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So far no economist has emerged to surpass
Keynes in the impact he has had not only in
economics but in other fields as well. That
phenomenon of powerful economic theory
and social philosophy that came to be called
the âKeynesian Revolutionâ is the most
widely-recognized aspect of his extraordi-
nary reach, but it does not stand alone as his
only major achievement.ã As a young economist Keynes contribut-
ed to the development of philosophy and
logic under the influence of G. E. Moore and
Bertrand Russell. He was an intellectual
leader in the Liberal Party and a central fig-
ure in the Bloomsbury Group. He was, more-
over, an eloquent and inexhaustible debater,celebrated, among other rhetorical coups, for
his denunciation of the Versailles Treaty. His
wide-ranging activities included patronizing
the arts in earnest, managing insurance com-
panies, and taking on responsibility for the
financial management of Kingâs College. He
also played a leading part in designing the
new world order after the Second World
War. And, surprisingly enough, he was able
to pursue many of these activities simultane-
ously. His interests seemed to extend in ev-
ery direction, and his brain worked at an ex-
traordinary rate.ã This book brilliantly analyzes and de-
scribes Keynes the human, bringing light to
bear on his manifold activities and looking at
Keynesâs life in terms of persistence and
continuity rather than inconsistency and dis-
continuity. A list of the chapter headings
provides some idea of the scope of this vol-
ume: ch. 2 Ethics; ch. 3 Knowledge; ch. 4
Politics; ch. 5 War and Peace; ch. 6 Money;
ch. 7 Labour; ch. 8 Gold; ch. 9 Art. In this
space, however, I can only discuss a few of
the many thought-provoking topics that are
included.***
The so-called âsecretâ society of the Apostles
and later the Bloomsbury Group had a pro-
found influence on Keynesâs way of thinking
and, indeed, on many aspects of his way of
life. First, like his friends Lytton Strachey
and Leonard Woolf, among others, he was
greatly impressed by the ethics of G. E.Moore. That influence can be seen in the two
areas of Keynesâs ethics and his work on
probability. Starting his study on probalility
with his critique of chapter 5, âEthics in Re-
lation to Conduct,â of Mooreâs PrincipiaEthica, Keynes wrote a dissertation for his
Kingâs College fellowship, and that work was
finally published in 1921 as A Treatise on Probability. The author places emphasis on
uncertainty as immeasurable.ïŒHe is right,and yet, in my perspective, Keynes defines
probability as a degree of rational belief be-
tween propositions which should be objec-
tive, and tries to prove induction in terms of
pure logic.ïŒã Second, Keynes was deeply involved in
ãæžãè©ã
Dostaler, Gilles: Keynes and His Battles
Cheltenham, U. K. and Northampton, U. S. A.: Edward Elgar, 2007, viïŒ374 pp.
90ããçµæžåŠå²ç 究ã50å·» 2å·
the Bloomsbury Group, which generated a
new culture in literature, painting, and be-
yond. The members shared Mooreâs âreli-
gion,â were anti-utilitarian, and rejected the
discrimination against women that still pre-
vailed at the time. It was a group that fused
the Apostlesâ mindset with the artistic values
of Post-Impressionism and the new move-
ment in literature. The members were, in es-
sence, individualistic liberals, exalting hu-
man relations and beauty and disregarding
social conventions. This spirit of the Group
was deep enough to support a miraculously
enduring friendship in spite of its extremely
complicated relationship, which is vividly
and brilliantly described in the book.***
From his early youth Keynes showed a great
interest in politics, as demonstrated, for ex-
ample, by his stance on the Boer War. When
the First World War broke out, Keynes was
asked to join the Treasury. He accepted, de-
spite the fact that at the time he was very
busy trying to get his Probability published,with the help of Russell and Broad. He ended
up suspending that effort, and consequently
he had to wait for eight more years to see his
book published.ã The war, which was to change the world
fundamentally, caused a severe tension be-
tween Keynes and the rest of the Blooms-
bury group. And yet he demonstrated his
ability as a high official, leading the UK
through the tough negotiation with the USA
in finance. But finally he was deeply disap-
pointed with the development of the Paris
Peace Conference, and made proposals for
reconstructing Europe along lines of the
âGrand Scheme.âã In the 1920s Keynes was heavily in-
volved in the Liberal Party through manage-
ment of the Nation and Athenaeum, the Lib-
eral Summer Schools, and so forth. He advo-
cated âNew Liberalismâ-the mid-way house
between liberalism and socialism. However,his political activities took a convoluted path,reflecting the political situation then reigning
in the UK. He belonged to the Asquith camp,but later turned toward Lloyd George. After
the fatal defeat of the Liberal Party, Keynes
moved toward the Labour Party, and indeed
his socio-philosophical and economic ideas
were to show up in the thinking of young
Labour Party politicians such as Dalton and
Gaitskell. Eventually, however, he became a
Liberal Party member in the House of Lords.These activities and the complicated political
changes Keynes experienced are brilliantly
portrayed in this book.***
In my view that The General Theory sees the
market economy as possessing two contrast-
ing aspects:ïŒ1ïŒstability, certainty, and sim-
plicity; andïŒ2ïŒinstability, uncertainty, and
complexity. Keynesâs fundamental percep-
tion of the market economy can be summa-
rized as: The market society is stable in the
sense that it can remain in âunderemploy-
ment equilibrium,â but if it goes beyond a
certain limit, it becomes unstable.ã In the book reviewed aspectïŒ2ïŒ is
stressed, while aspectïŒ1ïŒis somewhat over-
lookedïŒThe author argues that aspectïŒ2ïŒcan be traced to The ProbabilityïŒ. The au-
thor is correct to some degree, and yet I
would add that The General Theory would
never have won such success had it been
lacking in aspect (1). In fact, Keynes brought
aspect (1) to the fore whenever he expressed
his view in the field of economic policy.
æžããè©ãã91
***
This volume might have more benefited to
Keynesâs colleagues, such as Robertson and
Hawtrey, for they were not classified by
Keynes as âclassical economists.â But this
might be a task for another volume. The
book is very readable, and is a valuable and
innovative contribution to understanding
Keynes as a human being endowed with ex-
traordinary and multifaceted talents.ïŒToshiaki Hirai: Sophia UniversityïŒ
If precious metal such as gold and silver is
the only ârealâ money, why is it that people
accept as currency paper credit, which is im-
aginary and without intrinsic value, and often
excessively issued. This was not just a famil-
iar question to people living through the in-
fancy of the credit system, but also a prob-
lem for historians working on it. According
to Jose R. Torre, Bostonians in Early Repub-
lic America made confidence, instead of spe-
cie, the foundation of the banking system of
Boston. Confidence was in fact the âcommod-
ityâ that bankers depended on. If specie
played some role in the institution of bank-
ing, it was simply as a âconfidence-maintain-
ing device.âïŒp. 2ïŒBut how could confidence
and trust, which were no more than subjec-
tive feelings, become the basis of a banking
system? The author tries to answer this ques-
tion in two ways: first, by placing the Bosto-
niansâ discussions on the foundation of credit
in context of the debate on the value of mon-
ey carried on a century earlier in Britain; and
second, by connecting the historical facts of
the prolific issuance, investment in, and use
of many kinds of bank notes, described in ch.4, with an analysis of the cultural mood of
Early Republic Boston, as manifested in reli-
gionïŒch. 5ïŒ, literature, journalismïŒch. 6ïŒ,and aestheticsïŒch. 7ïŒ.ã First, the author finds two kinds of mon-
etary theories at work in bank projects and in
current ideas of money and credit in Early
Republican Boston. Both theories had roots
in Britain: one was the Lockean metallist
theory based on Calvinist theology, and the
other was the âutility view of money,â such
as, for instance, the ideas of Nicholas Bar-
bon. The former leads to â[s]pecie-backed
paper-credit instrumentsâïŒp. 39ïŒ, and the lat-
ter to paper-credit circulating âon utility, trust
and confidence.âïŒp. 48ïŒAccording to the
author, most of the pamphleteers in Boston
took the second view of money: âFranklin
echoed Nicholas Barbonâs objections to the
very idea of intrinsic valueâ; and âBarton dis-
tanced himself further from the intrinsic the-
ory of money.âïŒpp. 44â45ïŒã The author identifies âa new subjectivityâand âan emphasis on feelingsâ in the writing
of the Scottish Moral Sense philosophers as
the source of the turn toward trust and confi-
dence as backing in banking and credit. The
major thesis put forth by Shaftesbury and his
followers in Scotland, among them Hutch-
eson, Hume, and Smith, was that the basis of
moral philosophy should be feelings and
sentiments rather than objective or external
substance. This âanthropocentric emotive
epistemologyâïŒp. 23ïŒstood against LockeâsCalvinist empiricism, according to which all
substances in this world are external, created
by Godâs design and âremained unknowable
to mankindâ and âbeyond the control of
Torre, Jose R.: The Political Economy of Sentiment: Paper Credit and the Scottish Enlightenment in Early Republic Boston, 1780â1820
London: Pickering & Chatto, 2007, xïŒ251 pp.
æžããè©ãã93
thought and feelingâ of human beings.ïŒpp.19; 15ïŒã Following theoretical analyses of credit
and moral philosophy, the author describes
the situation of credit in Early Republic Bos-
ton, fully exploiting primary sourcesïŒch. 4ïŒ.The historical facts Torre enlists can be sum-
marised in a simple phrase: âbank note issues
far exceeded the banksâ specie reserves.âïŒp.61ïŒThough âthe liabilities to specie reserves
ratioâïŒp. 61ïŒcontinued to rise to the point
where it exposed the whole system of credit,and the entire economy, to the serious risk of
collapse, paper credit institutions and their
issues of paper money, based on a tiny re-
serve of capitalïŒspecieïŒ, did not stop ex-
panding. In the following three chapters, the
author tries to show how such an imagina-
tion-based credit system turned out to work
well. He does this using the framework of
the subjective-objective dichotomy that
manifested itself in three ways, as mentioned
above. First, it comes up in the conflict over
moral value between âorthodox Calvinismâs .. . moral structure and heart-based Unitarian
humanism [that] replicated the conflict be-
tween empiricism and the imaginationâïŒp.91ïŒïŒch. 5ïŒ; second, in the cultural sphere of
novels, the theatre, poetry, and journalism,the conflict appears between âobjectively
knowable and received empiricist systems of
knowledgeâ and â[s]elf-fashioned subjective
identitiesâïŒp. 111ïŒïŒch. 6ïŒ; finally, in aes-
thetics, âempirical realityâ and âimaginationâconfronted each other. In each area, subjec-
tivity and imagination proved to be more
compelling than â[o]bjectively knowable
standardsâïŒp. 132ïŒ.ã The principal argument of this book is
simple and clear: in Early Republic Boston,
paper credit continued to expand as if there
were no limits, even though it involved the
risk of total collapse if something went
wrong, and it relied on confidence and trust,culturally sustained by the wide embrace of
ânew subjectivityâ and âimagination.â It is a
fascinating story and a stimulating interpre-
tation of the credit system in its early stage
in the United States, a subject that so far has
not received adequately probing examina-
tion. Some of the authorâs arguments, howev-
er, appear to merit further investigation.ã To begin with, inexplicably, the author
avoids mentioning the lengthy controversy
on credit in England during the same period
as that covered by his book. On one side,Charles Davenant believed that ânothing is
more fantastical and nice than Credit; it nev-
er to be forced; it hangs upon opinion; it de-
pends upon our passions of hope and fear.âïŒDavenant, C. 1771 [1698], The Political
and Commercial Works of that Celebrated
Writer Charles Dâavenant, London, vol. 1, p.151ïŒSir James Steuartâs definition of credit
is in perfect accord with Torreâs book: âcredit
is no more than confidence.âïŒSir J. Steuart,1805 [1767], The Works, Political, Metaphi-sical, and Chronological, of the late Sir
James Steuart, vol. 3, p. 138ïŒTorre seems to
have no interest in such discourse. Defini-
tions of credit as a matter of subjectivity re-
flect the reality of early modern England de-
scribed by C. Muldrew and J. Hoppit and
other recent economic historians who per-
ceive the uncertainty and fragility of the
credit system in England of this period and
acknowledge the importance of social factors
and ethical considerations in the survival of
the credit system. Torre, however, does not
touch on those discussions by economic his-
94ããçµæžåŠå²ç 究ã50å·» 2å·
torians.ã To consider credit, an essentially finan-
cial or monetary matter, in the context of the
Scottish moral philosophy and the Bostonian
cultural milieu is obviously intriguing. How-
ever, repeated emphasis on âa new subjectivi-
tyâ and âimaginationâ makes the story look
too simple. In spite of Torreâs thorough in-
vestigation and abundant primary sources,some readers must certainly wonder how the
author would deal with the same subjects
while taking account of recent studies on the
Scottish Enlightenment, particularly in the
area of natural jurisprudence, as did Hont
and Ignatieff,Winch, and Haakonsen, for ex-
ample.ã Thus, this book leaves the critical reader
with substantial reservations. However, the
authorâs thesis that in Early Republic Boston,or in the early modern period in general, the
paper-credit system was built on a subjective
base of confidence and trust offers a stimu-
lating and constructive view that previous
historical studies of banking and finance
have not directly explored. I can say with
âconfidenceâ that this book provides a rich
and useful source of ideas for historians of
those subjects.ïŒSeiichiro Ito: Ohtsuki City CollegeïŒ
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Harcourt, Geoffrey C.: The Structure of Post-Keynesian Economics:The Core Contributions of the Pioneers
Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press, 2006, xïŒ205 pp.
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Hume: Moral and Political Theorist, Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2007, p. viiiïŒïŒããŒãã£ã³ããã¥ãŒã ç 究å²ã«ãããŠäŒçµ±çãªææ³ãæ¡çšããŠïŒã人éæ¬æ§è«ãããé埳åçç 究ãã«äŸã£ãŠãã¥ãŒã ã®æ¿æ²»ææ³ãåæããã®ã«å¯ŸããŠïŒåã幎ã«å ¬åãããããã²ãšã€ã®ç 究æžã¯ïŒå¯Ÿç §çãªã¢ãããŒããæ¡ãïŒããã«ãšããããããŒã«ã»ããã«ãŒãµãŒã®ããã€ãŽã£ããã»ãã¥ãŒã ã®æ¿æ²»çè«ãã¯ïŒãé埳æ¿æ²»æèžè«éãããã€ã³ã°ã©ã³ãå²ãã«æ³šç®ããŠïŒæ¿æ²»å¶åºŠããããææ³ãéèŠããç 究ã§ããïŒãèè ã®ããã«ãŒãµãŒã¯ïŒ1972幎çãŸãã®ïŒã«ããã»ãããã倧åŠã®åææïŒæ¬æžã®è¬èŸã«ã¯ïŒåäžä»£ã®ãã¥ãŒã ç 究è ã§ãã森çŽäººæ°ã壜éç«æ°ã®ååã䞊ãã§ããïŒããããïŒãªããæ¿æ²»çè«ããªã®ãïŒãçµæžåŠå²ç 究ãã®èªè ãæ±ãã§ãããããããçåã«å¯ŸããŠïŒããã«ãŒãµãŒã¯ïŒãã¥ãŒã ã®ç€ŸäŒèªèã»ç€ŸäŒç§åŠã®ç·äœãããã解éããã£ãŠå¿ããïŒè§£éã®æ çµã¿ã¯æå¿«ã§ããïŒææ瀟äŒã®ç€Œè³è ãã¥ãŒã ãææ瀟äŒã®åºç€ãšã¿ãªããã®ã¯æ¿æ²»å¶åºŠã§ããïŒããã¯å ·äœçã«ã¯ãæ³ã®æ¯é ãã«ã»ããªããªãïŒãšããã®ã§ããïŒæ¬æžã¯ïŒæ°ããªå²æãææ³ç³»èãçºæããã®ã§ã¯ãªãïŒçè«çåæ§æãæå³ããç 究ã§ããïŒããã«ãŒãµãŒ
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McArthur, Neil: David Humeâs Political Theory: Law, Commerce, and the Constitution of Government
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007, xiiïŒ193 pp.
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Pasinetti, Luigi L.: Keynes and the Cambridge Keynesians: A âRevolution in Economicsâ to Be Accomplished
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007, xxiiiïŒ384 pp.
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Wennerlind, Carl and Margaret Schabas, eds.:David Humeâs Political Economy
London: Routledge, 2008, xiiiïŒ378 pp.
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