitedwater resources. An extensive Frequently AskedQuestions (FAQ) section explains everything youwant to know about recycling and reusing water.A regulations section offers updates on pendinglegislation. A links sections offers other water-related sites. (For more information aboutCalifornia, see pages 1 and 18.)



Waterfront , The City of Winnipeg’s Website at http://www.mbnet.mb.ca/wpgwater/ wasCanada’s first online information resource formunicipal water conservation. A study revealedthat residential consumption increases by 2 percentper year and that conservation measures wouldbe needed to slow that growth. The result was anactive campaign to increase water conservation—the Waterfront Web site was part of this effort.Other cities or towns looking for ideas to spurconsumer conservation awareness can learnfrom the many conservation education exampleslisted here.

Office of Wastewater Management, U.S. Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA)

401 M Street SW, Mail Code 4201, Washington,DC 20460

http://www.epa.gov/owm/You may download the agency’s Water Conserva-

tion Plan Guidelines as well as learn about waterefficiency programs that encourage conservation. Goto the Web site above and click on “water efficiency.”

Economic Development Administration,U.S. Department of Commerce

Public Works and Development FacilitiesGrants Program

14th & Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington,DC 20230

http://www.doc.gov/edaContact David McIlwain at (202) 482-5265Grants are provided to fund public works infra-

structure and development facilities including improve-ments to drinking water systems. Conservationmeasures are eligible under the grants.

U.S. Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment

Community Development Block Grants451 7th Street, SW, Washington, DC 20410http://www.hud.govContact Yvette Aidara at (202) 708-1322

ext. 4378Grants are available for low to moderate income

communities to assist in various planning andmanagement efforts if part of a community economicdevelopment project.

American Water Works Association (AWWA)6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235http://www.awwa.orgContact the AWWA bookstore at (800) 926-7337

or (303) 794-7711.AWWA offers various books and news articles

about conservation. Searches of available referencematerials may be made on their Web site.

Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Departmentof the Interior

Water Conservation Field Services Program/Efficiency Incentives Program

1849 C Street NW, Washington DC 20240-0001http://www.watershare.usdr.govContact Cindy Dyballa at (202) 208-7589Grants are available for a range of water

conservation projects, such as planning, education,demonstrating innovative technologies, and con-servation-implementation activities.

Rural Utilities Service, U.S. Department ofAgriculture (USDA)

Water and Wastewater Loan/Grant ProgramUSDA, Rural Utilities Service1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington,

DC 20250http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/RUSContact Richard Mansfield at (202) 690-2670Grants and loans are offered for drinking water

and wastewater infrastructure construction forcommunities serving fewer than 10,000. Conservationmeasures are eligible.

The following agencies and organizations offer water conservation assistance and information:

Organizations Offer Information, Funding


by Margaret Caigan McKenzieNDWC Staff Writer

Editor’s Note: In the last On Tap survey, morethan a dozen readers requested information aboutenvironmental education programs for children,including public education, simple water experi-ments for children, and successful educationprograms for kids.

Water is one of our most precious resources. Butbecause it flows so freely from our faucets, manyof us do not view it as the valuable commodity it is.

While it is true that most Americans haveaccess to plenty of fresh water, it is also true thatin parts of the country, water is occasionally inshort supply. As the population continues to grow,shortages of fresh water will occur more often.This is one reason why it is so important toincrease public understanding of water issues.

Children are an audience that responds wellto water conservation education. Their naturalcuriosity and open-mindedness have earned manyyouth well-deserved recognition.

Kids Are Making a DifferenceThe President’s Environmental Youth

Award (PEYA) is one nationwide program thatannually recognizes youth on both a regional andnational level. Sponsored by the U.S. Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA) and the WhiteHouse Office of Education, this program is opento any student in grades K–12.

Students may compete in PEYA individuallyor as a group. Applications may be submittedthroughout the year but must be postmarked on orbefore July 31 of the award year to be eligible forthat year’s competition. Call your regional EPAoffice for entry forms and further information.

For the number of your regional EPA office,call the EPA at (202) 260-2090 or log onto theirWeb site at http://www.epa.gov/. You may alsocall the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse(NDWC) at (800) 624-8301 or (304) 293-4191.

Kids! Renew America is a national publicationthat recognizes youth environmental programs.This publication is sponsored by Renew America,a nonprofit organization that identifies and honorssuccessful environmental programs that protect,restore, and enhance the environment.

Renew America offers information aboutnumerous youth environmental programs,valuable tips for starting your own projects, andnames and addresses of helpful organizations.

Activities for Youth:

Water Conservation Can Be Fun


Contact Renew America at (202) 721-1545 ore-mail [email protected]. You mayalso access their Web site at http://solstice.crest.org/renew_america.

Log onto the InternetFor hours of amusing and educational fun, log

onto the Internet. The U.S. Geological Survey’s(USGS) Water Science for Schools site is a goodplace to begin. It includes pictures, data, maps,and an interactive section. You can hone yourmath skills by figuring out just how manyshowers you can get from a rainfall or you canbecome a city planner in charge of water worksfor an imaginary city. You may find this site athttp://wwwga.usgs.gov/edu/.

EPA’s Office of Water has a Kid’s Stuff sitethat employs word games to increase your waterconservation vocabulary, provides step-by-stepinstructions for building an aquifer, and invitesyou to laugh at the cartoon representations ofembarrassing moments in a water drinker’s life.This site may be found at http://www.epa.gov/OW/kids.html.

The American Water Works Association(AWWA) provides many of the materials in itsBlue Thumb Kit online at http://www.awwa.org/bluethum.htm. There are cartoon posters aboutwater issues, bookmarks, water facts, waterexperiments, and water word games. Each May,AWWA produces a new Blue Thumb Kit inrecognition of Drinking Water Week. NationalDrinking Water Clearinghouse (NDWC) is amember organization of the Blue Thumb Alliance.

A limited number of 1998 kits are availablefree from the NDWC at (800) 624-8301 or (304)293-4191. You will be charged shipping costs.Ask for item #DWPKPE17. Otherwise, you mayorder a copy of the 1998 kit from AWWA at (800)926-7337 at a cost of $7.95 plus shipping. AWWA’s1999 kits will be available in February.

Are you looking for holiday gifts?The Groundwater Foundation offers a number

of products that might make fun holiday gifts.• Dripial Pursuit is a card game that asks

questions related to water, natural resources,and geography. Play it in the classroom orat home with family and friends. Play inteams or individually. Order item 2-2; thecost is $6.

• Groundwater Bookmarks are laminatedbookmarks that list The Top Ten Ways to


Reader Suggestion


Protect and Conserve Groundwater. Pricedat 50 cents for the first nine, these book-marks are discounted when purchasedin volume.

• “Excuse Me, Sir, That’s My Aquifer!” isa cassette tape by nationally known folksinger and writer Ann Bailey-Rowland whouses humorous verse and song to expressenvironmental concerns. The cassettecontains nine songs and comes with itsown booklet featuring sing-along lyrics,background notes and several studentactivities. Item 2-4 costs $13.50.

• Puddle Pictures is much like the popularPictionary game. It is a team card game—challenging for both children and adults—that uses water-related words. Request item2-6. The cost is $6.

You may order the above products from TheGroundwater Foundation at (800) 858-4844 orprint the order form from their Web site at http://www.groundwater.org/ and mail it with yourcheck or money order.

Water Festivals Are FunIf you are a 4th, 5th, or 6th grader who lives

in Nebraska, you may get to spend a fun-filledday learning about groundwater at the annualgroundwater festival held in March at GrandIsland, Nebraska. Because of this festival’ssuccess, it has become an international modelfor developing water festivals. Currently, waterfestivals are held in nearly 40 states.

For more information about this festival orto find guidance in developing your own waterfestival, contact The Groundwater Foundationat the number above.

TV Time Can Be EducationalThe often maligned TV offers water conser-

vation education in a relaxed setting. Look forenvironmental programs on the Public Broadcast-ing System, Arts and Entertainment, and theDiscovery channels.

If you don’t want to wait for TV to air anenvironmental program, you can contact the WorldResources Institute. They have an extensive listingof environmental videos and may be reached at(202) 638-6300 or e-mail [email protected].

How can adults help?The Education Resource Information Center

(ERIC) in Columbus, Ohio, offers a video titledPlanning for Fun and Success that explores eight

youth water education programs. It includes aprogram leader workshop guide that explains howto design a community-based youth water program.

You may order the video for $10.95 plusshipping charges by calling (800) 276-0462.

What about educational grants?If you want to bring water conservation

education into schools, grants are available forjust that purpose. For example, in 1997, HygieneElementary School in Hygiene, Colorado, wasawarded $4,900 to teach students about water-related topics, and this year the Center forEnvironmental Research and Service in Troy,Alabama, received a $4,800 grant to develop awater conservation education program.

A grant that started out supporting a project inAtlanta, Georgia, now benefits numerous schoolsthroughout Georgia and 33 other states, as well asin Canada. Funds were granted to develop apartnership among water utilities, private sectorenterprises, county cooperative extension services,and local public and private school systems.

The partnership used the grant to develop theWater Sourcebook Series—four hands-on wateractivity books based on the theme “use what youneed, and don’t pollute.” The activities in thebooks—designed to support the disciplines ofmathematics, science, language arts, socialstudies, and related arts—are applicable to allgeographic areas, and have been tested by teachers.

Because of the varied ages of its target audi-ence, separate books were designed for gradesK–2 ($21.95); grades 3–5 ($24.95); grades 6–8(not yet available); and grades 9–12 ($29.95).The grade 6–8 Sourcebook will be available inApril. Quantity discounts are available andshipping charges are added. To order, call FoxMcCarthy at (770) 426-8936 or write to GeorgiaWater Wise Council, Inc. at 1033 Franklin Road,Suite 9-187, Marietta, Georgia 30067-8004.

Need help writing grants?Many teachers are not experienced grant

writers and tend to shy away from writing grantproposals. EPA has developed software—the“EPA Grant-Writing Tutorial”—that will walkyou through the grant writing process.

You may use this software online at http://www.epa.gov/teachers/grants.htm or downloadit to your computer.




Note: The free items listed below are limited to oneof each per order. Call (800) 624-8301 or (304)293-4191 to order products. Please allow three tofour weeks for delivery. Actual shipping chargesare added to each order. National Drinking WaterClearinghouse (NDWC) products also may beordered via e-mail at [email protected] are subject to availability. Please verifyprice when ordering.

Computer Search—Water ConservationItem # DWBLCM11This 1998 computer search contains abstracts

of articles related to water conservation and reuse,including water-saving appliances and devicesthat can be used in homes, water saving devices,and the uses of recycled water.

Cost: $10.20

21 Water Conservation Measures forEverybodyItem # DWFSPE60This fact sheet, published by the U.S. Environ-

mental Protection Agency in 1992, presents theimportance of water conservation, aswell as statistics of water consumptionand the waste. It also gives a list ofmeasures that can be taken for efficientwater conservation.

Cost: $0.00

Introduction to Water Loss andLeak DetectionItem # DWBLOM04Aimed at operators of small water

systems, this 1989 guide discusses thetypes of water loss and the steps toisolate and pinpoint leaks

Cost: $3.00

Yes, You Can: Two Small Towns ShowHow To Save Money and WaterItem # DWFSPE60The communities of Lorena, Texas, and Bern,

Kansas, outline how they saved money and waterthrough public education and conservation in this1991 brochure.

Cost: $0.00

RESULTS 3.0Item # DWSWGN31 (Mac version)Item # DWSWGN25 (DOS version)The newly updated RESULTS Database

includes information about alternative treatmenttechnologies in use by more than 1,000 smalldrinking water systems around the country. Thecomputer disk offers system and manufacturercontacts, as well as treatment specifics. An onlineversion is available free of charge and may beaccessed at the National Drinking Water Clear-inghouse (NDWC) Web site located at http://www.ndwc.wvu.edu.

Cost: $10.00 (Mac version) $5.00 (DOS version)

NDWC Suggests Conservation Products

C O N T E N T SC O N T E N T S

National Drinking Water ClearinghouseWest Virginia UniversityP.O. Box 6064

Morgantown, WV 26506-6064

ADDRESS SERVICE REQUESTED

On Tap Offers Conservation Articles

For a look at what Connecticut is doing about conservation,see “Conservation Doesn’t Have to Hurt,” page 1, Fall 1996On Tap, Volume 5, Issue 3. The article is a case study of howthe small town of Portland, Connecticut, (2,000 serviceconnections) implemented state-mandated retrofitting.

Another helpful article from a back issue is “50 percentloss? How to Detect Small Utility Water Leaks,” page 4,Winter 1993 On Tap, Volume 2, Issue 1. This issue is out ofprint; however, the three-page article is available for a smallcopying fee plus postage.

NonprofitOrganization

U.S. Postage PaidPermit No. 34

Morgantown, WV

Features

Conservation: It’sthe Future of Water,

page 1

RUS Awards $155.8Million in Assistance,

page 3

Technical AssistanceAids Water Conserva-

tion, page 4

EPA PublishesConservation

Guidelines, page 6

Systems MustReport Water Quality,

page 10

GroundwaterProtection Is a Step

Closer, page 12

XeriscapingTM

Conserves Water,page 13

Water ConservationMeasures Fact Sheet,

center pages

Retrofit ProgramsSave Water, page 16

Departments

NDWC page, page 2

Regulations, page 6

Q&A: What isdesalination?

page 22

Resources, page 24

Documents

Drinking Water News For America’s Small Communities · Drinking Water News For America’s Small Communities Winter 1998 Volume 7, Issue 4 ... tries,” a Journal of American Water