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Dr. Andrew MoldenkeDept. of Botany
Oregon State University
Special thanks to Dr. Moldenke for presentation notes provided during the 2009 HJ Andrews LTER summer workshop.
Three thin-sectioned soils
Note: Really large dark blobs are earthworm poop
Note: Small white areas are micropores for storing water; large white areas are macropores for storing Oxygen and air
Note: Between the top and bottom layers of leaves have been eaten by turtle mites
Note: 70-80% of all arthropod species in the world live in the soil (terrestrial ecosystems)
Thin-section clear cut soil
Note: Clear cut soil will have little water holding capacity; not only are you changing the vegetation but how the ecosystem functions
Thin section mature forest soil
Note: Forest (old growth) soil poop will have a surface area is infinitely greater
Question: Why is the size and density of bug poop important?
Answer : Bacteria and fungi will feed on the surface of the arthropod poop and release nutrients. The more poop, the more surface area of the poop, the more bacteria will feed on the poop and release more nutrients.
I have shown that species richness of soil arthropods is SOOO large that anyone can take a sample of forest litter (dead leaves) and soil from anywhere in the approximately 3,000 hectare Andrews Forest LTER---
and then, after identifying the arthropods, I can tell you…
• what month of the year it was• altitude• soil moisture• plant community• slope face• under which species of tree• how old the forest trees are• how long since the last fire• how far from the nearest trunk
All that information (and more!) simply in a list of the relative abundance of the species
Creatures that live in the soil are very sensitive to abiotic and biotic factorstherefore excellent for use as biological indicators.
They have fantastic potential as indicators for determining human impacts on soil ecosystem function and for soil health.
species/m2 individuals/m2
forest 250 350,000
pasture 30-60 100,000
row agriculture 5-10 2 - 20,000
Note: Each and every shovelful of forest dirt has 250 species per square meter or 350K individuals. As soil is impacted more (pasture, agriculture…) the number of species decline.
Indicators of change in the productive potential of soil is great but I want to talk about 2 other things today.
1. Biodiversity for its own sake. We never bother to take the time to look at these organisms, but they are some of the most fascinating animals around! WOW! FANTASTIC!
2. They don’t just passively indicate “soil health”
they are key players in the cycle of plant growth and soil nutrients themselves.
B.P.G.T.
Many mites
EACH and EVERY SHOVEL of forest dirt =all pictures that follow
250 spp/m2 350,000 indivs/m2 70-80% of all arthropods in most terrestrial ecosystems
120,000 little legs (Andy’s foot)
15,000 species in Oregon
So, who cares?
Why study bugs in soil?
What do they do?
they eat and they poop
1 2
Question: Which bugs are discussed here?Answer: Mites, springtails, and other arthropods
OdontodamaeusMites….
OppiellaMites….
EpidamaeusMites….
Long-legged near DamaeusMites….
Galumna openMites….
Galumna closedMites….
Note: Defense mechanismsHands and legs fold in and doors close in
PterochthoniusMites….
HermanniellaMites….
Rearing mites
Small/large turtle mites
Note: Turtle mites are smaller than an eyelash
Oribatid cheliceraeMites….
Mycorrhizae
Note: In this example, the tree feeds the fungi sugar (Carbon) and the fungi feeds the tree N, P…. the root underneath carries water, nothing gets in unless regulated by fungi
Mycorrhiza under the Electron Microscope
IsotomaSpringtails…
Notes: If attacked, the tail drops and launches the bug easily a meter.
Springtails deep in the soil are blind.
Diagrammatic springtail (Collembola)
OnychiurusSpringtails…
Onychiurus
Onychiurus, high magnification
Ptiliid beetle
forewingNote: Flight apparatus is like a bird feather. ( A little rod with hairs).
Other arthropods…
ProturaOther arthropods…
Notes:
1) In all soils
2) Important in nutrient cycling
3) No common names for them
4) Evolutionally they lost their antenna, false antenna as first set of legs
Summary: When putting together foodwebs, all these bugs so far have been fungivores
EnchytraeidOther arthropods…
Suctobelbella – bacterial-feeder
Other arthropods…
Cydnidae – Burrowing bugOther arthropods…
SymphylaOther arthropods…
Cicindelid immatureOther arthropods…
GamasidOther arthropods…
UropodidOther arthropods…
Uropodid - facial view
PolyaspididOther arthropods…
Note: Strings of wax secreted from the analogous of sweat glands
CytaMites…
Notes:
1)Predacious mite
2) Dumped out of helicopters on caterpillars (bio- control)
Onychiurus being eaten by Labidostoma
Symphylan being eaten by Pergamasus
Note: Worst vegetative pest in the Williamette Valley
Pergamasus feeding(high magnification)
Notes: 1) There is a mite hitching a ride on the Pergamasus (feeding)…
2) Bacterial and fungal spores also catching rides if we looked closer, so they make the environment homogenous…(always moving everyone in the environment around)
Pseudoscorpion
Note: Poison gland in tip of claw released on prey
Chthoniid pseudoscorpion
Pseudoscorpion, facial view
Taracus – Skunk-spider (Opilionida)
Notes:
1) Probably 400 species of spiders in OR soil
2) The largest the same size of a period on the printed page
Sclerobunus – skunk-spider
Native scorpion with young
Spider webs
Spider fangs
Callobius
Pardosa
Micro-spider, male
Antrodiaetus
OmusCicindela
Staphylinidae
Lithobiidae
Geophilid
Centipede fangs
Notes:
1) All are predators….ants are the worst predators because they work as individuals and as a colony 2) Specialist predators eat 1 or 2 species
3) Generalists eat many types of species
Ant head
Snail-feeding beetle
Snail-feeder, immature
Taracus - Opilionid
Note: Devices for butchering a snail
Glowworm eating millipede
Millipede segments
Note: Glowworm catches a millipede and cuts segments off one by one and sucks insides out
Diapriid wasp – Diptera parasite
Note: You could collect 50-100 species of unnamed parasitic wasps
Rhododendron decomposition
Millipede jaws
Notes:
1)Millipedes are the big shredders in this system
2) Molars crush dead leaf-filter through sieve, grind large pieces again
Schematic of millipede jaw
Harpaphe mating swarm
Leaf skeletonization
Isopod
Pen-knife mite
Note: Really important shredders
Pen-knife mite, closed
Note: When a predator comes they totally close up in a ball and it takes an hour for a predator to crack open
Collohmannia nymphs
Leaf skeletonized by Collohmannia
Bacteria eaten by fungus
Note: Fungus dissolves bacteria by secreting a substance in 30 minutes
Soil and Plant Growth
Microbial biomass(bacteria, fungi)
(nutrientimmobilization)
In the short-term (minutes to years) the USEFUL nutrient content of soils is basically equivalent to the amount of nutrient incorporated into living microbial tissue.
(Most nutrients in mineral soil are long-term resources)
Soil and Plant Growth
Microbial biomass(bacteria, fungi)
(nutrientimmobilization)
Microbes grow by producing exoenzymes that decompose the organic (+) material in the soil
more bacteria
more decomposition
Soil and Plant Growth
Microbial biomass(bacteria, fungi)
(nutrientimmobilization)
Nutrient availability in dead/decaying organic matter is limited by surface area for exoenzyme attack
“shredding” increases surface area; therefore shredding animals (like millipedes) indirectly regulate rate of decomposition and microbial growth (example: 450x)
plant biomass
Human Connection :
Think of it this way… the reason you chew your food is to increase its surface area, which increases the nutrients the bacteria can uptake.
Your intestines grab whole bacteria, kill them and dump their remains in your bloodstream. Humans are basically bacteriavores like arthropods are.
Soil and Plant Growth
Microbial biomass(bacteria, fungi)
(nutrientimmobilization)
roots are completelypassive for
nutrient uptake
shredders ?
Soil and Plant Growth
Microbial biomass(bacteria, fungi)
(nutrientimmobilization)
nutrient uptake
shredders(surface area)
bug poop(nutrient
mineralization)
nearly all nutrients mineralized bymicrobivory are assimilated by theremaining microbes.
Surface area (microbes) surface area (roots)
Plants only can assimilate nutrients released in the rhizophere
Protozoa, Nematoda, Arthropoda
Question: If we were interested in finding soil nutrients do we look at fungi/bacteria?
Answer: Yes
Positive Feedback Loop: More bacteria>>More enzymes>>More bacteria>>More enzymes
Anderson Millipede soil mineralizationNotes:
1)Took soil from oak forest, sterilized it, reconstructed soil horizons in flower pots, reinnoculated fungi, bacteria and protozoa, NO bugs.2) Flower pot>>adds H2O>>trickles to bottom>>tests for N.3) Then adds shredder (millipede)…LOTS more N.4) Adds baby oak tree (No difference).5) Repeats study and baby oak tree. No difference. Baby oak tree used N from millipede feces for growth.6) WHOLE POINT: All of the nutrients that are ultimately incorporated in to the growing plants, have to go through the digestive system of the shredder.7) Unless you are dumping fertilizers the only way nutrients will help plants is bug poop.
When you double the N content, the growth of the oak tree is tenfold.
Onion cultivation