Don’t Get Fooled Again!

Common Fallacies in Argument to Look for and Avoid

Mr. Richard “The Grammar Hammer” Martin

Everyday, ARGUMENTS! Everyday, we’re bombarded with arguments trying to

convince us of something…---from parents ---from friends---from teachers ---from the internet---from television ---from radio

We’re told to…---do our homework ---watch this

movie---buy this product ---clean our

rooms---drink this type of soda ---go out for this

activity

Is every argument we hear a good one? …. NO! Some arguments are based on fallacies!

What is a FALLACY?A fallacy is an argument that seems to

use good reasoning, but does not. Fallacies are deceptive and can lead us to believe something that is not true.

Can you spot the fault in reasoning in the following examples?1. “How can you tell me to stop cussing

when you do it yourself?”2. “I think scientists are wrong about global

warming. Last summer was pretty cool here.”

3. “Fords are bad cars. I owned one and it was always in the shop.”

Ad Hominem FallacyWhen an argument is said not to be true because of an unfair claim against the speaker. It usually involves an attack on the speaker’s character. Ad hominem is Latin for “to the man.”Examples:

1. “Thad says that Coach Jones is a great coach, but of course he’s going to say that. Coach Jones’s always puts Thad in the starting line-up.”

--Why does the speaker discount Thad’s opinion?--Might Coach Jones’ be a good coach?--What might you assume about the speaker, from his words? 2. “Mr. Candidate is lying when he says he will serve the

interests of the people if elected to office. He’s only concerned with helping the big corporations that donate money to his campaign.”

--Why does the speaker discount Mr. Candidate?--Is it possible that Mr. Candidate might still serve the interests of

the people?--Is Mr. Candidate the only one campaigning for public office that

gets funding from big corporations?

3. “Don’t believe Jimmy! He’s a moron. He still believes in Santa.”

--Does believing in Santa mean that you can’t trust Jimmy?

When a Questioning of Character Is Good.

Should we always give someone the benefit of the doubt?When should you not trust someone because of their motives or past?Is it a good practice to “consider the source” of what you hear?Is the following a good quote to live by? “Fool me once, shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me.”Consider the following situations…1. Susie Student never seems to get along with

anyone. Should I believe her when she says, “Tommy is a mean jerk”?

2. Sammy Student has been caught cheating before. Should

I give him the benefit of the doubt when his answers on an assignment are suspiciously similar to his best friend’s? Sammysaid he “did it at home on his own.”

Other Personal Attack Fallacies

Tu Quoque—Latin for “You too.” When you dismiss someone’s viewpoint because they seem hypocritical.Example:

Older brother: “I wouldn’t smoke cigarettes if I were you. Once you start, you won’t be able to quit. You could end up with lung cancer.”Younger brother: “Don’t tell me not to smoke! You do it too!”

--Just because the older brother smokes, does that make his argument wrong?

Genetic Fallacy—Condemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it. Example: Republican: “Democrats want to raise the minimum wage. Dumb Democrats. Their ideas are always terrible.” Democrat: “Republicans want to take away a woman’s right to an abortion. Dumb Republicans. Their ideas are always terrible.”

An appeal to pity occurs when someone tries to convince you to help them by getting you to feel sorry for them. An appeal to pity can be good or fallacious.

Pity can be a good thing. It’s not necessarily wrong to sympathize with some one and want to offer them help.

Do the following two people deserve pity?1. Mr. Johnson, I know I bombed the test Monday, but can you keep me eligible in your class? My team is playing in the state finals, and if I’m on the court, I know we’ll win.2. I know my record shows I got fired from my last two jobs. But I’m more responsible now. I screwed up and I’ve learned from my mistakes. I just need one more chance. Please hire me and give me that chance.

Which appeal to pity is more likely to convince you and why?

Appeal to Pity Fallacy

Appeal to Pity Continued…Below are two more appeals to pity. Which one seems fallacious?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j_aRUUdEFRY&feature=related

Example #1

Example #2http://potifos.com/fraud/2004-04-19.html

What are two things that made Example #1’s appeal to pity strong?What are two things that made Example #2’s appeal to pity weak?

Appeal to Pity--ContinuedWhen the US government deliberated going to war with

Iraq in 1990 to liberate Kuwait, a fifteen-year-old girl identified only as Nayirah (sobbing), testified before the Congressional Human Rights Caucus that she had seen Iraqi soldiers take babies out of incubators.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fv28_q98Xe8&NR=1

The resolution to go to war passed in the US Senate by only five votes.seven senators mentioned the incubator atrocity in the debate on whether to go to war. Later it was found out that Nayirah was a member of Kuwait’s royal family. Also, the story was made up and promoted by an American public relations firm with ties to Kuwait.

This false appeal to pity may have helped lead to a war.--taken from A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy by

Douglas Walton

Appeal to Fear An appeal to fear occurs when the speaker states that if you don’t take action, something bad will result. Like most appeals, it can be used strong or fallaciously. See if you can explain the appeals to fear in these next two examples. How might they be strong? How might they be fallacious?

1. Advertisement for a new car with improved brakes: Scene of a mother driving the new car with young daughter sleeping in the passenger seat. Suddenly, a deer jumps in front of the car. The screen freezes. “Does you car have all-wheel-drive?”

2. Advertisement: A picture of a dingy bathroom. “Is this

what yourbathroom looks like?” A microscopic close-up of the bathtub follows, showing little bugs crawling around. “Here is what is going on where you can’t see. Use Evergreen for a fresher-looking bathroom.”

---both taken from The Fallacy Detective by Nathaniel & Hans Bluedorn

Appeal to FearWatch these the two following commercials. Do either of them contain an appeal to fear? Are there any faults with the argumentsof either advertisement?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2y8YVqECqeE

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQlpDiXPZHQ

Can you think of any other commercials that contain an appeal to fear?

Appeal to FearThreats are also a type of appeal to fear. A threat is not a respectable form of persuasion, but it can be effective…Lucy: Why don't you be a good little brother and go make me a jelly bread sandwich? If you don't I'm going to leap on you and pound you right through the floor! So why don't you make me that jelly-bread sandwich, huh? Please, dear brother? Linus: (heading off for the kitchen) When someone asks you that nicely, how can you refuse? “The Nazis used to send the following notice to German readers who let their subscriptions lapse: ‘Our paper certainly deserves the support of every German. We shall continue to forward copies of it to you, and hope that you will not want to expose yourself to unfortunate consequences in the case of cancellation.’”---Parade Magazine, May 9, 1971

Sometimes a threat is merely hinted at…

Appeal to FairnessAn appeal to fairness occurs when the speaker claims that someone is not being treated fairly—one group gets something, so why not the other group? Again, this appeal can be used well and be rational or be used poorly and be fallacious. Examples…

“How come Billy got to have a slumber party for his birthday, and I didn’t, Mom? It’s not fair!”

“All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws….”—the 14th Amendment

Appeal to Fairness Are the following two examples good or bad appeals to fairness? In tryingto treat one group fairly, is another group being treated unfairly?

Everyone has a right to his or her own property. Mr. Jones was

institutionalized for his murderous fantasies due to his mental illness.but he’s been released now, and he’s asking you to give his rifle andshotgun collection back. Therefore, you must give him the weapons.

--taken from A Pragmatic Theory of Fallacy by Douglas Walton

Statistics tell us that white males enjoy more power and wealth than women and minorities. This is not fair and will only continue unless there is a law that forces businesses and universities to hire more women and minorities. So, we need to support affirmative action.

The Faulty Analogy FallacyAn analogy is a comparison between two different items. We notice these items are the same in one or more ways and assume that they will be the same in other ways too.

Here are a few examples of analogies. What are the two items beingcompared in each? How strong is the reasoning in each?1. “The last time I went with you to watch a

basketball game, you got thrown out. And now you want me to go to a baseball gamewith you?”

2. “I had a friend also named Jesse once, and he had red hair like you, too. He stole some money from me. You know what, stay away from me.”

3. “I need to hire someone responsible to baby sit my kids. I hired Sarah to water my plants while I was on vacation. My plants died.I think I’ll ask someone other than Sarah to babysit.”

The Faulty Analogy Fallacy

Moe: Hey, Calvin, you’re on my swing. Get lost.Calvin: I’m not scared of you, Moe.Moe: Oh no?Calvin: Nope. You’re so dumb you probably never thought about how a sparrow’s smaller size and greatermaneuverability is an advantage in fighting off crows.Moe: Yeah? (Moe then punches Calvin off the swing)Calvin: (On the ground, seeing stars) Those TV natureshows will be the death of me.

An analogy is faulty when the differences between the two items are far greater than the similarities.

Watch the following ad from the 2008 Presidential Campaign. What is the faulty analogy being made?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phBBnxXJdoM

The Slippery Slope Fallacy In a slippery slope fallacy, the speaker falsely assumes that one action will lead to a whole series of actions. How are the following two examples slippery slopes? Do they show good logic?1. Mother to her son: “If you’re bad enough to cheat, then you’re bad enough to steal. And if you’re bad enough to steal, then you’re bad enough to attack someone. And if you’re bad enough to attack someone, then you’re bad enough to be a murderer. Do you want to be a murder? Then don’t cheat.”2. Teacher to a student:

“I can’t allow you to turn this assignment in late for credit, because then I’ll have to allow every student to start turning assignments in late. Then students will just become irresponsible, and never bother meeting deadlines. Then they’ll get fired from their jobs when theyget older. So I’m giving you a zero because I don’t want you to get fired later in life.”

The Slippery Slope Fallacy In the 1960’s, a widely-held slippery slope argument played a role in leading the US to fight in Vietnam. The argument was this:

“If the US allows communist China and Russia to support communistforces in Vietnam, then Vietnam will become communist. Soon other countries in Southeast Asia will fall prey to communism. Eventually, communism will spread to other areas of the globe. It will be a domino effect. So, the US needs to take a stand now and support the anti-communist forces in Vietnam. Otherwise, there may be no end to the spread of communism.” Nearly 60,000 American died in the Vietnam War, and Vietnam fell to communism anyway. However, communism did not spread around the globe.

The Straw Man Fallacy The fallacy of straw man occurs when the speaker tries to change or exaggerate an opponent’s position to make it easier to refute.Examples--1. Dad: “That’s it. I’m taking away your phone. You spend 24-7 on that thing, you’re racking up a huge phone bill, and you don’t spend anytime studying.” Daughter: “Oh, so you want to cut me off from the world, never talk to anyone, and have no friends?”

2. Candidate A: “Due to this year’s budget problems, I think our state should decrease the amount of money going to prisons. This would solve our current problem, and then next year we can bring the amount of prison funding back to normal.”Candidate B: “My fellow citizens, is this what you want in a candidate? Someone who withholds money from prisons, allowingcriminals to go wild?”

The Straw Man FallacyAs the following video shows, the straw man fallacy was used to great effect in the recent debate over President Obama’s health care plan.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=587R3j7Jjmw&feature=related

Opponents of the President’s plan exaggerated a provision for “end-of-life counseling” (talking to a heath care professional about your final wishes) into “death panels” (which implies a panel of people deciding if it’s worth keeping you alive).

The Hasty Generalization Fallacy A generalization takes a sample of a class of things, and then based on that sample, concludes that one thing is true about the entire class.

--Class—a particular group of things or people--Sample—a number of things or people from

a class A generalization with a large sample is usually considered strong. “I surveyed 2,500 dentists from all over the nation, and over 80% of them said Colgate makes the best toothpaste on the market. When it comes to toothpaste, dentists prefer Colgate.”

A generalization with a small sample is usually considered “hasty.”“I asked my dentist what toothpaste he recommended. She likesAqua Fresh. Since all dentists are recommending Aqua Fresh, it must be the best.”

The Hasty Generalization Fallacy How do you tell if a generalization is hasty? Ask two questions:

--Is the sample large enough for the argument?--Does the sample include a variety of people or things from the class?

What went wrong with the following generalizations? I interviewed 10,000 residents of nursing homes, and I’ve

discovered that America’s favorite TV program is Wheel of Fortune.

My kid brother loves the Pokemon cartoon. It’s the most popular cartoon among kids.

The Hasty Generalization Fallacy Poor generalizations are a cousin to racism and racial profiling . A generalization assumes that all members of a group are a certain way. Racism assumes that all members of a race are a certain way.

Recently, Arizona passed a law that states police can stop anyone they suspect of being an illegal immigrant and ask for proof of citizenship. The law is in response to Arizona’s problem with illegal Mexican immigrants. Opponents of the law say it will lead to racial profiling. Racial profiling occurs when members of one particular race are targeted as being suspicious. Understandably, US citizens of Mexican heritage fear police may generalize that because they’re Hispanic, they need their papers checked. Watch the news story below.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLafP8Qrp7I

The Hasty Generalization Fallacy

Mean-spirited generalizations about different races and cultures are nothing new. It’s important to remember how harmful and dangerous they can be. The Nazis of WWII-era Germany generalized that Jews were money-hording, big-nosed, controllers of business who needed to be stopped. What happened as a result of that generalization?

Appeal to Authority An appeal to authority occurs when a speaker refers to the opinion of an authority on the topic they’re discussing.An “authority” is someone who has special knowledge on a specific topic. An appeal to authority is a good arguing technique if, indeed, the “authority” does have special knowledge of the topic. An appeal to authority is a fallacy, however, if the “authority” doesn’t have special knowledge of the subject. A fallacious appeal to authority basically calls someone an expert who is not.

Are the following examples fallacious or rational appeals to authority?

1. I talked to a couple of friends who work with computers and they said the new IPad is amazing. I think I’ll buy one.

2. Well, my mom’s a dental assistant, and she says that the mole on my back looks nothing like skin cancer. I’ll forget about going to get it removed.

3. My best friend wasn’t at the fight, but she says she heard Jimmy threw a basketball at Timmy, and then Timmy body slammed Jimmy.

Appeal to Authority A common fallacious appeal to authority is the celebrity endorsement. Just because someone is famous, doesn’t mean they’re an authority on everything. In the following commercials, can the celebrity be considered an authority about the quality of the product he’s pitching?1. Michael Jordan—Cars http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JtIMyxKXhc

2. Michael Jordan—Hair products

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGNi5ULTghw&feature=related

3. Michael Jordan –Basketball shoes

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Obj5eoSpu8&feature=related

Who might be a better authority on the first two topics Jordan endorses?

A Post Hoc Fallacy falsely assumes that because event “A” happened before event “B,” event “A” must have caused event “B.”

Which of the following present a post hoc fallacy?1. I never turned in my homework, so now I have

an “F” in class.

2. I forgot to wear my lucky socks, so we lost the game.

3. A study shows that Harvard graduates make five times as much money as non-college grads. If you go to Harvard, you’ll make a lot of money.

4. Test scores of student who listen to classical music are significantly higher than test scores of those that listen to country music. Listen to classical music and you’ll be smarter

Post Hoc Fallacy

Post Hoc FallacyTo help identify if an argument is post hoc error, break the argument down this way: 1. What is the “event A”?

2. What is the “event B”? 3. Is it likely that something other than “event A” caused “event B”?

Ask the above questions about the following arguments.1. Studies actually show that when paper clip sales go up, the crime rate

tends to go down. So to decrease the crime rate, we’ve got to start selling more paper clips.

2. Studies show that students who study more generally get better grades.Students who study at least 4 hours a week earn an average grade of 93%. Students who study only 1 hour a week earn an average of 79%.Studying leads to better grades.

An Ad Populum fallacy occurs when someone argues that because everybody else thinks something, it must be true. Ad Populum is Latin for “to the people.”

Examples:---I think Mr. Hawkins is a great math teacher. But

because all the other kids make fun of him, he must not be that good.

---I see a lot of kids drinking KICKBUTT Energy Drink every morning, so it must really help you get going.

---I think that new Black-Eyed Pea’s song “Imabee” is totally dumb, but everybody’s always singing it in the hallways. I guess it’s kind of good.

If 99% of the people in school thought 2+2=5, the answer would still be 4.

Ad Populum Fallacy

Ad Populum FallacyWatch the following cartoon. What is the Ad Populum Arthur falls prey to? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZrPPZ0DE8pk&feature=related

Sometimes, in cases where majority rules, an appeal to popularity is a good arguing technique. In which example below is an appeal to popularity relevant?1. “The student council voted 12-4 in favor of a ‘Disco Night’ dance. It

doesn’t matter that you still would rather have a ‘Barnyard Dance.’”2. “Most kids don’t like eating their vegetables. So, we shouldn’t have to eat them, Mom.”

Exigency Exigency occurs when nothing more than a time limit is given as a reason for us to buy or do something.

-- definition taken from The Fallacy Detective by Nathaniel & Hans Bluedorn

Exigency is not totally a fallacy; it just states a fact. However, advertisers use it to try to influence you to stop thinking and just do it.

Common exigency phrases include:-- “While supplies last.”-- “This deal won’t last long.”-- “Hurry! Sale ends tonight!”-- “Time is running out.”

See if you can pick out the exigency in the following ad? Do you think it’s even true?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwRISkyV_B8&feature=related

Appeal to Tradition Fallacy An appeal to tradition fallacy occurs when the speaker encourages us to buy into something because it is associated with tradition.

Any time you see phrases like “Since 1882” or “Established 1961” beneath a logo, that’s a slight appeal to tradition. It’s suggesting that because that company has been around for a long-time, they must be a reliable company and sell good products. How does the following Geico commercial use an appeal to tradition. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7OIEFo2axGE&feature=related

An appeal to tradition works on people who like the old style of something, not the new. It also works on those who view themselves as “to hip to follow the latest trend.” It can be a fallacy because age may have little to do with quality.

Appeal of the Hi-Tech Fallacy The opposite of the appeal to tradition, this appeal suggest that just because something is newer, it must be better.

Phrases associated with this appeal include “new and improved,” “latest breakthrough,” and “latest advance.”

May use scientific jargon or hi-tech language to show it’s technologically advanced.

How does the following skin care product advertisement use hi-tech appeal? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Hbky_bvtow

The Fallacy Song(to the tune of the Who’s “Won’t Get Fooled Again”)

Well, don’t try to fool meWith your attempt at exigencyI won’t buy it just because your sale ends tonightTry tearing down her or himWith your cruel ad homenimWe’ll they’re still correct, so don’t you take’em lightIf your gonna make a hasty generalizationI’m not gonna change my dial to your stationI’m immune to your appeal to pityI’ll just pick up my guitar and strumAnd ignore your ad populumAnd I think that your post hoc’s dumbWe won’t get fooled again!Won’t get fooled again!No, no!YAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH!No more fallacyOr idiocracy