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Dragon

ContentsArticles

Dragon 1European dragon 8Chinese dragon 18Wyvern 30List of dragons in mythology and folklore 32Dragons in Greek mythology 38Saint George and the Dragon 39A Book of Dragons 48Nāga 49Japanese dragon 59China 65Legendary creature 84

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 86Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 90

Article LicensesLicense 93

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Dragon

The "Ljubljana Dragon" in Ljubljana, Slovenia

Carved imperial dragons at Nine Dragon Wall,Beijing

A dragon is a legendary creature, typically with serpentine orotherwise reptilian traits, that feature in the myths of many cultures.

There are two distinct cultural traditions of dragons: the Europeandragon, derived from European folk traditions and ultimately related toGreek and Middle Eastern mythologies, and the Chinese dragon, withcounterparts in Japan, Korea and other East Asian countries. The twotraditions may have evolved separately, but have influenced each to acertain extent, particularly with the cross-cultural contact of recentcenturies. The English word "dragon" derives from Greek δράκων(drákōn), "dragon, serpent of huge size, water-snake", which probablycomes from the verb δρακεῖν (drakeîn) "to see clearly".[1]

In the New Testament, the Devil takes the form of a red dragon withseven heads and ten horns, in his battle against Archangel Michael.

Overview

An illustration of a Eastern dragon.

Dragons are usually shown in modern times with a body like a hugelizard, or a snake with two pairs of lizard-type legs, and able to emitfire from their mouths. The European dragon has bat-type wingsgrowing from its back. A dragon-like creature with no front legs isknown as a wyvern. Following discovery of how pterosaurs walked onthe ground, some dragons have been portrayed without front legs andusing the wings as front legs pterosaur-fashion when on the ground.

Although dragons occur in many legends around the world, differentcultures have varying stories about monsters that have been groupedtogether under the dragon label. Some dragons are said to breathe fire or to be poisonous, such as in the Old Englishpoem Beowulf.[2] They are commonly portrayed as serpentine or reptilian, hatching from eggs and possessingtypically scaly or feathered bodies. They are sometimes portrayed as having especially large eyes or watchingtreasure very diligently, a feature that is the origin of the word dragon (Greek drakeîn meaning "to see clearly").[3]

Some myths portray them with a row of dorsal spines. European dragons are more often winged, while Chinesedragons resemble large snakes. Dragons can have a variable number of legs: none, two, four, or more when it comesto early European literature.

Dragons are often held to have major spiritual significance in various religions and cultures around the world. In many Asian cultures dragons were, and in some cultures still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of

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nature, religion and the universe. They are associated with wisdom—often said to be wiser than humans—andlongevity. They are commonly said to possess some form of magic or other supernatural power, and are oftenassociated with wells, rain, and rivers. In some cultures, they are also said to be capable of human speech. In sometraditions dragons are said to have taught humans to talk.The term dragoon, for infantry that moved around on horseback yet still fought as foot soldiers, is derived from theirearly firearm, the "dragon", a wide-bore musket that spat flame when it fired, and was thus named for the mythicalcreature.

Origin and etymology

Dragon head on a roof of a temple in Taiwan

Origin and etymology

The word dragon entered the English language in the early 13thcentury from Old French dragon, which in turn comes from Latindraconem (nominative draco) meaning "huge serpent, dragon," fromthe Greek word δράκων, drakon (genitive drakontos, δράκοντος)"serpent, giant seafish", which is believed to have come from an earlierstem drak-, a stem of derkesthai, "to see clearly," fromProto-Indo-European derk- "to see" or "the one with the (deadly)glance." The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, notnecessarily mythological, and this usage was also current in English upto the 18th century.

The association of the serpent with a monstrous opponent overcome by a heroic deity has its roots in the mythologyof the Ancient Near East, including Canaanite (Hebrew, Ugaritic), Hittite and Mesopotamian. The Chaoskampf motifentered Greek mythology and ultimately Christian mythology, although the serpent motif may already be part ofprehistoric Indo-European mythology as well, based on comparative evidence of Indic and Germanic material. It hasbeen speculated that accounts of spitting cobras may be the origin of the myths of fire-breathing dragons.[4]

Oriental dragon

The earliest depiction of the oriental dragon was the Chinese dragon (traditional:龍;simplified:龙), with examplesdating back to the 16th century BC.[5] Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is anonomatopoeia of the sound thunder makes.[6] The Chinese name for dragon is pronounced "lóng" in MandarinChinese[5] or "lùhng" in the Cantonese.[7] Sometime after the 9th century AD, Japan adopted the Chinese dragonthrough the spread of Buddhism.[5] Although the indigenous name for a dragon in Japanese is tatsu (たつ), a few ofthe Japanese words for dragon stem from the Chinese word for dragon, namely, "ryū" (りゅう) or "ryō" (りょう)(traditional:龍;simplified:竜).[5] The Vietnamese word for dragon is "rồng" (hán tự:龍) and the Korean word fordragon is "ryong" (hangul:용) (hanja:龍).

Animals that may have inspired dragonsDinosaur and mammalian fossils were occasionally mistaken for the bones of dragons and other mythological creature; for example, a discovery in 300 BC in Wucheng, Sichuan, China, was labeled as such by Chang Qu.[8] Adrienne Mayor has written on the subject of fossils as the inspiration for myths in her book The First Fossil Hunters, and in an entry in the Encyclopedia of Geology she wrote: "Fossil remains generated a variety of geomyths speculating on the creatures' identity and cause of their destruction. Many ancient cultures, from China and India to Greece, America, and Australia, told tales of dragons, monsters, and giant heroes to account for fossils of animals they had never seen alive."[9] In Australia, stories of such creatures may have referred to the land crocodiles,

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Quinkana sp., a terrestrial crocodile which grew to 5 to possibly 7 metres long, or the 4 tonne monitor lizard Varanuspriscus (formerly Megalania prisca) a giant carnivorous goanna that might have grown to 7 metres, and weighed upto 1,940 kilograms, or rainbow serpents (possibly Wonambi naracoortensis) that were part of the extinct megafaunaof Australia.[10] Today the Komodo monitor lizard Varanus komodoensis is known in English as the Komododragon.The King James Bible uses the words "serpent", "dragon" and "Devil" in a fairly interchangeable manner.In the book An Instinct for Dragons[11] anthropologist David E. Jones suggests a hypothesis that humans just likemonkeys have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, large cats and birds of prey. Dragons have features that arecombinations of these three. An instinctive fear for these three would explain why dragons with similar featuresoccur in stories from independent cultures on all continents. Other authors have suggested that especially under theinfluence of drugs or in dreams, this instinct may give rise to fantasies about dragons, snakes, spiders, etc., whichwould explain why these symbols are popular in drug culture. The traditional mainstream explanation to the folkloredragons does however not rely on human instinct, but on the assumption that fossil remains of dinosaurs gave rise tosimilar speculations all over the world.

By region

Greek mythologyIn Ancient Greece the first mention of a "dragon" is derived from the Iliad where Agamemnon is described as havinga blue dragon motif on his sword belt and a three-headed dragon emblem on his breast plate.[12] However, the Greekword used (δράκων drákōn, genitive δράκοντοϛ drákontos) could also mean "snake". Δράκων drákōn is a form ofthe aorist participle active of Greek δέρκομαι dérkomai = "I see", derkeîn = "to see", and originally likely meant"that which sees", or "that which flashes or gleams" (perhaps referring to reflective scales). This is the origin of theword "dragon". (See also Hesiod's Theogony, 322.)In 217 A.D., Flavius Philostratus (Greek: Φλάβιος Φιλόστρατος)[13] discussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in Indiain The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (II,17 and III,6–8). The Loeb Classical Library translation (by F.C. Conybeare)mentions (III,7) that “In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine’s, but they are slighter in build andtwisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks’ teeth.”According to a collection of books by Claudius Aelianus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Αιλιανός)[14] called On Animals,Ethiopia was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants. It could grow to a length of 180 feet and had alifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals.[15]

Dragon effigy, the Graoully, in Metz, France

European

European dragons exist in folklore and mythology among theoverlapping cultures of Europe. Despite having wings, the dragonis generally depicted as having an underground lair or cave,making it an ancient creature of the earth element. Europeandragons are usually depicted as malevolent though there areexceptions (such as Y Ddraig Goch, the Red Dragon of Wales).

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Chinese

Dragon sculpture on top of Longshan Temple,Taipei, Taiwan.

Chinese dragons (simplified Chinese: 龙; traditional Chinese: 龍;pinyin: lóng) can take on human form and are usually seen asbenevolent. Dragons are particularly popular in China and thefive-clawed dragon was a symbol of the Chinese emperors, with themythical bird fenghuang the symbol of the Chinese empress. Dragoncostumes manipulated by several people are a common sight atChinese festivals.

Japanese

Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with importedstories about dragons from China, Korea and India. Like these otherAsian dragons, most Japanese ones are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typicallydepicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248),[16] the Japanese dragonis "invariably figured as possessing three claws".

IndiaIn the early Vedic religion, Vritra (Sanskrit: वृत्र (Devanāgarī) or Vṛtra (IAST)) "the enveloper", was an Asura andalso a "naga" (serpent) (Sanskrit: नाग)[17] or possibly dragon-like creature, the personification of drought and enemyof Indra. Vritra was also known in the Vedas as Ahi ("snake") (Sanskrit: अहि),[18] and he is said to have had threeheads.The Life of Apollonius of Tyana by Flavius Philostratus:[19] contains a long detailed description of India heavilyinfested with dragons, but this does not correspond with modern Indian belief, and likely not with Indian belief as itwas in his time, whether Apollonius invented this story, or whether he believed someone else who told him it.

PersianAži Dahāka is the source of the modern Persian word azhdahā or ezhdehā اه هدژا (Middle Persian azdahāg) meaning"dragon", often used of a dragon depicted upon a banner of war. The Persians believed that the baby of a dragon willbe the same color as the mother's eyes. In Middle Persian he is called Dahāg or Bēvar-Asp, the latter meaning "[hewho has] 10,000 horses." Several other dragons and dragon-like creatures, all of them malevolent, are mentioned inZoroastrian scripture. (See Zahhāk).

JewishIn Jewish religious texts, the first mention of a dragon-like creature is in the Biblical works of Job (26:13), and Isaiah(27:1) where it is called Nachash Bare'ach, or a "Pole Serpent".[20] This is identified in the Midrash Rabba toGenesis 1:21 as Leviathan from the word Taninim (םינינת) "and God created the great sea-monsters."[21] In modernHebrew the word Taninim is used for Crocodiles but this is a 20th century usage unconnected with the originalBiblical meaning.In Jewish astronomy this is also identified with the North Pole, the star Thuban which, around 4,500 years ago, was the star in the Draco constellation's "tail".[20] However this can also have been either the celestial pole or the ecliptic pole. The ancient observers noted that Draco was at the top of the celestial pole, giving the appearance that stars were "hanging" from it, and in Hebrew it is referred to as Teli, from talah (הלת) – to hang.[22] Hebrew writers from Arabic-speaking locations identified the Teli as Al Jaz'har, which is a Persian word for a "knot" or a "node" because of the intersection of the inclination of the orbit of a planet from the elliptic that forms two such nodes. In modern astronomy these are called the ascending node and the descending node, but in medieval astronomy they were

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referred to as "dragon's head" and "dragon's tail".[23]

Rahab, as described in Psalms 89:9–10 and Isaiah 51:9–10, also has "dragon-like" characteristics.The Merthyr Synagogue features a dragon on the front gable.[24]

Modern depictions

Toy dragons, on sale in a California gift shop,2005

In the early 20th century sculpture of the Norwegian artist GustavVigeland, inspired by Medieval art, dragons are a frequent theme—assymbols of sin but also as a nature force, fighting against man.

There are numerous examples of dragons in modern media, especiallythe fantasy genre. In the 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit by J.R.R.Tolkien, the major antagonist is a dragon named Smaug. Other dragonsappearing in Tolkien's works include Glaurung, the "father of dragons"created by Morgoth, along with Ancalagon the Black and Scatha. Also,in Tolkien's Farmer Giles of Ham, a dragon named ChrysophylaxDives is encountered.

The popular role playing game system Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) makes heavy use of dragons, and has served asinspiration for many other games' dragons. In D&D, dragons are typically associated with an element, which makesitself apparent in the dragon's color and the type of its breath weapon. Though dragons usually serve as adversaries,they can be both good and evil, with their alignment being determined by their color. For example, a Red Dragon isevil and associated with fire. Dragons in D&D grow throughout their lives, both physically and mentally, and arecapable of attaining weights in excess of a million pounds.Dragons also appear frequently in the Harry Potter novels by J. K. Rowling, and are described in the HarryPotter-related book, Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them by the same author.Dragonriders of Pern is an extensive science fiction series of novels and short stories created and primarily writtenby Anne McCaffrey. Since 2004, McCaffrey's son, Todd McCaffrey, has also published Pern novels, both incollaboration with Anne and on his own. The Pernese use intelligent firebreathing creatures called dragons, whohave a telepathic bond with their riders, formed by mental impressions which the dragons receive when they hatchfrom their eggs.Some modern pseudo-biological accounts of dragons give them the generic name Draco, although the generic nameDraco is used in real-world biology for a genus of small gliding agamid lizard. An infectious disease calledDracunculiasis, caused by infection with the Guinea worm which grows up to 3 feet (0.91 m) long before emergingfrom its host, also derives its name from dragons (literally "infestation with little dragons"), based on the burningpain experienced by sufferers.

Creationists' assertionsSome creationists believe that dragons of mythology were actually dinosaurs, and that they died out with othercreatures around the end of the ice age.[25] [26]

CartographyThere is a widespread belief that earlier cartographers used the Latin phrase hic sunt dracones, i.e., "the dragons arehere", or "here be dragons", to denote dangerous or unexplored territories, in imitation of the infrequent medievalpractice of putting sea serpents and other mythological creatures in blank areas of maps. However the only knownuse of this phrase is in the Latin form "HC SVNT DRACONES" on the Lenox Globe (ca. 1503–07).[27]

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References[1] Δράκων (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=dra/ kwn2), Henry George Liddell, Robert

Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus project[2] [The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Vol. 1 by MH Abrams (1999), 6th Ed.[3] Wiktionary.org (http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ dragon)[4] Cohen, Daniel (1989). The encyclopedia of monsters. Michael O'Mara Books, Limited. p. 231. ISBN 9780948397943.[5] A to Z Photodirectory of Japanese Buddhist Statuary (http:/ / www. onmarkproductions. com/ html/ dragon. shtml). Retrieved June 5, 2011[6] People's Daily On-line (2001), Chinese Dragon Originates From Primitive Agriculture: Archaeologist. Retrieved June 5, 2011.[7] Caihua Guan. English-Cantonese Dictionary: Cantonese in Yale Romanization.[8] "Dinosaurs And Cave People" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ articles/ 2005/ 04/ 14/ 1334145. htm). Abc.net.au. 2005-04-14. . Retrieved

2010-02-11.[9] Adrienne Mayor in Encyclopedia of Geology, ed. Richard Selley, Robin Cocks, and Ian Palmer. Elsevier:2004[10] Mackness, B.S. 2009. Reconstructing Palorchestes (Marsupialia: Palorchestidae) — from Giant Kangaroo to Marsupial ‘Tapir’. Proceedings

of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 130: 21–36.[11] David E. Jones (2000). An Instinct for Dragons (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1uBUZupE9gC& lpg=PP1& pg=PP1#v=onepage&

q=& f=false). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92721-8. .[12] p.79, Drury, Nevill, The Dictionary of the Esoteric (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=k-tVr09oq3IC& pg=PA79& lpg=PA79&

dq=earliest+ mention+ of+ dragon& source=web& ots=fxq_n3SLTa& sig=zKfmIXx1BT3nQAZq3I0vkx9akhM& hl=en), books.google.com[13] Ελλήνων δίκτυο. ΛΗΜΝΙΑ ΓΗ. Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / hellinon. net/ NeesSelides/ Limnos. htm[14] Η φυσιογνωμία ενός λαού θεμελιών. Μύθοι για την Ελιά. Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / www. etwinning. gr/ projects/ elia/ muthoi.

htm[15] Theoi.com (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Thaumasios/ DrakonesAithiopikoi. html)[16] Gould, Charles. 1896. Mythical Monsters" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YKEAAAAAMAAJ& dq=mythical+ monsters& pgis=1).

W. H. Allen & Co.[17] naga का मतलब हिंदी में. Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / dict. hinkhoj. com/ shabdkosh. php?word=naga[18] अहि का मतलब अंग्रेजी में. Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / dict. hinkhoj. com/

meaning-of-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF-in-english. html[19] Flavius Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana, translated by F. C. Conybeare, volume I, book III. chapters VI, VII, VIII, 1921, pp.

243–247.[20] p. 233, Kaplan[21] p.51, Freedman[22] p. 1670, Jastrow ref to Genesis 38:14, Y.Sot.I 16d (bot.)[23] p. 235, Kaplan[24] Kadish, Sharman (2006) Jewish Heritage in England: an architectural guide. Swindon: English Heritage ISBN 190562428X; p. 203[25] Unlocking the secrets of creation by Dennis R. Peterson[26] The Genesis Flood by John C. Whitcomb Jr.[27] Erin C. Blake (1999). "Where Be "Here be Dragons"?" (http:/ / www. maphist. nl/ extra/ herebedragons. html). MapHist Discussion Group.

Maphist.nl. . Retrieved February 10, 2006.

Sources• Drury, Nevill, The Dictionary of the Esoteric, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2003 ISBN 8120819896• Freedman, Rabbi Dr. H. (translation), Simon M., editor, Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume one, The Soncino

Press, London, 1983• Littleton, C. Scott. Mythology: The Illustrated Anthology of World Myth and Storytelling. Thunder Bay Press

(CA). ISBN 1571458271.• Rosanna M. Giammanco Frongia; Giorgi, Rosa; Giammanco Frongia, Rosanna M.; Zuffi, Stefano (2005). Angels

and demons in art. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN 0892368306.

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Further reading• Knight, Peter. "Sacred Dorset – On the Path of the Dragon", 1998.• Manning-Sanders, Ruth (1977). A Book of Dragons. London: Methuen. ISBN 0416581102.• Mayor, Adrienne (2000). The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times. Princeton, New

Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08977-9.• Shuker, Karl (1995). Dragons: a natural history. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684814439.

External links• Chinese Dragons in the news (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6171963. stm), BBC• The Evolution of the Dragon (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 22038), by G. Elliot Smith, 1919, from Project

Gutenberg• From Many Imaginations, One Fearsome Creature, [[New York Times (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9501E3D7133DF93AA15757C0A9659C8B63& sec=health& spon=& pagewanted=2)], April 29,2003]

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European dragon

European dragon

(Wyrm, Worm)

The Ljubljana Dragon, protector of Ljubljana, capital of SloveniaCreature

Grouping Legendary creature

Sub grouping Dragon

Similar creatures Other dragons

Data

Mythology Germanic, etc.

Region Europe

Habitat Lairs, caves

European dragons are legendary creatures in folklore and mythology among the overlapping cultures of Europe.In European folklore, a dragon is a serpentine legendary creature. The Latin word draco, as in constellation Draco,comes directly from Greek δράκων, (drákōn, gazer). The word for dragon in Germanic mythology and itsdescendants is worm (Old English: wyrm, Old High German: wurm, Old Norse: ormr), meaning snake or serpent. InOld English wyrm means "serpent", draca means "dragon". Finnish lohikäärme directly translated means"salmon-snake", but the word lohi- was originally louhi- meaning crags or rocks, a "mountain snake". The word lohi-in lohikäärme is also thought to derive from the ancient Norse word lógi, meaning 'fire' as in the Finnish mythology,there is also mentions of "tulikäärme" meaning firesnake, or fireserpent. Though a winged creature, the dragon isgenerally to be found in its underground lair, a cave that identifies it as an ancient creature of earth. Likely, thedragons of European and Mid Eastern mythology stem from the cult of snakes found in religions throughout theworld.In Western folklore, dragons are usually portrayed as evil, with the exceptions mainly in Welsh folklore and modernfiction. In the modern period the dragon is typically depicted as a huge fire-breathing, scaly and horned dinosaur-likecreature, with leathery wings, with four legs and a long muscular tail. It is sometimes shown with feathered wings,crests, fiery manes, ivory spikes running down its spine and various exotic colorations.Many modern stories represent dragons as extremely intelligent creatures who can talk, associated with (andsometimes in control of) powerful magic. Dragons have also been shown as guardians and friends of humans, withevil dragons simply misunderstood by humans. In stories a dragon's blood often has magical properties: for examplein the opera Siegfried it let Siegfried understand the language of the Forest Bird. The typical dragon protects a cavernor castle filled with gold and treasure and is often associated with a great hero who tries to slay it, but dragons can bewritten into a story in as many ways as a human character, including as wise beings whom heroes can approach forhelp and advice; in some such cases they resemble Asian rather than European dragons.

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Roman dragons

The Dacian Draco.

Roman dragons evolved from serpentine Greek ones, combined withthe dragons of the Near East, in the mix that characterized the hybridGreek/Eastern Hellenistic culture. From Babylon, the muš-ḫuššu was aclassic representation of a Near Eastern dragon. John's Book ofRevelation—Greek literature, not Roman—describes Satan as "a greatdragon, flaming red, with seven heads and ten horns". Much of John'sliterary inspiration is late Hebrew and Greek, but John's dragon is more likely to have come originally through theNear East.[1] Perhaps the distinctions between dragons of western origin and Chinese dragons are arbitrary, since thelater Roman dragon was certainly of Iranian origin: in the Roman Empire, where each military cohort had aparticular identifying signum, (military standard), after the Parthian and Dacian Wars of Trajan in the east, theDacian Draco military standard entered the Legion with the Cohors Sarmatarum and Cohors Dacorum (Sarmatianand Dacian cohorts)—a large dragon fixed to the end of a lance, with large gaping jaws of silver and with the rest ofthe body formed of colored silk. With the jaws facing into the wind, the silken body inflated and rippled, resemblinga windsock.[2] This signum is described in the surviving epitome of Vegetius De Re Militari 379 CE—"The first signof the entire legion is the eagle, which the eagle-bearer carries. In addition, dragons are carried into battle by eachcohort, by the 'dragoneers'"[3] —and in Ammianus Marcellinus, xvi. 10, 7.[4] Parthia lies athwart the Silk Road, thecultural thread between East and West[5] , allowing for possible connections between this Romanized Parthiandragon and distant Chinese origins.

Several vague incarnations of evil in the Old Testament were given the translation draco in Jerome's Vulgate, toundergo changes in meaning and become broad embodiments of evil.[6]

Dragons in Germanic mythologyThe most famous dragons in Norse and Germanic mythology are:• Níðhöggr who gnawed at the roots of Yggdrasil itself.• Jörmungandr, midgårdsormen (Swedish and Danish), Midgardsormen (Norwegian), the giant sea serpent which

surrounds Miðgarð the world of mortal men;• Fafnir, who was killed by Sigurd. Fafnir had turned into a dragon because of his greed.• Lindworms are monstrous serpents of Germanic myth and lore, often interchangeable with dragons.• The landvættur dragon whom King Harald's servant met in Vopnafjörður according to Heimskringla. The dragon

is now depicted on the Icelandic Coat of Arms.Of these, J.R.R. Tolkien wrote:

And dragons, real dragons, essential both to the machinery and the ideas of a poem or tale, are actually rare. Innorthern literature there are only two that are significant. If we omit from consideration the vast and vagueEncircler of the World, Miðgarðsormr, the doom of the great gods and no matter for heroes, we have but thedragon of the Völsungs, Fáfnir, and Beowulf's bane.[7]

Many European stories of dragons have them guarding a treasure hoard. Both Fafnir and Beowulf's dragon guardedearthen mounds full of ancient treasure. The treasure was cursed and brought ill to those who later possessed it.English "dragon" derives (via Middle English, Old French, and Latin) from Greek dracon, "serpent, dragon"; theGreek word derives from Indo-European *derk-, "to see", and may originally have meant something like "monsterwith the evil eye." Notwithstanding their folkloric associations, there is no etymological connection between dragonsand the ghoulish figures known as draugar in Old Norse, who haunt rich burial mounds.The emblem books popular from late medieval times through the 17th century often represent the dragon as an emblem of greed. The prevalence of dragons in European heraldry demonstrates that there is more to the dragon than

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greed.The poem Beowulf describes a draca (= dragon) also as wyrm (= worm, or serpent) and its movements by theAnglo-Saxon verb bugan = "to bend", and says that it has a venomous bite; all of these indicate a snake-like formand movement rather than with a lizard-like or dinosaur-like body as in later belief (though the dragon of Beowulfdoes show several features that would later become popularized with dragons; namely, it breathes fire, livesunderground, and collects treasure).

Dragons in Celtic and Anglo-Saxon mythology• The dragon encountered by Beowulf;

The Welsh flag, showing a red dragon passant

In Great Britain, to this day, a rampant red dragon (clutching a mace) isthe heraldic symbol of the County of Somerset. The county onceformed part of the early-medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex inwestern England, which too bore a dragon or wyvern (a two-legged asopposed to a four-legged dragon) as a symbol. The Wessex beast isusually colored gold in illustrations.

Now, however, the dragon is more commonly associated with Wales,as its national flag features a red dragon (Y Ddraig Goch). This mayoriginate in Arthurian Legend where Myrddin, employed byGwrtheyrn, had a vision of the red dragon[8] (representing the Britons) and the white dragon (representing theinvading Saxons) fighting beneath Dinas Emrys. This particular legend also features in the Mabinogion in the storyof Lludd and Llefelys.[9] The legendary house of Pendragon and Celtic Britain in general have become associatedwith the Welsh dragon standard after the fact.

According to the writer on heraldry Arthur Charles Fox-Davies, the red dragon of Wales originated with the standardof the 7th century king Cadwaladr, and was used as a supporter by the Tudor dynasty (who were of Welshorigin).[10] Queen Elizabeth, however, preferring gold, changed the royal mantle and the dragon supporter from redto gold, and some Welsh scholars still hold that the dragon of Wales is properly ruddy gold rather than gules.[10]

There may be some doubt of the Welsh origin of the dragon supporter of the Royal arms, but it certainly was used byKing Henry III.[10] It has also been speculated that the red dragon of Wales may have even earlier origins in theSarmatian-influenced Draco standards carried by Late Roman cavalry, who would have been the primary defenceagainst the Saxons.The Welsh flag is parti per fess Argent and Vert; a dragon Gules passant. Welsh rugby teams include the NewportGwent Dragons and the Cardiff City Blue Dragons.The Merthyr Synagogue in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, features a dragon on the front gable.[11]

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Dragons in Slavic mythology

Zmey Gorynych, by Victor Vasnetsov

Dragons of Slavic mythology hold mixed temperaments towardshumans. For example, dragons (дракон, змей, ламя, (х)ала) inBulgarian mythology are either male or female, each gender having adifferent view of mankind. The female dragon and male dragon, oftenseen as sister and brother, represent different forces of agriculture. Thefemale dragon represents harsh weather and is the destroyer of crops,the hater of mankind, and is locked in a never ending battle with herbrother. The male dragon protects the humans' crops from destructionand is generally loving to humanity. Fire and water play major roles inBulgarian dragon lore; the female has water characteristics, whilst themale is usually a fiery creature. In Bulgarian legend, dragons are threeheaded, winged beings with snake's bodies.

In Bulgarian, Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Serbian lore, adragon, or "змей" (Bulgarian: Змей), zmey (Russian: Змей), smok(Belarusian: Цмок), zmiy (Ukrainian: Змій), zmaj (Serbian: Змај) isgenerally an evil, four-legged beast with few if any redeemingqualities. Zmeys are intelligent, but not very highly so; they often placetribute on villages or small towns, demanding maidens for food, or gold. Their number of heads ranges from one toseven or sometimes even more, with three- and seven-headed dragons being most common. The heads also regrow ifcut off, unless the neck is "treated" with fire (similar to the hydra in Greek mythology). Dragon blood is sopoisonous that Earth itself will refuse to absorb it. In Bulgarian mythology these dragons are sometimes good,opposing the evil Lamya /ламя/, a beast that shares a likeness with the zmey.

Duchy of Czersk (Poland) coat of arms

The most famous Polish dragon (Polish: Smok) is the Wawel Dragon orSmok Wawelski, the Dragon of Wawel Hill. It supposedly terrorizedancient Kraków and lived in caves on the Vistula river bank below theWawel castle. According to lore based on the Book of Daniel, it waskilled by a boy who offered it a sheepskin filled with sulphur and tar.After devouring it, the dragon became so thirsty that it finally explodedafter drinking too much water. A metal sculpture of the Wawel Dragonis a well-known tourist sight in Kraków. It is very stylised but, to theamusement of children, noisily breathes fire every few minutes. TheWawel dragon also features on many items of Kraków touristmerchandise. Dragon is the coat of arms of the Polish princes- Piastówof czersk.[12]

Other dragon-like creatures in Polish folklore include the basilisk,living in cellars of Warsaw, and the Snake King from folk legends.

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Dragons in Iberian mythology

Dragons in Asturian and Cantabrian mythologyThe Cuélebre, or Culebre, is a giant winged serpent in the mythology of Asturias and Cantabria, in the north ofSpain. It usually lives in a cave, guards treasures and keeps nymph-like beings called xanas or anjanas as prisoners.They are immortal, but grow old. They can be tricked in particular ways, especially on certain days.

Dragons in Aragonese mythologyThere is a legend that a dragon dwelled in the Peña Uruel mountain near Jaca. It says that it could mesmerize peoplewith his glance, so the young man who decided to kill the beast equipped himself with a shiny shield, so that thedragon's glance would be reflected. So, when the young man arrived the cave where the dragon lived, he could kill iteasily because the dragon mesmerized itself. This legend is very similar to the Greek myth of Medusa.The king of Peter IV of Aragon used a dragon on his helmet to show that he was the king of Aragon, as a heraldicpun (Rei d'Aragón, dragón).

Dragons in Basque mythologyHerensuge is the name given to the dragon in Basque mythology, meaning apparently the "last serpent". The bestknown legend has St. Michael descending from Heaven to kill it but only once God agreed to accompany him inperson.Sugaar, the Basque male god, is often associated with the serpent or dragon but able to take other forms as well. Hisname can be read as "male serpent".A. Xaho, a romantic myth creator of the 19th century, fused these myths in his own creation of Leherensuge, the firstand last serpent, that in his newly coined legend would arise again some time in the future bringing the rebirth of theBasque nation.

Dragons in Catalan mythologyDragons are well-known in Catalan myths and legends, in no small part because St. George (Catalan Sant Jordi) isthe patron saint of Catalonia. Like most dragons, the Catalan dragon (Catalan drac) is an enormous serpent with twolegs, or, rarely, four, and sometimes a pair of wings. As in many other parts of the world, the dragon's face may belike that of some other animal, such as a lion or bull. As is common elsewhere, Catalan dragons are fire-breathers,and the dragon-fire is all-consuming. Catalan dragons also can emit a fetid odor, which can rot away anything ittouches.The Catalans also distinguish a víbria or vibra (cognate with English viper and wyvern), a female dragon with twoprominent breasts, two claws and an eagle's beak.

Dragons in Portuguese mythologyIn Portuguese mythology, coca[13] is a female dragon that battles Saint George on the Corpus Christi holiday. Thefighting has a symbolic meaning: when the coca defeats Saint George the crops will be bad and there will be famineand death. When Saint George defeats the coca he cuts off her tongue and ears; the crops will have a good year and itannounces prosperity. Still, she is called "saint" coca just like George is called saint and the people cheer for her.Another dragon called drago is also represented in Portuguese mythology and used to take part in celebrationsduring the Middle Ages.

European dragon 13

"Festa da Coca" during the Corpus Christicelebration, in Monção, Portugal

Vibria in aparade in Reus

(Catalonia)

Cucafera during the "FiestaMayor de Santa Tecla" in

Tarragona, Spain

Asian dragons Chinese dragon Lóng (or Loong. Lung2 in Wade-Giles romanization.) The Chinese dragon, is a mythical Chinese creature that also appears in other Asian cultures, and is sometimes called the Oriental (or Eastern) dragon. Depicted as a long, snake-like creature with four claws, it has long been a potent symbol of auspicious power in Chinese folklore and art. This type of dragon, however, is sometimes depicted as a creature constructed of many animal parts. It might have the fins of some fish, or the horns of a stag. Indian dragon Nāga A serpentine dragon common to all cultures influenced by Hinduism. They are often hooded like a cobra and may have several heads depending on their rank. They usually have no arms or legs but those with limbs resemble the Chinese dragon. Indonesian/Malay dragon Naga or Nogo Derived from the Indian nāga, belief in the Indo-Malay dragon spread throughout the entire Malay Archipelago along with Hinduism. The word naga is still the common Malay/Indonesian term for dragons in general.[1] Like its Indian counterpart, the naga is considered divine in nature, benevolent, and often associated with sacred mountains, forests, or certain parts of the sea. Japanese dragon Ryū Similar to Chinese dragons, with three claws instead of four. They are usually benevolent, associated with water, and may grant wishes. Khmer Dragon Neak The Khmer dragon, or neak is derived from the Indian nāga. Like its Indian counterpart, the neak is often depicted with cobra like characteristics such as a hood. The number of heads can be as high as nine, the higher the number the higher the rank. Odd-headed dragons are symbolic of male energy while even headed dragons symbolize female energy. Traditionally, a neak is distinguished from the often serpentine Makar and Tao, the former possessing crocodilian traits and the latter possessing feline traits. A dragon princess is the heroine of the creation myth of Cambodia. Korean dragon Yong (Mireu) A sky dragon, essentially the same as the Chinese lóng. Like the lóng, yong and the other Korean dragons are associated with water and weather. In pure Korean, it is also known as 'mireu'. Imoogi A hornless ocean dragon, sometimes equated with a sea serpent. Imoogi literally means, "Great Lizard". The legend of the Imoogi says that the sun god gave the Imoogi their power through a human girl, which would be transformed into the Imoogi on her 17th birthday. Legend also said that a dragon-shaped mark would be found on the shoulder of the girl, revealing that she was the Imoogi in human form. Gyo A mountain dragon. In fact, the Chinese character for this word is also used for the imoogi. Philippine Dragon Bakunawa The Bakunawa appears as a gigantic serpent that lives in the sea. Ancient natives believed that the Bakunawa caused the moon or the sun to disappear during an eclipse. It is said that during certain times of the year, the Bakunawa arises from the ocean and proceeds to swallow the moon whole. To keep the Bakunawa from completely eating the moon, the natives would go out of their houses with pots and pans in hand and make a noise barrage in order to scare the Bakunawa into spitting out the moon back into the sky. Some say that the Bakunawa is known to kill people by imagining their death and remote in eye contact. Vietnamese dragon Rồng or Long (Ly dynasty, Daiviet X) These dragons' bodies curve lithely, in sine shape, with 12 sections, symbolising 12 months in the year. They are able to change the weather, and are responsible for crops. On the dragon's back are little, uninterrupted, regular fins. The head has a long mane, beard, prominent eyes, crest on nose, but no horns. The jaw is large and opened, with a long, thin tongue; they always keep a châu (gem/jewel) in their mouths (a symbol of humanity, nobility and knowledge). European dragons Catalan dragon drac Catalan dragons are serpent-like creatures with two legs (rarely four) and, sometimes, a pair of wings. Their faces can resemble that of other animals, like lions or cattle. They have a burning breath. Their breath is also poisonous, the reason by which dracs are able to rot everything with their stench. A víbria is a female dragon. French dragons Dragon The French representation of dragons spans much of European history, and has even given

European dragon 14

its name to the dragoons, a type of cavalry. Sardinian dragon scultone The dragon named "scultone" or "ascultone"appears in legends in Sardinia, Italy. It had the power to kill human beings with its gaze. It was a sort of basilisk,lived in the bush and was immortal. Scandinavian & Germanic dragons Lindworm Lindworms are serpent-likedragons with either two or no legs. In Nordic and Germanic heraldry, the lindworm looks the same as a wyvern. Thedragon Fafnir was a lindworm. English dragons Wyvern Wyverns are common in medieval heraldry. Their usualblazon is statant. Wyverns are normally shown as dragons with two legs and two wings. Welsh dragons Y DdraigGoch In Welsh mythology, after a long battle (which the Welsh King Vortigern witnesses) a red dragon defeats awhite dragon; Merlin explains to Vortigern that the red dragon symbolizes the Welsh, and the white dragonsymbolizes the Saxons — thus foretelling the ultimate defeat of the English by the Welsh. The ddraig goch appearson the Welsh national flag. Gaelic dragons Bheithir In Celtic Mythology Ben Vair in Scotland takes its name fromthe dragon that used to live in a great hollow in the face of a mountain known as Corrie Lia. The dragon was trickedinto walking along a pontoon bridge with hidden spikes. Hungarian dragons (Sárkányok) zomok A great snake livingin a swamp, which regularly kills pigs or sheep. A group of shepherds can easily kill them. sárkánykígyó A giantwinged snake, which is in fact a full-grown zomok. It often serves as flying mount of the garabonciás (a kind ofmagician). The sárkánykígyó rules over storms and bad weather. sárkány A dragon in human form. Most of them aregiants with multiple heads. Their strength is held in their heads. They become gradually weaker as they lose theirheads. In contemporary Hungarian the word sárkány is used to mean all kinds of dragons. Slavic dragons zmey,zmiy, żmij, змей, or zmaj, or drak, or smokSmok Wawelski from Sebastian Münster's Cosmographie Universalis, 1544 Similar to the conventional Europeandragon, but multi-headed. They breathe fire and/or leave fiery wakes as they fly. In Slavic and related tradition,dragons symbolize evil. Specific dragons are often given Turkic names (see Zilant, below), symbolizing thelong-standing conflict between the Slavs and Turks. However, in Serbian and Bulgarian folklore, dragons aredefenders of the crops in their home regions, fighting against a destructive demon Ala, whom they shoot withlightning.[2][3] Armenian dragon Vishap Related to European dragons Siberian dragon Yilbegän Related toEuropean Turkic and Slavic dragons Romanian dragons Balaur, Zburator Balaur are very similar to the Slavic zmey:very large, with fins and multiple heads. Chuvash dragons Vere Celen Chuvash dragons represent the pre-Islamicmythology of the same region. Asturian and Leonese dragons Cuélebre In Asturias and León mythology theCuélebres are giant winged serpents, which live in caves where they guard treasures and kidnapped xanas. They canlive for centuries and, when they grow really old, they use their wings to fly. Their breath is poisonous and theyoften kill cattle to eat. Leonese language term Cuelebre comes from Latin colŭbra, i.e., snake. Albanian DragonDragua In the Albanian mythology the Draguas have four legs and two bat wings. They have a single horn in theirhead and they have big ears. They live in the forests and cannot be seen unless they want to be. A Dragua can live upto 100 years and cannot be killed by humans. After the Ottoman invasion, the Draguas became protectors of thehighlanders. Portuguese dragons Coca In Portuguese mythology coca is a female dragon that fights with SaintGeorge. She loses her strength when Saint George cuts off one of her ears. Greek dragons Drákōn - δράκων Cadmusfighting the Ismenian dragon (which guarded the sacred spring of Ares) is a legendary story from the Greek loredating to before ca. 560–550 B.C. Greek dragons commonly had a role of protecting important objects or places. Forexample, the Colchian dragon watched the Golden Fleece and the Nemean dragon guarded the sacred groves ofZeus.[4] The name comes from the Greek "drakeîn" meaning "to see clearly".[5] Tatar dragons Zilant Really closerto a wyvern or cockatrice, the Zilant is the symbol of Kazan. Zilant itself is a Russian rendering of Tatar yılan, i.e.,snake. Turkish dragons Ejderha or Evren The Turkish dragon secretes flames from its tail, and there is no mention inany legends of its having wings, or even legs. In fact, most Turkish (and later Islamic) sources describe dragons asgigantic snakes. Lithuanian Dragons Slibinas This dragon is more of a hydra with multiple heads, though sometimesit does appear with one head.

European dragon 15

Dragons in Italian mythology

Saint Margaret and the Dragon, alabaster withtraces of gilding, Toulouse, ca 1475

(Metropolitan Museum of Art)

The legend of Saint George and the dragon is well-known in Italy, butother Saints are depicted fighting a dragon. For instance, the firstbishop of the city of Forlì, named Saint Mercurialis, was said to havekilled a dragon and saved Forlì, so he often is depicted killing adragon. Likewise, the first patron saint of Venice, Saint Theodore ofTyro, was a dragon-slayer, and a statue representing his slaying of thedragon still tops one of the two columns in St. Mark's square. St.Michael, the patron saint of paratroopers, is also frequently depictedslaying a dragon. Many dragons of the European Middle Ages werethought to be demonic or of evil status.

According to the Golden Legend, compiled by the Italian Jacobus deVoragine, Saint Margaret the Virgin was swallowed by Satan in theshape of a dragon, from which she escaped alive when the cross shecarried irritated the dragon's innards. The Golden Legend, in anatypical moment of scepticism, describes this last incident as"apocryphal and not to be taken seriously" (trans. Ryan, 1.369) - whichdid not prevent the legend from being popuar and getting artistictreatments.

Thyrus, the dragon of Terni

But many more are the legends about dragons in Italy, particularly inUmbria. One of the most famous dragons of Italian folklore is Thyrus,a wyvern that besieged Terni in the Middle Ages. One day, a youngand brave knight, tired of witnessing the death of his fellow citizensand depopulation of Terni, faced the dragon and killed him. From thatday, the town assumed the creature in its coat of arms. Also a Latininscription supports this: "Thyrus et amnis dederunt signa Teramnis"that stands under the banner of the town of Terni.

European dragon 16

"Saint Silvestro resurrects two magicians, and theFornole dragon", Vernio Bardi Chapel, Santa

Croce (Florence)

Another poem tells of another dragon that yet lived near the village ofFornole, near Terni in the south of Umbria. Pope Saint Sylvesterarrived in Umbria and freed the population of Fornole from the ferocityof the dragon, making him become mild. In gratitude, the populationbuilt, in the 13th century, a little church dedicated to the Saint on thetop of the mountain, near the dragon's lair. In the apse of the churchthere is a fresco representing the iconography of the Saint.

Dragons in modern mediaIn modern times, a paradigm shift has occurred that places European dragons as allies instead of adversaries.Dragons are increasingly viewed as friends of man and as highly intelligent and noble creatures, while stillremaining the fearsome beasts of legend. They are frequently shown as guardians and close friends of individualhumans. Many of these ideas were first popularised by Anne McCaffrey with her Dragonriders of Pern series, withlater authors such as Christopher Paolini and J. K. Rowling also depicting sympathetic dragon characters in Eragonand Harry Potter, respectively. Dragons continue to be a popular subject for movies, such as the film How To TrainYour Dragon adapted from the book by Cressida Cowell, and are particularly popular in multimedia fantasyfranchises, most famously that of Warcraft.The Inheritance Cycle shows dragons as the ancient guardians of the world, possessing far superior intelligence thanthat of a human, as well as magical abilities. The dragons were once thought to be evil, much like the commondescriptions of mythology, but they brought peace to the world because this misunderstanding was resolved by theelves.

Early production concept artwork of "Toothless"and "Hiccup".

The movie How To Train Your Dragon provides a very similarconcept. As the vikings have learned to fight and kill dragons theirentire life, dragons are first viewed as evil, monstrous creatures. But asHiccup is able to see past these lies, a new light on dragons is painted -they are shown to truly be friendly, and only by aiding a dragon is evilable to be defeated.

References[1] The various Near Eastern sources for the dragon and the Beast are summarized, for

example in Howard Wallace, "Leviathan and the Beast in Revelation" The BiblicalArchaeologist 11.3 (September 1948), pp. 61-68; the origins of draco inmistranslations of the Septuagint and Jerome's Vulgate, engendering shifts in

emblemmatic significance for Christians, are analyzed in Nicolas K. Kiessling, "Antecedents of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History"Journal of Biblical Literature 89.2 (June 1970), pp. 167-177.

[2] Helmut Nickel, "Of Dragons, Basilisks, and the Arms of the Seven Kings of Rome" Metropolitan Museum Journal 24, (1989:25-34) p. 25.[3] Primum signum totius legionis est aquila, quam aquilifer portat. Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis feruntur ad proelium

(Vegetius, ii, ch XIII. 'De centuriis atque vexillis peditum').[4] Harry Thurston Peck, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, 1898, s.v. 'Signum' .[5] Frances Wood, The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia (University of California Press) 2002.[6] The transformation is examined in Nicolas K. Kiessling, "Antecedents of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History", Journal of Biblical

Literature 89.2 (June 1970:167-177).[7] J.R.R. Tolkien, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics." (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 21301124/

J-R-R-Tolkien-Beowulf-The-Monsters-and-the-Critics) Proceedings of the British Academy, 22 (1936), 245–95.

European dragon 17

[8] Thomas Jones, ed. and trans., "The Story of Myrddin and the Five Dreams of Gwenddydd in the Chronicle of Elis Gruffydd", Etudesceltiques 8 (1958-59:315-345).

[9] The dragon is one of three plagues in the land, which "can Vil England nivr si agen. Obiit 24 Kal Dekembris 1247 be seen as variants on thetheme of the historical invaders who threatened the sovereignty of the Island of Britain" (Sioned Davies, tr. The Mabinogion (OxfordUniversity Press, 2007) "Introduction" p. xii); see also Sabine Heinz, Celtic Symbols, 2008, s.v. "Dragon".

[10] Fox-Davies, Arthur Charles (1909). A Complete Guide to Heraldry (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ details/ completeguidetoh00foxdrich). NewYork: Dodge Pub. Co. ISBN 0517266431. LCCN 09-023803 pp. 225-6.

[11] Kadish, Sharman (2006). Jewish Heritage in England : An Architectural Guide. English Heritage., p. 203[12] Wojciech Górczyk, "Ślady recepcji legend arturiańskich w heraldyce Piastów czerskich i kronikach polskich", Kultura i Historia,

Uniwersytet Marii Curie Skłodowskiej w Lublinie, 17/2010 http:/ / www. kulturaihistoria. umcs. lublin. pl/ archives/ 1793 .[13] (http:/ / www. cm-moncao. pt/ portal/ page/ moncao/ portal_municipal/ Turismo/ Corpo de Deus)

External links• Theoi Project website: Dragons of Ancient Greek Mythology (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ greek-mythology/

dragons. html) excerpts from Greek sources, illustrations, lists and links.• Theoi Project website: All dragon references (http:/ / www. google. com/ custom?domains=www. theoi. com&

q=dragons& sitesearch=www. theoi. com& sa=Google+ Search& client=pub-3887923691185452& forid=1&ie=ISO-8859-1& oe=ISO-8859-1&cof=GALT:#008000;GL:1;DIV:#336699;VLC:663399;AH:center;BGC:FFFFFF;LBGC:6F3C1B;ALC:0000FF;LC:0000FF;T:000000;GFNT:0000FF;GIMP:0000FF;LH:50;LW:296;S:http:// ;FORID:1& hl=en).

Chinese dragon 18

Chinese dragon

Chinese dragon

Chinese name

Traditional Chinese 龍Simplified Chinese 龙Hanyu Pinyin lóng

Transcriptions

Gan

- Romanization lung4

Mandarin

- Hanyu Pinyin lóng

Min

- Hokkien POJ lêng, liông

Cantonese

- Yale Romanization lùhng

Japanese name

Hiragana 1. りゅう

2. たつ

Kyūjitai 龍

Shinjitai 竜

Transcriptions

- Revised Hepburn 1. ryū2. tatsu

- Kunrei-shiki 1. ryû2. tatu

Korean name

Hangul 1. 룡/용2. 미르 (Pure Korean)

Hanja 龍

Chinese dragon 19

Transcriptions

- RevisedRomanization

1.ryong/yong2. mir

Vietnamese name

Quốc ngữ rồng, long

Hán tự 龍

Chinese dragons are legendary creatures in Chinese mythology and folklore, with mythic counterparts amongJapanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Bhutanese, Western and Turkic dragons. In Chinese art, dragons are typicallyportrayed as long, scaled, serpentine creatures with four legs. In yin and yang terminology, a dragon is yang andcomplements a yin fenghuang ("Chinese phoenix").In contrast to European dragons, which are considered evil, Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent andauspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods. The dragon is also a symbol ofpower, strength, and good luck.With this, the Emperor of China usually use the dragon as a symbol of his imperialpower.In Chinese daily language, excellent and outstanding people are compared to the dragon while incapable people withno achievements are compared with other, disesteemed creatures, such as the worm. A number of Chinese proverbsand idioms feature references to the dragon, for example: "Hoping one's son will become a dragon" (望子成龍, i.e.be as a dragon).

Symbolic valueHistorically, the dragon was the symbol of the Emperor of China. In the Zhou Dynasty, the 5-clawed dragon wasassigned to the Son of Heaven, the 4-clawed dragon to the nobles (zhuhou, seigneur), and the 3-clawed dragon to theministers (daifu). In the Qin Dynasty, the 5-clawed dragon was assigned to represent the Emperor while the 4-clawedand 3-clawed dragons were assigned to the commoners. The dragon in the Qin Dynasty appeared on national flags.[1]

The dragon is sometimes used in the West as a national emblem of China. However, this usage within both thePeople's Republic of China and the Republic of China on Taiwan as the symbol of nation is not common. Instead, itis generally used as the symbol of culture. In Hong Kong, the dragon is part of the design of Brand Hong Kong, asymbol used to promote Hong Kong as an international brand name.[2]

In European-influenced cultures, the dragon has aggressive, warlike connotations and it is conjectured that theChinese government wishes to avoid using it as a symbol, but most Chinese disagree with this decision.[3]

Westerners only sometimes confuse the disposition of the benevolent Chinese dragon with the aggressive Westerndragon.

Many Chinese people often use the term "Descendants of the Dragon" (simplified Chinese: 龙的传人; traditionalChinese: 龍的傳人; pinyin: lóng de chuán rén) as a sign of ethnic identity, as part of a trend started in the 1970swhen different Asian nationalities were looking for animal symbols for representations.[1] The wolf was used amongthe Mongols, the monkey among Tibetans.[1]

In Chinese culture today, the dragon is mostly used for decorative purposes. It is a taboo to disfigure a depiction of adragon; for example, an advertisement campaign commissioned by Nike, which featured the American basketballplayer LeBron James slaying a dragon (as well as beating up an old Kung Fu master), was immediately banned bythe Chinese government after public outcry over disrespect.[4]

Chinese dragon 20

Regional variations across Asia

Chinese Dragon on a banner

While depictions of the dragon in art and literature are largelyconsistent throughout the cultures in which it is found, there are someregional differences. The remainder of this article deals with aspectscommon across cultures, as well as features peculiar to cultural China.

For more information on peculiarities in the depiction of the dragon inother Asian cultures, see:

• Druk, the Thunder Dragon of Bhutanese mythology• Japanese dragon• Korean dragon• Nāga (or Naga), a Hindu or Buddhist deity often depicted as a king

cobra• Vietnamese dragon

Dragon worship

Origin

The C-shaped jade totem of HongshanCulture

Jade-carved dragon garment ornament from theWarring States period (403 BC-221 BC).

The origin of the Chinese dragon is not certain. The presence of dragonin Chinese culture can dates back several thousands of years with thediscovery of a dragon statue dating back to the fifth millennium BCfrom the Yangshao culture in Henan in 1987,[5] and jade badges ofrank in coiled form have been excavated from the Hongshan culturecirca 4700-2900 BC.[6]

The coiled snake or dragon form played an important role in earlyChinese culture. TThe character for "dragon" in the earliest Chinesewriting has a similar coiled form, as do later jade dragon amulets fromthe Shang period.[7]

Ancient Chinese referred to unearthed dinosaur bones as dragon bonesand documented them as such. For example, Chang Qu in 300 BCdocuments the discovery of "dragon bones" in Sichuan.[8] The modernChinese word for dinosaur is konglong (恐龍, meaning "terribledragon"), and villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized"dragon bones" for use in traditional medicines, a practice thatcontinues today.[9]

The binomial name for a variety of dinosaur discovered in China, Meilong, in Chinese (寐 mèi and 龙 lóng) means "sleeping dragon."Fossilized remains of Mei long have been found in China in a sleepingand coiled form, with the dinosaur nestling its snout beneath one of itsforelimbs while encircling its tail around its entire body.[10]

Some have further suggested that the Chinese dragon form comes fromstylized depictions of existing animals, such as snakes, fish, or

Chinese dragon 21

Gilded-bronze handle in the shape of a dragon'shead and neck, made during the Eastern Han

period (25–220 AD)

crocodiles. A view advocated by He Xin is that the early dragondepicted a species of crocodile, specifically, Crocodylus porosus, thesaltwater crocodile, which is the largest living reptile, and once rangedinto China during ancient times. The crocodile is known to be able toaccurately sense changes in air pressure, and be able to sense comingrain. This may have been the origin of the dragon's mythical attributesin controlling the weather, especially the rain. The association with thecrocodile is also supported by the view in ancient times that largecrocodiles are a variety of dragon. For example, in the Story of ZhouChu, about the life of a Jin Dynasty warrior, he is said to have killed a"dragon" that infested the waters of his home village, which appears tohave been a crocodile.

Some scholars believe that the Chinese dragon form originated from totems of different tribes in China, as a mergerof totems of various tribes consequential to tribal mergers. Legendary figures like Nüwa (女媧) and Fuxi (伏羲) aredepicted as having snake bodies. Some scholars have noted that a myth arose that the first legendary Emperor ofChina, Huangdi (黃帝, Yellow Emperor) used a snake for his coat of arms. According to the myth, every time heconquered another tribe, he incorporated his defeated enemy's emblem into his own, thus explains why the dragonappears to have features of various animals.

Mythical creature

Non-Imperial Chinese dragon in Shanghai

Nine Dragon Screen, Datong (detail)

From its origins as totems or the stylized depiction of naturalcreatures, the Chinese dragon evolved to become a mythicalanimal. The Han Dynasty scholar Wang Fu recorded Chinesemyths that long dragons had nine anatomical resemblances.

The people paint the dragon's shape with a horse'shead and a snake's tail. Further, there are expressionsas 'three joints' and 'nine resemblances' (of thedragon), to wit: from head to shoulder, from shoulderto breast, from breast to tail. These are the joints; as tothe nine resemblances, they are the following: hishorns resemble those of a stag, his head that of acamel, his eyes those of a demon, his neck that of asnake, his belly that of a clam (shen, 蜃), his scalesthose of a carp, his claws those of an eagle, his solesthose of a tiger, his ears those of a cow. Upon his headhe has a thing like a broad eminence (a big lump),called [chimu] (尺木). If a dragon has no [chimu], hecannot ascend to the sky.[11]

Further sources give variant lists of the nine animal resemblances.Sinologist Henri Doré lists these characteristics of an authenticdragon: "The horns of a deer. The head of a camel. A demon'seyes. The neck of a snake. A tortoise's viscera. A hawk's claws. The palms of a tiger. A cow's ears. And it hearsthrough its horns,

Chinese dragon 22

Mini-Sculpture of a Dragon on top of a temple inHsinchu, Taiwan

its ears being deprived of all power of hearing."[12] He notes that,"Others state it has a rabbit's eyes, a frog's belly, a carp's scales."The anatomy of other legendary creatures, including the chimeraand manticore, is similarly amalgamated from fierce animals.

Chinese dragons were considered to be physically concise. Of the117 scales, 81 are of the yang essence (positive) while 36 are ofthe yin essence (negative). Initially, the dragon was benevolent butthe Buddhists introduced the concept of malevolent influenceamong some dragons. Just as water destroys, they said, so cansome dragons destroy via floods, tidal waves and storms. Theysuggested that some of the worst floods were believed to havebeen the result of a mortal upsetting a dragon.Many pictures of oriental dragons show a flaming pearl under their chin. The pearl is associated with wealth, goodluck, and prosperity.

Chinese dragons are occasionally depicted with bat-like wings growing out of the front limbs, but most do not havewings, as their ability to fly (and control rain/water, etc.) are mystical and not seen as a result of their physicalattributes.This description accords with the artistic depictions of the dragon down to the present day. The dragon has alsoacquired an almost unlimited range of supernatural powers. It is said to be able to disguise itself as a silkworm, orbecome as large as our entire universe. It can fly among the clouds or hide in water (according to the Guanzi). It canform clouds, can turn into water, can change color as an ability to blend in with their surroundings, as an effectiveform of camouflage or glow in the dark (according to the Shuowen Jiezi).In Singapore and many other countries, folktales speak of the dragon having all the attributes of the other 11creatures of the zodiac, this includes the whiskers of the rat, the face and horns of an ox, claws and teeth of a tiger,belly of a rabbit, body of a snake, legs of a horse, the beard of a goat, wit(or brain) of a monkey, crest of a rooster,ears of a dog, the snout of a pig.In some circles, it is considered bad luck to depict a dragon facing downwards, as it is seen as disrespectful to place adragon in such manner that it cannot ascend to the sky. Also, depictions of dragons in tattoos are prevailent as theyare symbols of strength and power, especially criminal organisations where dragons hold a meaning all on their own.As such, it is believed that one must be fierce and strong enough, hence earning the right to wear the dragon on hisskin, lest his luck be consumed by the dragon.

Chinese dragon 23

Ruler of weather and water

A dragon seen floating among clouds, on a goldencanteen made during the 15th century, Ming Dynasty

Chinese dragons are strongly associated with water in popularbelief. They are believed to be the rulers of moving bodies ofwater, such as waterfalls, rivers, or seas. They can showthemselves as water spouts (tornado or twister over water). In thiscapacity as the rulers of water and weather, the dragon is moreanthropomorphic in form, often depicted as a humanoid, dressed ina king's costume, but with a dragon head wearing a king'sheaddress.

There are four major Dragon Kings, representing each of the fourseas: the East Sea (corresponding to the East China Sea), the SouthSea (corresponding to the South China Sea), the West Sea(sometimes seen as the Indian Ocean and beyond), and the NorthSea (sometimes seen as Lake Baikal).

Because of this association, they are seen as "in charge" ofwater-related weather phenomenon. In premodern times, many Chinese villages (especially those close to rivers andseas) had temples dedicated to their local "dragon king". In times of drought or flooding, it was customary for thelocal gentry and government officials to lead the community in offering sacrifices and conducting other religiousrites to appease the dragon, either to ask for rain or a cessation thereof.The King of Wu-Yue in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was often known as the "Dragon King" or the"Sea Dragon King" because of his extensive hydro-engineering schemes which "tamed" the sea.

Symbol of imperial authority

An imperial robe from the QingDynasty

According to Chinese legend, both Chinese primogenitors, the earliest Emperors,Yandi and Huangdi, were closely related to 'Long' (Chinese Dragon). At the endof his reign, the first legendary Emperor, Huangdi, was said to have beenimmortalized into a dragon that resembled his emblem, and ascended to Heaven.The other legendary Emperor, Huangdi's brother, Yandi was born by his mother'stelepathy with a mythic dragon. Since the Chinese consider Huangdi and Yandias their ancestors, they sometimes refer to themselves as "the descendants of thedragon". This legend also contributed towards the use of the Chinese dragon as asymbol of imperial power.

The dragon, especially yellow or golden dragons with five claws on each foot,was a symbol for the emperor in many Chinese dynasties. The imperial thronewas called the Dragon Throne. During the late Qing Dynasty, the dragon waseven adopted as the national flag. The dragon is featured in the carvings on thesteps of imperial palaces and tombs, such as the Forbidden City in Beijing.

In some Chinese legends, an Emperor might be born with a birthmark in the shape of a dragon. For example, onelegend tells the tale of a peasant born with a dragon birthmark who eventually overthrows the existing dynasty andfounds a new one; another legend might tell of the prince in hiding from his enemies who is identified by his dragonbirthmark.In contrast, the Empress of China was often identified with the Fenghuang.

Chinese dragon 24

Modern beliefIn modern times, belief in the dragon appears to be sporadic at best. There appear to be very few who would see thedragon as a literally real creature. The worship of the Dragon Kings as rulers of water and weather continues in manyareas, and is deeply ingrained in Chinese cultural traditions such as Chinese New Year celebrations. Dragon kites arealso used in these celebrations.

Depictions of the dragon

An ancient seal script form of the character for"dragon" that is now written 龍 or 龙 and pronounced

lóng in Mandarin Chinese.

Neolithic depictions

Dragons or dragon-like depictions have been found extensively inneolithic-period archaeological sites throughout China. Theearliest depiction of dragons was found at Xinglongwa culturesites. Yangshao culture sites in Xi'an have produced clay pots withdragon motifs. The Liangzhu culture also produced dragon-likepatterns. The Hongshan culture sites in present-day InnerMongolia produced jade dragon amulets in the form of pigdragons.

One such early form was the pig dragon. It is a coiled, elongatedcreature with a head resembling a boar.[13] The character for"dragon" in the earliest Chinese writing has a similar coiled form,as do later jade dragon amulets from the Shang period.

Classical depictions

Chinese literature and myths refer to many dragons besides the famous long. The linguist Michael Carr analyzedover 100 ancient dragon names attested in Chinese classic texts.[14] Many such Chinese names derive from the suffix-long:

• Tianlong (Chinese: 天龍; pinyin: tiānlóng; Wade–Giles: t'ien-lung; literally "heavenly dragon"), celestial dragonthat guards heavenly palaces and pulls divine chariots; also a name for Draco (constellation)

• Shenlong (Chinese: 神龍; pinyin: shénlóng; Wade–Giles: shen-lung; literally "god dragon"), thunder god thatcontrols the weather, appearance of a human head, dragon's body, and drum-like stomach

• Fucanglong (Chinese: 伏藏龍; pinyin: fúcánglóng; Wade–Giles: fu-ts'ang-lung; literally "hidden treasuredragon"), underworld guardian of precious metals and jewels, associated with volcanoes

• Dilong (Chinese: 地龍; pinyin: dìlóng; Wade–Giles: ti-lung; literally "earth dragon"), controller of rivers andseas; also a name for earthworm

• Yinglong (Chinese: 應龍; pinyin: yìnglóng; Wade–Giles: ying-lung; literally "responding dragon"), wingeddragon associated with rains and floods, used by Huangdi to kill Chi You

• Jiaolong (Chinese: 蛟龍; pinyin: jiāolóng; Wade–Giles: chiao-lung; literally "crocodile dragon"), hornless orscaled dragon, leader of all aquatic animals

• Panlong (Chinese: 蟠龍; pinyin: pánlóng; Wade–Giles: p'an-lung; literally "coiled dragon"), lake dragon that hasnot ascended to heaven

• Huanglong (Chinese: 黃龍; pinyin: huánglóng; Wade–Giles: huang-lung; literally "yellow dragon"), hornlessdragon symbolizing the emperor

• Feilong (Chinese: 飛龍; pinyin: fēilóng; Wade–Giles: fei-lung; literally "flying dragon"), winged dragon thatrides on clouds and mist; also a name for pterosaur (compare Feilong kick and Fei Long character)

Chinese dragon 25

• Qinglong (Chinese: 青龍; pinyin: qīnglóng; Wade–Giles: ch'ing-lung; literally "Azure Dragon"), the animalassociated with the East in the Chinese Four Symbols, mythological creatures in the Chinese constellations

• Qiulong (Chinese: 虯龍; pinyin: qíulóng; Wade–Giles: ch'iu-lung; literally "curling dragon"), contradictorilydefined as both "horned dragon" and "hornless dragon"

• Chilong (Chinese: 螭龍; pinyin: chīlóng; Wade–Giles: ch'ih-lung; literally "demon dragon"), a hornless dragon ormountain demon

Fewer Chinese dragon names derive from the prefix long-:

• Longwang (Chinese: 龍王; pinyin: lóngwáng; Wade–Giles: lung-wang; literally "Dragon Kings") divine rulers ofthe Four Seas

• Longma (Chinese: 龍馬; pinyin: lóngmǎ; Wade–Giles: lung-ma; literally "dragon horse"), emerged from the LuoRiver and revealed Bagua (concept) to Fu Xi

Some additional Chinese dragons are not named with long 龍, for instance,• Hong (Chinese: 虹; pinyin: hóng; Wade–Giles: hung; literally "rainbow"), a two-headed dragon or rainbow

serpent• Shen (Chinese: 蜃; pinyin: shèn; Wade–Giles: shen; literally "giant clam"), a shapeshifting dragon or sea monster

believed to create mirages• Bashe (Chinese: 巴蛇; pinyin: bāshé; Wade–Giles: pa-she; literally "ba snake") was a giant python-like dragon

that ate elephants• Teng (Chinese: 螣; pinyin: téng; Wade–Giles: t'eng) or Tengshe (simplified Chinese: 腾蛇; traditional Chinese:

騰蛇; pinyin: téngshé; Wade–Giles: t'eng-she; lit. "soaring snake") is a flying dragon without legsChinese scholars have classified dragons in diverse systems. For instance, Emperor Huizong of Song canonized fivecolored dragons as "kings".

• The Azure Dragon [Qinglong 青龍] spirits, most compassionate kings.• The Vermillion Dragon [Zhulong 朱龍] spirits, kings that bestow blessings on lakes.• The Yellow Dragon [Huanglong 黃龍] spirits, kings that favorably hear all petitions.• The White Dragon [Bailong 白龍] spirits, virtuous and pure kings.• The Black Dragon [Xuanlong 玄龍] spirits, kings dwelling in the depths of the mystic waters.[15]

With the addition of the Yellow Dragon of the Center to Azure Dragon of the East, these Vermillion, White, andBlack Dragons coordinate with the Four Symbols, including the Vermilion Bird of the South, White Tiger of theWest, and Black Tortoise of the North.

Children of Dragon

Pulao in Changchun Temple, Wuhan

Several Ming Dynasty texts list what were claimed as the NineOffspring of the Dragon (龍生九子), and subsequently these featureprominently in popular Chinese stories and writings. The scholar XieZhaozhe (謝肇淛, 1567–1624) in his work Wu Za Zu (五雜俎, ca.1592) gives the following listing, as rendered by M.W. de Visser:

A well-known work of the end of the sixteenth century, theWuzazu 五雜俎, informs us about the nine different young of thedragon, whose shapes are used as ornaments according to theirnature. The [pulao 蒲牢], dragons which like to cry, arerepresented on the tops of bells, serving as handles. The [qiuniu囚牛], which like music, are used to adorn musical instruments.

Chinese dragon 26

Qianlong-era bixi near Marco Polo Bridge,Beijing

The [chiwen 螭吻/鴟吻], which like swallowing, are placed onboth ends of the ridgepoles of roofs (to swallow all evilinfluences). The [chaofeng 嘲風], lion-like beasts which likeprecipices, are placed on the four corners of roofs. The [yazi睚眦/睚眥], which like to kill, serve as ornaments ofsword-grips. The [bixi 贔屭], which have the shape of the[chilong 螭龍], and are fond of literature, are represented on thesides of grave-monuments. The [bi'an 狴犴], which likelitigation, are placed over prison gates (in order to keep guard).The [suanni 狻猊], which like to sit down, are represented uponthe bases of Buddhist idols (under the Buddhas' or Bodhisattvas'feet). The [baxia 霸下], finally, big tortoises which like to carryheavy objects, are placed under grave-monuments.

Further, the same author enumerates nine other kinds of dragons, which are represented as ornaments ofdifferent objects or buildings according to their liking prisons, water, the rank smell of newly caught fish ornewly killed meat, wind and rain, ornaments, smoke, shutting the mouth (used for adorning key-holes),standing on steep places (placed on roofs), and fire.[16]

The Sheng'an waiji (升庵外集) collection by the poet Yang Shen (楊慎, 1488–1559) gives different 5th and 9thnames for the dragon's nine children: the taotie (饕餮), which loves to eat and is found on food-related wares, andthe jiaotu (椒圖), which looks like a conch or clam, does not like to be disturbed, and is used on the front door or thedoorstep. Yang's list is bixi, chiwen or cháofēng, pulao, bi'an, taotie, qiuniu, yazi, suanni, and jiaotu.[17]

Oldest known attestation of the "children of the dragon" list is found in the Shuyuan Zaji (椒园杂记, Miscellaneousrecords from the bean garden) by Lu Rong (1436–1494); however, he noted that the list enumerates mere synonymsof various antiques, not children of a dragon.[18]

Dragon toes

The reverse side of a six-lobed bronze mirror from the8th century, during the Tang Dynasty (618–907),

showing a dragon with three toes on each foot

The first Ming Emperor copied the Yuan ruling and decreed thatthe dragon would be his emblem and that it would have five toes(or claws) The four-clawed dragon was typically for imperialnobility and certain high ranking officials. The three claweddragon was used by lower ranks and the general public (widelyseen on various Chinese goods in Ming Dynasty). The Long,however, was only for select royalty closely associated with theImperial family, usually in various symbolic colors, while it was acapital offense for anyone - other than the emperor himself - toever use the completely gold-colored, five-clawed Long dragonmotif. Improper use of claw number and/or colors was consideredtreason, punishable by execution of the offender's entire clan.Since most East Asian nations at one point or another wereconsidered Chinese tributaries, they were only allowed four-clawed dragons.

The five toes rule was first enforced in AD 1336 (Yuan the second year). "(For commoners) It is forbidden to wearany cloth with patterns of Qilin, Male Fenghuang (Chinese phoenix), White rabbit, Lingzhi, Five-Toe Two-HornLong, Eight Longs, Nine Longs, 'Ten thousand years', Fortune-longevity character and Golden Yellow etc."("禁服麒麟、鸾凤、白兔、灵芝、双角五爪龙、八龙、九龙、万寿、福寿字、赭黄等服")[19]

Chinese dragon 27

Cultural references

Number nine

A close up view of one full dragon (and the tail endand claw of another) from the Nine Dragons handscroll

painted in AD 1244 by Chen Rong, an artist of theSong Dynasty

The number nine is special in China as it is the largest possiblesingle digit, and Chinese dragons are frequently connected with it.For example, a Chinese dragon is normally described in terms ofnine attributes and usually has 117 (9x13) scales - 81 (9x9) Yangand 36 (9x4) Yin. This is also why there are nine forms of thedragon and the dragon has nine offspring (see Classical depictionsabove). The "Nine Dragon Wall" is a screen wall with images ofnine different dragons, and is found in imperial palaces andgardens. The wall has 9 large dragons, as well as small dragonsthat cover the edge. In all there are 635 dragons on it. As nine wasconsidered the number of the emperor, only the most seniorofficials were allowed to wear nine dragons on their robes - and then only with the robe completely covered withsurcoats. Lower-ranking officials had eight or five dragons on their robes, again covered with surcoats; even theemperor himself wore his dragon robe with one of its nine dragons hidden from view.

There are a number of places in China called "Nine Dragons", the most famous being Kowloon (in Cantonese) inHong Kong. The part of the Mekong in Vietnam is known as Cửu Long, with the same meaning.

Chinese zodiacThe dragon is one of the 12 animals in the Chinese zodiac which is used to designate years in the Chinese calendar.It is thought that each animal is associated with certain personality traits. Dragon years are usually the most popularto have babies. There are more babies born in Dragon years than in any other animal years of the Zodiac.

Constellations

The Azure Dragon - Qing Long - 青龍 is considered to be the primary of the four celestial guardians, the other threebeing the Zhu Que - 朱雀 (Vermilion Bird), Bai Hu - 白虎 (White Tiger), Xuan Wu - 玄武 (Black Tortoise-likecreature). In this context, the Azure Dragon is associated with the East and the element of Wood.

Dragonboat racingMain article Dragon boat

At special festivals, especially the Duan Wu festival, dragon boat races are an important part of festivities. Typically,these are boats rowed by a team of up to 12 rowers, and with a carved dragon as the head of the boat. Dragon boatracing is also an important part of celebrations outside of China, such as at Chinese New Year.

Dragon dancingMain article Dragon dance

On auspicious occasions, including Chinese New Year and the opening of shops and residences, festivities ofteninclude dancing with dragon puppets. These are "life sized" cloth-and-wood puppets manipulated by a team ofpeople, supporting the dragon with poles. They perform choreographed moves to the accompaniment of drums andmusic.

Chinese dragon 28

Dragons and Nāgas

In many Buddhist countries, the concept of the nāga has been mergedwith local traditions of great and wise serpents or dragons, as depictedin this stairway image of a mufti-headed nāga emerging from themouth of a Makara in the style of a Chinese dragon at Phra MahaChedi Chai Mongkol on the premises of Wat Pha Namthip Thep PrasitVararam in Thailand's Roi Et Province Nong Phok District.

Dragons and Tigers

Detail of an embroidered silk gauze ritual garmentfrom a 4th century BC, Zhou era tomb at Mashan,

Hubei province, China. The flowing, curvilinear designincorporates dragons, phoenixes, and tigers.

Tigers have always been an eternal rival to the dragon, thusvarious artworks depict a dragon and tiger fighting an epic battle.A well used Chinese idiom to describe equal rivals (often in sportsnowadays) is "Dragon versus Tiger". In Chinese martial arts,"Dragon style" is used to describe styles of fighting based more onunderstanding movement, while "Tiger style" is based on brutestrength and memorization of techniques.

Chinese dragons in popular culture

As a part of traditional folklore, dragons appear in a variety ofmythological fiction. In the classical story Journey to the West, theson of the Dragon King of the West was condemned to serve as ahorse for the travellers because of his indiscretions at a party in theheavenly court. The Monkey King's cudgel Rú Yì Bàng was stolenfrom the Eastern (Donghai) Dragon King áo guǎng. In FengshenYanyi and other stories, Nezha, the boy hero, defeats the DragonKings and tames the seas. Chinese dragons also appear ininnumerable Japanese anime movies and TV shows, manga, and in Western political cartoons as a personification ofthe People's Republic of China. The Chinese respect for dragons is emphasized in Naomi Novik's Temeraire novels,where they were the first people to tame dragons and are treated as equals, intellectuals or even royalty, rather thanbeasts solely bred for war in the West.

Chinese dragon 29

References[1] Sleeboom, Margaret. [2004] (2004). Academic Nations in China and Japan: Framed in concepts of Nature, Culture and the Universal.

Routledge publishing. ISBN 0-415-31545-X[2] "Brand Overview" (http:/ / www. brandhk. gov. hk/ brandhk/ eview. htm), Brand Hong Kong, 09-2004. Retrieved on 23-02-2007.[3] BBC Article: Fiery Debate Over China's Dragon (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6171963. stm), an article covering China's

decision not to use a dragon mascot and the resulting disappointment.[4] Robertson, Benjamin (2004-12-17). "The Dragon battles back to beat Nike" (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ China/ FL17Ad01. html).

Asia Times Online. . Retrieved 2007-03-20.[5] Howard Giskin and Bettye S. Walsh (2001). An introduction to Chinese culture through the family. State University of New York Press.

p. 126. ISBN 0791450473.[6] Teaching Chinese Archeology (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ education/ chinatp_sl01. htm), National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC[7] Salviati, Filippo (2002). The Language of Adornment: Chinese Ornaments of Jade, Crystal, Amber and Glass, Fig. 17. Ten Speed Press.

ISBN 1580085873.[8] Dong Zhiming (1992). Dinosaurian Faunas of China. China Ocean Press, Beijing. ISBN 3-540-52084-8. OCLC 26522845.[9] "Dinosaur bones 'used as medicine'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6276948. stm). BBC News. 2007-07-06. . Retrieved

2007-07-06.[10] Xu and Norell, (2004). "A new troodontid dinosaur from China with avian-like sleeping posture." Nature, 431(7010): 838-841. doi:

10.1038/news041011-7[11] de Visser, Marinus Willem (1913), The Dragon in China and Japan (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ cu31924021444728),

Verhandelingen der Koninklijke akademie van wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks, deel xiii, no. 2,Amsterdam: Johannes Müller, p. 70, (Also available at University of Georgia Library (http:/ / fax. libs. uga. edu/ GR830xD7xV8/ ))

[12] Doré, Henri. 1917. Researches into Chinese Superstitions (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ b/ OL13587109M/Researches-into-Chinese-superstitions). M. Kennelly, D.J. Finn, and L.F. McGreat, trs. T'usewei. Ch'eng-wen reprint 1966, 681.

[13] "Jade coiled dragon, Hongshan Culture (c. 4700-2920 B.C.)" (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ exhibitions/ china1999/ 037_010. htm), NationalGallery of Art, Washington DC. Retrieved on 23-02-2007.

[14] Carr, Michael. 1990. "Chinese Dragon Names" (http:/ / sealang. net/ sala/ archives/ pdf4/ carr1990chinese. pdf), Linguistics of theTibeto-Burman Area 13.2:87-189. He classified them into seven categories: Rain-dragons, Flying-dragons, Snake-dragons, Wug-dragons [wugrefers to "worms, bugs, and small reptiles"], Crocodile-dragons, Hill-dragons, and Miscellaneous dragons.

[15] Adapted from Doré 682.[16] de Visser 1913, pp. 101–102. The primary source is Wu Za Zu, chapter 9, beginning with "龍生九子...". The title of Xie Zhaozhe's work,

Wu Za Zu, has been variously translated into English as Five Assorted Offerings (in Xie Zhaozhe (http:/ / www. renditions. org/ renditions/authors/ xiezz. html)), Five Sundry Bands (in " Disease and Its Impact on Politics, Diplomacy, and the Military ... (http:/ / jhmas.oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ pdf_extract/ 57/ 2/ 177?ck=nck)") or Five Miscellanies (in Changing clothes in China: fashion, history, nation (http:// books. google. com. au/ books?id=Ju3N4VeiQ28C& pg=PA48), p. 48).

[17] 吾三省 (Wu Sansheng) (2006), 中國文化背景八千詞 (Eight thousand words and expressions viewed against the background of Chineseculture) (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=KQJ_tIU1ixoC& pg=PA345), 商務印書館(香港) (Commercial Press, Hong Kong),p. 345, ISBN 9620718461, (Chinese)

[18] 九、龙的繁衍与附会——龙生九子 (1) (http:/ / vip. book. sina. com. cn/ book/ chapter_69989_55313. html) ("Chapter 9, Dragon's derivedand associated creatures: Nine children of the dragon (1)"), in Yang Jingrong and Liu Zhixiong (2008). The full text of Shuyuan Zaji, fromwhich Yang and Liu quote, is available in electronic format at a number of sites, e.g. here: 菽園雜記 (http:/ / xxgblog. tcip. net. cn/ index.php/ 56/ viewspace-3024. html)

[19] The Twenty-Four Histories: The History of Yuan-Dress Code (zh:元史·舆服), compiled under Song Lian (宋濂), AD 1370.

External links• 杨静荣 (Yang Jirong); 刘志雄 (Liu Zhixiong) (2008), 龙之源 (The Origin of the Dragon) (http:/ / vip. book.

sina. com. cn/ book/ catalog. php?book=69989), 中国书店, ISBN 7806635513• Dragon Articles (http:/ / www. cdot. org/ history/ dragon_articles. htm), Crystal Dragon of Taiwan, cdot.org• Dragons in Ancient China (http:/ / www. chinapage. com/ dragon1. html), China the Beautiful, chinapage.com• Eastern Dragon Overview (http:/ / www. blackdrago. com/ easterndragons. htm), The Circle of the Dragon,

blackdrago.com• Forbidden City Dragon Wall panography (http:/ / www. world-heritage-tour. org/ asia/ china/ ming-qing/ beijing/

forbidden-city/ court-of-eternal-longevity/ sphere-quicktime. html), world-heritage-tour.org• The Chinese Dragon (http:/ / www. everythingdragons. com/ Chinese-Dragons/ Chinese-Dragons. html),

everythingdragons.com

Chinese dragon 30

• 龙生九子 (http:/ / www. jsdj. com/ luyou/ changsi/ LONG. htm), The Dragon's 9 Children (Chinese), jsdj.com

Wyvern

The wyvern is used for both supporters in the arms ofJohn Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Frequently

when used as a supporter it rests on its tail alone,termed sejant, with both forelegs supporting the

escutcheon

A wyvern fighting with a wolf. Relief, TrentoCathedral, Italy

A wyvern or wivern (  /ˈwaɪvərn/) is a legendary wingedreptilian creature with a dragon's head, wings and forelegs, butwith only a barbed tail to its rear half. The dragon has four legs.The wyvern is often found in heraldry.[1] There exists a purelysea-dwelling variant, termed the Sea-Wyvern which has a fish tailin place of a barbed dragon's tail. Two of these mythical sea beastsform the supporters of the arms of West Dorset District Council.Wyverns are mentioned in Dante Alighieri's Inferno (Canto XVII)as the component body for the poem's Geryon.

Etymology

The usual spelling wyvern (older wivern too) is not attested beforethe 17th century as 'winged two-footed dragon'.[2] It is analteration of Middle English wyvere, wyver (13th century),loanword of Old French wivre (French guivre and vouivre), itselffrom Latin vipera 'viper', 'adder', 'asp',[3] [4] altered in Proto-Frenchto *wipera by Germanic influence (see Old High German wipera).

Use as symbol or mascot

The wyvern (and its 'cousin' the four-legged dragon) is a frequentheraldic device on British coats of arms and flags, and a fairlypopular commercial logo or mascot as well, especially in Walesand what was once the West Country Kingdom of Wessex, butalso farther afield in Herefordshire and Worcestershire, as therivers Wye and Severn run through Hereford and Worcesterrespectively. For example, a local school travel company is calledWyvern Schooltours Ltd and one of the local radio stations iscalled Wyvern FM.[5] [6] Vauxhall Motors had a model in its rangein the 1950s called the Wyvern.

The Westland Wyvern was a British single-seat carrier-basedmulti-role strike aircraft built by Westland Aircraft that served inthe 1950s, seeing active service in the 1956 Suez Crisis.

The wyvern is a frequent mascot of athletic teams, particularly inthe United Kingdom and the United States, and is the mascot ofthe Korean Baseball Organization team SK Wyverns, establishedin 2000. The beast, in addition, serves as the badge for KingswoodOxford School, an independent day school in West Hartford,Connecticut, USA. Similarly, a wyvern is the crest of Newington

Wyvern 31

A golden wyvern is believed to have been the symbolof the ancient kingdom of Wessex

College in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, and is the symbolof the Trinity Residents' Club in Perth, Western Australia. It isemployed, too, by The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure and is alsothe background logo for BackTrack Linux.[7] [8] [9]

The crest for Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistryfraternity, contains a wyvern.

The Wyvernid is the symbol of, or is used in the crest of, WesleyCollege, Dublin, Magdalene College, Cambridge, and WoodbridgeCollege in Woodbridge, Ontario.

Wyverns appear as both supporters in the arms of Leyton OrientF.C., London's second oldest professional football club.

Coat of arms, City of Leicester, with crest: Awyvern argent sans legs

Arms of Midland Railway at Derby station, 2006,showing as crest the Wyvern sans legs of Leicester

A white (argent) wyvern formed the crest of the Borough ofLeicester as recorded at the heraldic visitation of Leicestershire in1619: A wyvern sans legs argent strewed with wounds gules, wingsexpanded ermine. The term sans legs may not imply that thewyvern was "without legs", rather that its legs are not depicted,being hidden or folded under.[10] [11] [12] This was adopted by theMidland Railway in 1845, when it became the crest of itsunofficial coat of arms.[13] The company asserted that the "wyvernwas the standard of the Kingdom of Mercia", and that it was "aquartering in the town arms of Leicester".[14] [15] [16] [17] However,in 1897 the Railway Magazine noted that there appeared "to be nofoundation that the wyvern was associated with the Kingdom ofMercia".[15]

The Kings of Aragon of the House of Barcelona since Peter IVused a wyvern as a crest on their helmets. Nowadays this symbolhas been officially adopted as the coat of arms of the GeneralitatValenciana (Valencian Parliament and Government). Wyverns arealso an important part of the mythological animals in manytraditional local festivals of Catalonia.

Cryptozoology

Some cryptozoologists have interpreted wyverns as survivingpterosaurs, which were extinct around 65 million years ago.[18]

There are alleged sightings in remote areas of pterosaur-likecreatures such as the Kongamato in Africa.[19]

References[1] 1911 Britanica[2] T. F. Hoad, English Etymology, Oxford University Press, 1993 (ISBN 0-19-283098-8). p. 546.[3] T. F. Hoad 546[4] "Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, 1989; online version November 2010.;" (http:/ / www. oed. com/ Entry/ 230944). . Retrieved

2011-02-18.[5] "Welcome to Wyvern Schooltours" (http:/ / www. wyvernschootlours. co. uk). .[6] "Wyvern FM" (http:/ / www. mediauk. com/ radio/ 259/ wyvern-fm). Media UK. . Retrieved 2009-06-04.

Wyvern 32

[7] "Trinity Residents' Club inc." (http:/ / www. trinityresclub. com. au). .[8] "The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure" (http:/ / llvm. org/ Logo. html). .[9] "BackTrack Linux" (http:/ / www. backtrack-linux. org/ screenshots/ ). .[10] Geoffrey Briggs, Civic & Corporate Heraldry, London 1971[11] C. W. Scot-Giles, Civic Heraldry of England and Wales, 2nd edition, London, 1953[12] A. C. Fox-Davies, The Book of Public Arms, London 1915[13] Cuthbert Hamilton Ellis, The Midland Railway, 1953[14] Frederick Smeeton Williams, The Midland Railway: Its rise and progress: A narrative of modern enterprise, 1876[15] The Railway Magazine, Vol. 102, 1897[16] Dow (1973)[17] Clement Edwin Stretton, History of The Midland Railway, 1901[18] "Wyvern" (http:/ / www. unknownexplorers. com/ wyvern. php). Unknown Explorers. . Retrieved 2007-04-26.[19] "Rainsnow.org" (http:/ / www. rainsnow. org/ wod_cryptozoology. htm). The Wonderful World of Cryptozoology. . Retrieved 26 April

2007.

External links• Lady Gryphon's Mythical Realm: Wyvern (http:/ / www. mythicalrealm. com/ creatures/ dragon-wyverns. html)• Dave's Mythical Creatures and Places: Wyvern (http:/ / www. eaudrey. com/ myth/ wyvern. htm)• Dragonsinn: Wyvern Facts (http:/ / www. dragonsinn. net/ fict-wyvern. htm)• "Wyvern": Compact OED definition (http:/ / www. askoxford. com/ concise_oed/ wyvern?view=uk)

List of dragons in mythology and folkloreThis article is a list of dragons in mythology and folklore.

Asian dragons

Chinese dragon Lóng (or Loong. Lung2 inWade-Giles romanization.)

The Chinese dragon, is a mythical Chinese creature that also appears in other Asiancultures, and is sometimes called the Oriental (or Eastern) dragon. Depicted as a long,snake-like creature with four claws, it has long been a potent symbol of auspiciouspower in Chinese folklore and art. This type of dragon, however, is sometimes depictedas a creature constructed of many animal parts. It might have the fins of some fish, orthe horns of a stag.

Indian dragon Nāga A serpentine dragon common to all cultures influenced by Hinduism. They are oftenhooded like a cobra and may have several heads depending on their rank. They usuallyhave no arms or legs but those with limbs resemble the Chinese dragon.

Indonesian/Malaydragon

Naga or Nogo Derived from the Indian nāga, belief in the Indo-Malay dragon spread throughout theentire Malay Archipelago along with Hinduism. The word naga is still the commonMalay/Indonesian term for dragons in general.[1] Like its Indian counterpart, the nagais considered divine in nature, benevolent, and often associated with sacred mountains,forests, or certain parts of the sea.

List of dragons in mythology and folklore 33

Japanese dragon Ryū Similar to Chinese dragons, with three claws instead of four. They are usuallybenevolent, associated with water, and may grant wishes.

Khmer Dragon Neak The Khmer dragon, or neak is derived from the Indian nāga. Like its Indiancounterpart, the neak is often depicted with cobra like characteristics such as a hood.The number of heads can be as high as nine, the higher the number the higher the rank.Odd-headed dragons are symbolic of male energy while even headed dragonssymbolize female energy. Traditionally, a neak is distinguished from the oftenserpentine Makar and Tao, the former possessing crocodilian traits and the latterpossessing feline traits. A dragon princess is the heroine of the creation myth ofCambodia.

Korean dragon Yong (Mireu) A sky dragon, essentially the same as the Chinese lóng. Like the lóng, yong and theother Korean dragons are associated with water and weather. In pure Korean, it is alsoknown as 'mireu'.

Imoogi A hornless ocean dragon, sometimes equated with a sea serpent. Imoogi literallymeans, "Great Lizard". The legend of the Imoogi says that the sun god gave the Imoogitheir power through a human girl, which would be transformed into the Imoogi on her17th birthday. Legend also said that a dragon-shaped mark would be found on theshoulder of the girl, revealing that she was the Imoogi in human form.

Gyo A mountain dragon. In fact, the Chinese character for this word is also used for theimoogi.

Philippine Dragon Bakunawa The Bakunawa appears as a gigantic serpent that lives in the sea. Ancient nativesbelieved that the Bakunawa caused the moon or the sun to disappear during an eclipse.It is said that during certain times of the year, the Bakunawa arises from the ocean andproceeds to swallow the moon whole. To keep the Bakunawa from completely eatingthe moon, the natives would go out of their houses with pots and pans in hand andmake a noise barrage in order to scare the Bakunawa into spitting out the moon backinto the sky. Some say that the Bakunawa is known to kill people by imagining theirdeath and remote in eye contact.

Vietnamese dragon Rồng or Long

(Ly dynasty, Daiviet X)

These dragons' bodies curve lithely, in sine shape, with 12 sections, symbolising 12months in the year. They are able to change the weather, and are responsible for crops.On the dragon's back are little, uninterrupted, regular fins. The head has a long mane,beard, prominent eyes, crest on nose, but no horns. The jaw is large and opened, with along, thin tongue; they always keep a châu (gem/jewel) in their mouths (a symbol ofhumanity, nobility and knowledge).

European dragons

Catalan dragon drac Catalan dragons are serpent-like creatures with two legs (rarely four) and, sometimes, apair of wings. Their faces can resemble that of other animals, like lions or cattle. Theyhave a burning breath. Their breath is also poisonous, the reason by which dracs areable to rot everything with their stench. A víbria is a female dragon.

List of dragons in mythology and folklore 34

French dragons Dragon The French representation of dragons spans much of European history, and has evengiven its name to the dragoons, a type of cavalry.

Sardinian dragon scultone The dragon named "scultone" or "ascultone" appears in legends in Sardinia, Italy. Ithad the power to kill human beings with its gaze. It was a sort of basilisk, lived in thebush and was immortal.

Scandinavian &Germanic dragons

Lindworm Lindworms are serpent-like dragons with either two or no legs. In Nordic andGermanic heraldry, the lindworm looks the same as a wyvern. The dragon Fafnir was alindworm.

English dragons Wyvern Wyverns are common in medieval heraldry. Their usual blazon is statant. Wyverns arenormally shown as dragons with two legs and two wings.

Welsh dragons Y Ddraig Goch In Welsh mythology, after a long battle (which the Welsh King Vortigern witnesses) ared dragon defeats a white dragon; Merlin explains to Vortigern that the red dragonsymbolizes the Welsh, and the white dragon symbolizes the Saxons — thus foretellingthe ultimate defeat of the English by the Welsh. The ddraig goch appears on the Welshnational flag.

Gaelic dragons Bheithir In Celtic Mythology Ben Vair in Scotland takes its name from the dragon that used tolive in a great hollow in the face of a mountain known as Corrie Lia. The dragon wastricked into walking along a pontoon bridge with hidden spikes.

Hungarian dragons(Sárkányok)

zomok A great snake living in a swamp, which regularly kills pigs or sheep. A group ofshepherds can easily kill them.

sárkánykígyó A giant winged snake, which is in fact a full-grown zomok. It often serves as flyingmount of the garabonciás (a kind of magician). The sárkánykígyó rules over stormsand bad weather.

sárkány A dragon in human form. Most of them are giants with multiple heads. Their strengthis held in their heads. They become gradually weaker as they lose their heads. Incontemporary Hungarian the word sárkány is used to mean all kinds of dragons.

List of dragons in mythology and folklore 35

Slavic dragons zmey, zmiy, żmij, змей, or zmaj, ordrak, or smok

Smok Wawelski fromSebastian Münster's

CosmographieUniversalis, 1544

Similar to the conventional European dragon, but multi-headed. They breathe fireand/or leave fiery wakes as they fly. In Slavic and related tradition, dragons symbolizeevil. Specific dragons are often given Turkic names (see Zilant, below), symbolizingthe long-standing conflict between the Slavs and Turks. However, in Serbian andBulgarian folklore, dragons are defenders of the crops in their home regions, fightingagainst a destructive demon Ala, whom they shoot with lightning.[2] [3]

Armenian dragon Vishap Related to European dragons

Siberian dragon Yilbegän Related to European Turkic and Slavic dragons

Romanian dragons Balaur, Zburator Balaur are very similar to the Slavic zmey: very large, with fins and multiple heads.

Chuvash dragons Vere Celen Chuvash dragons represent the pre-Islamic mythology of the same region.

Asturian andLeonese dragons

Cuélebre In Asturias and León mythology the Cuélebres are giant winged serpents, which live incaves where they guard treasures and kidnapped xanas. They can live for centuries and,when they grow really old, they use their wings to fly. Their breath is poisonous andthey often kill cattle to eat. Leonese language term Cuelebre comes from Latincolŭbra, i.e., snake.

Albanian Dragon Dragua In the Albanian mythology the Draguas have four legs and two bat wings. They have asingle horn in their head and they have big ears. They live in the forests and cannot beseen unless they want to be. A Dragua can live up to 100 years and cannot be killed byhumans. After the Ottoman invasion, the Draguas became protectors of thehighlanders.

Portuguese dragons Coca In Portuguese mythology coca is a female dragon that fights with Saint George. Sheloses her strength when Saint George cuts off one of her ears.

Greek dragons Drákōn - δράκων Cadmus fighting the Ismenian dragon (which guarded the sacred spring of Ares) is alegendary story from the Greek lore dating to before ca. 560–550 B.C. Greek dragonscommonly had a role of protecting important objects or places. For example, theColchian dragon watched the Golden Fleece and the Nemean dragon guarded thesacred groves of Zeus.[4] The name comes from the Greek "drakeîn" meaning "to seeclearly".[5]

Tatar dragons Zilant Really closer to a wyvern or cockatrice, the Zilant is the symbol of Kazan. Zilant itselfis a Russian rendering of Tatar yılan, i.e., snake.

List of dragons in mythology and folklore 36

Turkish dragons Ejderha or Evren The Turkish dragon secretes flames from its tail, and there is no mention in anylegends of its having wings, or even legs. In fact, most Turkish (and later Islamic)sources describe dragons as gigantic snakes.

Lithuanian Dragons Slibinas This dragon is more of a hydra with multiple heads, though sometimes it does appearwith one head.

• Aido Wedo, the Rainbow Serpent of Dahomey mythology• Apalala, a mythical river dragon who was converted to Buddhism• Apep or Apophis the giant snake or serpent from Egyptian mythology• Azazel is described as a dragon in the Apocalypse of Abraham• Azhi Dahaka in Avestan mythology.• Qinglong (or Seiryū) in Chinese mythology, one of the Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)• Bolla (also "Bullar"), the sleeping dragon of Albanian mythology• Brnensky drak (The dragon of Brno), the dragon killed nearby Moravian city (legend)• Con rit is a water dragon from Vietnamese mythology• Dragon Kings, from Chinese mythology• The Dragon of Loschy Hill, of Yorkshire folklore• The Dragons of St. Leonard's Forest, of Sussex folklore• Fafnir, transformed dragon (Germanic mythology)• The Green Dragon of Mordiford, of Herefordshire folklore• Gorynych, Zmei, the most famous of Russian dragons• Guivres from Medieval France• Huanglong, the Yellow Dragon of the Center, in Chinese mythology• Jörmungandr, the sea serpent or dragon in Norse mythology• The Knucker from Lyminster in Sussex• Lagarfljótsormurinn, a worm/dragon living in the Lagarfljót, near Egilsstaðir, Iceland.• The Hydra, also called the Lernaean Hydra, from Greek Mythology is described as a dragon-like animal• Illuyankas from Hittite mythology• Ladon from Greek mythology• The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh, of Northumbrian legend• The Lambton Worm, of Northumbrian legend• The Ljubljana dragon, the protector dragon of Ljubljana, capital of Slovenia• The Longwitton dragon, of Northumbrian legend• Lotan/Leviathan from Levantine mythology and Hebrew scriptures, a demonic dragon reigning the waters• The Meister Stoor Worm of Orkney legend• Mushussu, musrussu or sirrush, the Babylonian dragon from the Ishtar Gate• Níðhöggr (the 'Dread Biter', also spelled Nidhogg) from Norse mythology• Ouroboros the "tail-eater."• Orochi, the eight-headed serpent slain by Susanoo in Japanese mythology• Python, from Greek mythology, the snake killed by Apollo• Quetzalcoatl from Aztec mythology has a dragon-like aspect• Ryūjin, the dragon god of the sea in Japanese mythology.• Satan appears as a "great red dragon" in the Book of Revelation• Sárkány, dragon of Hungarian mythology• Smok Wawelski (the Wawel Dragon) from Polish mythology, was killed by a clever shoemaker's apprentice• The Tarasque, tamed by Saint Martha• Thevetat• Tiamat and Apsu from Babylonian mythology are sometimes considered dragons

List of dragons in mythology and folklore 37

• Typhon from Greek mythology is often thought of as a dragon• Vritra, a major asura in Vedic religion• The Whitby Wyrm of Yorkshire Folklore• Xiuhcoatl is a serpent from Aztec mythology• Yam from Levantine mythology• Teju Jagua from Guaraní mythology is described was a huge lizard with seven dog-like heads, entitled to a "fiery

gaze", and being associated as the god of fruits, caves and (more common with the Dragons in Europe) as theprotector of hidden treasures

• Zilant, by the Tataro-Bulgarian mythology lived in present-day Kazan and is represented on the city's coat of arms• Zirnitra, dragon-god in Wendish mythology. It was later used in the Royal Danish heraldry as a representation of

Wendland• Zmey Gorynych - The dragon of the Slavic mythology. Its name is translated as "Snake son-of-mountain" (due to

the fact it lives in a mountain), it has three heads, wings, and it spits fire.• The Amaru - Dragon of Inca Mythology. It had a llama's head, fox's mouth, condor wings, snake's body, fish's tail

and dragon scales.• The unnamed five-headed dragon subdued by the Buddhist goddess Benzaiten at Enoshima in Japan in A.D. 552• The unnamed dragon (referred to by the Saxon draca and wyrm) defeated by Beowulf and Wiglaf in the

Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf.• The unnamed dragon defeated by Saint George.

References[1] "dragon." kamus.net. 2010. http:/ / www. kamus. net/ result. php?w=en-usa& q=dragon& submit=Search& e=0 (29 June 2011).[2] Зечевић, Слободан (1981). Митска бића српских предања. Belgrade: "Вук Караџић" : Етнографски музеј. (A book in Serbian about

mythical creatures of Serbian traditions)[3] Беновска-Събкова, Милена. "Змей" (http:/ / bgrod. org/ Vjara/ index. php?p=bogove& page=zmej). Родово Наследство. . Retrieved

2007-08-13. (An extract from the book Змеят в българския фолклор (The Dragon in Bulgarian Folklore), in Bulgarian)[4] (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ greek-mythology/ dragons. html)[5] (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1O27-dragon. html)

Dragons in Greek mythology 38

Dragons in Greek mythologyDragons play a role in Greek mythology.

LadonLadon was the serpent-like dragon that twined round the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides and guarded the goldenapples. Ladon was also said to have as many as one hundred heads. He was overcome and possibly slain byHeracles. After a few years, the Argonauts passed by the same spot, on their chthonic return journey from Colchis atthe opposite end of the world, and heard the lament of "shining" Aigle, one of the Hesperides, and viewed thestill-twitching Ladon (Argonautica, book iv). The creature is associated with the constellation Draco. Ladon wasgiven several parentages, each of which placed him at an archaic level in Greek myth: the offspring of "Ceto, joinedin love with Phorcys" (Hesiod, Theogony 333) or of Typhon, who was himself serpent-like from the waist down, andEchidna (Bibliotheke 2.113; Hyginus, Preface to Fabulae) or of Gaia herself, or in her Olympian manifestation,Hera: "The Dragon which guarded the golden apples was the brother of the Nemean lion" asserted PtolemyHephaestion (recorded in his New History V, lost but epitomized in Photius, Myriobiblion 190).

Lernaean HydraThe Lernaean Hydra was a dragon-like water serpent with fatally venomous breath, blood and fangs, a daughter ofTyphon and Echidna. The creature was said to have anywhere between five and 100 heads, although most sourcesput the number somewhere between seven and nine. For each head cut off, one or two more grew back in its place. Ithad an immortal head which would remain alive after it was cut off. Some accounts claim that the immortal headwas made of gold. It lived in a swamp near Lerna and frequently terrorized the townsfolk until it was slain byHeracles, who cut the heads off, with the help of his nephew Iolaus, who then singed the oozing stump with ablazing firebrand to prevent any new heads from growing, as the second of his Twelve Labors. Hera sent a giant crabto distract Heracles, but he simply crushed it under his foot. Hera then placed it in the heavens as the constellationCancer. After slaying the serpent, Heracles buried the immortal head under a rock and dipped his arrows in thecreature's blood to make them fatal to his enemies. In one version, the poisoned arrows would eventually prove to bethe undoing of his centaur tutor Chiron, who was placed in the heavens as the constellation Centaurus.

Pytho or PythonIn Greek mythology Pythons was the earth-dragon of Delphi, always represented in the vase-paintings and bysculptors as a serpent. Various myths represented Python as being either male or female (a drakaina).[1] Python wasthe chthonic enemy of Apollo, who slew it and remade its former home his own oracle, the most famous in Greece.There are various versions of Python's birth and death at the hands of Apollo. In the earliest, the Homeric Hymn toApollo, little detail is given about Apollo's combat with the serpent or its parentage. The version related by Hyginus[1] holds that when Zeus lay with the goddess Leto, and she was to deliver Artemis and Apollo, Hera sent Python topursue her throughout the lands, so that she could not be delivered wherever the sun shone. Thus when the infantwas grown he pursued the python, making his way straight for Mount Parnassus where the serpent dwelled, andchased it to the oracle of Gaia at Delphi, and dared to penetrate the sacred precinct and kill it with his arrows besidethe rock cleft where the priestess sat on her tripod. The priestess of the oracle at Delphi became known as the Pythia,after the place-name Pytho, which was named after the rotting (πύθειν) of the serpent's corpse after it was slain.

Dragons in Greek mythology 39

The Colchian DragonThis immense serpent, a child of Typhon and Echidna, guarded the Golden Fleece at Colchis.[2] It was said to neversleep, rest, or lower its vigilance. According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, the monster had a crest and three tongues.[3]

When Jason went to retrieve the Fleece, the witch Medea put the dragon to sleep with her magic and drugs,[4] orperhaps Orpheus lulled it to sleep with his lyre. Afterwards, Medea herself had dragons pull her chariot.

The Ismenian DragonThe Ismenian Dragon, of the spring of Ismene at Thebes, Greece, was slain by the hero Cadmus.[5] It was theoffspring of Ares, who later turned the hero into a serpent.

References[1] "Python at Theoi.com" (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakainaPython. html)[2] "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ok4pAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA280&

dq=jason+ argonauts& as_brr=4#v=onepage& q=jason argonauts& f=false)[3] Morford, Mark; Robert Lenardon (2003). Classical Mythology (7 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 581.[4] "Colchian Dragon at Theoi.com" (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakonKholkikos. html)[5] Theoi.com: Drakon Ismenios (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakonIsmenios. html); excerpts of Greek myth in translation.

External links• Theoi Project - Drakon Hesperios (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakonHesperios. html)

Saint George and the Dragon

Saint George and the Dragon by Gustave Moreau

The episode of Saint George and the Dragon appended to thehagiography of Saint George was Eastern in origin,[1] brought backwith the Crusaders and retold with the courtly appurtenances belongingto the genre of Romance. The earliest known depictions of the motifare from tenth- or eleventh-century Cappadocia[2] and eleventh-centuryGeorgia;[3] previously, in the iconography of Eastern Orthodoxy,George had been depicted as a soldier since at least the seventhcentury. The earliest known surviving narrative of the dragon episodeis an eleventh-century Georgian text.[4]

William Shakespeare refers to St. George and the Dragon in RichardIII; act v, also in King Lear; act I.

Saint George and the Dragon 40

St. George by Hans Acker 1440

“ Advance our standards, set upon our foes Our ancient world of courage fairSt. George Inspire us with the spleen of fiery dragons..... Richard III. act v, sc.3.”“Come not between the Dragon and his wrath..... King Lear. Act I, Sc 2”

The dragon motif was first combined with the already standardised Passio Georgii in Vincent of Beauvais'encyclopedic Speculum Historiale, and then Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend (ca 1260) guaranteed itspopularity in the later Middle Ages as a literary and pictorial subject.[5] The legend gradually became part of theChristian traditions relating to Saint George and was used in many festivals thereafter.[6]

Saint George and the Dragon 41

The legends

A 15th century Georgian plaque depicting SaintGeorge rescuing the emperor's daughter.

St. George and the Dragon, wood sculpture byBernt Notke in Stockholm's Storkyrkan

St. George and the Dragon, 13th-century mural,chapel of the former Knights Templarcommandery in Coulommiers, France

According to the Golden Legend the narrative episode of Saint Georgeand the Dragon took place in a place he called "Silene," in Libya; theGolden Legend is the first to place this legend in Libya as a sufficientlyexotic locale, where a dragon might be imagined. In the tenth-centuryGeorgian narrative, the place is the fictional city of Lasia, and it is thegodless Emperor who is Selinus.[7]

The town had a pond, as large as a lake, where a plague-bearing dragondwelled that envenomed all the countryside. To appease the dragon,the people of Silene used to feed it two sheep every day, and when thesheep failed, they fed it their children, chosen by lottery. It happenedthat the lot fell on the king's daughter, who is in some versions of thestory called Sabra.[8] The king, distraught with grief, told the peoplethey could have all his gold and silver and half of his kingdom if hisdaughter were spared; the people refused. The daughter was sent out tothe lake, decked out as a bride, to be fed to the dragon.

Saint George by chance rode past the lake. The princess, trembling,sought to send him away, but George vowed to remain. The dragonreared out of the lake while they were conversing. Saint Georgefortified himself with the Sign of the Cross,[9] charged it on horsebackwith his lance and gave it a grievous wound. Then he called to theprincess to throw him her girdle, and he put it around the dragon'sneck. When she did so, the dragon followed the girl like a meek beaston a leash.

She and Saint George led the dragon back to the city of Silene, where itterrified the people at its approach. But Saint George called out tothem, saying that if they consented to become Christians and bebaptised, he would slay the dragon before them. The king and thepeople of Silene converted to Christianity, George slew the dragon,and the body was carted out of the city on four ox-carts. "Fifteenthousand men baptized, without women and children." On the sitewhere the dragon died, the king built a church to the Blessed VirginMary and Saint George, and from its altar a spring arose whose waterscured all disease.[10]

Traditionally, the sword[11] with which St. George slew the dragon wascalled Ascalon, a name recalling the city of Ashkelon, Israel. From thistradition, the name Ascalon was used by Winston Churchill for hispersonal aircraft during World War II (records at Bletchley Park), sinceSt. George is the Patron Saint of England.

Saint George and the Dragon 42

Woodcut frontispiece of Alexander Barclay, Lyfeof Seynt George (Westminster, 1515)

Saint George defeating the dragon and saving theprincess.

Saint George and the Dragon 43

Origins

Saint George and the Dragon, by Rogier van derWeyden

The figure of the dragon slayer figures in the founding myth of Delphi,where Apollo slays the drakon Pytho, and has ancient Near Easternroots as old as Mesopotamian Labbu. A dragon is also the enemyfigure in Revelation and in the saintly legend of Margaret the Virgin.

The region had long venerated other religious figures. These historiansdeem it likely that certain elements of their ancient worship could havepassed to their Christian successors. Notable among these ancientdeities was Sabazios, the Sky Father of the Phrygians and known asSabazius to the Romans. This god was traditionally depicted riding onhorseback.

The iconic image of St. George on horseback trampling theserpent-dragon beneath him is considered to be similar to thesepre-Christian representations of Sabazios, the mounted god of Phrygiaand Thrace.

According to Christopher Booker it is more likely, however, that the"George and the Dragon" story is a medieval adaptation of the ancientGreek myth of Perseus and Andromeda—evidence for which can beseen in the similarity of events and locale in both stories.[12] In this

connection, the Perseus and Andromeda myth was known throughout the Middle Ages from the influence of Ovid.In imagery, other Greek myths also played a role. "Medieval artists used the Greco-Roman image of Bellerophonand the Chimaera as the template for representations of Saint George and the Dragon."[13]

These myths in turn may derive from an earlier Hittite myth concerning the battle between the Storm God Tarhunand the dragon Illuyankas. Such stories also have counterparts in other Indo-European mythologies: the slaying ofthe serpent Vritra by Indra in Vedic religion, the battle between Thor and Jörmungandr in the Norse story ofRagnarok, the Greek account of the defeat of the Titan Typhon by Zeus.[14]

Parallels also exist outside of Indo-European mythology, for example the Babylonian myths of Marduk slaying thedragon Tiamat.[15] The book of Job 41:21 speaks of a creature whose "breath kindleth coals, and a flame goeth out ofhis mouth."[16]

In Italy, Saint Mercurialis, first bishop of the city of Forlì, is also depicted slaying a dragon.[17] Saint Julian of LeMans, Saint Veran, Saint Bienheuré, Saint Crescentinus, Saint Margaret of Antioch, Saint Clement of Metz, SaintMartha, Saint Quirinus of Malmedy, Saint Donatus of Arezzo, and Saint Leonard of Noblac were also venerated asdragon-slayers.[18]

Others trace the origin of Saint George and the Dragon to Palestine,where the supposed dragon was controlled bySatan. The creature blocked the city's water supply and would only move if given a virgin sacrifice. Over time, all ofthe virgins were sacrificed except for the noble's daughter, and even she was sent to quench the castle's thirst.However, Saint George (or Mar Jiryis ) arrived at the last moment on his white horse, striking down the dragon witha spear between its eyes.[19]

Saint George and the Dragon 44

Treatment by artists

Coat of arms of Moscow

Paintings• Paolo Uccello, Saint George and the Dragon, c. 1470. National Gallery, London.• Giovanni Bellini, Saint George Fighting the Dragon, c. 1471. Pesaro

altarpiece.[20]

• Raphael (Raffaello Santi), St. George, 1504. Oil on wood. Louvre, Paris, France.• Raphael (Raffaello Santi), St. George and the Dragon, 1504–1506. Oil on wood.

National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., United States• Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), St. George and the Dragon, 1555.[21]

• Peter Paul Rubens, Saint George and the Dragon, 1620.• Edward Burne-Jones, St. George and the Dragon, 1866.[22]

• Gustave Moreau, St. George and the Dragon, c. 1870. Oil on canvas. TheNational Gallery, London.

• Briton Rivière, St. George and the Dragon, c. 1914.Sculptures

A half sovereign with Benedetto Pistrucci'sengraving.

• Bernt Notke, wood, Storkyrkan in Stockholm, ca. 1484–1489.[23]

• Salvador Dalí, Saint George and the Dragon, ca. 1977–1984• Landmark Loews Movie Palace Statue, Saint George and the dragon at

The Landmark Loews Movie Palace in Jersey City, NJ, US. 2010.[24]

Mosaic• Edward Poynter, Saint George for England, 1869. Central Lobby in the

Palace of Westminster.

Engravings• Benedetto Pistrucci, engraving for coin dies, 1817.Other• Edward Elgar, The Banner of St George: a ballad for chorus and

orchestra, words by Shapcott Wensley, 1879.

Saint George and the Dragon 45

Contemporary retelling

St. George and the Dragon by Briton Reviere.

The Wedding of Saint George and the PrincessSabra by Dante Gabriel Rossetti.

• The 1898 Dream Days by Kenneth Grahame includes a chapterentitled The Reluctant Dragon, in which an elderly St. George and abenign dragon stage a mock battle to satisfy the townsfolk and getthe dragon introduced into society. Later made into a film by WaltDisney Productions, and set to music by John Rutter as a children'soperetta.

• In 1935 Stanley Holloway recorded a humorous retelling of the taleas St. George and the Dragon written by Weston and Lee

• The Dragon Knight, a series of books by Gordon R. Dickson,adopted this story as a past event into its canon, significant in thatdragons had since referred to humans as 'georges.' The story of St.George and the Dragon is referred to on occasion, but never told.The first book in the series, The Dragon and the George, is aretelling of a previous short story by the same author, "St. Dragonand the George".

• In the 1950s, Stan Freberg and Daws Butler wrote and performedSt. George and the Dragon-Net (a spoof of the tale and of Dragnet)for Freberg's radio show. The story's recording became the firstcomedy album to sell over 1 million copies.

• A 1975 episode of "Space: 1999" titled "Dragon's Domain" madereference to the legend of St. George and the Dragon. A crewmanfrom the space station heroically kills a dragon-like creature after ithas consumed other astronauts. The main character played byBarbara Bain eventually concludes that the crewman's story willcreate new mythology similar to the legend of St. George.

• The 1981 Paramount Pictures/Disney film Dragonslayer wasloosely based on the tale.[25]

• EC Comics published a comic called "By George!!" in WeirdFantasy #15. The story revealed that the 'dragon' was in fact a lost,

misunderstood alien child who didn't mean any harm.• Margaret Hodges retold the legend in a 1984 children's book (Saint George and the Dragon) with Caldecott

Medal-winning illustrations by Trina Schart Hyman.• American artist Butt Johnson [26] uses the theme in a drawing entitled "Mario, Patron Saint of Brooklyn" [27]

portraying characters from the video game Super Mario Bros., and featuring Mario in the role of Saint George –slaying the "dragon" (King Koopa).

• The poem "Fairy Tale" by Yury Zhivago–the main character from Boris Pasternak's novel "DoctorZhivago"–relates a modified account of this legend; Yury's poem differs in that it is nonreligious and makes nomention of the village.

• In Elizabeth Kostova's The Historian,[28] Saint George is chronicled as being the saint who killed Vlad Tepesh[29]

(also known as Dracula, which means "son of the dragon" or "son of the devil").

Saint George and the Dragon 46

A church altar dedicated to Saint George andSaint Barbara at St. Verena's Catholic Church in

Roggenbeuren, Germany.

• In Graham McNeill's book Mechanicum, part of the Horus Heresyseries, the story is retold and St. George is revealed to be the futureEmperor of mankind.

Alternative legends

The village of Wormingford in Essex, England also lays claim to theGeorge and the Dragon legend. A dragon, now believed to have been acrocodile that escaped from Richard I, was slain in the River Stour.There are differing accounts, including different dragon slayers,however one popular account tells how Sir George Marney (of Layerde la Haye) killed the dragon with his lance. The church inWormingford (which is dedicated to St Andrew) has a stained glasswindow depicting this scene.[30] [31]

Notes[1] Robertson, The Medieval Saints' Lives (pp 51-52) suggested that the dragon motif was transferred to the George legend from that of his father

fellow soldier saint, Saint Theodore Tiro. The Roman Catholic writer Alban Butler (Lives of the Saints) was at pains to credit the motif as alate addition: "It should be noted, however, that the story of the dragon, though given so much prominence, was a later accretion, of which wehave no sure traces before the twelfth century. This puts out of court the attempts made by many folklorists to present St. George as no morethan a christianized survival of pagan mythology."

[2] Walter 2003:128, noted by British Museum Russian Icon "The Miracle of St George and the Dragon / Black George" (http:/ / www.britishmuseum. org/ research/ online_research_catalogues/ search_object_details. aspx?objectid=62490& partid=1& catalogueOnly=true&catParentPageid=25390& output=bibliography/ !!/ OR/ !!/ 6256/ !/ / !/ A Catalogue of the Russian Icons in the British Museum/ !/ / !!/ / !!!/ &catalogueName=Icons in the British Museum& catalogueSection=A catalogue of the Russian icons in the British Museum&sortBy=catNumber).

[3] Christopher Walter, The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition 2003:141, notes the earliest datable image, at Pavnisi, Georgia(1154-58)

[4] Patriarchal Library, Jerusalem, codex 2, according to Christopher Walter, The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition 2003:140;Walter quotes the text at length, from a Russian translation.

[5] Margaret Aston, Faith and Fire Continuum Publishing, 1993 ISBN 1-85285-073-6 page 272[6] Christian Roy, 2005, Traditional Festivals ISBN 978-1-57607-089-5 page 408; Dorothy Spicer, Festivals of Western Europe, (BiblioBazaar),

2008 ISBN 1-4375-2015-4, page 67[7] Quoted in Walter 2003:141.[8] http:/ / www. mainlesson. com/ display. php?author=langm& book=saints& story=patron[9] In the earliest, Georgian version where the dragon is more clearly a representation of paganism, or at least of infernal power, the sign of the

Cross itself was sufficient to defeat the dragon.[10] Thus Jacobus de Voragine, in William Caxton's translation ( On-line text (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ basis/ goldenlegend/

GL-vol3-george. html)).[11] Ascalon, Askalon (Seven Champions); Askelon (Percy's ballads) (http:/ / home. ix. netcom. com/ ~kiyoweap/ myth/ arms-weap/ ascalon.

htm)[12] Booker, Christopher (2004). The Seven Basic Plots. Continuum. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-8264-5209-2.[13] Theoi Greek Mythology (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ greek-mythology/ dragons. html).[14] Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1.[15] Combat of Marduk and Tiamat in the Babylonian Creation Myths, Fourth Tablet at Sacred-texts.com (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/

blc/ blc11. htm) The killing of Tiamat is featured from line 93[16] Job 41;21 (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 108/ 18/ 41. html)[17] Catholic Encyclopedia: Forli (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 06137a. htm)

Saint George and the Dragon 47

[18] Sauroctones (http:/ / www. mythofrancaise. asso. fr/ mythes/ themes/ saurocto. htm)[19] http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~dash/ stgeorge. html[20] (http:/ / cgfa. sunsite. dk/ bellini/ p-bellini6. htm)[21] (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ wm/ paint/ auth/ tintoretto/ st-george-dragon. jpg)[22] (http:/ / www. abcgallery. com/ B/ burne-jones/ burnejones12. html)[23] Nordisk familjebok (http:/ / runeberg. org/ nfbt/ 0053. html). 1914. .[24] (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ media/ rm2439874048/ nm1144187)[25] No Land is an Urland- The Creation of the World of Dragonslayer by Danny Fingeroth from Dragonslayer- The Official Marvel Comics

Adaptation of the Spectacular Paramount/Disney Motion Picture!, Marvel Super Special Vol.1, No. 20, published by Marvel Comics Group,1981

[26] http:/ / www. crggallery. com/ artists/ butt-johnson/[27] http:/ / www. buttjohnson. com/ drawings/ mario/ mario. html[28] The Historian[29] Vlad tepes[30] http:/ / www. bures-online. co. uk/ dragon/ worm. htm[31] http:/ / www. dedhamvalesociety. org. uk/ Files/ VillageWORMINGFORD. pdf

References• Loomis, C. Grant, 1949. White Magic, An Introduction to the Folklore of Christian Legend (Cambridge: Medieval

Society of America)• Whatley, E. Gordon, editor, with Anne B. Thompson and Robert K. Upchurch, 2004. St. George and the Dragon

in the South English Legendary (East Midland Revision, c. 1400) Originally published in Saints' Lives in MiddleEnglish Collections ( on-line text: Introduction (http:/ / www. lib. rochester. edu/ camelot/ teams/ whgeodintro.htm)).

• Catholic Encyclopedia, " Saint George (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 06453a. htm)"• (Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications) ( On-line Introduction (http:/ / www. lib. rochester. edu/

camelot/ teams/ whgeodintro. htm))

External links• Saint George church in Dolinka (Hungarian: Inám) (http:/ / www. dolinka. org/ hu/ telepules/ egyhaz/

szent-gyorgy-templom. html)• St George and the Dragon Felt Board Story (http:/ / www. storyresources. com/ product_details.

php?category_id=106& item_id=309) from Felt Works (http:/ / www. storyresources. co. nz)• St George and the Dragon Events and Ideas - Official Website for Tourism in England (http:/ / www.

enjoyengland. com/ attractions/ events/ calendar/ april/ st-george. aspx)• St George Unofficial Bank Holiday (http:/ / www. stgeorgesholiday. com/ st_george. asp): St. George and the

Dragon, free illustrated book based on 'The Seven Champions' by Richard Johnson (1596)• St George's Bake and Brew (http:/ / www. childrenssociety. org. uk/ stgeorge)• (http:/ / rampartsilver. com/ index. php?main_page=product_info& cPath=3& products_id=6): St. George 3 Ruble

Coin

A Book of Dragons 48

A Book of Dragons

A Book of Dragons Author(s) Ruth Manning-Sanders

Illustrator Robin Jacques

Cover artist Robin Jacques

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Fairy Tales

Publisher E. P. Dutton

Publication date 1965

Media type Print (hardcover)

Pages 128 pp

A Book of Dragons is a 1965 anthology of 14 fairy tales from around the world that have been collected and retoldby Ruth Manning-Sanders. It is one in a long series of such anthologies by Manning-Sanders.In the foreword, Manning-Sanders states that "not all dragons want to gobble up princesses." She thus includes talesof kind and proud dragons, along with the savage ones. Also in the foreword, the author relates a condensed versionof Saint George and the Dragon and concludes, "[Y]ou will not find St George and the Dragon among the stories inthis book; because this is a book of fairy tales, and the story of St George belongs more properly to legend."This book was first published in the United Kingdom in 1964, by Methuen & Co. Ltd.Some of tales from this book are recollected in A Choice of Magic (1971) by Manning-Sanders. And some of talesfrom this book are recollected in Folk and Fairy Tales (1978) by Manning-Sanders.

Table of contents• 1. Constantes and the Dragon (Greece)• 2. Chien Tang (China)• 3. Stan Bolovan (Romania)• 4. My Lord Bag of Rice (Japan)• 5. The Nine Doves (Greece)• 6. The Yellow Dragon (China)• 7. Pepito (Greece)• 8. Yanni (Macedonia)• 9. The Dragon and His Grandmother (Germany)• 10. The Thirteenth Son of the King of Erin (Ireland)• 11. Baskets in a Little Cart (China)• 12. The Prince with the Golden Hand (Slav)• 13. The Three Dogs (Germany)• 14. The Dragon of the Well (Greece)

Nāga 49

Nāga

A Hoysala sculpture of a Naga couple. Halebidu. Sarpa Kavu at Sakthanthamburan palace, Thrissur

Vishnu resting on Ananta-Shesha, with consortLakshmi.

Nāga 50

Naga stone worship at Hampi

Nag temple at Baba Dhansar, Reasi district, Jammu & Kashmir

Nāga (Sanskrit: नाग, IAST: nāgá, Burmese: နဂါး, IPA: [nəɡá]; Javanese: någå, Khmer: នាគ neak, Thai: นาค nak,Chinese: 那伽) is the Sanskrit and Pāli word for a deity or class of entity or being, taking the form of a very greatsnake—specifically the King Cobra, found in Hinduism and Buddhism. The use of the term nāga is oftenambiguous, as the word may also refer, in similar contexts, to one of several human tribes known as or nicknamed"Nāgas"; to elephants; and to ordinary snakes, particularly the King Cobra and the Indian Cobra, the latter of whichis still called nāg in Hindi and other languages of India. A female nāga is a nāgī or nāginī.

EtymologyIn Sanskrit, a nāgá (नाग) is a cobra, a specific type of snake (hooded snake). A synonym for nāgá is phaṇin (फणिन्).There are several words for "snake" in general, and one of the very commonly used ones is sarpá (सर्प). Sometimesthe word nāgá is also used generically to mean "snake".[1] [2] The word is cognate with English 'snake', Germanic:*snēk-a-, Proto-IE: *(s)nēg-o-.[3]

In the MahabharataIn the great epic Mahabharata, the depiction of Nagas tends toward the negative, and they are portrayed as thedeserving victims of the snake sacrifice and of predation by the eagle-king Garuda. The epic calls them "persecutorsof all creatures", and tells us "the snakes were of virulent poison, great prowess and excess of strength, and ever benton biting other creatures" (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 20). At the same time, nagas are important players in many ofthe events narrated in the epic, frequently no more evil nor deceitful than the other protagonists, and sometimes onthe side of good.The epic frequently characterizes Nagas as having a mixture of human and serpent-like traits. Sometimes itcharacterizes them as having human traits at one time, and as having serpent-like traits at another. For example, thestory of how the Naga prince Sesha came to hold the world on his head begins with a scene in which he appears as adedicated human ascetic, "with knotted hair, clad in rags, and his flesh, skin, and sinews dried up owing to the hardpenances he was practising." Brahma is pleased with Shesha, and entrusts him with the duty of carrying the world.At that point in the story, Shesha begins to exhibit the attributes of a serpent. He enters into a hole in the Earth andslithers all the way to bottom, where he then loads the Earth onto his head. (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 36.)

Nāga 51

Enmity with GarudaThe great nemesis of the Nagas in the Mahabharata is the gigantic eagle-king Garuda. Garuda and the Nagas beganlife as cousins. The sage Kasyapa had two wives, Kadru and Vinata, the former of whom desired many offspring,and the latter of whom desired few but powerful offspring. Each got her wish. Kadru laid 1000 eggs which hatchedinto snakes, and Vinata laid two, which hatched into the charioteer of Surya the sun god and Garuda. Through afoolish bet, Vinata became enslaved to her sister, and as a result Vinata's son Garuda was required to do the biddingof the snakes. Though compliant, he chafed and built up a grudge that he would never relinquish. When he asked thesnakes what he would have to do in order to be released from his bondage, they told him he would have to bringthem amrita, the elixir of immortality. Garuda stole the elixir from the gods and brought it to the serpents infulfillment of their requirement, but through a ruse prevented them from partaking of it and achieving immortality.From that point onward, he regarded them as enemies and as food. (Book I: Adi Parva, Sections 16ff.)

The curse of KadruKadru, the ancestral mother of snakes, made a bet with her sister Vinata, the stakes being that the loser would beenslaved to the winner. Eager to secure victory, Kadru requested the cooperation of her offspring in order to fix thebet so that Kadru would win. When her offspring balked at the request, Kadru grew angry and cursed them to die afiery death in the snake-sacrifice of King Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit, who was the son of Abhimanyu the son ofArjuna. The king of the snakes Vasuki was aware of the curse, and knew that his brethren would need a hero torescue them from it. He approached the renowned ascetic Jaratkaru with a proposal of marriage to a snake-goddess,Manasa, Vasuki's own sister. Out of the union of the ascetic and the snake-maiden was born "a son of the splendor ofa celestial child." This son was named Astika, and he was to be the savior of the snakes.In accordance with Kadru's curse, Janamejaya prepared a snake sacrifice of a type described in the scriptures, thePuranas. He erected a sacrificial platform and hired priests and other professionals needed for the rites. Following theproper form, the priests lit the sacrificial fire, duly fed it with clarified butter, uttered the required mantras, and begancalling the names of snakes. The power of the rite was such that the named snakes were summoned to the fire andwere consumed by it. As the sacrifice took on genocidal proportions, Astika came to the rescue. He approachedJanamejaya and praised the sacrifice in such eloquent terms that the king offered to grant him a boon of his choosing.Astika promptly requested that the sacrifice be terminated. Though initially regretful of his offer, Janamejaya wastrue to his word, and the sacrifice came to an end. (Book I: Adi Parva, Sections 13-58.)

Nāga 52

Other mentions in the Mahabharata

A naga guarding the Temple of Wat Sisaket inVientiane, Laos

• The serpent king Vasuki helped the gods to recover amrita, theelixir of immortality, from the Ocean of Milk by serving as the cordthey wrapped around Mount Mandara in order to churn up thedepths of the ocean. (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 18.)

• The naga princess Ulupi had a son Iravat by the Pandava heroArjuna. (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 216.) Though he had thesupport of many nagas, Iravat was eventually slain by the RakshasaAlamvusha at the battle of Kurukshetra. (Book VI: Bhishma Parva,Section 91.)

• Matali, the charioteer of the god Indra, sought a husband for hisdaughter Gunakesi. He approached the naga Aryaka and proposedthe marriage of Gunakesi with the naga's handsome grandsonSumukha. Alas, Aryaka replied, Garuda had already declared hisintent to devour the comely youth, having previously murdered hisfather. Matali, however, persuaded Indra and Vishnu to giveSumukha a draught of amrita, the elixir of immortality. Sumukhadrank the potion, and thus was rendered impervious to any assault

by the lord of the birds. The young couple were happily married. (Book V: Udyoga Parva, Section 103.)

In HinduismCompare with Tiamat and Apsu.

An open-air Lingam(symbol of god Shiva) fromLepakshi sheltered by a naga

Stories involving the nāgas are still very much a part of contemporarycultural traditions in predominantly Hindu regions of Asia (India,Nepal, and the island of Bali). In India, nāgas are considered naturespirits and the protectors of springs, wells and rivers. They bring rain,and thus fertility, but are also thought to bring disasters such as floodsand drought. According to traditions nāgas are only malevolent tohumans when they have been mistreated. They are susceptible tomankind's disrespectful actions in relation to the environment. Theyare also associated with waters—rivers, lakes, seas, and wells—and aregenerally regarded as guardians of treasure. According to Beer (1999),Naga and cintamani are often depicted together and associated directlyin the literature.

They are objects of great reverence in some parts of southern Indiawhere it is believed that they bring fertility and prosperity to theirvenerators. Expensive and grand rituals like Nagamandala[4] areconducted in their honor (see Nagaradhane). In India, certaincommunities called Nagavanshi consider themselves descendants ofNagas.

Varuna, the Vedic god of storms, is viewed as the King of the nāgas. Nāgas live in Pātāla, the seventh of the "nether"dimensions or realms.[5] They are children of Kashyapa and Kadru. Among the prominent nāgas of Hinduism areManasa, Sesha, and Vasuki.

Nāga 53

The nāgas also carry the elixir of life and immortality. Garuda once brought it to them and put a cup with elixir onthe ground but it was taken away by Indra. However, few drops remained on the grass. The nāgas licked up thedrops, but in doing so, cut their tongues on the grass, and since then their tongues have been forked.[6]

Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered by a Shesha naga or reclining on Shesha, but the iconographyhas been extended to other deities as well. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears inmany forms: around the neck,[7] use as a sacred thread (Sanskrit: yajñyopavīta)[8] wrapped around the stomach as abelt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne.[9] Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[10]

Nagas are also snakes that may take human form. They tend to be very curious.

Patanjali as Adi-Sesha

Maehle (2007: p.?) affirms that according to tradition, Patañjali is heldto be an incarnation of Ādi S'esha.

In Buddhism

Mucalinda sheltering Gautama Buddha at WatPhrathat Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai, Thailand

Traditions about nāgas are also very common in all the Buddhistcountries of Asia. In many countries, the nāga concept has beenmerged with local traditions of great and wise serpents or dragons. InTibet, the nāga was equated with the klu, wits that dwell in lakes orunderground streams and guard treasure. In China, the nāga wasequated with the lóng or Chinese dragon.

The Buddhist nāga generally has the form of a great cobra-like snake,usually with a single head but sometimes with many. At least some ofthe nāgas are capable of using magic powers to transform themselvesinto a human semblance. In Buddhist painting, the nāga is sometimesportrayed as a human being with a snake or dragon extending over hishead. One nāga, in human form, attempted to become a monk; when

telling it that such ordination was impossible, the Buddha told it how to ensure that it would be reborn a man, able tobecome a monk.

Nāga 54

Gigantic naga protecting Buddha amongst theother sculptures of Bunleua Sulilat's Sala Keoku.

Nāgas are believed to both live on Mount Sumeru, among the otherminor deities, and in various parts of the human-inhabited earth. Someof them are water-dwellers, living in streams or the mer; others areearth-dwellers, living in underground caverns.

The nāgas are the servants of Virūpākṣa (Pāli: Virūpakkha), one of theFour Heavenly Kings who guards the western direction. They act as aguard upon Mount Sumeru, protecting the devas of Trāyastriṃśa fromattack by the Asuras.

Among the notable nāgas of Buddhist tradition is Mucalinda, protectorof the Buddha. In the Vajrayana and Mahasiddha traditions accordingto Beer (1999), many notable fully enlightened nagas also transmitted and/or transported terma into and out of thehuman realm that had been elementally encoded by adepts.

Norbu (1999: p.?) states that according to tradition the Prajnaparamita terma teachings are held to have beenconferred upon Nagarjuna by Nagaraja, the King of the nagas, who had been guarding them at the bottom of a lake.Refer Lotus Sutra.

Other traditions

A naga at the steps of a building in the Wat PhraKaew in Bangkok

For Malay sailors, nāgas are a type of dragon with many heads; inThailand and Java, the nāga is a wealthy underworld deity. In Laosthey are beaked water serpents. Phaya Naga, Water Dragon, is awell-known dragon in Thailand. People in Thailand see it as a holycreature and worship it in the temple. It allegedly lives in Mekongriver.

In Lake Chinni

In Malay and Orang Asli traditions, the lake Chinni, located in Pahangis home to a naga called Sri Gumum. Depending on legend versions,her predecessor Sri Pahang or her son left the lake and later fought anaga called Sri Kemboja. Kemboja is the former name of what isCambodia. Like the naga legends there, there are stories about anancient empire in lake Chinni, although the stories are not linked to thenaga legends.[11] [12]

Nāga 55

In Cambodia

Cambodian Naga at the Royal Palace in PhnomPenh

In a Cambodian legend, the nāga were a reptilian race of beings whopossessed a large empire or kingdom in the Pacific Ocean region. SeeKaliya. The Nāga King's daughter married an Indian Brahmana namedKaundinya, and from their union sprang the Cambodian people.Therefore still Cambodians say that they are "Born from the Nāga".

The Seven-Headed Nāga serpents depicted as statues on Cambodiantemples, such as Angkor Wat, apparently represent the seven raceswithin Nāga society, which has a mythological, or symbolic,association with "the seven colors of the rainbow". Furthermore,Cambodian Nāga possess numerological symbolism in the number oftheir heads. Odd-headed Nāga symbolise the Male Energy, Infinity,Timelessness, and Immortality. This is because, numerologically, allodd numbers come from One (1). Even-headed Nāga are said to be"Female, representing Physicality, Mortality, Temporality, and theEarth."

In the Mekong

Naga emerging from the mouth of a Makara inthe style of a Chinese dragon

The legend of the Nāga is a strong and sacred belief held by Thai andLao people living along the Mekong River. Many pay their respects tothe river because they believe the Nāga still rule in it, and locals holdan annual sacrifice for the Nāga. Each ceremony depends on how eachvillage earns its living from the Mekong River — for instance, throughfishing or transport. Local residents believe that the Nāga can protectthem from danger, so they are likely to make a sacrifice to Nāga beforetaking a boat trip along the Mekong River.

Also, every year on the night of 15th day of 11th month in the Laolunar calendar at the end of Vassa, an unusual phenomenon occurs inthe area of the Mekong River stretching over 20 kilometres between

Pak-Ngeum and Phonephisai districts in Nong Khai province, Thailand. Fireballs appear to rise from the river intothe nighttime sky. Local villagers believe that Nāga under Mekong River shoot the fireballs into the air to celebratethe end of Vassa, because Nāga meditate during this time.[13]

A photograph on display in bars, restaurants, guesthouses, and markets around Thailand captioned, Queen of Nagasseized by American Army at Mekhong River, Laos Military Base on June 27, 1973 with the length of 7.80 meters is ahoax. The photograph is actually that taken by USN LT DeeDee Van Wormer, of an oarfish found in late 1996 byUS Navy SEAL trainees on the coast of Coronado, California.[14] [15]

Nāga 56

Nagayon Paya ( means Dragon-roofed-Buddha )at Monywa, Myanmar

In 2000, Richard Freeman from the Centre for Fortean Zoology visitedthe area and talked with witnesses who claimed to have seen giganticsnakes far larger than any python. The general description was of a 60foot serpent with black scales that had a greenish sheen. Freemanspeculated that the nāga legend was based on a real animal, possibly agiant madtsoiid snake.[16]

In popular culture

Several Bollywood films have been made on the theme of Nagin(female nāga), including Nagin (1954 film), Nagin (1976 film), Nagina(1986 film), Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani(2002), Hisss (2010film) and the television series Naaginn (2007-9).

In the Harry Potter book series, the pet snake of Voldemort is named Nagini, which as stated above is a female naga.The snake in the book is referred to as a female.The popular MMORPG World of Warcraft features an aggressive race of aquatic snake-people called Naga. Theywere once elves who, in the distant past, brought about events that resulted in a world-wide disaster. They becametrapped in the ocean as a consequence. Their queen made a pact with a mysterious god-like being in exchange forsurvival; they were then transformed into humanoid serpents. They are generally regarded as evil.In Legend of the Five Rings, there was an ancient civilization called Naga who had human torsos with serpent-liketails and sharing feeling through the Akasha. In decline, they created the Great Sleep (a sort of hibernation) in orderto fight what they call the Foul - the Taint of the Shadowlands - in a distant future. They woke from the Great Sleepin order to help the Emerald Empire in a war against they common enemy.[17]

The video game Chrono Trigger features an enemy creature called a Naga or Naga-ette with the upper half of ahumanoid female and the lower half is serpentine.

Nāga 57

Well-known nāgas

Lord Krishna dancing on the serpent Kaliya;while the serpent's wives pray to Krishna

• Ananta-Sesha, ("Limitless-Eternal") the world serpent with athousand heads.[18]

• Balarama, origin of Ananta-Sesha.[19]

• Karkotaka controls weather.• Mucalinda protects the Buddha.• Padmavati, the Nāgī queen & companion of Dharanendra.• Paravataksha, his sword causes earthquakes and his roar caused

thunder.• Takshaka, king of the Nāgas.• Ulupi, a companion of Arjuna in the epic Mahabharata.• Vasuki, king of the Nagas who helped the devas recover amrita

from the Ocean of Milk.• Manasa, the Hindu goddess of Nagas and curer of snake-bite and

sister of Vasuki• Kaliya, a snake conquered by Krishna• Naga is also present in the Kapampangan polytheistic beliefs, see

Deities of Philippine Mythology

Where nāga live

• Patala (or Nagaloka), the seventh of the "nether" dimensions orrealms, Bhoga-vatī being its capital.[20]

• Lake Manosarowar, lake of the Great Nāgas.• Mount Sumeru• Nagaland in India• Kacha Naga/Duplicate Naga, the Naga tribes outside Nagaland.• Naggar, village in the Himalayas, Tibet, that derives its name from Naga (Cobra).• Nagpur, Indian city derived from Nāgapuram, literally "city of nāgas".• Pacific Ocean (Cambodian myth)• Sheshna's well in Benares, India, said to be an entrance to Patala.• Nagadaa, where naag-yaGYa was performed.• Mekong river• Anantnag, Indian city (Kashmir) named after one of 12 prominent divine naga king mentioned in

Bhavishyapuran.• Takshila, an ancient place in Pakistan named after one of 12 prominent divine naga king in Bhavishyapuran.

Nāga 58

Notes[1] For the specific terminology for cobra see p. 432, Vaman Shivram Apte, The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary (Motilal Banarsidass:

2002 reprint edition) ISBN 81-208-0299-3.[2] Vaman Shivram Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. p. 539. The first definition of nāgaḥ given reads "A snake in general, particularly the

cobra."[3] Proto-IE: *(s)nēg-o-, Meaning: snake, Old Indian: nāgá- m. 'snake', Germanic: *snēk-a- m., *snak-an- m., *snak-ō f.; *snak-a- vb. http:/ /

starling. rinet. ru/ cgi-bin/ response. cgi?single=1& basename=/ data/ ie/ piet& text_number=2649& root=config[4] http:/ / www. udupipages. com/ home/ temple/ naga. html[5] Patala (http:/ / www. mythfolklore. net/ india/ encyclopedia/ patala. htm)[6] Mahābhārata 1.30.20, Sanskrit: http:/ / sacred-texts. com/ hin/ mbs/ mbs01030. htm, English: http:/ / sacred-texts. com/ hin/ m01/ m01035.

htm[7] For the story of wrapping Vāsuki around the neck and Śeṣa around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as Sarpagraiveyakāṅgādaḥ

("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element, see: Krishan, Yuvraj (1999), Gaņeśa: UnravellingAn Enigma, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 81-208-1413-4 pp=51-52.

[8] For text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpent Śeṣa, see: Martin-Dubost, p. 202.[9] For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography, see: Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds.

Mumbai: Project for Indian Cultural Studies. ISBN 81-900184-3-4. , p. 202.[10] Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. ; p. 151[11] http:/ / www. nici. ru. nl/ ~peterh/ srigumum/ doc/ stories. html[12] http:/ / www. journeymalaysia. com/ ML_chini. htm[13] Bang Fai Phaya Nark (Naga fireballs) (http:/ / www. thaifolk. com/ doc/ literate/ payanak/ payanak_e. htm)[14] Ranges, Trevor (2002 – 2006). "A Big Fish Tale" (http:/ / www. thailandroad. com/ trevor/ naga. html). thailandroad.com. pp. 2. . "We were

on our morning physical fitness run when we came across this huge fish lying on the sand."[15] "SEALs and a serpent of the sea" (http:/ / www. navy. mil/ media/ allhands/ acrobat/ ah199704. pdf) (PDF). ALL HANDS. Naval Media

Center. April 1997. pp. 20–21. . "The silvery serpent of the sea – an oarfish – was discovered last year by Basic UnderwaterDemolition/SEAL (BUD/S) Instructor Signalman 2nd Class (SEAL) Kevin Blake."

[16] "In the coils of the Naga," ForteanTimes, January 2003 (http:/ / www. forteantimes. com/ features/ articles/ 221/ in_the_coils_of_the_naga.html)

[17] "Legend of the Five Rings : Enemies of the Empire" Source book from the 4th Edition, p. 69.[18] Bhāgavata Purāṇa 3.26.25[19] Bhāgavata Purāṇa 10.1.24[20] Bhāgavata Purāṇa 1.11.11

References• Beer, Robert (1999). The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs (Hardcover). Shambhala. ISBN

157062416X, ISBN 978-1570624162• Claudia Müller-Ebeling, Claudia and Christian Rätsch and Surendra Bahadur Shahi (2002). Shamanism and

Tantra in the Himalayas. Transl. by Annabel Lee. Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions.• Maehle, Gregor (2007). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy (Paperback). New World Library. ISBN

1577316061 & ISBN 978-1577316060• Norbu, Chögyal Namkhai (1999). The Crystal and The Way of Light: Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen. Snow Lion

Publications. ISBN 1-55939-135-9

Nāga 59

External links• Nagas in the Pali Canon (http:/ / www. palikanon. com/ english/ pali_names/ n/ nagaa. htm)• Nagas (http:/ / www. khandro. net/ mysterious_naga. htm)• Image of a Seven-Headed Naga (http:/ / www. btinternet. com/ ~andy. brouwer/ be2. jpg)• Nagas and Serpents (http:/ / www. reptilianagenda. com/ research/ r073101a. shtml)• Depictions of Nagas (http:/ / angkorblog. com/ _wsn/ page16. html) in the area of Angkor Wat in Cambodia

Japanese dragon

Dragon, by Hokusai.

Japanese dragons are diverse legendary creatures in Japanesemythology and folklore. Japanese dragon myths amalgamate nativelegends with imported stories about dragons from China, Korea andIndia. The style of the dragon was heavily influenced by the Chinesedragon. Like these other Asian dragons, most Japanese ones are waterdeities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typicallydepicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Themodern Japanese language has numerous "dragon" words, includingindigenous tatsu from Old Japanese ta-tu, Sino-Japanese ryū or ryō 竜from Chinese lóng 龍, nāga ナーガ from Sanskrit nāga, and doragonドラゴン from English dragon.

Indigenous Japanese dragons

The ca. 680 CE Kojiki and the ca. 720 CE Nihongi mytho-histories have the first Japanese textual references todragons. "In the oldest annals the dragons are mentioned in various ways," explains de Visser (1913:135), "butmostly as water-gods, serpent- or dragon-shaped." The Kojiki and Nihongi mention several ancient dragons:

• Yamata no Orochi 八岐大蛇 "8-branched giant snake" was an 8-headed and 8-tailed dragon slain by the god ofwind and sea Susanoo, who discovered the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi (legendary sword of the Imperial Regalia ofJapan) in one of its tails.

• Watatsumi 海神 "sea god" or Ryūjin 龍神 "dragon god" was the ruler of seas and oceans, and described as adragon capable of changing into human form. He lived in the undersea Ryūgū-jō 龍宮城 "dragon palace castle",where he kept the magical tide jewels.

• Toyotama-hime 豊玉姫 "Luminous Pearl Princess" was Ryūjin's daughter. She purportedly was an ancestress ofEmperor Jimmu, Japan's legendary first emperor.

• Wani 鰐 was a sea monster that is translated as both "shark" and "crocodile". Kuma-wani 熊鰐 "bear (i.e., giantor strong) shark/crocodile" are mentioned in two ancient legends. One says the sea god Kotoshiro-nushi-no-kamitransformed into an "8-fathom kuma-wani" and fathered Toyotama-hime, the other says a kuma-wani piloted theships of Emperor Chūai and his Empress Jingū.

• Mizuchi 蛟 or 虯 was a river dragon and water deity. The Nihongi records legendary Emperor Nintoku offeringhuman sacrifices to mizuchi angered by his river engineering projects.

These myths about Emperor Jimmu descending from Toyatama-hime evidence the folklore that Japanese Emperorsare descendants of dragons. Compare the ancient Chinese tradition of dragons symbolizing the Emperor of China.Dragons in later Japanese folklore were influenced by Chinese and Indian myths.

• Kiyohime 清姫 "Purity Princess" was a teahouse waitress who fell in love with a young Buddhist priest. After hespurned her, she studied magic, transformed into a dragon, and killed him.

Japanese dragon 60

• Nure-onna 濡女 "Wet Woman" was a dragon with a snake's body and a woman's head. She was typically seenwhile washing her hair on a riverbank and would sometimes kill humans when angered.

• Zennyo Ryūō 善如龍王 "goodness-like dragon king" was a rain-god depicted either as a dragon with a snake onits head or as a human with a snake's tail.

• In My Lord Bag of Rice, the Ryūō "dragon king" of Lake Biwa asks the hero Tawara Tōda 田原藤太 to kill agiant centipede.

• Urashima Tarō rescued a turtle which took him to Ryūgū-jō and turned into the attractive daughter of the oceangod Ryūjin.

• Inari, the god of fertility and agriculture, was sometimes depicted as a dragon or snake instead of a fox.

Sino-Japanese dragonsChinese dragon mythology is central to Japanese dragons. Japanese words for "dragon" are written with kanji"Chinese characters", either simplified shinjitai 竜 or traditional kyūjitai 龍 from Chinese long 龍. These kanji canbe read tatsu in native Japanese kun'yomi and ryū or ryō in Sino-Japanese on'yomi.Many Japanese dragon names are loanwords from Chinese. For instance, the Japanese counterparts of theastrological Four Symbols are:

• Seiryū < Qinglong 青龍 "Azure Dragon"• Suzaku < Zhuque 朱雀 "Vermilion Bird"• Byakko < Baihu 白虎 "White Tiger"• Genbu < Xuanwu 玄武 "Black Tortoise"Japanese Shiryū 四竜 "4 dragon [kings]" are the legendary Chinese Longwang 龍王 "Dragon Kings" who rule thefour seas.• Gōkō < Aoguang 敖廣 "Dragon King of the East Sea"• Gōkin < Aoqin 敖欽 "Dragon King of the South Sea"• Gōjun < Aorun 敖閏 "Dragon King of the West Sea"• Gōjun < Aoshun 敖順 "Dragon King of the North Sea"Some authors differentiate Japanese ryū and Chinese long dragons by the number of claws on their feet. "In Japan,"writes Gould (1896:248), "it is invariably figured as possessing three claws, whereas in China it has four or five,according as it is an ordinary or an Imperial emblem."

During World War II, the Japanese military named many armaments after Chinese dragons. The Kōryū 蛟竜 <jiaolong 蛟龍 "flood dragon" was a midget submarine and the Shinryū 神竜 < shenlong 神龍 "spirit dragon" was arocket kamikaze aircraft. An Imperial Japanese Army division, the 56th Division, was codenamed the DragonDivision. The Dragon Division was annihilated in the Chinese town of Longling, in Chinese meaning Dragon'sTomb.

Indo-Japanese dragonsWhen Buddhist monks from other parts of Asia brought their faith to Japan they transmitted dragon and snake legends from Buddhist and Hindu mythology. The most notable examples are the nāga ナーガ or 龍 "Nāga; rain deity; protector of Buddhism" and the nāgarāja ナーガラージャ or 龍王 ”Nāgaraja; snake king; dragon king". De Visser (1913:179) notes that many Japanese nāga legends have Chinese features. "This is quite clear, for it was via China that all the Indian tales came to Japan. Moreover, many originally Japanese dragons, to which Chinese legends were applied, were afterwards identified with nāga, so that a blending of ideas was the result." For instance, the undersea palace where nāga kings supposedly live is called Japanese ryūgū 龍宮 "dragon palace" from Chinese longgong 龍宮. Compare ryūgū-jō 龍宮城 "dragon palace castle", which was the sea-god Ryūjin's undersea residence. Japanese legends about the sea-god's tide jewels, which controlled the ebb and flow of tides, have

Japanese dragon 61

parallels in Indian legends about the nāga's nyoi-ju 如意珠 "cintamani; wish-fulfilling jewels".Some additional examples of Buddhistic Japanese dragons are:

• Hachidai ryūō 八大龍王 "8 great naga kings" assembled to hear the Buddha expound on the Lotus Sutra, and area common artistic motif.

• Mucharinda ムチャリンダ "Mucalinda" was the Nāga king who protected the Buddha when he achieved bodhi,and is frequently represented as a giant cobra.

• Benzaiten 弁才天 is the Japanese name of the goddess Saraswati, who killed a 3-headed Vritra serpent or dragonin the Rigveda. According to the Enoshima Engi, Benzaiten created Enoshima Island in 552 CE in order to thwarta 5-headed dragon that had been harassing people.

• Kuzuryū 九頭龍 "9-headed dragon", deriving from the multi-headed Naga king シェーシャ or 舍沙 "Shesha",is worshipped at Togakushi Shrine in Nagano Prefecture.

Dragon templesDragon lore is traditionally associated with Buddhist temples. Myths about dragons living in ponds and lakes neartemples are widespread. De Visser (1913:181-184) lists accounts for Shitennō-ji in Osaka, Gogen Temple inHakone, Kanagawa, and the shrine on Mount Haku where the Genpei Jōsuiki records that a Zen priest saw a9-headed dragon transform into the goddess Kannon. In the present day, the Lake Saiko Dragon Shrine atFujiyoshida, Yamanashi has an annual festival and fireworks show.Temple names, like Japanese toponyms, frequently involve dragons. For instance, the Rinzai sect has Tenryū-ji天龍寺 "Heavenly Dragon Temple", Ryūtaku-ji 龍沢寺 "Dragon Swamp Temple", Ryōan-ji 竜安寺 "DragonPeace Temple". According to legend (de Visser 1913:180), when the Hōkō-ji 法興寺 or Asuka-dera 飛鳥寺

Buddhist temple was dedicated at Nara in 596, "a purple cloud descended from the sky and covered the pagoda aswell as the Buddha hall; then the cloud became five-coloured and assumed the shape of a dragon or phoenix".The Kinryū-no-Mai "Golden Dragon Dance" is an annual Japanese dragon dance performed at Sensō-ji, a Buddhisttemple in Asakusa. The dragon dancers twist and turn within the temple grounds and outside on the streets.According to legend, the Sensō Temple was founded in 628 after two fishermen found a gold statuette of Kannon inthe Sumida River, at which time golden dragons purportedly ascended into heaven. The Golden Dragon Dancecelebrates the temple founding and allegedly provides good fortune and prosperity.

Images

Kiyohime changes from aSerpent, by Yoshitoshi

Tsukioka

Susanoo slaying theYamata no Orochi, by

Kuniteru

The ama diver PrincessTamatori steals the

Dragon King's jewel, byUtagawa Kuniyoshi

The Dragon King's daughter, byUtagawa Kuniyoshi

Japanese dragon 62

The Buddhariding a

sea-dragon, byKunisada.

Sea-dragon, byUtagawa

Kuniyoshi

Japanese Dragon fountain inHakone

Dragon shrines

Japanese Dragon shrine in Fujiyoshida.

Japanese dragons are associated with Shinto shrines as well asBuddhist temples.

Itsukushima Shrine on Miyajima or Itsukushima Island in Japan'sInland Sea was believed to be the abode of the sea-god Ryūjin'sdaughter. According to the Gukanshō and The Tale of Heike (Heinrich1997:74-75), the sea-dragon empowered Emperor Antoku to ascendthe throne because his father Taira no Kiyomori offered prayers atItsukushima and declared it his ancestral shrine. When Antokudrowned himself after being defeated in the 1185 Battle of Dan-no-ura,he lost the imperial Kusanagi sword (which legendarily came from thetail of the Yamata no Orochi] dragon) back into the sea. In anotherversion, divers found the sword, and it is said to be preserved at AtsutaShrine. The great earthquake of 1185 was attributed to vengeful Heikespirits, specifically the dragon powers of Antoku.

Ryūjin shinkō 竜神信仰 "dragon god faith" is a form of Shintoreligious belief that worships dragons as water kami. It is connectedwith agricultural rituals, rain prayers, and the success of fisherman.

Dragons in modern culture

Dragons are a familiar motif in Japanese art and architecture, literature, and popular culture. Some alphabeticallyarranged examples include:

• Chunichi Dragons are a professional baseball team.• Dragon Ball is a manga and anime metaseries.• Dragon Quest is a popular videogame series.• Kamen Rider Ryuki (English Kamen Rider Dragon Knight) is a show in the Kamen Rider Series.• Long is the main villain of the Gekiranger Super Sentai series, americanized in Power Rangers: Jungle Fury as

Dai Shi and Scorch.• King Ghidorah is a three-headed golden dragon that has taken many forms in the kaiju films, specifically in the

Godzilla series.• Manda is a dragon in kaiju films.• Nāsu ナース is a dragon robot in the Ultraman series.

Japanese dragon 63

Emperor Antoku's grandmother rescuing himfrom a dragon, by Yoshitsuya Ichieisai.

• "Ryū 龍" or "Dragon: the Old Potter's Tale" is a short story byRyūnosuke Akutagawa

• Haku/Kohaku from the film Spirited Away is a river spirit whosetrue form is that of a white dragon.

• Natsu, the main character of the anime/mangá series Fairy Tail was raised by a Dragon, and can use fire forattacks.

• Breath of Fire IV shows a tale of Ryu and Fou-Lu being able to transform into ancient dragons.• In Touhou, a dragon is said to be the highest-order god of Gensokyo. Based from Perfect Memento that he lived

anywhere and he looks like a serpent with hands and horns.• In Monster Hunter Portable 3rd Amatsumagatsuchi the elder dragon of Sacred Mountain also loosely based on

Japanese dragon with three claws and It possess the ability to manipulate storms and wind.

Other Asian dragons• Chinese dragon• Druk• Korean dragon• Nāga• Vietnamese dragon

Japanese dragon 64

References

Further reading

A dragon ascends towards the heavens withMount Fuji in the background in this 1897

ukiyo-e print from Ogata Gekkō's Views of MountFuji.

• Aston, William George, tr. 1896. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japanfrom the Earliest Times to A.D. 697 (http:/ / www. sacred-texts.com/ shi/ nihon0. htm). 2 vols. Kegan Paul. 1972

• Chamberlain, Basil H., tr. 1919. The Kojiki, Records of AncientMatters (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ shi/ kj/ index. htm).

• Gould, Charles. 1896. Mythical Monsters" (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=YKEAAAAAMAAJ& dq=mythical+ monsters). W.H. Allen & Co.

• Heinrich, Amy Vladeck. 1997. Currents in Japanese Culture:Translations and Transformations. Columbia University Press.

• Ingersoll, Ernest. 1928. " Chapter Nine: The Dragon in Japanese Art(http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ etc/ ddl/ ddl11. htm)", in Dragonsand Dragon Lore, Payson & Clarke.

• Smith, G. Elliot. 1919. The Evolution of the Dragon (http:/ / fax.libs. uga. edu/ BL313xS648/ #). Longmans, Green & Company.

• Visser, Marinus Willern de. 1913. The Dragon in China and Japan(http:/ / fax. libs. uga. edu/ GR830xD7xV8/ #). J. Müller.

External links

• Dragons, Dragon Art, and Dragon Lore in Japan (http:/ / www.onmarkproductions. com/ html/ dragon. shtml), A to Z Photo Dictionary of Japanese Buddhism

• Dragons of Fame: Japan (http:/ / www. blackdrago. com/ famous_japanese. htm), The Circle of the Dragon• The Japanese Dragon (http:/ / www. dragonorama. com/ oriental/ japanese. html), Dragonorama• Ryūjin shinkō (http:/ / eos. kokugakuin. ac. jp/ modules/ xwords/ entry. php?entryID=795), Encyclopedia of

Shinto• The Azure Dragon of the East (http:/ / www2. gol. com/ users/ stever/ spring. htm), Steve Renshaw and Saori

Ihara• Ryuu 龍 (http:/ / www. aisf. or. jp/ ~jaanus/ deta/ r/ ryuu. htm), Japanese Architecture & Art Net User System• Lucky Motifs on a Dragon Robe (http:/ / www. kyohaku. go. jp/ eng/ dictio/ data/ senshoku/ c_ryuho. htm),

Kyoto National Museum• Japanese Dragon Tattoos (http:/ / www. freetattoodesigns. org/ dragon-tattoos. html#japanese), The Japanese

dragon in tattoo art

China 65

China

China

Traditional Chinese: 中國

Simplified Chinese: 中国

Transliterations

Kejia (Hakka)

- Romanization: Chûng-koet

Mandarin

- Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōngguó

- Wade-Giles: Chung¹-kuo²Listen

- Bopomofo ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊMin

- Hokkien POJ: Tiong-kok

- Min Dong BUC: Dṳ̆ng-guók

Wu

- Romanization: tson平 koh入

Yue (Cantonese)

- Jyutping: zung¹ gwok³

China (/En-us-China.oggˈtʃaɪnə/) is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in EastAsia, a nation and/or a multinational entity.With nearly 4,000 years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations.[1] [2] [3] Prior to the19th century, it possessed an advanced economy; but successive dynasties missed the Industrial Revolution thatoccurred in Europe and China began to decline.[4] [5] In the 19th and 20th century, European and Japaneseimperialism, internal weakness and civil war damaged the country and its economy, and led to the overthrow ofimperial rule. In 1949, after major combat in the Chinese Civil War had ended, two states calling themselves "China"emerged:• The People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949, commonly known as China, has control over

mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of Hong Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999).• The Republic of China (ROC) established in 1912 in mainland China, now commonly known as Taiwan, has

control over the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, the Pratas island group, and a few other outlyingislands.

China 66

In the 1950s, change to economic policies in Taiwan transformed the island into a technology-oriented industrializeddeveloped economy after a period of high growth rates and rapid industrialization. Meanwhile, mainland China,under Mao's rule, remained underdeveloped and striken with famines, natural disasters and disastrous CPC-ledpolitical campaigns that caused millions of deaths. In the 1970s, reforms led by Deng Xiaoping, known as the FourModernizations, improved agriculture, industry, technology and defense, raising living standards and making thePRC one of the great powers.[6] [7] [8] By 2011 challenges included the growing divide between rich and poor andenvironmental degradation.Historically, the cultural sphere of China has extended across East Asia as a whole, with Chinese religion, customs,and writing systems being adopted to varying degrees by neighbors such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Through itshistory, China was the source of many major inventions.[9] It has also one of the world's oldest written languagesystems. The first evidence of human presence in the region was found at the Zhoukoudian cave. It is one of theearliest known specimens of Homo erectus, now commonly known as the Peking Man, estimated to have lived from300,000 to 780,000 years ago.[10] [11] [12]

Etymology

The traditional (top) and simplified (bottom)characters for "China" in Chinese. The first

character means "middle" or "center", and thesecond character means "country" or "state."

English names

The word "China" is derived from Cin (نیچ), a Persian name for Chinapopularized in Europe by Marco Polo.[13] [14] The first recorded use inEnglish dates from 1555.[15] In early usage, "china" as a term forporcelain was spelled differently from the name of the country, the twowords being derived from separate Persian words.[16] Both these wordsare derived from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन),[16] used as a name forChina as early as AD 150.[17]

There are various scholarly theories regarding the origin of this word.The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by MartinoMartini, is that "China" is derived from "Qin" (秦, pronounced chin),the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty, orfrom the succeeding Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 BC).[18] In the Hindu scriptures Mahābhārata (5th century BC)[19] andManusmṛti (Laws of Manu) (2nd century BC), the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन) is used to refer to a country located in theTibeto-Burman borderlands east of India.[20] Another theory is that this word is derived from Yelang, an ancientkingdom in what is now Guizhou whose inhabitants referred to themselves as 'Zina'.[21]

Chinese namesThe official name of China changed with each dynasty or with each new government, the imperial governmentsreferred to themselves as the Empire of the Great Qing, Empire of the Great Ming, etc. However, the common nameremained as Zhōngguó (simplified Chinese: 中国; traditional Chinese: 中國, Mandarin pronunciation: [tʂʊ́ŋkwɔ̌])through dynastic changes. This translates traditionally as "the central Kingdom", or as "the middle country".The name Zhōngguó first appeared in the Classic of History (6th century BC), and was used to refer to the late ZhouDynasty, as they believed that they were the "center of civilization,"[22] while peoples in the four cardinals werecalled Eastern Yi, Southern Man, Western Rong and Northern Di respectively. Some texts imply that "Zhōngguó"was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ from the capital of his vassals.[23] The use of"Zhōngguó" implied a claim of political legitimacy, and "Zhōngguó" was often used by states who saw themselvesas the sole legitimate successor to previous Chinese dynasties; for example, in the era of the Southern Song Dynasty,both the Jin Dynasty and the Southern Song state claimed to be "Zhōngguó."[24]

China 67

Zhōngguó was used as a common name for the Republic of China (Zhonghua Minguo) after its establishment in1912. After the Communists took over control of mainland China in 1949, they established the People's Republic ofChina (PRC). After the ROC's loss of the UN "China" seat in 1971, the PRC gained the ability to be the"representative" of "China" under the One-China policy and as a result is now commonly known as "China" or"Zhōngguó" in Chinese. The Republic of China nowadays is commonly known as "Taiwan".[25]

HistoryAncient China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few toinvent writing,[9] the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley Civilization, the Maya and other Mesoamericancivilizations, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt.[26]

PrehistoryArchaeological evidence suggests that the earliest hominids in China date from 250,000 to 2.24 million years ago.[27]

[28] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 780,000years.[10] [11] [12] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire.The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from Liujiang County, Guangxi, where a cranium hasbeen found and dated at approximately 67,000 years old. Controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiangremains (a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in Okinawa).[29] [30]

Dynastic rule

Jade deer ornament made during the firsthistorical Chinese dynasty, the Shang, 17th to

11th Century BC.

Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was consideredmythical until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites atErlitou in Henan Province in 1959.[31] Archaeologists have sinceuncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations citedas Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify thatthese remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.

Some of the thousands of life-size TerracottaWarriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BC.

The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudalShang (Yin), settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the17th to the 11th century BC. The Oracle bone script of the ShangDynasty represent the oldest forms of Chinese writing found and thedirect ancestor of modern Chinese characters used throughout EastAsia. The Shang were invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruledfrom the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authoritywas slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent stateseventually emerged out of the weakened Zhou state, and continuallywaged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn Period, onlyoccasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the WarringStates Period, there were seven powerful sovereign states, each with its

own king, ministry and army.

China 68

The first unified Chinese state was established by Qin Shi Huang of the Qin state in 221 BC, who proclaimedhimself as the "First Emperor" and created many reforms in the Empire, notably the forced standardization of theChinese language and measurements. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, as its harsh legalist andauthoritarian policies soon led to widespread rebellion.The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting Han cultural identityamong its populace that extends to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerablywith military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the SilkRoad in Central Asia.After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the ThreeKingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period such as Wu opened diplomatic relations with Japan,introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the SuiDynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) weakened it.

10th–11th century Longquan celadon porcelainpieces from Zhejiang province, during the Song

Dynasty

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technologyand culture reached its zenith. The Tang Empire was at its height ofpower until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebelliondestroyed the prosperity of the empire. The Song Dynasty was the firstgovernment in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinesepolity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growthcame about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southernChina, and the production of abundant food surpluses.

Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population ofsome 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period for philosophy and the arts. Landscape artand portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elitesgathered to view art, share their own, and trade precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsireinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization ofclassic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism.

Along the River During the Qingming Festival;daily life of people from the Song period at the

capital, Bianjing, today's Kaifeng.

In 1271, the Mongol leader and fifth Khagan of the Mongol EmpireKublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant ofthe Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the Mongolinvasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 millioninhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 censusreported roughly 60 million people.[32] A peasant named ZhuYuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the MingDynasty.[33] Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming wouldfurther critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas ofindividualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impacton later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassalstate of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucianbureaucratic structure.

Under the Ming Dynasty, China had another golden age, with one of the strongest navies in the world, a rich andprosperous economy and a flourishing of the arts and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He ledexplorations throughout the world, possibly reaching America. During the early Ming Dynasty China's capital was

moved from Nanjing to Beijing. In 1644 Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the

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city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li'sshort-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the QingDynasty.The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynastyadopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic expansion intoCentral Asia. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As Chinaopened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China.Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. European imperialism proved to be disastrous forChina:

Clipper ship Celestial Empire

The Arrow War (1856–1860) [2nd Opium War] saw another disastrous defeatfor China. The subsequent passing of the humiliating Treaty of Tianjin in 1856and the Beijing Conventions of 1860 opened up more of the country to foreignpenetrations and more ports for their vessels. Hong Kong was ceded over to theBritish. Thus, the "unequal treaties system" was established. Heavy indemnitieshad to be paid by China, and more territory and control were taken over by theforeigners.Busky, Donald F. (2002). " Communism in History and Theory.Greenwood Publishing Group, p.2.

The weakening of the Qing regime, and the apparent humiliation of the unequaltreaties in the eyes of the Chinese people had several consequences. Oneconsequence was the Taiping Civil War, which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It wasled by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by an idiosyncraticinterpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and theyounger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious,the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20

million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the World War I), with some estimates of up to two hundredmillion. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), NienRebellion (1851–1868), Miao Rebellion (1854–73), Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Dungan revolt(1862–1877).[35] [36]

A corner tower of the Forbidden City at night; thepalace was the residence for the imperial family

from the reign of the Yongle Emperor of theMing Dynasty in the 15th century until the fall of

the Qing Dynasty in 1912.

These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million liveseach and led to disastrous results for the economy and thecountryside.[37] [38] [39] The flow of British opium hastened theempire's decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at itsheight and the great Chinese Diaspora began. About 35 millionoverseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia today.[40] The famine in1876–79 claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China.[41]

From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines,[42] orone per year, somewhere in the empire.[43]

While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeededin rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on Korea andManchuria. At the request of the Korean emperor, the Chinesegovernment sent troops to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion in1894. However, Japan also sent troops to Korea, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in QingChina's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.

Following this series of defeats, a reform plan for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Guangxu Emperor in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager

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Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing.By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across thecountry. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a daybefore Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year oldnephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxu's consort became the Empress Dowager Longyu. Inanother coup de'tat, Yuan Shikai overthrew the last Qing emperor, and forced empress Dowager Longyu to sign theabdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in1913.

Republic of China (1912–49)

Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek at the foundingof the Whampoa Military Academy. Flags of the

Republic of China and the Nationalist Partyshown.

Map of Republic of China printed by RandMcNally & Co. in the year 1914.

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, heraldingthe end of the Qing Dynasty. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (theKMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of therepublic. However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, aformer Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entireBeiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuanproclaimed himself Emperor of China but was forced to abdicate andreturn the state to a republic when he realized it was an unpopularmove, not only with the population but also with his own BeiyangArmy and its commanders.

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented,with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless nationalgovernment seated in Peking (Beijing). Warlords in various regionsexercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunifythe country under its own control, moving the nation's capital toNanking (Nanjing) and implementing "political tutelage", anintermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen'sprogram for transforming China into a modern, democratic state.Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) (part of World War II)forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and theCommunists as well as causing around 20 million Chinese civiliandeaths.[44] With the surrender of Japan in 1945, China emergedvictorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between theNationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule wasestablished, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implementedin mainland China.

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Post Civil War (1949–present)

The People's Republic of China (purple) and the Republic of China(Taiwan) (orange).

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, theCommunist Party of China (CPC) led by MaoZedong gained control of most of Mainland China.On 1 October 1949, they established the People'sRepublic of China as a socialist state headed by a"Democratic Dictatorship" with the CPC as theruling political party, thus, laying claim as thesuccessor state of the ROC. The central governmentof the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) ledby Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the island ofTaiwan that it had administered at the end of WorldWar II, and moved the ROC government there.Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peacetreaty has been signed.

Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of Chinabegan the implementation of full, multi-party,representative democracy in the territories stillunder its control (Taiwan, and a number of smallerislands including Quemoy and Matsu). Today, theROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue ofeventual political unification with the Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan.

Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of thePeople's Republic of China in 1949.

After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China saw a dramaticimprovement in life expectancy, leading to an explosion inpopulation.[45] [46] [47] A series of disruptive socioeconomicmovements started in the late 1950s with the Great Leap Forward andcontinued in the 1960s with the Cultural Revolution. The GreatChinese Famine resulted in an estimated 30 to 36 million deaths.[48]

[49] With the death of its first generation Communist Party leaders suchas Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, the PRC began implementing a seriesof political and economic reforms advocated by Deng Xiaoping thateventually formed the foundation for mainland China's rapid economicdevelopment starting in the 1990s.

Post-1978 reforms in mainland China have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However,the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate what itperceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country. Examples include the fight againstterrorism, jailing of political opponents and journalists, custody regulation of the press, regulation of religion, andsuppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the student protests at Tiananmen Square wereviolently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997, Hong Kong was ceded to thePRC by the United Kingdom, and in 1999, Macau was handed over by Portugal.

Since 1949, mainland China is administered by the People's Republic of China—a one-party state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party—while the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands are administered by the Republic of China—a democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of China. After the Kuomintang retreat to Taiwan in 1949, the Republic of China had maintained official diplomatic relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, a

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shift had occurred in international diplomatic circles and the People's Republic of China gained the upper hand ininternational diplomatic relations and recognition count.In 1971, under UN resolution 2758, the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek to the United Nations were expelled fromthe intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the representatives, and effectively the Republic of China,the representatives of the People's Republic of China were invited to assume China's seat on the UN SecurityCouncil, the UN General Assembly and other United Nations councils and agencies. Later attempts by the Republicof China to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the People's Republic of China, which has veto power on theUN Security Council, or rejected by the United Nations Secretariat or a United Nations General Assemblycommittee responsible for the General Assembly's agenda.[50]

Since the relocation of its capital to Taiwan, the Republic of China has not formally renounced its claim to authorityover all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which include the mainland and Mongolia. Following theintroduction of full democracy, and the electoral victory of the DPP's Chen Shui-bian in the presidential elections,the ROC had adopted a policy of separating the state's identity from "China", while moving towards identifying thestate as "Taiwan".However, the ROC has not made any formal moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state toreflect a Taiwanese identity due to the lack of consensus within Taiwan, pressure from the United States and the fearof invasion or military action from the People's Republic of China against the island. The Republic of China duringthe DPP years did not actively pursue its claims on mainland China or Mongolia. However, after having been electedas president, KMT's Ma Ying-jeou asserted that, constitutionally, mainland China is part of the Republic ofChina.[51] The People's Republic of China claims to have succeeded the Republic of China as the sole legitimategoverning authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of the People's Republic of China, includesthe island of Taiwan.Over the last 50 years, both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China have used diplomatic andeconomic means to compete for recognition in the international arena. Because most international, intergovernmentalorganizations observe the One-China policy of the People's Republic of China, the PRC has been able to pressureorganizations, such as the World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee, to refuse toofficially recognize the Republic of China. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured torefuse, or to cut off diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. As a result, 23 U.N. member states currentlymaintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, while the vast majority of U.N. member statesmaintain official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.

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Territory and environment

Historical political divisions

Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modernpolitical states throughout the history of China.

Top-level political divisions of China have altered asadministrations changed. Top levels included circuitsand provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures,subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts,and counties. Recent divisions also includeprefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns andtownships.

Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historicalheartlands of China, known as China proper. Variousdynasties also expanded into peripheral territories likeInner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. TheManchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors,the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territoriesinto the Chinese empire.

Geography and climate

Composite satellite photo.

Terrace rice fields in Yunnan.

Snowy mountains in Diqing.

China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow fromwest to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Yellow River (Huang He, north-central), and the Amur (northeast),and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong (river), and Brahmaputra), with most Chineserivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.

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In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely populatedalluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China isdominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, theYellow and Yangtze rivers. Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers, and they were the centers of China'smajor ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. YunnanProvince is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Burma, Laos, Thailand,Cambodia, and Vietnam.[52]

Main geographic features and regions of China.

In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vastcalcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation,and the Himalayas, containing Earth's highest point, Mount Everest.The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapessuch as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has beenexpanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of Chinahas been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, whichseparate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.

The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part ofthe Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiarydeposits are estuarine and freshwater, or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plainof north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.

The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures ofmore than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai) has a temperatecontinental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has asubtropical climate with very hot summers and mild winters.Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China.[53]

Dust has blown to southern Mainland China and Taiwan, and has reached the West Coast of the United States.Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.

EconomyChina was for a large part of the last two millennia the world's largest economy.[54] However, in the later part of theQing Dynasty, China's economic development began to slow and Europe's rapid development during and after theIndustrial Revolution enabled it to surpass China.Many analysts assert that the modern People's Republic of China is one of the leading examples of state capitalism inthe 21st century.[55] [56] [57]

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Culture

Wang Yangming, a highly influentialNeo-Confucian

A Chinese Opera (Beijing Opera)performance in Beijing of the

historical character Yang Guifei.

Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China'shistory, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry intothe imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional values were derived from variousversions of Confucianism. A number of more authoritarian strains of thoughthave also been influential, such as Legalism.

There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song DynastyNeo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit ofConfucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued inChina today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confusedwith Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rightsare quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[58]

With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in themid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organizationgained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejectedChina's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chineseand European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one ofexperimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organizationthat would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynasticcollapse.

Arts, scholarship, and literature

Chinese calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Dynasty, ca.1100 CE

Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artistsbecame prized possessions. Chinese literature has a long past; theearliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes"dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during theWarring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius'sAnalects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also: the Chinese classics.)Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian'sseminal Records of the Grand Historian, which was written from 109BC to 91 BC.

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The qin, a traditional Chinese stringed musicalinstrument, favored by scholars and the nobility,as highlighted in the Book of Rites: "a gentleman

does not part with his qin or se without goodreason."

The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four GreatClassical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Mingand Qing Dynasties. Printmaking in the form of movable type wasdeveloped during the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsoredby the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printedand handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in thesediscussions as well.

The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, andsaw the creation of works such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao andShen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such asSima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian of 1084 AD or the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11thcentury.

For centuries, religious and social advancement in China could be achieved through high performance on theimperial examinations. This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was available only to males whocould afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery ofthe Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known asjinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.

Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting theculture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of thecommon people, often to the displeasure of authorities.The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such asthe zheng (zither with movable bridges), qin (bridgeless zither), sheng (free reed mouth organ), and xiao (verticalflute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and pipa (pear-shaped pluckedlute), many of which later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea, andVietnam.

Demography

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Ethnolinguistic map of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China

Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed inChina throughout its history. The largestethnic group in China by far is the Han. Thisgroup, however, is internally diverse andcan be further divided into smaller ethnicgroups that share similar traits.

Over the last three millennia, manypreviously distinct ethnic groups in Chinahave been Sinicized into a Han identity,which over time dramatically expanded thesize of the Han population. However, theseassimilations were usually incomplete, andvestiges of indigenous language and culturestill often remain in various regions ofChina. Because of this, many within the Hanidentity have maintained distinct linguisticand cultural traditions while still identifyingas Han.

Several ethnicities have also dramaticallyshaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17thcentury, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu. The modern term Chinese nation (ZhonghuaMinzu) is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

LanguagesMost languages in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan languages family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are alsoseveral major linguistic groups within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken varieties are Mandarin (spokenby over 70% of the population), Wu, Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spokenwidely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.[59]

Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communicationbetween speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Written vernacular Chinese, or baihua, isthe written standard based on the Mandarin dialect and first popularized in Ming Dynasty novels. It was adoptedwith significant modifications during the early 20th century as the national standard. Classical Chinese is still part ofthe high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.

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Religion

The Round Mound Altar, the altar proper at theTemple of Heaven in Beijing, where the Emperor

communed with Heaven

Shang Dynasty bronze scriptcharacter for tian (天), "Sky" or

"Heaven."

The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of Chinasince at least the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC) until the overthrow of thelast dynasty (1911 AD) centered on the worship of Shangdi ("SupremeGod") or "Heaven" as an omnipotent force.[60] This faith systempre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism and theintroduction of Buddhism, Islam and Christianity.

It has features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotententity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. From thewritings of Confucius, we find that Confucius himself believed thatHeaven cannot be deceived, Heaven guides people's lives andmaintains a personal relationship with them, and that Heaven givestasks for people to fulfill to teach them righteousness (yi, 義).[60]

However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since otherlesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshipedalong with Shangdi. Still, variants such as Mohism approached highmonotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestralspirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi, which includedobserving "universal love" (jian'ai, 兼爱) and shunning fatalism.

Worship of Shangdi and Heaven in ancient China includes the erectionof shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing,and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinesedynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Heaven, usually byslaughtering a bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity graduallydiminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in usethroughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology usedin Chinese Christianity.

Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and its beginnings are traditionally traced to the composition of Laozi'sTao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism iscentered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe.Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideasinclude feng shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and acupuncture.

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A Chinese Tang Dynasty (618–907)sculpture of the Buddha seated in

meditation.

Buddhism in China was first introduced from Central Asia during the HanDynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embracedparticularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties.Mahayana (Dacheng, 大乘) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced inChina, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan andVietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land(Amidism) and Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and thecountry has the most Buddhist adherents in the world. Many Chinese, however,identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.

Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all indigenousChinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, andChinese Buddhism all value filial piety, or a love and respect for one's parentsand ancestors, as one of the most important virtues. Chinese people generallyoffer prayers and food for their ancestors, light incense and candles, and burnofferings of Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site ofancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.

The Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldestMosques in the world, built by Muhammad's

uncle, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas

Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, 18 years after Muhammad'sdeath. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/exportindustry during the Song Dynasty.[61] [62] They became influential ingovernment circles, including Zheng He, Lan Yu and Yeheidie'erding,who designed the Yuan Dynasty's capital, Khanbaliq. Nanjing becamean important center of Islamic study.[63] The Qing Dynasty waged warand genocide against Muslims in the Dungan revolt and PanthayRebellion.[64] [65] [66]

Judaism in China dates to as early as the 7th or 8th century AD. In thefirst half of the 20th century, tens of thousands of Jews from Europearrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods ofeconomic expansion, seeking refuge from the Holocaust. Shanghai was

notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world to accept them without an entry visa.

Christianity in China has developed since at least the 7th century AD with the introduction of the Assyrian Church ofthe East. Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through Jesuit and laterProtestant missionaries. The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the BoxerRebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in China.

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Sports and recreation

Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinesesport.

For sports in the People's Republic of China, see Sport in thePeople's Republic of China, Sport in Hong Kong, and Sport inMacau.

For sports in the Republic of China, see Sport in Taiwan.

Many historians believe that football originated in China, where a formof the sport may have appeared around 1000 AD.[67] Other popularsports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently,golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in urban centers.

There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racingoccurs during the Duanwu Festival. In Inner Mongolia,Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet,archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.[68]

Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice tai chi chuan and qigong in parks. Boardgames such as Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formalcompetitions. The capital city of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics, amajor international sporting event.

Science and technology

History of science andtechnology in China

Inventions

Discoveries

By era

Han Dynasty

Tang Dynasty

Song Dynasty

People's Republic of China

Present-day PRC

Further information: History of science and technology in China, List of Chinese inventions, and List of ChinesediscoveriesAmong the technological accomplishments of ancient China were paper (not papyrus) and papermaking, woodblock printing and movable type printing, the early lodestone and needle compass, gunpowder, toilet paper, early

China 81

seismological detectors, matches, pound locks, the double-action piston pump, blast furnace and cast iron, the ironplough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge,[69] natural gas as fuel, the differential gear for the SouthPointing Chariot, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere, the hydraulic-powered trip hammer, the mechanical chaindrive, the mechanical belt drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the cannon, the rocket, themultistage rocket, etc.Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. The work of the astronomer ShenKuo (1031–95) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected theposition of the pole star with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of true north, wrote of planetarymotions such as retrogradation, and compared the orbital paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotatingwillow leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated geological theories for the processes of land formation ingeomorphology and climate change in paleoclimatology.Other important astronomers included Gan De, Shi Shen, Zhang Heng, Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song and GuoShoujing. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in thehistory of mathematics. The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such asin the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia written by Song Yingxing (1587–1666).China's science and technology had fallen behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social and culturalreasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the high levelequilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms, China has become better connected to the global economy and isplacing greater emphasis on science and technology.

Notes[1] "China country profile" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ country_profiles/ 1287798. stm). BBC News. 2010-10-18. . Retrieved

2010-11-07.[2] Jervis, Nancy. What Is a Culture. (http:/ / www. emsc. nysed. gov/ ciai/ socst/ grade3/ whatisa. html) University of the State of New York.[3] "Oldest Living Civilization" (http:/ / www. historians. org/ projects/ giroundtable/ Chinese/ Chinese3. htm). American Historical Association.

.[4] "The Song Dynasty in China. Columbia University" (http:/ / afe. easia. columbia. edu/ song/ ). Afe.easia.columbia.edu. . Retrieved

2010-10-29.[5] "Was China More Productive Than Europe?" (http:/ / afe. easia. columbia. edu/ chinawh/ web/ s5/ index. html). Afe.easia.columbia.edu. .

Retrieved 2010-06-02.[6] "CIA – ''The World Factbook'' – China. Accessed November 26, 2009" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/

geos/ ch. html). Cia.gov. . Retrieved 2011-01-23.[7] "Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century, WBI Development Studies. World Bank

Publications. Accessed January 30, 2008" (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ custom/ portlets/ recordDetails/ detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true& _& ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& accno=ED460052). Eric.ed.gov. .Retrieved 2010-06-02.

[8] "The Real Great Leap Forward. The Economist. Sept 30, 2004" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ surveys/ displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR). Economist.com. 2004-09-30. . Retrieved 2010-06-02.

[9] Haggett, Peter. [2001] (2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography, Volume 23. Edition 2, illustrated. Marshall Cavendish publishing. ISBN0761472894, 9780761472896. p 37. p 2836.

[10] Ian Tattersall (1997). "Out of Africa again...and again?". Scientific American 276 (4): 60–68. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0497-60.[11] Shen, G; Gao, X; Gao, B; Granger, De (Mar 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating".

Nature 458 (7235): 198–200. doi:10.1038/nature07741. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19279636.[12] Rincon, Paul (2009-03-11). "'Peking Man' older than thought" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7937351. stm). BBC News. .

Retrieved 2010-04-28.[13] " China (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=china)", Online Etymology Dictionary[14] Wood, Francis, Did Marco Polo go to China (1995), p. 61.[15] Eden, Richard, Decades of the New World (1555) "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world."[16] " china (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ China?qsrc=2888)", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Boston

and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000.[17] Found in Book 2 of Kautilya's Arthashastra. (Denis Crispin Twitchett, Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank, The Ch'in and Han Empires

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[19] Liu, Lydia He, The clash of empires, p. 77.[20] Wade, Geoff, " The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' (http:/ / www. sino-platonic. org/ complete/ spp188_yelang_china.

pdf)", Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.[21] Wade, pp. 6ff.[22] 《尚書•梓材》:「皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王」Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhōngguó to

our ancestors".[23] 《毛亨·傳》：「中國，京師也」 Roughly translated as "Zhōngguó, the capital."[24] See Quansongwen (8,345 chapters), 2005. Historic texts written in the period of Southern Song refer to the Jin Dynasty as "barbarians",

while Jin texts portray the Song as "Manzi." Official historic texts such as Songshi, which is written after the period, are more neutral.[25] The official name of the Republic of China in traditional Chinese is "中華民國", "中华民国" in simplified Chinese. The official name of the

PRC in simplified Chinese is "中华人民共和国", "中華人民共和國" in traditional Chinese. Zhōngguó are the first and last characters of bothof these official names. Although in both of these contexts, the name does not contain the exact phrasing of "Zhōngguó," it is expressed in thesimilar phrase "Zhonghua," while the PRC's official abbreviation is "中国."

[26] Gernet, Jacques. [1996] (1996). A history of Chinese civilization Edition 2, illustrated. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521497817,9780521497817. p 40.

[27] "Early Homo erectus Tools in China" (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 0001/ newsbriefs/ china. html) by Archaeological Institute ofAmerica (http:/ / www. archaeological. org/ )

[28] List of Chinese fossil hominids (http:/ / www. chineseprehistory. org/ table. htm) at ChinesePrehistory.org (http:/ / www. chineseprehistory.org/ )

[29] "The Liujiang skeleton" (http:/ / www-personal. une. edu. au/ ~pbrown3/ Liujiang. html). .[30] "Skull may complicate human-origins debate. (Chinese Roots). Skull may complicate human-origins debate" (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary.

com/ Skull+ may+ complicate+ human-origins+ debate. + (Chinese+ Roots)-a096417261). Thefreelibrary.com. 2002-12-21. . Retrieved2010-06-02.

[31] "Bronze Age China" (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ exhibitions/ chbro_bron. shtm) by National Gallery of Art (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ )[32] Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53.[33] " Ming Dynasty (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761580643/ ming_dynasty. html)". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.

Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwQtyH2M) 2009-10-31.[34] Busky, Donald F. (2002). " Communism in History and Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q6b0j1VINWgC&

printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Greenwood Publishing Group, p.2.[35] Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao ‘Rebellion’, 1854–1873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994.[36] Cf. William J. Peterson, The Cambridge History of China Volume 9 (Cambridge University Press, 2002)[37] Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely

Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0[38] Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.[39] Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980).[40] The world's successful diasporas (http:/ / www. managementtoday. co. uk/ news/ 648273/ ). Management Today. April 3, 2007.[41] Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ U8480E/ U8480E05. htm). Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO).[42] Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ chapters/ s8857. html). Princeton University Press.[43] China: Land of Famine (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3014847). Journal of the Royal Institute of International Affairs.[44] "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ worldwars/ wwtwo/ nuclear_01. shtml). BBC —

History.[45] "Health Improvement under Mao and Its Implications for Contemporary Aging in China" (http:/ / healthpolicy. stanford. edu/ research/

health_improvement_under_mao_and_its_implications_for_contemporary_aging_in_china/ ). Stanford University. . Retrieved 2011-01-05.[46] "China's population, 1969–2006" (http:/ / www. chinability. com/ Population. htm). Chinability. . Retrieved 2011-01-05.[47] Matt Rosenberg. "China Population – The Population Growth of the World's Largest Country" (http:/ / geography. about. com/ od/

populationgeography/ a/ chinapopulation. htm). About.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-05.[48] " China's great famine: 40 years later (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/ content/ extract/ 319/ 7225/ 1619)". British Medical Journal

1999;319:1619–1621 (18 December)[49] A hunger for truth: a new book banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine (http:/ / en. chinaelections.

org/ newsinfo. asp?newsid=18328)[50] CBC News (2007-09-19). "Taiwan's 15th bid for UN membership rejected" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2007/ 09/ 19/ taiwan-un.

html). . Retrieved 2008-08-09.[51] "Ma refers to China as ROC territory in magazine interview" (http:/ / www. taipeitimes. com/ News/ taiwan/ archives/ 2008/ 10/ 08/

2003425320). Taipei Times. 2008-10-08. .[52] Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment (http:/ / www. adb. org/ Documents/ Books/ GMS_Atlas/ default. asp) published by

Asian Development Bank (http:/ / www. adb. org/ default. asp)[53] "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 4915690. stm). BBC news. Retrieved 17 April 2006.

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[54] Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World BankPublications. Accessed January 30, 2008. (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ custom/ portlets/ recordDetails/ detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true& _& ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& accno=ED460052)

[55] Fengbo Zhang Notable Quotes[56] Communism Is Dead, But State Capitalism Thrives (http:/ / blogs. forbes. com/ greatspeculations/ 2010/ 03/ 22/

communism-is-dead-but-state-capitalism-thrives/ ), by Vahan Janjigian, forbes.com, Mar. 22 2010.[57] The Winners And Losers In Chinese Capitalism (http:/ / blogs. forbes. com/ gadyepstein/ 2010/ 08/ 31/

the-winners-and-losers-in-chinese-capitalism/ ), by Gady Epstein, forbes.com, Aug. 31 2010.[58] Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050311041507/ http:/ / www.

columbia. edu/ cu/ ccba/ cear/ issues/ fall97/ graphics/ special/ debary/ debary. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/cu/ ccba/ cear/ issues/ fall97/ graphics/ special/ debary/ debary. htm) on 2005-03-11. .. Columbia University.

[59] Languages (http:/ / english. gov. cn/ 2005-08/ 16/ content_23691. htm). 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006.[60] Homer H. Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959[61] "BBC Islam in China (650–present)" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ islam/ history/ china_1. shtml). Bbc.co.uk. 2002-10-02. .

Retrieved 2010-06-02.[62] "Islamic culture in China" (http:/ / www. religion-online. org/ showchapter. asp?title=1656& C=1645). .[63] "Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam" (http:/ / www. hsais. org/ 2essay0405_4. htm). .[64] Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1845110579, page 288[65] Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006.

ISBN 1845110579, page 219[66] Dillon, Michael. China’s Muslim Hui Community (http:/ / www. hsais. org/ 2essay0405_4. htm). Curzon, 1999. ISBN 0700710264, page xix[67] Origins of the Great Game (http:/ / athleticscholarships. net/ history-of-soccer. htm). 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Retrieved 23 April

2006.[68] Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of China (http:/ / chineseculture. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa032301a. htm). About.com. Retrieved 21 April

2006.[69] People have walked across the [[Anlan Bridge (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ lostempires/ china/ meetsusp. html)] for 1,700 years.]

References

External links• China.org.cn (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ ) China news, weather, business, travel, language courses, archives• China (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ch. html) entry at The World

Factbook• Forecasts for Chinese Development to 2060 by Issue (http:/ / www. ifs. du. edu/ ifsdev/ ifs/ frm_CountryProfile.

aspx?Country=CN)• China (http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ for/ china. htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs• China (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ Asia/ China/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Wikimedia Atlas of China• China travel guide from Wikitravel• China (http:/ / www. state. gov/ p/ eap/ ci/ ch/ ) information from the U.S. Department of State• U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of China Economic Area (http:/ / www. export. gov/ china/ policyadd/

OCEA. asp?dName=policyadd)• IBTimes HK Topics – China (http:/ / hken. ibtimes. com/ topics/ detail/ 227/ china/ )

Legendary creature 84

Legendary creature

Chinese dragon.

A legendary creature is a mythological or folkloric creature.

Origin

Some mythical creatures have their origin in traditional mythology and have beenbelieved to be real creatures, for example the dragon, the unicorn, and griffin. Otherswere based on real encounters, originating in garbled accounts of travelers' tales,such as the Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, which supposedly grew tethered to the earth(and was actually a type of fern).[1]

Conversely, some creatures downplayed as just storytelling, have been rediscoveredand found to be real freakster in percent times, such as the Giant Squid (the Kraken).In Africa, Natives of the Congo told European visitors of an animal that looked like across between a zebra and a giraffe. While the visitors assumed the stories were justfolk tales, in 1901, Sir Harry Johnston brought back pelts that proved the creature, which we now call the okapi, wasreal.

HybridsOften mythical creatures are hybrids, a combination of two or more animals. For example, a centaur is a combinationof a man and horse, the minotaur of a man and bull, and the mermaid, half woman and half fish. These were notalways intended to be understood as literal juxtapositions of parts from disparate species. Lacking a commonmorphological vocabulary, classical and medieval scholars and travelers would attempt to describe unusual animalsby comparing them point-for-point with familiar: the giraffe, for example, was called camelopard, and thought of asa creature half-camel, and half-leopard. The Liger is a hybrid animal of both the Lion and a Tiger. The leopard itselfwas so named as it was historically believed to be a half-lion (Latin: "leo") and half-panther (Latin: "pardus"). Thisetymology has been kept until the present day, despite its zoological inaccuracies.

Modern creaturesOther legendary creatures are thought to exist even today, but evidence is lacking. Famous examples arechupacabras, Bigfoot, Yeti, the Loch Ness Monster, and even space aliens. These are called cryptids bycryptozoologists.

Cultural influenceIn medieval bestiaries, legendary creatures are listed together with real animals. Throughout history legendarycreatures have been incorporated into heraldry and architectural decoration.Many legendary creatures appear prominently in fantasy fiction. These creatures are often claimed to havesupernatural powers or knowledge or to guard some object of great value, which becomes critical to the plot of thestory in which it is found. Dragons, for instance, are commonly depicted as perched on a gleaming hoard of goldwhich becomes the target of adventurers.Legendary creatures have also been accepted into many facets of popular culture, most notably in fantasy roleplaying games such as Dungeons & Dragons, video games, and Hollywood movies.

Legendary creature 85

References[1] Large, Mark F.; John E. Braggins (2004). Tree Ferns [ILLUSTRATED]. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Incorporated. p. 360.

ISBN 978-0881926309.

External links• Mystery Creatures: Mythical or Real (http:/ / www. life. com/ image/ first/ in-gallery/ 46342/

mystery-creatures-mythical-or-real) - slideshow by Life magazine

Article Sources and Contributors 86

Article Sources and ContributorsDragon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441761035  Contributors: !Dragon, (jarbarf), -Majestic-, 09zackmanz, 1028, 12grange, 194.237.150.xxx, 21655, 3rdAlcove,9allenride9, A D Monroe III, A Macedonian, A. Parrot, A3RO, ABBA lover 67, AFinch, ANOMALY-117, AWhiteC, Abductive, Abeg92, Abjad, Abrech, Abstractjazz, Academic Challenger,Achangeisasgoodasa, Achillobator, Acnetj, Adam Keller, Adam keller, Adashiel, Addrianna818, Adrian53194, Ae7flux, Aericanwizard, Aesopos, Ahhhorsepoo, Ahj, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias,AjaxSmack, Alakazam, Alansohn, Albinochaos, Alcardi-orumov, Ale jrb, Alex '05, Alexander Iwaschkin, AlexiusHoratius, Alfirin, Algont, Alhutch, AliveFreeHappy, Allen3, Allstarecho,Altenmann, Am088, Amaurea, Amccune, Amdragman, Amicon, Amillar, Amos1992, AmosWolfe, AnOddName, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Andrew c, Andrezilla, Andrés D.,Andy pyro, Andycjp, AngBent, Angelo De La Paz, Angelofanarchy23, Angielaj, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymousefaggot, Another berean, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard,Antiestablishment, Antonio Lopez, Antrophica, Apostrophe, Applejaxs, Aranae, Arsonal, Arthena, ArthurDuhurst, Asarelah, Asbpen, Ashawley, Ashcraft, Astramaglia, AtheWeatherman, Ausir,Auslli, Ave8er, Avivahannahc, AxelBoldt, Axeman89, AzaToth, Aznpinoy19, B, BD2412, BMT, Baa, Babassu, Bact, Baegis, Bakabaka, Ballista, Balthazarduju, Bass fishing physicist, Bathrobe,Bava Alcide57, Bdragon, Beckham 112, Bellenion, Belovedfreak, Ben 10, Bgag, Bhadani, Big Bird, Bigfrank69, Bingo3000, Bishonen, Bkobres, Blackspirals, Blahm, Blak-dragon, Blanchardb,Blikk, Blue Milk Mathematician, BlueLint, BlueMario1016, BlueNovember, Bluefire princess, Bluezy, Bob f it, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bombyx, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bookandcoffee,Boring1577, Bourgeoisdude, Boven, Bradypierce, Brainyiscool, Brandmeister (old), Brandonrc2, Braximillius, Brian0918, Brian8710, Brianga, Bro2forlife, Broncojon, Bryan Derksen, Bryce,Brycemcnatt, Bubaloo, Burntsauce, Bvbacon, C.Fred, CBDunkerson, CMacMillan, CWY2190, Cactus.man, Caeruleancentaur, Callumt, Caltas, Calum.m.redhead, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clownwill eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Canterbury Tail, Captain Rotundo, Carioca, Carlaude, CarleneLovesDrWho, Casey yep, Cassiewulff, Catgut, CatherineMunro, Cdang, Cebra,Cenarium, Century0, Ceranthor, Changmw, Charleca, Charles Gaudette, Charles Sturm, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, CheeseburgerBrown, Cheesegunner, Chevereauthor, Chlorthos Dragon,Chmod007, Chocobo93, Chovain, Chris the speller, Chris37599, Chrisniess, ChristTrekker, ChristineStoddard, Christknight, Christofurry101, Chriswiki, Chunglee098, CiTrusD, Ciacchi, Cjhlib,Ckatz, Cleared as filed, Clone1, ClovisPt, Cobaltbluetony, ColinBoylett, Comatose51, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Compwhiz, Comwizz2, Conversion script, Corpx, Cosmic Latte, Cradel,Crazy1monkey, Crazycomputers, Crisco 1492, Critical Info, Crowstar, Cush, Cxz111, Cybopath, D, D. Recorder, D3av, D6, DIG, DJ Clayworth, DJKingpin, DJThom93, DO'Neil, DOSGuy,DVD R W, DabMachine, Dabbler, Daecon, Daedalus969, Dan Gluck, Dan534, Daniel Olsen, DanielCD, Danielcz, Danielv5678, Daragahn, Dariune, Dark Tichondrias, Dark hyena, DarkFalls,Darn you indon, Darthnexus78, Das12345, Dave McKee, Dave6, David the great, Davidfivoryfisaac, Davidsalazarqui, Dawn Bard, Dbachmann, Dblevine, DeadEyeArrow, Deadly Coordinates,Deepshark5, Demonpop, Dendodge, Dentren, Deor, DerHexer, Deryck Chan, Desean84, Dethbyklok8675, Diablote, Digby Tantrum, DigitalC, Dina, Discospinster, Disinclination, Diyako,Dmesg, Doc Tropics, DoktorMax, Doncalamari, Double Blade, Dougweller, Downtown dan seattle, DracoLord Haven, Dragon Carter, Dragon Dude 7, Dragon2468, Dragonclownrider,Dragondeleter, Dragondragonfly, Dragonmaster67, Dragonox488, Dragonruler, Dragonshire, Dragonsinn, Dragonwish, Dragoragus, Drake Clawfang, Dream Focus, Dream of Nyx, DreamGuy,DreamHaze, Dreigenuchiha, DropDeadGorgias, Dudakoff6, DudeBLAHdudeBlah123, DumLoco, Dumbo1, Durova, Duston103, Dvc214, Dvschilpp, Dycedarg, Dynamite 007, Dynimite 007,Dysepsion, Dysprosia, EEMIV, EJF, Echosmoke, Ed Cormany, Ed g2s, Edgar181, Eduardo Sellan III, Edward The Magic Dragon, Edward Z. Yang, Egil, Elenseel, Elephantus, Eliz81,Elizabethrhodes, Elkman, Elvenscout742, Ember of Light, Emurphy42, Ender Wiiggin, Energie, Enigmaman, Enter the dragon, Epbr123, Ephert, Erdal12, Ericguttormson, Ericleb01,Esanchez7587, Esperant, Eurasian, Evadb, Everchanging02, Ex0pos, Executor Tassadar, Ezzi386, FF2010, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fakeemcdontexist, Falco52, Fan-1967, FangedFaerie,Farosdaughter, Fatuglyman, FaxCelestis, Felix Folio Secundus, Fenevad, Ff1959, Fgfgrrr5, FigmentJedi, Figs, Filmested, Fir0002, Firsfron, FisherQueen, Fisheromen, Flalek, Floria L,Flyguy649, FocalPoint, Fogelmatrix, Fordmadoxfraud, Fox, Foxmajik, Freakofnurture, Freedom skies, FreplySpang, Fridaylovin, Frogs416, Froid, Frymaster, Fudu97, FunkMonk, Furrykef,Fzbp-xnsq, G9altowolf, GHe, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gamemanica, Gamesage2293, Gareth Wyn, GayCommunist, Gaymamajoefromhell, Geekamalloy, General Eisenhower, Gggi69,Ghirlandajo, Ghosty510192, Giant89, Gigatt, Gilliam, Girlsrmyting, Gjd001, Glasnt, GlassCobra, Glen, Glenn Browne, Glennbandit, Glogger, Glowimperial, Goblim, GofferOffer, Gogo Dodo,Gogsy4, Goldfritha, Goo2you, Goodbye Galaxy, Gracefool, GraemeL, Graham87, Graymornings, GreatWhiteNortherner, GreyCat, Grika, Gtrmp, Gtstricky, Gurch, Gurko, Guyonstreets,Gwernol, Gymnophoria, Gzkn, Ha-core, Hadal, Hagerman, Haku712, Ham549, HamatoKameko, Hanchi, HappyInvader101, Harro5, Harryboyles, HeckXX, Helelen, HellecticMojo, Hempfel,Henry on a horse, Hersfold, HiddenWolf, Him6786, Himasaram, Hiphats, Hmrox, Hockeymonk, Hogyn Lleol, HongQiGong, Hotkeyz, Hugh000270, Huntscorpio, Hurda, Hut 8.5, Hyattha,Hyenaste, IDiO, Iain.dalton, Iamcon, Iceshark7, Idleguy, Ihcoyc, Ilikerps, Illustrious One, Ilmari Karonen, Imaglang, Imhavoc, Imoutofnames, Imp88, Imrankhan85, InShaneee, Indon,Information Center, InformationalAnarchist, Infoterra, Ingxiong, Instinct, Ipodchamp20, IrisKawling, IrisLaRue, Irishguy, Iritebs1, Ismael uddin, Isotope23, It Is Me Here, Itai, Ithinjkyousuck,Ivansanchez, J.J.Sagnella, J.delanoy, JDspeeder1, JForget, JFreeman, JNW, Jacek Kendysz, Jackollie, Jackson rampant, Jacob Mcneil, Jamaldub1, Jambkool, James086, Jannex,Japanandchinaoftheeast, Jarrad mcgrad, Jarretinha, Jclerman, Jedimaster Robby, Jerdwyer, Jfdwolff, Jh12, Jh51681, Jiang, Jiejunkong, Jimokay, Jimp, Jiy, Jkdw, Jkelly, Jmlk17, Jnb27, JoTp,Joe454545, JoeSmack, Joffeloff, John Cardinal, John D. 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European dragon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441692192  Contributors: !Dragon, 7&6=thirteen, AbsoluteFlatness, Ae7flux, Aeonx, Ahoerstemeier, Akapitany, Aknorals, Altenmann, Amccune, Amire80, AnOicheGhealai, Andraste315, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Animum, Anthony Appleyard, Apoyon, Applechair, Arch dude, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Ashmoo, Ausir, Avsa, BD2412, BabelStone, Ballista, Balloonthesixth, Banno, BeckenhamBear, Bellenion, Benjiboi, Bill37212, Bloodofox, Bobblehead, Bogdangiusca, Brian0918,

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Chinese dragon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441719389  Contributors: 334a, 97198, Aarond2, Aditya, AjaxSmack, Ajraddatz, Alanmak, Aldis90, Alex '05, AnOddName,Andersmusician, Andre Engels, Andrewrp, Angrysockhop, AnmaFinotera, Anomo, Another Believer, Anthony Appleyard, Apeman, Apocalyptic Destroyer, Apokryltaros, Apostrophe,Archanamiya, Aresmo, Arman88, Atrius, Attilios, Authr, Axem Titanium, BD2412, Babajobu, Badagnani, Balthazarduju, Barbaking, Barneca, BarretBonden, Basketball110, Bathrobe, Bchaosf,Belson12, Bencherlite, Bender176, Benjwong, Bennybp, Bigbadbyte, Black Knight takes White Queen, Bletch, Bobo192, Boing! said Zebedee, Bokan, Bongoboy95, Bongomatic, Bongwarrior,Bradford44, Bulbaboy, Bumm13, Bumphoney, Butthead42, CCSummers, CWii, CaliforniaAliBaba, CanadianCaesar, Capricorn42, Caspian blue, Ccs pacsun 09, Ccyber5, Cenarium, Chameleon,Chinafactor, Circeus, Cobaltbluetony, Cocytus, Cold Season, ColinBoylett, CommonsDelinker, Confuzion, Conti, Corpx, Coyry, Cunard, Cwp2112, Cyktsui, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DHN, DVD RW, DVdm, Daduzi, DanielCD, Dante Alighieri, Dariune, Darklord 1984, Darth Wengle, Davisdraco, Dbiel, Delirium, Demonblade, DenisMoskowitz, DerHexer, Descartes, Discospinster, DmitriYuriev, Dmoss, Donovaan, DopefishJustin, DorisAntony, Doron, Dougweller, Dragodon, Dragonsinn, Dudeman5685, DynamoDT, ESkog, Ebizur, Ed luu, Edderso, Edipedia, Edo-biscuit, Ehn,Ekwos, El C, ElCanguro, Elemesh, Elvenscout742, Enchanter, Enigmaman, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Erikp, Erkan Yilmaz, Evercat, Falcon8765, Fanatix, Felix568, Fengshui88, Fengshuifan,Figaro, Fl, Flewis, Floria L, Flywhc, Fractyl, Fraggle81, Fratrep, Fyyer, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, GayCommunist, Geg, Ghirlandajo, Giovanna123, Glenn, Godaryuji, Gogo Dodo, Goldfritha,Gorkymalorki, Goustien, Grendelkhan, Greswik, Gsklee, Gtrmp, Gurch, Hanchi, Hannu, Hdstubbs, Henriette, Henry W. Schmitt, HenryLi, Hintha, Hinto, HkCaGu, Homunculus, HongQiGong,HunterAmor, Hvn0413, Hyperblossom915, I am p4nd4, Icairns, Icarus3, Idh0854, Ikiroid, Imspecial123, Instinct, J.delanoy, J04n, JCBradfield, Jacce, Jackal Killer, Jacob.jose, Jaotsu,Japanandchinaoftheeast, JesseHogan, Jheald, Jiang, Jiejunkong, JoanneB, Joaquin008, John254, Johnbaba4.5, Jolenine, Jonson22, Jozg, Julia Rossi, Juliancolton, Jung dalglish, Junyi, Jwmitton,Ka Faraq Gatri, KamenRiderAgito, Kanonkas, Katineee, Kazikameuk, Keahapana, Kelvin Case, Keraunos, Kesac, Kesaer, Khaosworks, Khym Chanur, KirinX, Kirrages, Kitzke,KnowledgeOfSelf, Kocio, Kotengu, Kowloonese, Koyn, Ksyrie, Kuru, La Pianista, Lajolla25852, Lajsikonik, Le Anh-Huy, Lectiodifficilior, Lehi, Lemean, Leonard G., Levin, Lidewaang,Liondirectory, Llee5354, Lorenzarius, Lotje, Lovergirl7, Lowellian, Luminox12, Lupin, Machine05, Mandarax, Mandel, Mani1, Marburg72, MarcoLittel, MartinHarper, Master of the Oríchalcos,Math Champion, Maximus Rex, Maxis ftw, Mboverload, Menchi, Mendaliv, Mentifisto, Miamiamyrose, Mifter, Mike Rosoft, Milesli, Mintrick, Mitsukai, Mohanravichandran, Moreschi, MorganWick, Morinae, Mr. Bergstrom, Multiplestars, NAHID, Nahallac Silverwinds, Nakon, Nandesuka, Napolan, Neelix, Nev1, Neverhappy, NewEnglandYankee, Nihonjoe, Nikkhektaloktapus,Northumbrian, Nuttycoconut, O not, O1ive, OGoncho, Ojay123, OlEnglish, Oldhamjonnyp, Oleg Alexandrov, Olivier, Omnibus, Out4thecount, Outlanderssc, Ouyuecheng, Oxymoron83,P0lyglut, PalaceGuard008, Pauli133, Pawyilee, PericlesofAthens, Petercoyl, Pforward07, Phil Boswell, Philip Trueman, Phorque, Piano non troppo, Pikminlover, Pinball22, Plasticup, Polenth,PouponOnToast, Primalchaos, Psemmusa, Pumpmeup, Quintote, R, R Lee E, Ran, RandomCritic, Raven4x4x, Razorflame, Reach Out to the Truth, RealBigSwede, Reconsider the static,Recurring dreams, Red, Red maru, Reedy, Reinyday, RevolverOcelotX, RexNL, RichSC, Rigadoun, River6969us, Roadrunner, Rob Lindsey, Robertotr, Rolfmueller, Ronhjones, Rtkat3,Russavia, RyGuy17, Ryan shell, RyanCross, RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, SD6-Agent, Saito Hajime, Sarah Jacky, Sardanaphalus, Sat Ra, SchuminWeb, Securiger, Seibzehn, Sevilledade, Shii,Shimeru, Shuki, Silversmith, Siriudie, Sjschen, Sjö, Skew-t, Sluzzelin, Slysplace, Smith Jones, Snailwalker, Sodacan, Sophus Bie, Soumyasch, SpectrumDT, Spencer, Spencer195, Spike Wilbury,Ssj12ryu, Static Universe, Stealtiger, SteinbDJ, Stratadrake, StuffOfInterest, Sumple, Symane, Syrthiss, TUSHANT JHA, Takeaway, TallNapoleon, Talrias, Tanketz, Tesscass, The Epopt, TheThing That Should Not Be, TheLeopard, Thingg, Tills, Time for action, Toddst1, Tommy2010, TournamentKing14, Trevor mendham, Typhoon, Uly, Umpbumpdefuzz, Valadius, Valentinian,Versus22, VigilancePrime, ViperSnake151, Vizard123, Vmenkov, Voidvector, Wakeuptired, Wetman, Weyes, Whatanewday, Wheielapn, WhisperToMe, Wikipe-tan, Wimt, Winhunter,Wolfdog406, Wombat1138, Wombatcat, Woohookitty, Xiabravery, Xiner, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yanyang1985, Yeahsoo, YorkBW, Yuje, Yung Wei, Zhaolong, Zigger, Zntrip, ËÄÈË°ï, 乾隆龍也,1031 anonymous edits

Wyvern  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441518977  Contributors: 23skidoo, A E Francis, A. Parrot, Aetheling1125, Againme, Alansohn, Alexkon, AmilaeBell, AmosWolfe,Anaraug, Andrew Dalby, Angr, Ant, Ashmoo, Auric, Avicennasis, Azer Red, Badgernet, Bagehi, BeckenhamBear, Benjaburns, Betacommand, Bforte, BirgitteSB, Blatantly Evil, Bluedenim, BobBurkhardt, Bookofjude, Bunnyhugger, Bytbox, Calboro, Carlhcb, Castlemate, Charcolle, Chasra, Cheetah7071, Chevin, Chotic87, Cjb202, Ckoune, Cmdrjameson, Combatmaster, CommanderShepard, CommonsDelinker, CrisDias, Cruiser-Aust, DBragagnolo, DanielCD, Dark hyena, DarkKelta, Darkov, Deflective, Delldot, Deror avi, Dger, Didithevan, Dogposter, Dragola,Dragonsinn, Drsocrates23, Ed morrison, Ekwos, Elvis Trout, EmpressChang, Ephilei, Firstorm, Foursixtwo, FrankTobia, Fènix Blau, Gaius Cornelius, Gamextheory, Gavyn Sykes, Gihanuk,Golgofrinchian, Greeni78, Gurko, Hadrian89, Hairy Dude, HockeyX16, Hrebenarova.ef, If5tatement, Imothyt, Indon, IrrTJMc, J.J.Sagnella, J.delanoy, JDspeeder1, JNW, Jakenelson, Jetekus,Jevansen, Jimfbleak, Jon186, Jpaulm, Jwn2008, Kevin McE, Kolokol, Kotengu, Kurtle, Kwamikagami, LEWOKC, LancasterII, Leirus, Liquidmetalrob, Lobsterthermidor, Lotje, Lupin, Lupinoid,Lync123456, MACHone Inc., Man vyi, MarSch, Marnanel, Marshall, Marvbum, Merc89, Michael Hardy, Michael.b.price, Michimoto24, Mikelima, Mintrick, Mmp999, Moshe ConstantineHassan Al-Silverburg, Mrug2, Mrwojo, Mschel, Munkee madness, Murdersaurusrex, Nathan2000, Nedrutland, Nero1009, Nev1, Nick, Noirum, Nortmannus, Ollie333, Orchid Righteous,OtakuMan, PRB, Paladin22, Patar knight, Pauli133, Pearle, Percy Snoodle, Petrb, Philip Trueman, Phunting, Polenth, Porlob, Project FMF, Psysaturn, QRX, Quackdave, Quuxplusone, RG72,RGCorris, Ramckay, Ramu50, Retired username, Robbstrd, Roookie777, Rtkat3, Ryan shell, SCEhardt, Sam360, Sam8, Satori Son, Scarian, SchuminWeb, Scottcmu, Sdherndon, Sgt popeye,Shadzar, Simmo2406, Singularity, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Skreth, SoWhy, SpaceCaptain, SpectrumDT, Spettro84, Star Hound, Stratadrake, Swampyblaze, TS Rule, Tanzeel,Team4Technologies, Terminator484, Terryhufc, TexasAndroid, Thu, Tide rolls, Tinclon, Tnyrlz001, Toh-maag, Trevor mendham, Twentysixpurple, UnHoly, Unknown Dragon, Ustas, Vanish3,Varlaam, Vina, Wakuran, Wayne Riddock, Werelupe4567, Wetman, White Shadows, Wilhelm meis, Wyvernred32, Xezbeth, Xunflash, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zeimusu, ZoBlitz, Zxcvbnm, 407anonymous edits

List of dragons in mythology and folklore  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438690844  Contributors: Airwavejoker, Ajstov, Amccune, Andraste315, Barticus88, Ceranthor,CosmicJake, Das Baz, Dbachmann, DreamGuy, Eduardo Sellan III, Enviroboy, Fullstop, Gtrmp, Hywel Dda, Kateshortforbob, Kuru, Ludacribs, Open2universe, PeterJames2, Phlp orlando,Poison Sword, Polenth, Polenth·, Rich Farmbrough, Rigaby, Roadrocket13, SpectrumDT, Spleenboy007, Tagabalon, Trigaranus, TubularWorld, White43·, Wikipeediar, Woohookitty,Zerokitsune, 40 anonymous edits

Dragons in Greek mythology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438693077  Contributors: .marc., Ajsh, Akhilleus, Amberrock, Astrocom, Catgut, Citizen Premier, DOSGuy,DerHexer, Deucalionite, Elkester, GeeJo, Gracefool, Hadley1217, Hairy Dude, Ismael uddin, Iwfi, Jakegothic, John D. Croft, LaggedOnUser, Minimac, NielsenGW, Omphaloscope, Pafferguy,Pyrofysh, Scottandrewhutchins, SkyWalker, SpectrumDT, Tassadar1987, Tchoutoye, Test-tools, Tikiwont, TreasuryTag, Veledan, Vultur, WVhybrid, Wetman, 97 anonymous edits

Saint George and the Dragon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440257269  Contributors: A.h. king, Adam Keller, AnOddName, Andreas Kaganov, Andycjp, Anneyh,Arpadkorossy, Arthena, Atvredneck13, Audiosmurf, Bgwwlm, Bookworm857158367, Brandmeister (old), BrianGV, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CardinalDan, Carl.bunderson, Carlsbadscience, Chzz, CommonsDelinker, Crazyharp81602, Cuchullain, CyberGhostface, Daimore, Danlaycock, Dariune, DeadEyeArrow, Diiscool, Dmmaus, Dspradau, Edward, Elangate, Elemesh,Extransit, FKmailliW, FayssalF, FeanorStar7, Francs2000, Frecklefoot, G026r, Gabbe, Ghirlandajo, Gilliam, Godewind, Goldfritha, Grafen, GumbyProf, Gypsywitch13, Hammersoft,History2007, Hmains, Ihcoyc, Imasleepviking, Immunize, JForget, Jacksonjgil, Jao, Jkisch, JoDonHo, Johnbod, Jourell, KarlM, Kayman1uk, Kevin j, Kevupnorth, Kross, Krsont, Kubigula,Kurtle, Kuru, Little Jimmy, Luna Santin, Madmedea, Marek69, Mariomassone, Mav, Mezod, Michaellee4, Mild Bill Hiccup, Milton Stanley, Mirv, Mld, MosheA, Mspraveen, Mule Man,Myrabella, Ncik, Neelix, NeilEvans, Noclevername, OrangUtanUK, Orphan Wiki, Oscararon, Paaskynen, Padoli, PamD, Peli barbara, Peridon, Peter Isotalo, Pi, Pilonog, Pinethicket, Pjoef,Polylerus, Pouffsie, RRGordon, Ronhjones, Rothorpe, Rursus, SReed99342, Saihtam, Salpal90, Sandor Clegane, Sanjames1, Saracen78, Satanael, Seabhcan, Shadowmaster13, Shakko, Shasho1,SidP, Signalhead, Sjwells53, SpuriousQ, Spyderchan, Sspratli, StAnselm, Stephen2nd, Surfeited, THB, Testus, Thebluebeast, Thomas Gebhardt, Tide rolls, Tins128, Toby42, Tsinfandel, Tuomas,Uhai, Victoriaedwards, WOLVERINE25TH, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Wik, WikiLaurent, Woohookitty, XxTimberlakexx, YKWSG, 172 anonymous edits

A Book of Dragons  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401971746  Contributors: Ericdn, Goldfritha, Gtrmp, Otto1970, Pegship, Sadads, TutterMouse, 3 anonymous edits

Nāga  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440506786  Contributors: Adam Carr, Alex '05, Algorithm0, Ali strachan, Anandks007, Andres, Andrewtn, Andycjp, Aponar Kestrel, Arenlor, Asarelah, B9 hummingbird hovering, Beached Oil Tanker, Billinghurst, BrendanFrye, Bryan Derksen, Btpss, Buddhipriya, Chaosdarkness, Cielomobile, ClovisPt, Cminard, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Curious Blue, D'INC2006, D6, Dangerous-Boy, Dayaanjali, DocWatson42, Doctor3uk, DoktorMax, Douglasfrankfort, Dr.raghav, Ekajati, Eli water, Erolos, Farthammer, Fg2, Frosted14, Gareth412341234123, Garwig, Gene Nygaard, Gfoley4, Gilgamesh, Gogo Dodo, Goldfritha, GregorB, Guanaco, Gurch, Gwalla, GôTô, Harsimaja, Helpsome, Hintha, Homunculus, Hu12, Hybernator, IPSOS, Imc, InMemoriamLuangPu, Inconexo, Iokseng, Ivan Štambuk, J.delanoy, J04n, Jagged 85, James086, Jeff3000, John Hill, Jyril, Kenshi7410, Kisholi, Kjrajesh, Kotengu, Kubra, Kuru, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, LaotianBoy1991, LeCire, Leolaursen, Linguisticgeek, Lord Xavius, M-le-mot-dit, MMM PIE!!!, Madhava 1947,

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Japanese dragon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=440480476  Contributors: AjaxSmack, AltGrendel, Amcaja, Angela, Anthony Appleyard, Apostrophe, Auntof6, B.Wind,Bathrobe, Belovedfreak, Buhuzu, Bumm13, Chris the speller, Ciphers, Claytonian, Cnilep, Coasilve, Cobaltbluetony, D3v4st4t0r, DisturbedTim90, Dragonsinn, Ed8r, Falcon8765, Fractyl,General Eisenhower, Heroeswithmetaphors, Intranetusa, Iridescent, Julia Rossi, Kameraad Pjotr, Keahapana, Kingerik, Kotengu, Kungfu for the win, Leonardo Boiko, MER-C, Mairi, Mitsukai,Mkill, Moon Called, Morinae, MrChupon, NATO.Caliber, Nihonjoe, Nobunaga24, Pauli133, Pmsyyz, Polenth, Power level (Dragon Ball), RevolverOcelotX, RichardKennaway, Rjwilmsi,Robbstrd, Satanael, Sean-Jin, Shikino, Shoemaker's Holiday, Shokatsu-sensei, Simon Burchell, Skizzik, Sluzzelin, SpectrumDT, Stone, Stratadrake, Tallowghast, TheLeopard, Thexile,Tiberiumshox, TomorrowTime, Triton, Tsiuwleihwei, Uly, Unknown Dragon, Urutapu, WikiMan225, Yueyouko, Zachlechler, 136 anonymous edits

China  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=442393334  Contributors: -Majestic-, 0101 waie, 100110100, 119, 155ws, 16@r, 24630, 28675, 4PRC, 4wajzkd02, 63.192.137.xxx, 9876544567898, A-giau, A9a9, ACSE, ARGOU, AZNsRule, Aaron Schulz, AaronXavier, Abolabo1, Aboudaqn, Abstrakt, Accurizer, Accurrent, Achaean, Achaemenes, Achero, Acroterion, Adam1970, Adamacious, Adashiel, Add3rz, Addshore, Adjusting, Admiralbones, Adrianrorheim, Aerius, Aeronautics, Af2815, Afinebalance, Ahassan05, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajfweb, Akamad, Aksi great, Aku138, Alain2, Alanmak, Alassius, Alaz, Ale jrb, Alefbe, Alex Kov, Alex Needham, Alex Shih, Alex.tan, Alex606, Alexasigno, Alexhch, Algamarga, AliceC, AlimanRuna, Alison, Alittleprincessiam, Aliyevramin, Alphachimp, Alphaios, Alphax, Altenmann, Amartya ray2001, Amerinese, AmiDaniel, Amin94, Anacrusis, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andrew Dalby, Andrew.hermiz, AndrewKepert, Andrewlp1991, Android79, Andy Marchbanks, AndyBowman, Andyhape, Andyjsmith, 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Legendary creature  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441640795  Contributors: AdrianLozano, Ahoerstemeier, Al3xil, Andre Engels, Andy M. Wang, AnmaFinotera,Anneyh, Aranel, Arxiloxos, Auric, Author78, AvicAWB, Awp4evr, Axeman89, BD2412, Bellenion, Bhadani, Blackpowaa, Bloodkith, Bluedenim, Bondo 6464, Bongwarrior, Bookgrrl, Borgx,Borromeotlhs, Bunnyhop11, Cairvine, Caltas, Carverson, Catghost, CatherineMunro, Chamal N, ChubsterII, Chuck es dios, Cinssaroi, CommonsDelinker, Conti, Corvun, Crandle78, Croxley,Curero, DamnedDamnedDamned, Dante Alighieri, Dave233, Davidsalazarqui, Deor, DerHexer, Diego Grez, Discospinster, Dougweller, DragonzgoRAWR, DreamGuy, Dreamafter, Drmies,Eequor, Efyoo, El Diablito97, Ellywa, EmpressChang, Emurra, Etacar11, Ethric75, EveryDayJoe45, Falcon8765, Fastfission, Filibustered, Fredbauder, Fremte, GTBacchus, Gilliam,Goldenrowley, Gongshow, Gracefool, Graft, Graham87, Gtrmp, Gwib, Haoie, Hibernian, Idownfatkidz, Ihcoyc, Immunize, Iokseng, IronGargoyle, IstvanWolf, J.delanoy, JQF, JSmith60,JackSparrow Ninja, Jake Wartenberg, Jakenelson, Jaksmata, Jalo, Jaytee12394, Jesseconnery, Jimmy Pitt, Johnuniq, Joyous!, Jumple, Jusdafax, Justme89, KaelinCadence, Kaos-pheory, LA2,Laurencemaher, LedgendGamer, LegCircus, Leonidus, LilHelpa, Limulus, Lord Opeth, Makeemlighter, Malcolm Farmer, Mani1, Maximaximax, Mcr-matt, Michael K. Edwards,Missinformasion, Mrwojo, Mygerardromance, Mystery Correction, N5iln, Nakon, Nils, NinjaLore, Noctibus, Nortonew, Odie5533, Olivier, Oxymoron83, Panyd, Paradiso, PaulGS, Piddlebutt,Pigman, Pinethicket, Ptcamn, Pyromancer102, Quantumelfmage, Quinsareth, Quoting mungo, Qyd, RHaworth, Ratemonth, Reaper Eternal, Reddi, Redthoreau, Retiono Virginian, RichFarmbrough, Richsage, Rmhermen, Rursus, Ryan shell, Salleman, Sam Spade, Satanael, SdcWATCH, Securiger, Serendipodous, Sesshomaru, Shadzar, Shanes, Shikai shaw, Sjc, Skomorokh,Smartguy777, Smitty, Smock, Snakeyes (usurped), Snowolf, Sonicp2, Sparkash, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, SriMesh, Srleffler, Sssbbb2, Stickee, T3chl0v3r, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tealman353, Teles,The Thing That Should Not Be, The lolololol, Thedatastream, Thingg, Thorrstein, Threecheersfornick, Timo Honkasalo, Tripodero, Twilo, Txomin, Umzingeli, Uncle Dick, Vicarious,Victornightingale, ViolentGreen, Voretus, Vsst, WRK, Welsh, Whimpykidtwenty, Wik, Wikipelli, Wintran, Wisl, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell, Wwagner, Yung Wei, Zubon5, Zundark, Zxcvbnm,289 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 90

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Ljubljana dragon.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ljubljana_dragon.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dani_7C3, December2002File:Ninedragonwallpic1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ninedragonwallpic1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: splitbrainFile:Dragon (PSF).png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_(PSF).png  License: unknown  Contributors: PSF_D-270006.png: PSF derivative work: Kattekrab (talk)File:Wen Wu Temple 13.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wen_Wu_Temple_13.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors:Bernard GagnonFile:Graoully.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Graoully.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: GraoullyImage:Dragon on Longshan Temple.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_on_Longshan_Temple.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: WikiLaurentFile:Toy dragons.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toy_dragons.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Kai Schreiber from JerseyCity, USAImage:Ljubljana dragon.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ljubljana_dragon.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dani_7C3, December2002File:DacianDraco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DacianDraco.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Philg88File:Flag of Wales 2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Wales_2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AlexD, Cecil, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, F. F. Fjodor,FruitMonkey, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Iago4096, Pumbaa80, Red devil 666, Srtxg, Tha real, Torstein, Vernanimalcula, Vzb83, Wouterhagens, 4 anonymous editsFile:Змей Горыныч.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Змей_Горыныч.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 1mrg3105, Butko, CommonsDelinkerHelper,Shakko, Vanished user 001File:Herb Księstwa Czerskiego.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herb_Księstwa_Czerskiego.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: User:MathiasrexImage:Coca21.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coca21.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AmavioFile:Vibriadereus.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vibriadereus.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Antoni VecianaImage:Cucaferadetarragona.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cucaferadetarragona.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CatalunyaesunanacioFile:Saint Margaret sculpture.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saint_Margaret_sculpture.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: PostdlfFile:Terni-Stemma.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Terni-Stemma.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Idéfix, Oxhop, Sputnik, Zeugma frFile:MasoDiBanco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MasoDiBanco.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: louis-gardenFile:Toothlessconceptart.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toothlessconceptart.jpg  License: Fair use  Contributors: DrNegative, Hugahoody, Mechamind90file:Nine-Dragons1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nine-Dragons1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Artem Karimov, Editor at Large, Louis le Grand,PericlesofAthens, Stout256, 16 anonymous editsFile:Chinese Dragon Banner.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Dragon_Banner.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: SodacanImage:C-shaped jade dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:C-shaped_jade_dragon.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Originaluploader was Wheielapn at en.wikipediaImage:Jade dragon 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jade_dragon_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Lilyu, Mountain, Olivier2,PericlesofAthensFile:Gilded Bronze Handle of a Dragon, Eastern Han.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gilded_Bronze_Handle_of_a_Dragon,_Eastern_Han.JPG  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: User:PericlesofAthensImage:ThreeToeDragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThreeToeDragon.jpg  License: Creative Commons ShareAlike 1.0 Generic  Contributors: Original uploaderwas Leonard G. at en.wikipediaImage:DatongJiulongBi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DatongJiulongBi.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:User:DoronImage:Temple Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Temple_Dragon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Jacob JoseFile:Golden canteen with dragon, Ming Dynasty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Golden_canteen_with_dragon,_Ming_Dynasty.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Share Alike  Contributors: User:PericlesofAthensImage:LongPao.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LongPao.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Kowloonese, 3 anonymous editsFile:龍-seal.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:龍-seal.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Chanueting, Erin Silversmith, Immanuel Giel, Sarang, YugImage:Changchun-Temple-TaiQingDian-Bell-0306.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Changchun-Temple-TaiQingDian-Bell-0306.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: User:VmenkovImage:LugouQiao-Qianlong-bridge-rebuilding-stele-3610.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LugouQiao-Qianlong-bridge-rebuilding-stele-3610.JPG  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: VmenkovFile:Freer 013.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Freer_013.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Original uploader wasPericlesofAthens at en.wikipediaFile:Nine Dragons, detail, Song Dynasty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nine_Dragons,_detail,_Song_Dynasty.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ChenRongFile:Phra_Maha_Chedi_Chai_Mongkol_Naga_emerging_from_mouth_of_Makara.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phra_Maha_Chedi_Chai_Mongkol_Naga_emerging_from_mouth_of_Makara.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PawyileeFile:Chinese silk, 4th Century BC.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_silk,_4th_Century_BC.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PericlesofAthensFile:Wyvern.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wyvern.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VexiloFile:Trento-cathedral-relief with wyvern.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trento-cathedral-relief_with_wyvern.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Matteo IaneselliFile:Flag of Wessex.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Wessex.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: could be ThomasGun and 121.92.79.135File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488,Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous editsFile:Arms-leicester.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arms-leicester.png  License: logo  Contributors: User:FairuseBot, User:Salavat, User:Smithy2471File:Midland arms.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Midland_arms.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: chevinImage:Chinese Dragon Banner.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Dragon_Banner.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: SodacanImage:Okyo Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Okyo_Dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AmcajaImage:Linteau Musée Guimet 25973.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Linteau_Musée_Guimet_25973.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VassilImage:Dragonvietnam.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragonvietnam.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: ĐinhNgọc DũngImage:Meddragon Liber Floridus Lambert of sint Omaars 1460.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meddragon_Liber_Floridus_Lambert_of_sint_Omaars_1460.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: 1mrg3105, Deadstar, Joostvandeputte, Julien Demade

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 91

Image:Dragon héraldique.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_héraldique.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:MicheletBImage:Welsh dragon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Welsh_dragon.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Gian Luca Ruggero, akaActamImage:Dragon Crop.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_Crop.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Bastianow,User:Bedwyr, User:Bastianow, User:BedwyrImage:Münster wawelski.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Münster_wawelski.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bearerofthecup, Smok Wawelski, 2anonymous editsImage:Kadmos dragon Louvre E707.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kadmos_dragon_Louvre_E707.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-PolImage:Flag Kaz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_Kaz.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 1mrg3105Image:stgeorge-dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stgeorge-dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ecelan, Estevoaei, Ham, HombreDHojalata,Infrogmation, Juiced lemon, Kalki, Pe-Jo, Ranveig, Shakko, 2 anonymous editsImage:Ulm-Muenster-NeithartKapelleFenster-061209.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ulm-Muenster-NeithartKapelleFenster-061209.jpg  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: w:de:Benutzer:Joachim KöhlerJoachim KöhlerFile:St.George rescuing the emperor's daughter.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St.George_rescuing_the_emperor's_daughter.JPG  License: Public Domain Contributors: Georgian artist of the 15-th centuryImage:Stockholm-Storkyrkan (St.Georg).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stockholm-Storkyrkan_(St.Georg).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike2.0  Contributors: Jürgen HowaldtImage:Commanderie Coulommiers saint Georges.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commanderie_Coulommiers_saint_Georges.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: MyrabellaFile:St GeorgeEnglish.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_GeorgeEnglish.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alexander BarclayFile:Saint George et le dragon, enluminure.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saint_George_et_le_dragon,_enluminure.jpg  License: GNU General Public License Contributors: AnomymeImage:Rogier van der Weyden - Saint George and the Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rogier_van_der_Weyden_-_Saint_George_and_the_Dragon.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Olivier2, Pe-Jo, RlbberlinImage:Coat of Arms of Moscow.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Moscow.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original Author:Vector-Images.com Converted to SVG by: Oren neu dagFile:1914 Sydney Half Sovereign - St. George.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1914_Sydney_Half_Sovereign_-_St._George.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: KaroraFile:St. George and the Dragon - Briton Riviere.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St._George_and_the_Dragon_-_Briton_Riviere.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Briton Riviere (1840-1920)File:Rossetti georg sabra.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rossetti_georg_sabra.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Gustav VH, Ham,Infrogmation, Man vyi, Mattes, Menze, PKM, Shakko, 2 anonymous editsFile:Roggenbeuren St Verena Hochaltar Barbara Georg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roggenbeuren_St_Verena_Hochaltar_Barbara_Georg.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Photo: Veit FegerFile:Naga182.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Naga182.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mohonu, 1 anonymous editsFile:Sarpa-Kavu-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sarpa-Kavu-2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Rajesh Kakkanatt.Original uploader was Kjrajesh at en.wikipediaFile:Anantavishnu.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anantavishnu.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, DieBuche, Ekabhishek, Fryed-peach,Jappalang, Redtigerxyz, Roland zh, 1 anonymous editsImage:Vijayanagar snakestone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vijayanagar_snakestone.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:DineshkannambadiImage:nagtemple.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagtemple.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: SahuajeetImage:Laonaga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laonaga.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adam CarrImage:Lingam.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lingam.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MaheshkhannaImage:Patanjali.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Patanjali.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: en:RpbaFile:2006 0922 wat phrathat doi suthep buddha mucalinda.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006_0922_wat_phrathat_doi_suthep_buddha_mucalinda.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: TakeawayImage:SalaKeoku.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SalaKeoku.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: http://wikitravel.org/en/User:JpatokalImage:Wat Phra Kaew Naga.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wat_Phra_Kaew_Naga.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The Last MelonImage:NagaPhnomPenh.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NagaPhnomPenh.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:User:Stephan Schulz. Original uploader was Stephan Schulz at en.wikipediaFile:Nagayon Paya.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagayon_Paya.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Wagaung (talk)Image:Indischer Maler um 1640 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indischer_Maler_um_1640_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ekabhishek,Redtigerxyz, Roland zh, Shreevatsa, Wolfmann, 3 anonymous editsImage:Hokusai Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hokusai_Dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666, 1anonymous editsImage:Kiyohimesm.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kiyohimesm.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KatsuhagiImage:Kuniteru Gozu dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniteru_Gozu_dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Gryffindor, OceanSoundImage:Tamatori being pursued bya dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tamatori_being_pursued_bya_dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Amcaja, PetrusbarbygereImage:One of the daughters of the dragon king who lives in then bottom of the sea.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:One_of_the_daughters_of_the_dragon_king_who_lives_in_then_bottom_of_the_sea.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja,PetrusbarbygereImage:Kunisada II The Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kunisada_II_The_Dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Aotake, OceanSoundImage:Kuniyoshi Utagawa, Dragon 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniyoshi_Utagawa,_Dragon_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja,Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666Image:Dragonn4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragonn4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sean-JinImage:Dragonn3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragonn3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sean-JinImage:Yoshitsuya The Fiery Dragon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitsuya_The_Fiery_Dragon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja,Binabik155, Gryffindor, OceanSoundFile:Ogata Gekko - Ryu sho ten edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogata_Gekko_-_Ryu_sho_ten_edit.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Ceridwen,User:CeridwenFile:Chinaimg.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinaimg.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: NatFile:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors)File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 555, Bestalex, Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk,

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Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Sasha Krotov, Shizhao, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, ZooFari, Zscout370, 72 anonymous editsImage:Tradsimpzhongguo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tradsimpzhongguo.png  License: Public domain  Contributors: Naus (talk)naus. Original uploader wasNaus at en.wikipediaimage:Jade deer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jade_deer.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Mountain, Olivier2, PericlesofAthens,Xenophon, 2 anonymous editsImage:Terracotta pmorgan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Terracotta_pmorgan.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Peter Morgan fromNomadicImage:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 241101.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Porcelaine_chinoise_Guimet_241101.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VassilImage:Along the River During the Qingming Festival (detail of original).jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Along_the_River_During_the_Qingming_Festival_(detail_of_original).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Zhang ZeduanFile:Celestialempireclipper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Celestialempireclipper.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Original uploaderwas Djembayz at en.wikipediaFile:角樓.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:角樓.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: user:snowyowlsFile:Whampoa3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whampoa3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Arilang1234, Hawyih, Olivier2, Stevenliuyi, 1 anonymouseditsImage:LA2-NSRW-1-0148.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA2-NSRW-1-0148.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -Image:China map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:China_map.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Original uploader was Nat aten.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Shibo77, Sontung007, Taktser, T-1000, Heavyrain2408, Sinoevils, Jjhcap99, Jerrch at en.wikipedia.Image:PRCFounding.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PRCFounding.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hou BoImage:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Territories_of_Dynasties_in_China.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ian KiuImage:China 100.78713E 35.63718N.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:China_100.78713E_35.63718N.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Red devil 666, Rex,Sven-steffen arndtImage:Terrace field yunnan china.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Jialiang Gao, www.peace-on-earth.orgImage:Diqing, Yunnan, China.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diqing,_Yunnan,_China.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Asteiner, CarolSpears, Ranveig, RedWolf, Vmenkov, 2 anonymous editsImage:ChinaGeography.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChinaGeography.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:en:User:Alanmak Alan MakImage:Wang-yang-ming.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wang-yang-ming.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dirrival, Frank C. Müller, Jann, Louis leGrandFile:Yang Gui-Fei.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yang_Gui-Fei.jpg  License: Creative Commons ShareAlike 1.0 Generic  Contributors: Original uploader was J Diat en.wikipediaImage:mifu01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mifu01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Naus on en.wikipediaImage:ZhongNiShi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ZhongNiShi.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was CharlieHuangat en.wikipediaImage:Ethnolinguistic map of China 1983.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ethnolinguistic_map_of_China_1983.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.Central Intelligence Agencyimage:CircularMound.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CircularMound.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Ian andWendy SewellFile:天-bronze.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:天-bronze.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: MicheletbImage:Mahayanabuddha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahayanabuddha.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: User:RosemaniaFile:Huaisheng Mosque Dec 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Huaisheng_Mosque_Dec_2007.jpg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Ismaila1977Image:Dragon boat racing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_boat_racing.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploaderwas Naus at en.wikipediaFile:Chinese rocket.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_rocket.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASAImage:Japanese dragon, Chinese school, 19th Century.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Japanese_dragon,_Chinese_school,_19th_Century.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: LittleDrakon, Pitke

License 93

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/