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Dr. Amr A. Abd-Elghany
For Fourth level Students
Techno. 244
Medical Biophysics
Electricity Within the Body
The Nervous System consists of:
I. Central Nervous System.
which consists of:
1. The Brain.
2. The Spinal cord.
3. The Peripheral nerves (neurons).
II. Autonomic Nervous System.
Peripheralnervous system
Somaticnervoussystem
Autonomicnervoussystem
Sympatheticdivision
Parasympatheticdivision
Entericdivision
The Brain:• It is surrounded by the protective skull.• It floats in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).• It is connected to the spinal cord.
The Spinal Cord:• It is surrounded by the bones of the vertebral column.• It floats also in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
The Peripheral nerves (Neurons):The basic structure unit of the nervous system is the neuron which can be shown as in the following figure;
The Central Nervous System
The nerve cell (neuron) is specialized for the, Reception,
Interpretation, and Transmission of electrical messages.
The neurons can be classified according to its function to:
•Afferent Neurons (Sensory);
Transmit impulse to the brain or spinal cord.
• Efferent Neurons (Motor);
Transmit impulse from the brain of spinal cord to the
muscles.
The Central Nervous System
Basic Tasks of the Nervous System
Sensory Input: Monitor both external and internal environments.
Integration: Process the information and often integrate it with stored information.
Motor output: If necessary, signal effector organs to make an appropriate response.
LE 28-1b
Sensoryreceptor
Quadricepsmuscles
Flexormuscles
Sensory neuron
Ganglion
Motorneuron
Nerve
PNS
CNS
Spinalcord
Brain
Interneuron
The neurons can be classified according to its structure to:
• Myelinated Neuron The axon of the neuron is covered with a fatty
insulating layer called myelin that has small
unmyelinated gaps called Nodes of Ranvier.
• Unmyelinated NeuronThe axon of the neuron is not covered with myelin
sheath
The Central Nervous System
Myelinated nerves, which are the most common type in humans,
conduct action potential much faster than the unmyelinated
nerves.
Neurons• Basic structural and functional units of the
nervous system.– Cannot divide by mitosis.
• Respond to physical and chemical stimuli.• Produce and conduct electrochemical impulses.• Release chemical regulators.• Nerve:
– Bundle of axons located outside CNS.• Most composed of both motor and sensory fibers.
Neurons are the functional units of nervous systems– Neurons are cells specialized for
carrying signals• Cell body: contains most organelles• Dendrites: highly branched
extensions that carry signals from other neurons toward the cell body
• Axon: long extension that transmits signals to other cells
– Many axons are enclosed by an insulating myelin sheath
• Chain of Schwann cells • Nodes of Ranvier: points where signals can be transmitted• Speeds up signal transmission
– Supporting cells (glia) are essential for structural integrity and normal functioning of the nervous system
– The axon ends in a cluster of branches• Each branch ends in a synaptic terminal• A synapse is a site of communication between a synaptic
terminal and another cell
Signal direction Dendrites
Cell body
Nucleus
Axon
Signalpathway
Schwann cell
Nodes ofRanvier
Myelin sheath Synaptic terminals
Schwann cell
Nucleus
Node of RanvierLayers of myelinin sheath
SE
M 3
,60 0
Cell Body
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL OF NERVES
1. Resting potential
-It is the difference in the electrical charges across the membrane in the resting state (without stimulation).
-The inside of the cell is more negative than the outside by 60-90mV due to the presence of proteins.
LE 28-3a
Plasmamembrane
Microelectrodeinside cell
Neuron
Axon
Microelectrodeoutside cell
Voltmeter
–70 mV
Bioelectric Properties of Neurons Resting Potential
• Ion Distribution• Extracellular – NA+ and Cl-• Intracellular – K+ and P-
Measurements of Membrane potential
The inside of the cell is typically 60 to 90 mV more negative than the outside. This potential difference is called Resting membrane potential
What factors contribute to this membrane potential?
Sodium-Potassium Pump
It is a large change in the resting potential which
occurs at the point of stimulation and propagates along
the axon. Specifically, the membrane potential goes
from the resting potential (typically -70 mV) to some
positive value (typically about +30 mV) in a very short
period of time (just a few milliseconds)
• The action potential is the major method of transmission of
signals within the body. The stimulation may be caused by
various physical and chemical stimuli such as heat, cold, light,
sound and odors.
The Action Potential
What causes this change in potential to
occur?
What causes this change in potential to
occur?
• A nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane potential
– Electrical changes make up an action potential, a nerve signal that carries information along an axon
• Stimulus raises voltage from resting potential to threshold• Action potential is triggered; membrane polarity reverses
abruptly• Membrane repolarizes; voltage drops• Voltage undershoots and then returns to resting potential
– Cause of electrical changes of an action potential • Movement of K+ and Na+ across the membrane
• Controlled by the opening and closing of voltage-gated channels
R esting phase1
N a+
O uts ide ce ll
Ins ide ce ll
P lasm a m em brane+ + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - -
K +
D epolarizing phase2
+ + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - -
K +
N a+
tMem
bran
e po
tent
ial
(mV
)
+50
0
- 50
- 100
1
2 3
4
U ndershoot phase4
+ + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - -
K +
N a+
R epolarizing phase3
+ + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - -
K +
N a+
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the action potential. The circled numbers on the action potential correspond to the four diagrams of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels in a neuron's plasma membrane (Campbell et al., 1999).
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the generation of an action potential (layer 1)
Plasma membrane
Extracellular fluid Activationgates
Potassiumchannel
Inactivationgate
Threshold
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
– – – – – –
Na+
K+
1 Resting state
Undershoot
1
2
3
4
5 1
Sodiumchannel
Actionpotential
Resting potential
Time
Me
mb
ran
e p
ote
ntia
l (m
V)
+50
0
–50
–100
Threshold
Cytosol
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the generation of an action potential (layer 2)
Plasma membrane
Extracellular fluid Activationgates
Potassiumchannel
Inactivationgate
Threshold
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
– – – – – –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
Na+
K+
K+
Na+ Na+
2 Depolarization
1
2
3
4
5 1
Sodiumchannel
Actionpotential
Resting potential
Time
Me
mb
ran
e p
ote
ntia
l (m
V)
+50
0
–50
–100
Threshold
Cytosol
1 Resting state
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the generation of an action potential (layer 3)
Plasma membrane
Extracellular fluid Activationgates
Potassiumchannel
Inactivationgate
Threshold
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
– – – – – –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
Na+ Na+
K+
Na+
K+
K+
Na+ Na+
1 Resting state
2 Depolarization
3 Rising phase of the action potential
1
2
3
4
5 1
Sodiumchannel
Actionpotential
Resting potential
Time
Me
mb
ran
e p
ote
ntia
l (m
V)
+50
0
–50
–100
Threshold
Cytosol
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the generation of an action potential (layer 4)
Plasma membrane
Extracellular fluid Activationgates
Potassiumchannel
Inactivationgate
Threshold
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
– – – – – –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
Na+ Na+
K+
Na+ Na+
K+
Na+
K+
K+
Na+ Na+
1 Resting state
2 Depolarization
3 Rising phase of the action potential
4 Falling phase of the action potential
1
2
3
4
5 1
Sodiumchannel
Actionpotential
Resting potential
Time
Me
mb
ran
e p
ote
ntia
l (m
V)
+50
0
–50
–100
Threshold
Cytosol
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the generation of an action potential (layer 5)
Plasma membrane
Extracellular fluid Activationgates
Potassiumchannel
Inactivationgate
Threshold
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
– – – – – –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
– –
+ +
Na+ Na+
K+
Na+ Na+
K+
Na+ Na+
K+
Na+
K+
K+
Na+ Na+
5
1 Resting state
2 Depolarization
3 Rising phase of the action potential
4 Falling phase of the action potential
Undershoot
1
2
3
4
5 1
Sodiumchannel
Actionpotential
Resting potential
Time
Me
mb
ran
e p
ote
ntia
l (m
V)
+50
0
–50
–100
Threshold
Cytosol
LE 28-4-5
Actionpotential
50
0
-50
-100
Threshold
Resting potential
Time (msec)
Neuroninterior
Resting state: voltage-gated Na
and K channels closed; restingpotential is maintained.
Mem
bra
ne
po
ten
tial
(mV
)
A stimulus opens some Na
channels; if threshold is reached,action potential is triggered.
Na
Na
Additional Na channels open,K channels are closed; interior ofcell becomes more positive.
Na
Na
K
Na channels close and
inactivate. K channels
open, and K rushesout; interior of cell morenegative than outside.
K
The K channels closerelatively slowly, causinga brief undershoot.
Neuroninterior
Return to resting state.
The Action potential
It is a wave that sweeps along the axon which is a
sequence of depolarization (entrance of Na+) and
Repolarization (exit of K+).
The Nerve Impulse
Propagation of the Action Potential
The action potential is regenerated all along the axon like a series of relay stations.
Localized flow of current from the region undergoing an action potential depolarizes the adjacent membrane.
Voltage gated Na+ channels in the adjacent membrane respond by opening their activation gates.
A new action potential is triggered in the adjacent membrane.
This sequence is repeated down the length of the axon.
Action potentials don’t decay in strength as they are conducted down the axon.
Unidirectional PropagationPropagation of the action potential only moves in one direction, from the axon hillock to the axon terminals.
The region just recovering from an action potential (K+ outflow region) cannot be stimulated by local current flow.
During the repolarizing and undershoot phases, the inactivation gates of the Na+ channels are still closed, blocking any Na+ influx even if the activation gates were to open.
Refractory period
Impulses typically travel along neurons at a speed of 1 to 120 m/sec. The speed of conduction can be influenced by;
• The diameter of a fiber.
• The temperature.
• The presence or absence of myelin
Two primary factors affect the speed of propagation of the action potential; The resistance (R) within the core of the membrane and the capacitance (C) across the membrane.
Conduction velocity
Myelinated Neurons
Many vertebrate peripheral neurons have an insulating sheath around the axon called myelin which is formed by Schwann cells.
Myelin sheathing allows these neurons to conduct action potentials much faster than in non-myelinated neurons.
Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Axons
Myelin sheathing is interrupted by bare patches of axon called nodes of Ranvier where ion channels are concentrated.
Action potentials jump from node to node without depolarizing the region under the myelin sheath - called saltatory conduction.
Myelin sheathing improves the ability of electrical charge to flow far enough down the axon to reach the next node.
Myelinated Neurons Conduct Faster Than Non-myelinated
• Action potential• propagates down the axon passively or via• saltatory conduction
Factors affect the speed of propagation of Factors affect the speed of propagation of the action potential:the action potential:
1.1. The resistance (R)The resistance (R) within the core of the membrane within the core of the membrane
2.2. The capacitanceThe capacitance (C) (or the charge stored) across (C) (or the charge stored) across the membrane. the membrane.
A decrease in either will increase the A decrease in either will increase the propagation velocitypropagation velocity
Myelinated Neurons Conduct Faster Than Non-myelinated
• Myelin sheathing and saltatory conduction improves the speed of nerve impulse conduction.
• This allows small diameter neurons to conduct impulses rapidly.
• Invertebrates, which don’t have myelinated neurons, have to increase axon diameter to speed up conduction.
• The larger the cross-sectional area of a neuron, the further it can conduct electrical charge along the axon.
A
L R
The depolarization and repolarization process across the axon’s membrane will depend on its time constant;
RCFor myelinated axons both the capacitance C and the resistance R are small and thus very short time is needed for the axon to depolarize and repolarize. Accordingly the speed in myelinated neurons is extremely high.
On the other hand the non myelinated axons have a high Capacitance and Resistance. Accordingly the time constant will be high, therefore the speed of propagation of the action potential impulse across the non myelinated axon will be small.
Conduction velocity
Neurons with myelin (myelinated neurons) conduct impulses much faster than those without myelin. The action potentials occur only along the nodes and therefore, impulses jump over the areas of myelin, going from node to node in a process called Saltatory Conduction.
Conduction velocity
Neurons with myelin (myelinated neurons) conduct impulses much faster than those without myelin. The action potentials occur only along the nodes and therefore, impulses jump over the areas of myelin, going from node to node in a process called Saltatory Conduction.
Conduction velocity
Waveforms of the action potentials from; (a) a Nerve axon (b) a Skeletal muscle cell and (c) a Cardiac muscle cell.
Action potential Waveforms
Electrocardiogram (ECG): a device to measure the electrical activity from the heart.
Electrical signals from the heart
Sino-atrial node (SA): a pacemaker which is a special muscle cell located in the right atrium.
Atrio-ventricular node (AV):The AV node is an area of specialized tissue between the atria and the ventricles of the heart. It electrically connects atrial and ventricle chambers.
Action potential of the heart:
1.when the atrium filled with blood, the SA node now is stimulated.
2.Depolarization occurs after stimulation.
Action potential of the heart (Cont.):
Contraction occurs a result of depolarization and the blood transfer to the ventricle.
Repolarization of the atrium after contraction.
The blood passed to the ventricle causes stimulation in the AV node then depolarization, contraction, repolarization and so on.
Positions of electrodes (RA, LA, LL):
Right arm (RA) and left arm (LA) called lead I.
Right arm (RA) and left leg (LL) called lead II.
Left leg (LL) and left arm (LA) called lead III.
Electrical signals from the heart
Major Electrical events from the normal heart cycle Lead II
P wave: represents atrial depolarization and contraction.
QRS: represents atrial repolarization and ventricle depolarization.
S to T difference: represents ventricle contraction.
T wave: represents ventricle repolarization.
Electrical signals from the brain (EEG)
electroencephalogram: a device measures the electrical activity from the neurons of the cortex of the brain.
Positions of the electrodes: one electrode is placed on the part of the brain to be studied and the reference electrode is attached to the ear.
The importance of EEG in medicine:
1.To detect brain tumors: the electrical activity is lower in the tumor.
2.To detect anesthesia.
3.To detect epilepsy: the electrical activity higher.
Electrical signals from the retina (ERG)
Electroretinogram (ERG): a device measures the electrical activity from the retina by exposing it to a flash of light.
Positions of the electrodes: one electrode is placed on a contact lens and the other on the forehead or the ear.
Absence of B-wave: indicates inflammation of the retina (Retinitis pigmentosa).
Electrical signals of the eye movement (EOG)
Electrooculogram (EOG): a device measures the electrical activity due to eye movement.
Positions of the electrodes: on each side of the eye
EOG: provide information on orientation, angular velocity of the eye.
ERG
EOG
