DoñanaWater and Biosphere

Francisco García NovoCipriano Marín Cabrera

with the assistance of:Eva Mª Alonso Vizcaíno

contributions from:Regla Alonso Miura - Elena Angulo Aguado - Salvatore Arico - Sarat Babu Gidda

Benigno Bayán Jardín - Juan Bautista Gallego - Ernest Bladé Castellet - Francisco Borja BarreraMiguel Ángel Bravo - Juan Calderón Rubiales - Jesus Casas Grande

Eloy M. Castellanos- David Coates - José Juan Chans Pousada - Josefina Cruz VillalónEmilio Custodio Gimena - Miguel Delibes de Castro - Maguelon Déjeant-Pons

Ricardo Díaz-Delgado - Mari Cruz Díaz Antunes Barradas - Carmen Díaz PaniaguaMari Paz Esquivias Segura- María Ángeles Fernández - Carlos Fernández Delgado- Andy J. Green

Juan Fernández Haeger - Josep Dolz Ripollés - Rodrigo Gámez Lobo - Pablo García MurilloJosep A. Gili Ripoll - José González Delgado - Mauricio González Gordon - Fernando Hiraldo Cano

Mireille Jardin - Pierre Lasserre - Marisol Manzano Arellano - Juan Ángel Mintegui AguirreCarlos Montes del Olmo - Kalemani Jo Mulongoy - Juan F. Ojeda Rivera

Félix Manuel Pérez Miyares - Joaquín Rodríguez Vidal - Alberto Ruíz de LarramendiLaura Serrano Martín - Ramón C. Soriguer Escofet- Luis E. Santamaría Galdon

Julia Toja Santillana - Carlos Urdiales Alonso - María Zunzunegui González Published contributions by Ramón Margalef and José Antonio Valverde

Revised by:Giuseppe Orlando

DoñanaWater and Biosphere

The Editors would like to thank:Félix Manuel Pérez Miyares, Benigno Bayán Jardín, and Fernando Hiraldo for having been the true supporters and driving force of this editorialproject.José María Pérez de Ayala for generously contributing with his magnificient photographs.The Doñana Biological Station and the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the University of Seville for their support, scientific contri-bution, and supply of information.Mauricio González-Gordon, for opening the door to choice information on the events that lead to the creation of the Doñana National Park.CENEAM and the Spanish Autonomous Park Authority for their graphical and informative support.Mireille Jardin, Salvatore Arico, Jane Robertson and the Secretariat of the UNESCO MaB Programme, as well as Pierre Lasserre for their keyguidance that was determining for carrying out this work.Dionysis Assimacopoulos for his advice on the new water paradigms.José María Romero for his support and for contributing with contents and technical data on the Doñana 2005 project.Jesús Casas Grande for his advice and orientation on the conception and strategy of the Doñana 2005 project.Carlos Urdiales for his comments, for contributing with his great experience on Doñana, and for his suggestions on the contents.Andrew J. Green, Miguel Delibes de Castro, José Dolz Ripollés, Carlos Fernández Delgado, Juan Mintegui Aguirre, José González Delgado,Fernando Díaz del Olmo, Javier Cobos Aguirre, Carlos Montes del Olmo, Francisco Borja Barrera, Marisol Manzano Arellano, Jose MªFernández Palacios, Francisco Quirós Herruzo, José Juan Chan, Alberto Ruíz de Larramendi, and José Mª Arenas Cabello, for their guidance asmembers or participants of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee and, in particular, the Coordinator of the Committee, Hermelindo CastroNogueira.But our acknowledgements are also addressed to all those anonymous authors that are protagonists of this unique place, to the hundreds ofresearchers and defenders of nature who have studied, worked, and fought for Doñana to succeed in the conservation of this gem of nature, anactual legacy for future generations.

Published by:Doñana 2005 Project - Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir (Guadalquivir Hydrologic Basin Authority),Spanish Ministry of the Environment. Madrid, 2006.

This English edition is a translation of the former Spanish edition published in 2005, updated with new data and the addition of 2 new chapters.

With the support of:UNESCO - MaB (Man and Biosphere Programme), Junta de Andalucía (Consejería de Medio Ambiente)

Edited by:Cipriano Marín Cabrera - Francisco García Novo

Design and Layout:Francisco Martín García

Photography:José María Pérez de Ayala, Antonio Sabater.Doñana Biological Station, CENEAM ,and Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.Paisajes Españoles S.A., AYESA, Miguel G. Muñoz Sariot, Eva Mª Alonso Vizcaíno, Nassima Aghanim, Luciana Bartolini, Andrés Ceballos,Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Oscar Contreras Navarro, J.L. González Grande, Carlos Fernández Delgado, Tom Fritts, Bárbara García Moreda,Cipriano Marín, Juan A. Mintegui Aguirre, A. Portheault, Gordon Rodd, Tobias Salathé, Yolanda Vento, W. de Vries, Aurora Suárez, Ziesle,Alberto Luengo Barreto, Adam Petrusek, Adam Petrusek, Carlos Urdiales..Authors of the photographs kindly provided by CENEAM - Spanish Autonomous Park Authority:Carlos Sanz, Antonio Camoyán, J.M. Pérez de Ayala, J.M. Reyero, Vicente García Canseco, Fernando Cámara Orgaz, Jesús Huertas Muñóz,Jorge Remacha, J.L. Perea, Antonio Moreno Rodríguez, Carlos Sánchez, J.C. Dueñas, FON-3, Miguel Angel de la Cruz Alemán.

Illustrations, water colours and pictures:Regla Alonso Miura, Rosalía Martín Franquelo, Luis Mir Payá., Francisco Martín García.

Revision of texts:Patricia Marín Garavito, Giuseppe Orlando, Carlos Urdiales.Juan Bautista Gallego, Mari Cruz Díaz, Carlos García Gómez, Luis Gortázar Díaz-Llanos, Angel Martín, J. Carlos Muñoz, José Marrero y Castro, Laura Serrano, María Zunzunegui.

Revision of the English translation (Introductions to chapters):Tony Corballis.

Translation of texts:GABINETE ERASMUS - Consuelo Giansante.

Maps and graphics:GAIA. S.L.

Photomecanics:TENYDEA S.L.

Printed by:MATEU CROMO ARTES GRÁFICAS S.A. - Madrid / D.L. M-10992-2006ISBN 84-609-6326-8

7

Water and the Biosphere

Man is the first technological species, the first product of

evolution, capable of re-thinking the meaning of his existence,

of converting his dreams into ideas, and his ideas into techno-

logical devices.Along this road, he has found improvements and

facilities, but there has also been sadness. He has produced

gems of thought and action, but he has also brought about

much poverty, his share of disasters and an appreciable amount

of hardship and desolation.With the passing of the centuries,

we have become a global species capable of making significant

changes on a general scale.We can transform more than just

the immediate horizon on which we believe our actions have

an impact. Our species walks the earth, bearing an obsession

to grow, reproduce, transform and change everything around

us into a recreated space, into a de-naturalised territory at our

service and tailor made exclusively to meet only our needs.We

have become a race of planet manipulators, manipulators of

our planet, and we even aspire to being able to manipulate

other planets.

Perhaps for the first time in the course of this long journey,

we are realising just how alone we are in an empty cosmos.We

are like stowaways on a small planet that is no longer unknown

territory to explore and settle; it has become our salvation, the

fragile life raft of the castaway in which we sail through the uni-

verse. This planet, our only home, is finite. There is no other

earth. It would be a good idea to consider how we can all con-

tinue to live here in dignity. That is an important project, to

forge a bond of commitments with men and with the land.

Opting for solidarity and common sense. Opting for a more

sustainable development; i.e. opting for a fairer, more intelligent

and more responsible development.

A growing number of our ranks want to change our world,

so that the world does not change.We want to ignite a revo-

lution to curb our current rush to the very edge of what is

possible. We want to rationalise our habits and our tireless

consumption.We want to put an end to the leading environ-

mental problem that is poverty, ignorance and fanaticism. In

short, we want this to remain a friendly and habitable planet.

And we have to start doing this now, and we have to do it

properly. That is why it is important for us to be able to put

examples, real situations, on the table. Examples that show that

CRISTINA NARBONA

Minister of the Environment

8

rationality is not incompatible with improving our quality of

life; on the contrary, this is the best argument for fair, balanced

and equitable development.

Our world, our very existence, hangs by a thin thread of

water. Everything that happens, everything wonderful in life,

happens in the water. Life exists thanks to water.Water is the

life blood of the planet. Water that remains ever changeless,

flowing from the sky to earth, and from the earth back to the

sky in an unbroken cycle to feed dreams, forge landscapes and

sculpt architectures with names of life forms. Learning to move

to the rhythm of water is to understand something more than

the mere existence of each of us.Accepting this continual and

infinite flow is the best guarantee that tomorrow other water,

but the same water in the end, will continue to flow. Our lives

are not rivers that run down to the sea to die; our lives are

moments of dreams that the water amalgamates with the shad-

ows of still waters.

The history of Doñana is a good example of waters that

merge and separate, of improbable wishes, unacceptable cir-

cumstances and unforeseeable realities. It is a good story of

water and life. A good example. What for centuries was a

wilderness underwent many changes and opposing attitudes

last century. A wilderness, inhabited by fears and impossible

expectations, became a playing field on which the great argu-

ments that moved, and move, our society clash.This was a land

that has demonstrated that not everything has a price, and that

the price should not always be paid, even if we can afford it.The

result of decades of conflict between alleged promoters of

development and conservationist "romantics" in a space in

which the conservation of the biodiversity, enhancing the value

of endogenous resources and a rational use of its potential has

become the overarching argument for ensuring the quality of

life of our people.Today, the district of Doñana speaks the lan-

guage of sustainable development, its people are prepared to

accept the challenge of moving forward in that direction.

In this kaleidoscope of situations, in this succession of alter-

natives, the watercourses were blocked up, to the detriment of

the marshes and many horizons became routine and uniform.

In this succession of events, some took decisions that are now

considered as vital and visionary, but there were unacceptable

accidents too and reproachable or, at the very least, inappro-

priate, behaviour.The marks are still there, and our mission for

the future should be to patiently and lovingly suture the

wounds of both the land and its people. Restore the bonds

between man and his environment; allow the watercourses to

flow once more and the horizons to recover their variation

and their leading role.We must learn to leave the mark of the

memories of our elders in the gaze of our children.We must

recover the lost landscapes before the last of those who

remember them disappear for ever.

To attain this, the work of reconstruction and restoration

will have to continue.This is a process that will have a dimin-

ishing content of technological argument and an increasing

content of social sensitivity. Restoring nature and recovering

territories for the environment is far more than just a well pre-

sented technique. It is a process that represents a new way of

galvanising public action. It is as important as the watercours-

es that are restored, as the hectares of marshes that are recov-

ered; it is the measured protocol that provides the context for

action and that gradually accumulates friends, forges alliances,

creates complicity and, with all the simplicity of words, adds

vectors and efforts in our need to start thinking and acting dif-

ferently.

By restoring Doñana, by recovering its waters, returning

what should never have ceased to be wetlands to the domain

of the swamps, we are doing far more than just recovering a

wetland, however valuable this may be. What we are really

doing is to draw a symbolic sign pointing to a future in which

water works blend in with and are hidden in the vital womb of

the land, acting as a dressing wherever they are needed, rather

than an argument or a rationale.We are opening up the hearts

of the people, of the good people, showing them that this can

be done, must be done and, moreover, that this is the only eth-

ical way of doing it.

9

UNESCOUnited Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization

Water-dependent ecosystems and associated services are

crucial to the well being of humans, other species and ecosys-

tems. Indeed, these important ecosystems play a key role in

maintaining global ecological, economic, social and cultural bal-

ances. Examples of this type of ecosystems are, inter alia, wet-

lands, peatlands, brackish ecosystems such as coastal lagoons,

marshes, streams and rivers.

Water is the basis for the sound development of ecological

interactions among the components of these ecosystems, for

their organization, and their full functioning. In turn water pro-

vision as a service would not be possible without the ecologi-

cal processes that take place within these ecosystems.This was

the conceptual basis that led the Organization to establish

"water and associated ecosystems" as its principal programme

priority for the natural sciences for the period of its Medium-

Term Strategy 2002-2007.

UNESCO is keenly interested in the role of science in pol-

icy-making. The work of UNESCO in coordinating research,

monitoring and scientific assessment programmes is comple-

mented by its work in the areas of human rights and social

transformation, information and communication technologies

and the further development of a knowledge society, preserva-

tion of cultural heritage and promotion of cultural diversity,

and education, training and public awareness.The overarching

goal of UNESCO is to promote peace through cooperation on

matters that relate to education, science and culture.

I am therefore pleased and honoured to introduce readers

to this new and truly innovative book on "Doñana:Water and

Biosphere". This emblematic publication symbolizes in a nut-

shell how humans strive to reach equilibrium with nature - an

attempt which in many cases, as in the case of Doñana, can

indeed be reached.The book is therefore an example of how,

although this sometimes entails making hard choices, humans

can turn ecosystems to their advantage in a manner entirely

compatible with the principles of sustainable development,

including taking into due account social responsibility, respect

for cultural identities and the awareness of the importance of

conserving biological diversity and its sustainable use.

This book also bears witness to the longstanding collabo-

ration between UNESCO and the Spanish Authorities, includ-

ing the Ambassador of Spain to UNESCO, the Spanish National

PROLOGUE

KOÏCHIRO MATSUURAUNESCO Director General

10

Commission for UNESCO, the Spanish National Committee

for UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme, and the

Doñana 2005 Project.

I do hope that, after reading this important book, we can all

be inspired in our views and practices on how water and the

biosphere interact.

11

Ramsar ConventionSecretariat(Ramsar, Iran, 1971)

Designated on 04/05/82 and covering 50,720 ha, Parque

Nacional de Doñana Ramsar site is one of the most important

Ramsar sites in the western Mediterranean, and Spain's first

Ramsar site. Although it has been affected by a number of

human activities that have reduced its integrity, Parque

Nacional de Doñana Ramsar site is a resilient system with

many parts retaining natural appearances and functions.

The special features of the site are:

its high diversity of habitats: as well as wetlands of many

types, coastal dunes, Mediterranean scrub, pine, juniper, and

cork oak/olive woodlands;

its high ornithological values with habitat for five endan-

gered breeding species, one of the largest heronries in the

Mediterranean supporting over half a million wintering

waterfowl, and as a critical link in the migration route for

palearctic waders, and

its status as one of the remaining sites for the Iberian lynx,

Lynx pardinus.

Yet despite all these attributes, it was also placed on the

Montreux Record on 04/07/90, due to possible effects from

changing hydrological regimes. In 1998 there was also the spill

from the Boliden Apirsa pyrite mine, some 60 km upstream,

where some 6 million m3 of toxic sludge and acid waters were

released along the Guadiamar river bed, downstream to the

very edge of the National Park, and into the core zone of the

wetland area.

This ecological disaster proved a tipping point in provoking

government action. Finally, after many efforts and committees

established over the years, the long awaited and clearly focused

programme of priority actions for Doñana were initiated. With

respect to the accident, the Andalusian authorities worked tire-

lessly to remove the large amounts of toxic sludge and restore

the Guadiamar river basin.

A strategy "Corredor verde del Guadiamar", aimed at

restoring the natural riverbed and its riverine forests, was

started in 1999 and has progressed substantially since. The

Spanish government has an ambitious restoration strategy,

"Doñana 2005", to restore the damaged ecosystems and to

solve the remaining management problems. This is an innova-

tive and welcome approach to a clearly difficult problem. But

PETER BRIDGEWATER

Secretary Generall

12

an approach which is needed if the Ramsar keystone concept

of wise use is ever to prevail.

Two concurrent programmes aim to restore the main

water inflows to the Guadalquivir Marsh in terms of quantity

and quality, to re-establish the necessary water exchanges

between the freshwater marshes and the Guadalquivir estuary,

to create more than 4000 ha of natural landscapes on former-

ly drained and cultivated areas, and to establish a programme

of monitoring of ecological health and for the prevention of

further accidents.

Progress with this substantial programme of actions and

investments is already well underway, as noted by the Ramsar

Advisory Mission during its first field visit, in 2002. The rele-

vant authorities are to be congratulated on instigating this

complex programme, which will undoubtedly result in a more

effective conservation and management strategy for this wet-

land dominated landscape.

In conclusion, this book will play an important role in bring-

ing together the existing information, and showing where we

need further work and information. Eventually, we hope to see

Doñana as a leading example of a Montreaux listed site which

has been rehabilitated and restored to ecological viability,

allowing genuine sustainable development to occur.

13

Convention onBiological Diversity

It is a great pleasure for me to present this brief prologue

to this auspicious publication. Water is central to life and

nowhere is this more apparent than in wetlands. Wetland

ecosystems are physically, chemically, biologically and socio-cul-

turally complex and support an incredible variety of biodiver-

sity as well as provide immeasurable goods and services to

human populations. Yet despite their value they remain

amongst the world's most threatened ecosystems.Water is a

valuable and sought after resource, in increasingly short supply

globally, yet world-wide we continue to squander and abuse its

bounty.The biodiversity it supports, and the livelihoods of peo-

ple who depend upon it, are the first casualties in this process.

The message is clear - we must learn to manage water better.

There are encouraging signs that we are starting to take

serious notice of this situation and do something about it.

Whilst the decline in the health of wetlands in many regions

continues to be alarming, in other areas societies have begun

to not only recognize their value better but to demand that

they be conserved, rehabilitated or restored.The present pub-

lication illustrates the complexities of the problems at hand

and the challenges ahead, but also that when we try hard

enough we can achieve much.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) covers mul-

tiple ecosystem types in all geographical regions. It was quick

to identify water and wetlands as important areas through its

thematic programmes of work on the biological diversity of

inland water and marine and coastal ecosystems. These were

comprehensively revised, or up-dated, at the seventh

Conference of the Parties to the CBD in February 2004 and

are complemented by work programmes in a number of other

areas, most of which also have direct or indirect impacts upon

aquatic ecosystems.The CBD work programmes lay down the

framework for what needs to be done by Parties and other

stakeholders, in order to meet the objectives of the

Convention - to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and

equitably share the benefits of the genetic resources that these

ecosystems support.A critical test is, of course, the extent to

which the work programmes are implemented. On this front I

am pleased to make two important observations. First, that the

CBD process has shifted recently from a phase of policy/strat-

egy development towards implementation. Second, the

HAMDALLAH ZEDAN

Executive Secretary

14

Strategic Plan of the Convention is now accompanied by the

important target of achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in

the current rate of loss of biodiversity at the global, regional

and national levels.The target has been widely endorsed and its

importance to related human development goals (such as the

Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable

Development and the Millennium Development Goals) clearly

recognized. Sub-targets have been set for various focal areas

and viable indicators for assessing progress towards them iden-

tified. These will help to assess whether the activities carried

out to reach the target are effective.

The Parties to the CBD have also re-iterated their commit-

ment to fostering improved partnerships with other conven-

tions, organizations, institutions and processes. Regarding

water and biodiversity, we have many valued partners.We are

proud to mention specifically our long-standing collaboration

with the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, which has always

been the lead partner on matters relating to wetlands under

the CBD.We intend to continue to forge partnerships with all

others with whom we share common interests and goals,

towards a truly global partnership for biodiversity conserva-

tion and sustainable use. In no other field than water is this so

urgent or important.

In this issue of Doñana I am pleased to see these principles

and approaches embodied in practice. I congratulate the

authors and contributors who have so eloquently and artisti-

cally conveyed such a multi-disciplinary approach to the sub-

ject. But what impresses me most is not only the content but

also the sense of common purpose it portrays - to recognize

and promote the value of these ecosystems and collectively

help sustain them by managing our activities better.The CBD

stands by to support all such efforts wherever and whenever

they occur.This is, after all, what the CBD is about.

15

The ties of the world

One of the leading characters of a Saul Bellows book

expressed the following thoughts: "I fully agree with Hegel (lec-

tures in Jena, 1806) in that all the mass of ideas that have been

in use to date, the very ties of the world, are dissolving and col-

lapsing like a vision in a dream.A new spirit is about to emerge

- or it better had do".

This character has his doubts about the imminent reality of

this new spirit that will re-make the ties: "for a long time,

mankind was sustained by an unheard music that kept them

afloat and gave him continuity, coherence. But this music has

stopped and a new, different and barbaric music is emerging:

the cosmic orchestra that sends the music has suddenly can-

celled its concert, and where does that leave us?" (*).

A general feeling of progress and modernity seems to dom-

inate our horizons; but a feeling of loss and loneliness seeps in

from time to time, an underlying sadness and desperation that

dulls the mind and festers as an indicator of a certain cosmic

pessimism. Are we playing with the fire that Prometheus gave

us? We seem to be resigned to watch some black prophecies

become self-fulfilling, like, for instance, the evidence that preda-

tory gains in the short term (very often as short as the dead-

line itself) to the benefit of tiny segments of present genera-

tions always prevail over the common good in the longer term.

Beyond the frustrating limits of each life, we seem to be stalked

by a basic nihilism that reproduces, to a lesser extent, the dis-

tant lament of the cynical Greek poet: "the best thing for man

is not to have been born". In the end, we are neither at home

nor are we entirely happy with our inn.This is the new barbar-

ic music, the murmur of the anti-cosmos.

For those of us who wish to listen to a new musical score

(new and different, but not barbaric), we feel comforted by the

work offered by the authors of "Doñana, Water and

Biosphere". Far from inviting us to share a mere erudite essay,

or an ecological-technical treatise about a biosphere reserve,

which is well worth the effort, they offer us an outstanding tes-

timony of the enormous integrating effort being made, based

on the reality of Doñana, in which contributions from very dif-

ferent fields are tied together with a coherence, aesthetic and

a joie de vivre that not only impregnates the work with sense;

it also projects them towards a new vision of the world. In this

carefully crafted choreographic work on one of Spain's great-

LUIS IGNACIO RAMALLO MASSANET

President

Spanish National Commission for UNESCO

16

est treasures, time, geography, history, ecology, the natural sci-

ences, biology, photography, planning, engineering, sociology

and culture are both an illustration of what Doñana is today

and an announcement of what we are called upon to do with

her. This work strikes a balance between present rigour and

future will that goes beyond mere information, it is spiritually

moving. It is as if one could feel and see the cosmic ties we

form part of in the natural and social micro-world of Doñana.

According to Bellow's tale, Hegel's question for us was

where does that leave us? in the face of the perceived silence

of the old, secular music.The authors of "Doñana:Water and

Biosphere" bring us the chords of the new cosmic orchestra,

or rather, they enable us to listen to the cosmic orchestra once

again, as it had only appeared to stop playing in a time of pro-

found collective deafness among mankind, but they now delight

us with the gift of a renewed music that, with conditions, prom-

ises the hope of continuity and coherence.

* “Cousins”, a short story by Saul Bellow, was firstly published in his collection“Him with His Foot in His Mouth and Other Stories” (1984).

17

Doñana 2005

The complexity of Doñana goes beyond the fact that it is one

of the most important protected areas in Europe. Since it was

declared a National Park in 1969, it has attracted continuous

international acclaim that has given rise to a series of measures

aimed at providing international recognition and protection by

extending the management criteria for this protected area.

Thus, Doñana forms part of the MaB Programme as a

Biosphere Reserve; it has been included in the list of Wetlands

of International Importance as a wild fowl habitat under the

Ramsar Convention; it is the only place in Andalusia that has

been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO; it forms part

of the Natura Network as a Special Protection Area for Birds

and has been proposed as a Site of Community Interest for

Andalusia and has won a European Diploma from the Council

of Europe.

Apart from sheltering important natural and cultural val-

ues, the Doñana Nature Park plays an essential role as a buffer

against potential human impacts on the National Park. By the

same token, the Guadiamar Green Corridor Protected

Landscape plays an important function as an ecological corri-

dor and a social and economic catalyst connecting Doñana

with the protected areas of Sierra Morena. Moreover, three of

the 35 Natural Monuments included in the RENPA are situat-

ed in the district of Doñana: the El Rocio Wild Olives, the

Asperillo Cliffs and the Hundred year old Pine of the Parador

de Mazagon. Hence, from an ecological and functional point of

view, each of the protected areas in Doñana is more than an

individual piece, as they form part of a larger area, beyond its

administrative borders, with which they share essential bio-

physical processes. So, Doñana is seen not only as a fundamen-

tal component of the National Parks Network, whose guide-

lines, recommendations, criteria and management and planning

objectives it has to meet; it is also a basic and essential element

of RENPA (Network of Protected Sites of Andalusia), making

an important contribution to its internal coherence and eco-

logical, social and cultural functionality.

Doñana is obviously not a pristine area and many of the val-

ues that justify its international reputation are the result of the

uses to which this region has been put over the centuries. But

the economic boom of recent years, focussed on irrigation

farming and tourism, has had a significant impact on the water

HERMELINDO CASTRO NOGUEIRA

General Coordinator

Doñana 2005 Scientific Commission

18

resources of the area and, in consequence, on the associated

natural systems. Furthermore, if we bear in mind that Doñana

is laid out over the bottom of a basin, we will realise that its

ecosystems are especially sensitive to the man's actions

beyond the borders of the protected areas and of the district

itself, especially with regard to the quality and quantity of sur-

face and groundwater, as was made painfully clear after the

Aznalcollar accident.

It is therefore undeniable that the survival of the values that

make Doñana an eco-cultural heritage that is unique in Europe

require a management strategy that is anchored in the reality

of its territorial environment. For this reason, it is essential not

only to adopt an integral management of the different forms of

protection and recognition that have the area has been

endowed with; it is just as important to manage the region in

a co-ordinated fashion, based on shared responsibility and on

building a consensus among the different authorities and sec-

tors involved.

In recent years, much progress has been made in this direc-

tion and the main instruments used in the fields of conserva-

tion, regional planning and development in Doñana have been

created on the basis of accepting the need to strike a balance

between the different interests that overlap in this region,

based on the foundation of consensus and an active commit-

ment by all those involved in the day to day work. Hence, all

concerned recognise that the economic development modal

for the district and the conservation of its ecological and cul-

tural values are interdependent.

Further progress is needed along these lines, promoted by

a common effort on the part of the public administrations and

society, so that the full integration of Doñana with its environ-

ment, protected or not, becomes the principle paradigm of sus-

tainability and conservation on a broad scale.

19

Index

1 AA cchanging wworldWater for all, water for life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23The importance of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Wetlands and Biosphere Reserveslaboratories of Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Wetlands and Sciencescientists to help nature conservation practitioners and society to set priorities in wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Wetlands and the European Landscape Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Protected areas, biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in wetlandsissues and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2 TThe eevolution oof DDoñanaThe time of the Marsheslands marked by water and diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77The decisive yearsThe role of Doñana in the history of conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Research in Doñanathe necessary relations between science and natural resource conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101The milestones that made Doñana a National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3 WWatery llandscapesWater as the main player . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119The geomorphological evolution of Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137The Doñana aquifer and its relations with the natural environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141The paths of water in the Marsheschanges in the hydrological network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151A Numerical Hydrodynamic Model for the Marshes of Doñana National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157El Partido streaman example of the challenges posed by hydrological restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159Man and water in the history of Doñanadifferent approaches to water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163A Doñana with clean and transparent waters for lifeThe agricultural commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165Marshes and pondsthe graphic expression of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

4 TThe bbiological hheritage oof DDoñanaThe performance of nature and the worlds of biodiversity within Doñana . . . . . . . 175The aquatic systems of Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213The ecology of Doñana scrub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221Freshwater algae of Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225Birds and Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Doñana fish speciesthreat factors affecting a community in decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237The amphibians of Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

20

The uniqueness of marsh butterflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247The rabbit in Doñanathe tale of two different tales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251The Iberian lynxrescuing a species for Doñana and for the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

5 TThe cchallenges oof rrestorationThe context of restoration and the new paradigms of Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263The agricultural development in the surroundings of Doñanaspatial and landscape changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275Co-existence of livestock in the marshes of Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281Reconstruction of the Abalario landscapea referent model for environmental restoration in Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283The Guadiamar Green Corridora research programme, example of science's social responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289Doñana and its district, on the same path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

6 TThe DDoñana 22005 PProjectWater regeneration of the basins and water courses feeding the

marshes of the Doñana National Park

The Doñana 2005 Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Caracolesa new laboratory for science and wetland restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325Extending Doñanaan important step towards regenerating the water system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329Monitoring and Evaluationthe key to the Doñana 2005 Restoration Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

7 TThe bbiological ddiversity oof DDoñanaDoñana species checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

8 EEpílogueDoñana 2005, a forward looking project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363by Felix Manuel Pérez Miyares

23

band, Osiris, to life, after rescuing his coffin from among the bul-

rushes of the delta.The Goddess Isis protected her son, Horus,

the fruit of her relations with the resuscitated Osiris, from the

aggressions of his uncle Sept, bringing him up in the depths of the

marshes. In the end, Horus took the form of a peregrine falcon

in the Egyptian skies, his divinity evident by his proximity to the

sun.And so it seems that this facet of mythology was dreamed

up to describe the eventful biological and human history that

these bodies of water on the edge of the sea have sustained.

But, coming back down to earth, and before getting into

watery landscapes, one must also remember that the origins of

the modern world also very much depend on the previous exis-

tence of wetlands. In the carboniferous age, these were the areas

On the fourth day, Isis was born among the marshes.This

is how most of the tales of Egyptian mythology begin,

by linking one of their most important Gods with the waters of

the great Nile Delta. "The Egyptians say that Isis is crying to

Osiris when the river starts to rise; and they claim that the fields

flooding are, in fact, her tears"1.

Isis was an ambivalent Goddess who, through the centuries,

represented fertility, maternity, the symbol of growth and the

safety of life; she was also worshipped as the Goddess of the hid-

den knowledge of nature and of magic, and because of these

attributes, she is possibly the best symbol of many of the world's

wetlands. She is, after all, the Goddess of the water enclosed in

the earth, capable of creating new life and of returning her hus-

Water for All, Water for Life

Wetlands stand out as hotspots of biological diversity. However, this productive capacity is especially true in coastal marshes and swamps, which often hostunique and endangered species and ecosystems. The picture shows an Iberian lynx hunting a mallard among the rushes of Doñana.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

24

that generated and created most of the fossil resources now

used in the form of oil-resources that define the wealth fought

over in unending wars, in effect bringing the dramas of the

Egyptian Gods back to life.

We must also remember that a great part of our modern

society is once again becoming aware of the practical and cultur-

al importance of these wetlands, especially those that are situat-

ed on the edge of the seas: places that used to be remote and

deserted, reviled as the source of epidemics, but, at the same

time, appreciated for their incredible wealth in producing unlim-

ited reserves of life.They are the final refuge of Isis, the Goddess

of life.

And so, thousands of years on, the scientific community has

lashed out in astonishing force in defence of the wetlands. In

recent years, these surviving aquatic environments are rightly

valued as sources, channels and transformers of a multitude of

chemical, biological and genetic materials, revealing a new, water-

dependent cosmos. Our knowledge of this cosmos remains

extremely limited, but wetlands are now generally considered as

the most important ecosystems on Earth, not only because of

their important role as refuge or habitat to protected or endan-

gered species, or as a major source of resources, but also

because they are among the most productive ecosystems on the

planet in terms of biomass and species.They are bastions of bio-

logical generation that continue to offset a systematic loss of

biodiversity.

Wetlands can be found in all countries, from the tundra to

the tropics, although the exact percentage of the Earth's surface

that flood plains make up is not known. Most international sci-

entific agencies estimate that these territories, in all their forms,

encompass close to 600 million hectares, approximately 4% of

the planet's dry land. In terms of area, the most important of

these are the peat bogs, accounting for almost one third of all

wetlands, followed by swamps, marshes and flood plains, with

lakes accounting for a mere 2%.

Wetlands stand out as hotspots of biological diversity.

However, this productive capacity is especially true in coastal

marshes and swamps, as they are exceptional ecotones between

the sea and the land that many adjacent ecosystems depend on.

These are boundary or frontier zones, sharing both land and

aquatic systems, providing protection for both which confers on

them supreme importance in conservation. This new view has

enabled us to rediscover the value of the fragile and sometimes

temporary aquatic landscapes that represent a refuge for count-

less forms of life, related in the myths of civilisations that exist-

ed long before our own.

The value of bodies of water close to the sea can be seen in

their subtlety, like in some outstanding manifestations of art.The

slightest variation in the water level can be a determining factor

in how we ultimately define its biological and scenic features.

Maintaining the artistic simile, the presence and character of the

wetlands is sometimes ephemeral, in geological terms of course.

Many of these features in temperate and sub-arctic zones are no

older than 12,000 years, a mere second on the geological scale

of history, when they started to consolidate after the ice melt-

ed, changing the sea level at the end of the Ice Age.The contin-

uous variations in sea level during recent ages (known as eusta-

tic effects), some tectonic effects, the transference of sediments,

and the power of the wind transporting sand and other materi-

als resulted in the emergence of deltas and estuaries, creating

intricate and varied coastal marshlands as they silted up.

With the passage of time, mankind sometimes contributed

towards environmental diversification even further, rather than

compromising it. Archaeological and documentary evidence

shows us that the final configuration of the deltas and estuaries

of Norfolk, in the east of England, is the product of digging peat

500 to 700 years ago, and in many places, the mining of gravel

from the alluvial plains over the last 200 years has been followed

by the appearance of lakes and swamps. These close relations

between human activity and fresh or brackish water on the edge

of the sea are repeated throughout the world, at different times

and to varying degrees

THE DIFFICULT CO-EXISTENCE OF MAN

WITH AQUATIC LANDSCAPES

The latest threats to zones essential for life on the planet

are, firstly, the remarkable shift of the world's population in

recent decades to coastal areas, and secondly, the exponential

Several societies have been living in harmony with wetlands since ancienttimes. Above, the lagoon of Porto Novo, a Ramsar site close to Cotonou,Benin.Photograph by Nassima Aghanim - Ramsar. January 2004.

increase in new activities that use these delicate maritime strips,

such as the development of coastal tourism or the creation of

industrial estates based on a port. Whole cities like Belize or

Panama City have spread over wetlands. The co-existence, or

conflict, between human activity and the wetland areas, howev-

er, dates back much further, especially in the coastal zones.

Wetland birds have been hunted since the dawn of time as

the staple diet of early human societies, using nets, bows and

arrows, and trained cats and birds of prey, among a long list of

other techniques. In the bas reliefs of the temple of Esna, from

the fifth dynasty of Egypt, there are paintings of complex meth-

ods of catching waterfowl, including the use of domestic geese

as bait and decoys made from clay and leaves for hidden hunters

to attract migrating birds.The relationship between man and the

wetlands is also seen in the use of the many species of rushes

and fresh water reeds that have been used for centuries in build-

ing canoes and rafts, the world over.These practises still survive,

for instance in the wetlands of the Tigris and the Euphrates

where reeds are utilized, in South America where totora reeds

or bulrushes are used, and in Africa, where papyrus is still made

use of2.

In Belize and Guatemala, the Maya used to drain marshes for

growing crops 3,000 years ago. In Papua New Guinea, research

carried out along the Waghi River in the highlands, has uncov-

ered evidence from earlier ages of irrigation ditch systems and

mounds the size of an orchard built to grow different plants

9,000 years ago.These, with the passage of millennia, have been

turned into the intensive production of marsh taro that still sur-

vives. In Japan, marshes have been cultivated for at least 2,500

years; rice paddies were constructed in marshes,with basins sur-

25

Mar Menor is a Ramsar site close to Murcia (Spain). It is a good exampleof the difficulties faced by wetlands under the pressure of human expan-sion along coastal areas. Here irrigation for agriculture, tourist develop-ment, old salt works, fishing, and nautical activities co-exist.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

26

rounded by palisades and wood lined terraces. In medieval

Europe, many wetlands were partially drained to improve graz-

ing and to grow hay in the marshes, as sheep could graze there

free from the distomatosis parasite. Dating tells us that many

wetlands developed at the hands of our forefathers; a variety of

cultures had an impact on such ecosystems that we are actually

now trying to protect.

Of all human intervention, one of the most important mod-

ifications of the wetlands throughout history was rice growing in

China 6,000 years ago.This has had a major effect on the trans-

formation of costal and delta areas that has increased over the

centuries. Rice paddies gradually consumed a significant part of

these habitats, progressively covering them. The expansion of

rice growing over the last five hundred years has been spectac-

ular.Yet, in the Mediterranean basin, rice fields only reached their

peak relatively recently, in the mid 20th century, when they cov-

ered almost a million hectares. This is a good example of the

clash between human activity and the survival of marshes and

coastal wetland zones, although it is often thought that their

existence helps floodable lands to be maintained, having a posi-

tive effect on waterfowl.The problem is that, on a small scale,

rice paddies have not been very aggressive in ecological terms,

but on the larger scale, they work in contradiction to the dynam-

ics of coastal marshlands and estuaries.The clash lies in that the

need for fresh water for irrigating the rice is out of synchronisa-

tion with the water cycle of the natural wetland zones.As in the

case of Doñana, this has meant a radical change in handling the

original hydrological system3.

Not all human needs directly challenge the wetlands water

cycle. Another Mediterranean example shows the symbiosis

between human activity and the marshlands.Countless small salt

flats of immense strategic value since Roman times consolidated

to become water engineering, prompting the transformation of

coastal areas in successive episodes throughout history. Salt,

considered by Aristotle as the fifth element, became the symbol

of power and economic strength of the great civilisations, from

Carthage to Venice.But salt works rarely needed modification to

the water cycle, as all they needed was brackish water and large

areas of flat ground.Although they have been abandoned for all

intents and purposes in the Mediterranean basin now, the enor-

mous cultural and economic value they had up until the early

20th century meant that they could be maintained and conserved

along with many of their associated wetlands.

However, the utilization of the wetlands over the course of

the millennia is nothing compared to what has happened in the

last one hundred and fifty years and, more specifically, with the

major transformations imposed in the 20th century to the 1970s.

The loss of wetlands, in particular coastal swamps and marshes,

occurred at a dizzying speed during recent times. Even admitting

that historic data on the wetlands worldwide are far from reli-

able, it is generally accepted that practically 50% of the total esti-

mated area of these zones at the beginning of the 20th century

has now disappeared.This gives us a very rough idea of the glob-

al conflict of interests that affects their conservation, either

because of the spread of irrigated farmlands, or of tourism and

urban development, or because of draining to prevent malaria. In

the example of the Mediterranean, records show that 73% of the

marshes of northern Greece have been drained since 1930;

most of the major flood plains of France have deteriorated

thanks to the application of official public regional planning poli-

cies between 1960 and 1994; Spain has lost nearly 60% of the

original area of wetlands it enjoyed at the beginning of the 20th

century; while 84% of the floodable lands of the Medjerdah, in

Tunisia, were lost between 1881 and 1987.Table 1 shows alarm-

ing percentages of wetlands lost forever in OECD countries

during certain periods of the 20th century4.

The case of the United States of America is especially signif-

TABLE 1Significant wetland areas lost during the XX century compared withthose existing at the beginning of the each period.

Among the ancient Gods, Isis can be considered the Goddess of wetlands.Her symbol in the sky was the star Sirius, whose appearance heraldedNile’s awaited annual floods.

COUNTRY PERÍOD % OF LOST WETLANDSFrance 1900-1993 67

Germany 1950-1985 57

Greece 1920-1991 63

Italy 1938-1994 66

The Netherlands 1950-1985 55

Spain 1948-1990 60

USA 1970-1985 54

World estimation 1900-1998 50

27

icant and well documented. In colonial times, there were over

159 million hectares of wetlands in North America. During the

19th century, these were identified as a threat due to the spread

of malaria, apart from being considered an obstacle in opening

up new farmlands. As a consequence, the policy of eradicating

wetlands was consolidated through a series of laws enacted

specifically for swamp areas between 1849 and 1860. Congress

granted all these lands to the States with a mandate for cleaning

them up. Hence, in a 200-year period from the first document-

ed interventions in 1780, the country as a whole lost 53% of its

flooded areas, which is equivalent to a continuous loss of 25 ha

of wetlands per hour5.

Several places that have sustained significant losses are wor-

thy of mention. New Zealand is a fitting example, with 90% of its

boggy lands also lost in this same period. Similarly, the immense

peat bogs of England and Ireland were seen as an inexhaustible

source of fuel and have been reduced to a mere 10% of their

original surface area.What's more, since the beginning of the 20th

century, over 80% of the wetlands that used to exist in the

mouth of the Danube have been destroyed6.

The situation in Spain was similar to many other countries in

the 19th century such as the aforementioned case of the United

States. Draining swampy lands became an obligation of the rural

health authorities, implemented mainly by the municipal author-

ities, who considered marshy areas close to towns as sources of

Wetlands are found worldwide, in all situations and at all latitudes, creat-ing incredibly diverse environments. In the picture, marshlands inside thecrater of a volcanic island in the Galapagos archipelago, an emblematicWorld Heritage Site.Photograph by Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Earth from above/UNESCO.

Wetlands are essential refuges for the survival of an important part ofworld’s bird populations. Above, flamingoes at Cayo Caguanes NationalPark, Cuba.Photograph by Bárbara García Moreda.

28

infection -hazardous, unhealthy areas. Hence, as towns grew, any

swampy area was immediately eliminated.This trend was made

official in a circular on the prevention of typhus dated the 28th of

April 1869 and in the Royal Order of the 7th of January 1878, giv-

ing instructions for reversing the spread of leprosy. Some

marshlands partially escaped these interventions because they

were considered useful, once cleaned up and transformed into

rice paddies.The work of clearing and draining the wetlands was

soon considered as public works, as seen in the General Public

Works Act of 18777.

The Inventory of Wetlands, drawn up in 1991 by the

Directorate General of Hydraulic Works of what was at the

time the Ministry of Public Works and Transport (Table 2), shows

that practically 60% of the surface area of wetlands and natural

lakes had disappeared, most of it between 1950 and 1990. Some

114,100 ha remained when the inventory was drawn up, of an

estimated total area of 280,228 ha documented at the beginning

of the century. Proportionally, the most affected areas were the

flood plains,with only one fifth of their original area surviving the

conversion to farmland. Inland freshwater wetlands followed,

with only one third of their estimated original area surviving. But

in quantitative terms, the coastal wetlands are the worst affect-

ed by this process, loosing 59% of their original surface area.This

means that 141,949 ha, or 50% of the total surface area of wet-

land coastal areas at the beginning of the 20th century, were lost

in the 20th century, although they still represent a large propor-

tion of the total surface area of aquatic environments.This is why

Doñana is so important in the overall count, as its floodable area

alone (27,000 ha) accounts for one fifth of the natural salt marsh

areas that now survive in Spain8.

However, a simple analysis of surface area losses, although

illustrative per se, does not give a complete picture of the

threats that still endanger these enclaves and the urgent need to

protect them at all costs. Although pressure on wetlands has

diminished significantly since 1980, most of the factors that trig-

ger their transformation and degradation remain dormant in

many places. A long list of activities and actions could lead to

direct or indirect changes in the physical, chemical and biological

components of the aquatic ecosystems, with serious conse-

quences like them drying out.The most common types of alter-

ation can be divided into four main groups:

- Alteration to the physical structure of the wetland, due to

the frequent changes made to natural branches, canals,

streams and brooks, turning them into artificial waterways

because of building or water works that change their topog-

raphy. This is the case in certain symbolic areas like the

Everglades, or even Doñana. In the Everglades case, the

restoration of its hydrological system, approved almost a

decade ago, has been a major operation costing almost 1.5

billion dollars. On a different scale geographically, the

restoration of the Doñana water system faces similar prob-

lems, arising from the interventions carried out in the second

half of the 20th century. Alterations to hydrological systems

and infrastructures usually have the effect of fragmenting

habitats.

- Alteration to the hydrological regime, or the quantity of

water in the wetland; in other words, of the water inputs,

both surface and subterranean, that feed it. A good example

TABLE 2Evolution of the area of Spanish wetlands and lakesincluded in the DGOH inventory (1991).

Type Original Present % Superficieof wetland area in ha area in ha present/original

Interior wetlands 40,600 16,421 40.4

Mountain 2,389 2,314 96.9

Carstic 874 784 89.7

Interior freshwater 14,802 4,805 32.4

Interior brackish 6,743 5,212 77.2

Flood plains 15,867 3,234 20.3

Coastal wetlands 239,628 97,679 40.6

Total 280,228 114,100 40.7

Salt pans and rice fields are millennia-old typical uses of marshlands. Inthe picture, Janubio salt-pans, Lanzarote (Canary Islands).Photograph by Alberto Luengo.

29

of this is Lake Ichkeul in Tunisia, a Ramsar wetland that is rap-

idly salting up due to restrictions in the water flow caused by

damns situated at the head of the drainage basin.This creates

water quality problems that affect water plants, zooplankton

and the complex food chain9. Reservoirs have also caused

degradation to the great coastal wetlands in the mouth of

the Parana-Plata Delta, causing overall change to its water

cycle rhythms. Major water works transporting water from

one basin to another and hydroelectric plants are another

danger factor.The Arenal-Corobici-Sandilla project in Costa

Rica is a good example of this, with direct consequences on

the coastal mangrove swamps.

- Alteration to the quality of the wetland water, especially by

contaminating inputs, either directly or diluted, or by sedi-

ments brought down from catchment areas. This has

increased exponentially in recent decades.An exam-

ple of the dangers inherent in urban pollution is

found in the difficult situation of the coastal

wetlands of the Yellow Sea and the mouth of

the Yangtze. There is a similar risk in San

Francisco Bay, where the presence of high

concentrations of pesticides used in the sur-

rounding agriculture and serious sedimenta-

tion problems have been detected. The input

of sediments from deforestation in areas far

from the coastal wetlands has become the most

critical aspect for those in the

Philippines. Lastly, we find an

extreme example of pollution

in Cambodia, in this case

caused by the widespread use

of the enduring chemical DDT

in the past to eradicate mos-

quitoes, plus the devastating

effects of bombing

and defo-

liants used during the

Vietnam War.

- Alteration to the biological

communities associated with

the wetland, either from over-

exploitation of resources (hunting,

grazing, fishing, farming), or the introduc-

tion of exotic species.The traditional threats

that hung over these areas from highly intensive

land use that exceeded its carrying capacity, have

given way to new forms, such as fish farming.The expansion of

nurseries for crustaceans in mangrove swamps and marshes is

a good example of new factors contributing to the degrada-

tion of the wetlands. The floodable coasts of South

America, on both the Pacific and the Atlantic sides, find

themselves caught in this new dilemma. It is most endem-

ic in places like Bahia, in mangrove swamps like those of the Gulf

of Fonseca, and along long stretches of the coast from Ecuador

to southern Chile. But the great mobility and interconnected-

ness of the modern world brings another risk of incalculable

consequence. It facilitates the accidental or voluntary introduc-

tion of countless invading exotic species of all kinds. Every day,

fish such as tilapias and gambusias, crustaceans such as red crabs,

algae, tortoises, snakes, insects, molluscs, mammals and birds are

introduced to wetlands around the world far from their original

habitats, with consequences that are sometimes devastating and

usually, as yet, unknown.There are countless means of acciden-

tal transport: species that travel encrusted on the hulls of ships,

bilge water discharge in estuaries, zoos, air freight transport, the

pet trade, etc.

TABLE 3

Main causes of wetland loss or degradation.

- Drainage for agriculture.

- Salinisation due to over-exploitation or changes in the hydrologic balance of

associated aquifers.

- Diversion of water for irrigation.

- Drainage to avoid foci of diseases.

- Urban development of coastal araes .

- Tourist occupation of the coast.

- Regulatory dams, hydroelectric power stations.

- Transfers between river basins.

- Changes in the hydrologic system to favour navigation or protect occupied

lands.

- Pollution caused by discharge of untreated urban waste water.

- Pollution caused by industry and agriculture.

- Mining in the wetland upper basin.

- Large-scale agriculture and fishery over-exploitation.

- Pastures and fire practices.

- Introduction of exotic species.

- Fragmentation of habitats.

Introduction of exotic and inva-sive species is one of present-day greatest risks for wetlandsand for coastal wetlands in par-ticular, causing considerablealterations of biological commu-nities and leading to a largenumber of extinctions. In thephotograph, the brown treesnake Boiga irregularis, an inva-sive species that played havocwith several species of birds inthe Pacific area.Photograph: USGS, Tom Fritts/Gordon Rodd.

30

INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS

FOR PROTECTING AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Alarming statistics on wetlands destruction have been grad-

ually put together over the second half of the twentieth centu-

ry, spurring a long overdue concerted effort among nature con-

servationists and the global scientific community. This has

involved as many countries as possible in order to curb one of

the most serious processes of environmental degradation affect-

ing the planet.

The first major precedent in pulling together this global ini-

tiative emerged in 1960, when the International Union for the

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) joined the International

Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) and the

International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) to launch the

MAR Project, with a view to conservation of the wetlands and

disseminating such values.This initiative was followed by other

projects like AQUA and TERMA, tackling the protection of inland

waters and peat bogs. But it was during a conference held in the

French town of Sainte Marie in 1962, promoted by the MAR

project, that an idea for a convention took shape.A process was

initiated to convene an international conference based on a doc-

ument that was to be the foundation of the wetland convention.

The MAR conference was organised at the time with the partic-

ipation of the IUCN, ICBP10 (currently BirdLife International) and

IWRB11 (now Wetlands International).

Over the following eight years, the wording of the future

convention was developed in a series of international technical

meetings (St. Andrews, 1963; Noordwijk, 1966; Morges, 1967;

Vienna, 1969; Moscow, 1969; Espoo, 1970) with the firm support

of the IWRB11 and the Dutch government. Originally, the pro-

posal's main idea was to promote the protection of waterfowl

habitats. However, as the wording developed, the conservation

of wetlands as whole ecosystems started to take shape instead

of merely protecting the species that inhabited them.

This preparation took place in parallel with other important

initiatives that have converged in time and space. In the same

decade, foundations were also laid for the MaB Programme12

(Man and Biosphere) introducing the concept of the Biosphere

Reserve as a practical step forward towards the fundamentals of

sustainable development. From the outset, it paid special atten-

tion to wetlands as scientific laboratories and fields for experi-

menting with the constructive relationship between humanity

and its environment. This productive period also saw the first

steps of the International Hydrological Programme - stemming

from the International Hydrological Decade (IHD, 1965-1974) -

with one of its main tasks to gauge the situation of the world's

aquifers and their interactions with the activities of man.There

were also other important precedents like the Programme for

Protecting Habitats and Endangered Species promoted by the

World Wildlife Fund (WWF), or the important role played by

the Council of Europe in the launch of the European Water

Charter in 1967.

All this preparatory work for a wetlands convention finally

came together in a conference organised by the Iranian

Department of Hunting and Fishing, in the city of Ramsar on the

shores of the Caspian Sea.The original wording of what is now

commonly known as the Ramsar Convention was produced,

agreed upon and signed by the delegates of 18 countries on the

3rd of February 1971. Under the auspices of UNESCO as the

holding body for the initiative, the Convention came into force

in December 1975, and currently has 1,469 areas entered in the

List of Wetlands of International Importance, also known as the

Ramsar List.The wetlands entered account for almost ten per

cent of all the world's wetlands, approximately 128.9 million

hectares - an area slightly smaller than Greece. Moreover, the

contracted parties signed up the Convention have increased sig-

nificantly, including practically all countries around the world; the

thirteen original signatories have grown to 146 signatories today.

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is now the only envi-

ronmental treaty for a specific ecosystem and it is the first to

link the conservation of natural resources with their sustainable

use, along the same lines as the philosophy developed for the

COUNTRIES Total area by Date of Total Ramsar Totalcountry (km2) ratification area number

in 1994 (including of Ramsarmarine areas) Sites

(km2) in 1998Austria 83 858 1983 1 028 9Belgium 30 518 1986 79 6Denmark 43 094 1978 7 390 27Finland 338 145 1975 1 013 11France 543 965 1986 5 791 15Germany 356 970 1976 6 712 32Greece 131 957 1975 1 635 10Ireland 70 285 1985 697 45Italy 301 323 1977 569 46Netherlands 41 526 1980 3 249 18Norway 323 880 1975 697 18Portugal 91 905 1981 658 10Spain 505 990 1982 1 579 38Sweden 449 964 1975 3 828 30UK 244 101 1976 4 843 129Total UE 39 049 427

Note: The first column (total area by country) does not take into account marine areas,but it includes estuaries. This table does not include the new accession countries whichjoined the EU in 2004.Photograph: Wetland International, Ramsar Bureau. Data source: EIONET; Eurostat.

TABLE 4Main figures of Ramsar sites in the European Union (EU 15).

31

Biosphere Reserves. Moving on from the original idea of con-

serving wildfowl habitats, the scope of the Convention has been

extended over the years to include coastal wetlands like man-

grove swamps, coral reefs and marine plant beds, valuing their

biodiversity and the beneficial role they play in human commu-

nities. The range of situations dealt with in the Convention

becomes clear from Article 1.1 of the text, which defines wet-

lands as: "Areas of marsh, fens, peat land or water, whether nat-

ural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water static or

flowing, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water the

depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres".

It is important to note that the inclusion of a wetland in the

List of Wetlands of International Importance, or Ramsar List,

does not automatically guarantee its protection, as many coun-

tries unfortunately do not meet their commitments, or because

of major external factors affecting their integrity. A recent study

of a sample of 344 sites from the Ramsar List - including wetland

and lake ecosystems - concluded that an alarming 84% of them

suffered serious ecological changes caused by drainage for con-

version to farmland, urban development, pollution, invading

species and the input of sediments.

Adverse changes to the ecological characteristics recorded

in many Ramsar sites have forced the signatories to introduce a

series of amendments to the Convention. Examples include the

Paris amendment of 1982 and the decisions taken by the parties

to the 1987 Regina Conference. As the Convention was pro-

gressively applied, a significant number of sites included in the

List had been damaged or were facing serious threats that accel-

erated their degradation.There was, therefore, an urgent need

to take fast and efficient action to prevent these processes of

wetland destruction accelerating, and promoting the restoration

of damaged sites at the same time. Thus, when parties met in

Montreux in 1990, a resolution was passed to investigate sites

that have suffered attacks or in which undesirable changes are

likely to occur, so that preventative or restorative actions are

clearly outlined in these places and the appropriate consulta-

tions and monitoring is established with any stakeholders.There

are presently 55 sites included in this category that has come to

be known as the Montreux Register. Because of the possible

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is now the only environmental treaty for a specific ecosystem and it is the first to link the conservation of naturalresources with their sustainable use, along the same lines as the philosophy developed for the Biosphere Reserves. In the above picture, a purple heron and ablack-winged stilt in the marshes of the Doñana National Park, declared Ramsar Site, Biosphere Reserve, and World Heritage Site.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

The Ramsar Convention came into force in December 1975, and currentlyhas 1,469 wetland sites entered in the List of Wetlands of InternationalImportance, also known as the Ramsar List.Above, Kakadu National Park (Australia), Ramsar site.

32

YEAR MILESTONE RESULTS1965 Start of the International Hydrological Decade Start of the International Hydrological Programme . UNESCO.

1967 European Water Charter Launching of the Charter by the Council of Europe.

1971 Ramsar Conference, Iran Launching of the Ramsar Convention.

MaB (Man and Biosphere) Programme Constitution of the MaB Programme and of the first Biosphere Reserves.

UNESCO, Paris

1972 United Nations Conference Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment.

on the Human Environment, Stockholm

1973 MARPOL Convention Allows to declare wetlands and nearby sea areas as “sensitive areas”.

1975 Ramsar Convention Coming into force of the Convention under the auspices of UNESCO.

CITES Convention, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. It concerns wetlands both in the field

Washington of species protection and in introduction of alien species.

1977 United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata Plan of Action (PAMP)

Mar del Plata

1979 Berna Convention, Council of Europe Convention dealing with the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats.

Birds Directive, European Union Protection of birds and classify as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) the most suitable territories for migratory birds, such as wetlands.

1981 International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade Global, balanced focus on problems related with water and sanitation specific of each country.

Links with protected areas.

European Charter of the Littoral, Chania, Crete. Preserving valuable littoral ecosystems such as coastal wetlands.

1982 United Nations Convention Links between coastal wetlands, fisheries and reproduction of economically productive species.

on the Law of the Sea.

Montego Bay, Jamaica.

1990 Global Consultation on Safe Water New Delhi Statement:“Some for all rather than more for some” - Sharing water equitably. Integrated water resources management.

and Sanitation for the 1990's,

New Delhi

1992 International Conference on Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource. Economic value of water,

Water and the Environment, Dublin solution of conflicts, natural disasters, sensitisation.

UN Conference on Environment and Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.Agenda 21, Chapter 18.

Development (UNCED Earth Summit)

Río de Janeiro

OSPAR Convention Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic.Annex V: Protection and Conservation of

of Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystems.

Habitats Directive, European Union On the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. Natura 2000 and wetlands Network.

1993 Convention on Biological Diversity Wetlands as world biologiical diversity hotspots.

1995 World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development.“Poverty, water supply, sanitation and natural systems”.

Copenhagen

Conference of the UEU Ministers of Environment. Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy .

Sofia, Bulgaria.

Jakarta Mandate Enlargement of the objectives of the Biological Diversity Convention to coastal and sea environments

with particular incidence on coastal wetlands.

1996 UN Conference on Human Settlements Development of sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing world.“Making the creation of new healthy environments compatible

(Habitat II), Istanbul. with the maintenance of essential wetland resources and ecosystems”.

1997 1st World Water Forum, Marrakech. Marrakech Declaration “Water and sanitation, management of shared waters, preserving ecosystems,

efficient use of waters”.

2000 2nd World Water Forum,The Hague. World Water Vision:“Making Water Everybody's Business”.The challenges: satisfying basic needs, ensuring

food supply, protecting ecosystems, sharing water resources, valuing water and administrating it in a responsible way

.

Ministerial Conference on Water Security Launching of the Report on World Water Resource Development.

in the 21st Century,The Hague

European Landscape Charter Adoption of the definitive text in Florence. Inclusion of the landscape dimension in the protection of wetlands. Launching of

the European Landscape Convention.

Water Framework Directive Inclusion of the “basin” concept for water ecosystems, prevention and water quality.

European Union Promotion of restoration.

2001 International Conference on Freshwater, Water: the key of sustainable development, good governance, mobilisation of financial resources, development of capabilities,

(Dublin + 10), Bonn exchange of know-how.

2002 World Summit on Sustainable development, Plan of Action. Integrated management of water resources.

(Rio + 10), Johannesburg

2003 International Year of Freshwater Governability, integrated management of water resources, efficient use of water, water quality for ecosystems,

3rd World Water Forum, Kyoto restoration, legislative framework.

2005 Start of the International Decade "Water for Life" Resolution approved by the UN General Assembly for the decade 2005-2015.

TABLE 5Main Conventions, Conferences and Milestones related to freshawater and wetlands, coastal wetlands in particular, in Europe and the World.

33

effects brought about by changes in the hydrological regimes,

Doñana was added to this register on the 4th of July 1990, and

the Doñana 2005 Project is one way to address this high-risk sit-

uation.The Everglades, added in 1993, was treated similarly.

Coinciding with goals set by the Ramsar Convention, a large

number of international provisions, agreements, treaties and

programmes have come about since the 1970s, dealing directly

or indirectly with protecting wetlands.These were particularly in

the protection of the coastal wetlands,which helped bring about

a constructive framework on the world stage for the survival of

waterscapes. The "International Convention on the Prevention

of Pollution from Ships" of the 2nd of November 1973, widely

known as the MARPOL Convention, was such a case. It made it

possible to declare certain marine spaces special zones that are

particularly sensitive.These included recent declarations like the

Great Barrier Reef (Australia), Sabana-Camagüey (Cuba-

Biosphere Reserve) and the Wadden Sea, all of which are whol-

ly or partially Ramsar sites. In the same year that Ramsar was

established, the Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) came into

force, which has and will continue to have particular impact on

the protected wetlands and the endangered species they shelter,

and its sphere of action will have to be considerably increased in

the face of the growing threat from exotic species in these areas.

In 1979, the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory

Wild Species, known as the Bonn Convention, was adopted,

which aims to ensure the stringent protection of endangered

migratory species throughout all or part of their range of distri-

bution. In this case, a major proportion of the species mentioned

in the two appendices of the Convention are directly associated

with the coastal wetland zones. Three years later, the United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was adopted in April

1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Some aspects of this Convention

cover the same matters, but in this case, it referred to the need

to preserve the great hubs of marine bio-diversity and areas that

produce hatchlings to maintain fishing resources. This clearly

highlighted many areas of canals and streams in salt marshes,

estuaries, coastal lagoons connected to the sea, and the highly

productive mangrove swamps. It is curious that this recognition

should once again validate the ancient Roman view, two thou-

sand years on, that places like Estany des Peix in Formentera and

San Antioco in Sardinia should be seen as strategic enclaves.They

played a valuable role as reserves for guaranteeing fishing in the

surrounding areas.

Well into the eighties, the term biological diversity with all it

represents started to circulate, together with concepts like sus-

tainable development. The two concepts had been tested at a

practical level through the running of programmes like MaB.At

this time the UNEP13 eestablished a series of task forces of

experts with a mandate to prepare an international legally bind-

ing instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of bio-

logical diversity. In 1991, the group became the Inter-governmen-

tal Negotiating Committee that prepared the wording to be

signed in 1992 during the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro.

This is how the Convention on Biological Diversity, finally adopt-

ed in 1993, appeared on the scene as one of the great accords

to come out of the Rio Conference. It recognised for the first

time that conserving biological diversity is a common concern

for mankind and forms part of the process of development.Two

years later, during the Second Meeting of the Parties in 1995, the

programme called the "Jakarta Mandate on Coastal and Marine

Biodiversity" was approved, aimed at specifically implementing

this aspect, in the spirit of the Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD). The importance that the CBD has placed on

coastal wetlands is reflected both in the aforesaid Mandate and

in the areas of co-operation that have been developed in recent

years concerning Ramsar. Priority has been given to aspects such

as "improving the conservation and rational use of wetlands sit-

uated in the inter-tidal zones" and the "integrated management

of coastal zones that include wetlands".

Initiatives in the conservation of wetlands within a specifical-

ly European framework have followed a very similar pattern. In

1974, the former European Commission established the first

Recommendation on Protecting Birds and their Vital Spaces,

where the decline of many species was highlighted, calling on

member states to sign up to the Ramsar Convention. Five years

later in 1979, the member states of the European Union adopt-

ed the "Birds Directive", which was the first European regulation

dedicated to bird conservation.The Birds Directive, binding on

all E.U. member states, proclaimed the need to conserve and

Combining a sustainable use of wetlands with the guarantee of conserva-tion of their ecosystems, species and water quality, is one of the biggestchallenges in nature conservation. In the photograph, fishing huts in the"Ortazzo e Ortazzino" Ramsar Site, located in the Po river delta (Italy).Photograph by Tobias Salathé, Ramsar.

34

suitably manage populations of wild birds. It established the SPA

(Special Protection Areas for Birds) network to this end, an

instrument aimed at protecting 181 of the most endangered bird

species in Europe, especially migratory birds. A considerable

proportion of the SPA zones were obviously wetlands.And yet,

as was happening globally, the various programmes within the

European framework and the directive started to consider not

only conserving the species, but also protecting their habitats.

Along the same lines, the so-called Habitats Directive was

finally published in 1992, on the conservation of natural habitats

and wild flora and fauna. The transfer of territory within this

directive led to the creation of the Natura 2000 Network that

encompasses the SPAs and includes all the other important

areas, such as the Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), develop-

ing a coherent network aimed at guaranteeing the biodiversity

of natural habitats and wildlife throughout the European Union.

The importance for the wetlands of the Directive and of creat-

ing the Natura 2000 Network was clearly articulated in the

European Union's 5th Framework Programme when it estab-

lished the need for identifying a set of specific protection meas-

ures for these territories.These measures include integrating the

largest and most important wetland areas in the Natura 2000

Network, integrated management of water resources with

regard to both quality and quantity, the inclusion of European

Union criteria on wetlands14 in the strategic management of land

use, and major financial support for programmes that include

ecological use of these zones. Furthermore, member states and

the Commission are called upon to guarantee that the measures

promoted by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) do not

come into conflict with the European Union policy on the

appropriate use and conservation of the wetlands.

Thus, a new point of view - seeing the wetlands politically and

socially - opened up. New directives and recommendations

came into play, either directly or indirectly related to the wet-

lands, characterised by their innovative stance.Water began to

take on a central role. Waterscapes started to become integrat-

ed, or better still, recognised as final users: with all the necessary

guarantees, in directives like the "Urban waste water treatment"

or the "Protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates

from agricultural sources".

On the 22nd of December 2000, this new vision took shape

with the European Parliament adopting the Water Framework

Directive (WFD). The wetlands took a leading role in an historic

debate about the necessary new water culture. In fact, the pro-

visions of Article 1 of the Directive include the following15:

"The purpose of this Directive is to establish a framework for

the protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters,

coastal waters and groundwater which:

a) prevents further deterioration and protects and enhances the

status of aquatic ecosystems and, with regard to their water

needs, terrestrial ecosystems and wetlands directly depending

on the aquatic ecosystems;

b) promotes sustainable water use based on a long-term protec-

tion of available water resources; ...".

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) recognises the

European wetland zones as such. Moreover, the articles of the

The coverage of the Ramsar Convention extends to an impressively widevariety of wetlands. For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are"marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent ortemporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt,including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does notexceed six metres". In the photograph, aerial view of the Doñana Marshes.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles.

"To ensure a sustainable water supply of good quality, we should protectand use in a sustainable manner the ecosystems that naturally capture, fil-ter, store, and release water, such as rivers, wetlands, forests, and soils".Paragraph 24 of the Ministerial Declaration of the 3rd World Water Forum,Kyoto, 2003.

35

directive promote an awareness of catchment areas in establish-

ing sustainable water use strategies and it highlights the funda-

mental role of ggroundwater. It also introduces water quality as

an essential factor. It gives priority to the entitlement to the sus-

tainable use of water, in appropriate conditions.This could be for

human activities as a whole or for maintaining essential ecosys-

tems like wetlands.

The list of supplementary measures which Member States

may choose to adopt for implementing the WFD, in its Part B it

reads, "recreation and restoration of wetlands areas". Hence, the

recommendation is based on the fact that wetland protection is

sufficiently covered in European legal regulations. The new

Directive provides a model of prevention and draws up future

strategy centred on the major challenge of restoring modified

wetlands. It also introduces the concept of "creating" new wet-

lands. As this publication shows, the history of Doñana, like

many other emblematic wetlands, runs in parallel with the evo-

lution of events in Europe and the rest of the world, by truly and

effectively facing up to these new challenges that were first iden-

tified by the scientific community and by certain managers of the

Doñana Park years ago.

The inclusion of an environmental variable in the manage-

ment of water resources for human use, in other words, the

securing of a holistic way of seeing water management, and espe-

cially the role of wetlands and other important ecosystems, is

starting to become the basis of many WFD projects as it unfolds.

In the case of Doñana or the Larnaka wetlands in Cyprus, for

example, initiatives like WSM (Water Strategy Man Project) are

included.This is a European Commission project aimed at defin-

ing new exemplars of water management and its future strate-

gies.

Now moving back to the world stage, having reviewed the

trend of events in Europe, we can see that the same phenome-

non has occurred world wide with the recognition of the essen-

tial role of wetlands and aquatic ecosystems.At the same time,

there is a call to integrate this dimension of conservation into

general water policies (see Table 5). The first references start

with the United Nations Water Conference of 1977, in Mar de

Plata, and they continue with important international milestones

and rulings like those of 1992, the year in which the Rio Summit

and the Dublin International Conference on Water and the

Environment were held. More recently, this common thread of

international concern for the state of water resources has

brought us the appearance of new policies on sustainable water

use at the Conferences on Water and Sustainable Development

(Paris 1998) and the World Water Forum held in The Hague

(2000).

Finally, 2003 was a crucial year for water with the appearance

of the ambitious World Water Development Report. It was

launched at the Third World Water Forum, organised in Kyoto,

Japan.All the United Nations agencies and committees devoted

to dealing with the water issue worked together for the first

time in drawing up this report, in order to examine the progress

made in pursuit of water-related objectives.These included areas

like health, food, conservation of ecosystems, cities, industry and

energy, as well as a financial evaluation, shared use and good

administration of water resources. An extensive network of

interlocutors, broadly from the United Nations, has taken part in

creating the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP),

whose secretariat is run by UNESCO. For the first time ever,

twenty three agencies and secretariats of United Nations con-

ventions have joined forces and shared experiences to produce

the most complete and up-to-date report on the situation of the

world's fresh water. Some of the wake-up calls reported include

those concerning the increase in pollution, over-exploitation of

groundwater, and a progressive disappearance or alteration of

lakes and wetlands. In the face of these risks, a new vision is tak-

ing root that complements the protection of waterscapes. It

includes the integrated management of water resources, pro-

moting efficiency in water use, focussing more on the quality of

aquatic ecosystem waters, fostering research and the promotion

of large scale restorative action, and creating satisfactory legisla-

tive frameworks.

In 1979, the member states of the European Union adopted the "BirdsDirective", which was the first European regulation dedicated to bird con-servation. After it, the so-called Habitats Directive was finally published in1992 developing a coherent network that encompasses the SPAs, aimed atguaranteeing the biodiversity of natural habitats and wildlife throughoutthe European Union. Above, a water rail (Rallus aquaticus) in Doñana.Photograph: Organismo Autónomo de Parques Nacionales.

36

LABORATORIES OF NATURE CONSERVATION

AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Doñana belongs to an extremely select group of coastal wet-

lands that have been classed as Biosphere Reserves by the inter-

national community, in other words, laboratories of conserva-

tion and sustainable development, and furthermore, as World

Heritage sites. This is a set of exceptional ecotones that also

form part of the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International

Importance.

Very few places in the world meet the triple conditions of

being recognised as a World Heritage site, Biosphere Reserve

and a Wetland of International Importance.They are a very spe-

cial group of seventeen territories that includes such emblemat-

ic places as the Pantanal (Brazil), Boeng Chmar (Cambodia), the

"W" Region of the Níger, San San-Pond Sak (Panama), and

Palawan (Philippines). If we restrict our selection to coastal areas

with these characteristics, the list would be further restricted to

include only Ichkeul (Tunisia),The Everglades (USA), El Vizcaíno

(Mexico), the Danube Delta (Romania-Ukraine) and, of course,

Doñana National Park.There are a few particular settings that

should be added to these, in which the flooded area represents

only a small part of larger reserves, such as the South Isabela

Wetlands in the Galapagos Islands. Table 6 lists the world's

coastal wetlands that have been declared Biosphere Reserves or

recognised as World Heritage sites, with the corresponding

named sites or Ramsar sites having been added.

On analysing each of these cases in detail, the most surpris-

ing aspect is that the alteration of their hydrological systems is

the main impact and the principle threat to the survival of all of

them.With the exception of El Vizcaino, these cases are current-

ly undergoing major restoration programmes related to their

hydrological functionality.This is the fundamental aspect of the

new challenges of conserving aquatic ecosystems of internation-

al importance.

Lake Ichkeul, covering an area of 12,600 ha, is situated in the

Bizerte region, in the north of Tunisia. It is connected to the

Mediterranean by the four-kilometre-long Tinaja Wadi (water-

course) and is a sublittoral saltwater lagoon, surrounded by a

permanent fresh water wetland. The main threat hanging over

this area at the moment is the construction of dykes to collect

water in three of the lake's tributaries, including the main ones

(Djoumine and Sedjennane). This lowers the water level and

increases salinity with a significant impact on flora and fauna.The

restrictions to the water supply led to the draining of the marshy

rim of the lake, triggering a chain of harmful effects such as the

rapid disappearance of Scirpus maritimus (staple diet of the

common goose, that winters here), which has been progressive-

ly replaced by invading plant species (Ammi visnaga and

Scolymus maculatus). Following that, the pronounced and pro-

longed fall in the water levels of Lake Ichkeul, whose maximum

depth never exceeds 1.5 m, provides access for livestock to pre-

viously inaccessible areas and causes a progressive increase in

salinity, with a resulting radical transformation of the aquatic

ecosystems. In the current situation, the restoration plans

designed by international agencies and bodies like the GEF and

IUCN inevitably depend on guaranteeing sufficient water input

of at least 20 million cubic metres per year.16 Due to these cir-

cumstances, Ichkeul has been on the List of World Heritage in

Danger since 1996.

Apart from the obvious differences of scale and bio-geo-

graphic characteristics, both this case and Doñana are very sim-

ilar to what happened in the Everglades,which is in the same cat-

egory of endangered heritage. The size of the Everglades

Biosphere Reserve is slightly larger, with a floodable area includ-

ed in the Ramsar list of 566,143 ha, which is twenty times larg-

er than Doñana, although this is only half the original wetland

area of 1800.

Before the arrival of European settlers in Florida, the water

of the immense Okeechobee Lake flowed slowly south, along a

watercourse that was wide enough, at some points, to cover up

to one hundred kilometres of surrounding flood plain. The

Everglades were really a wide shallow river running across an

extensive prairie. But an extensive network of canals was dug in

the early 19th century to drain the area to turn it into farmland.

Over the years, arable land beyond measure was cleared

between the great upper lake and the immense mouth of the

Before the arrival of European settlers in Florida, the Everglades were real-ly a wide shallow river running across an extensive prairie. Over the yearsover 2,400 km of drainage canals were built, which radically transformedthe hydrological system, and until a few years ago, were diverting anaverage of 600 hm3 per day of fresh water into the Atlantic Ocean. Photograph by Eva Mª Alonso Vizcaino.

37

coastal marshes, drained by over 2,400 km of canals that radical-

ly transformed the hydrological system.This massive transforma-

tion grew exponentially after 1948 until it reached the point

where, until a few years ago, the canals were diverting an aver-

age of 600 hm3 per day of fresh water into the Atlantic Ocean.

The efforts that have been made with the Everglades hydro-

logical restoration plan, perhaps the most expensive and compli-

cated wetland conservation operation in the world, show that

this is no time for making irresponsible decisions as made in the

past.This is because the cost of restoration, not to mention the

irreplaceable loss of biological capital, is a heavy burden on future

generations. The apparent social and political impossibility of

curbing farmland expansion, and the need to "protect" the

waterside urban spread of Miami's mass conurbation from the

waters themselves, forced the authorities to develop an impres-

sive mechanism of water storage, diversion and pumping. This

ended in restricting the traditional inputs into the surviving wet-

lands. In practise, input quantities are presently being guaranteed

with an unprecedented investment in energy, infrastructure and

maintenance. At the same time, the colossal restoration pro-

gramme, consisting of 52 actions over a period of 20 years, faces

new problems similar to those of Doñana, such as the need to

treat waters laden with nutrients from industry or agriculture,

or to mitigate the effects arising from the contamination of

underground aquifers. Maintaining ecosystems also needs meas-

ures established to guarantee the level and behaviour of bodies

of water, in a terrain in which centimetres turn into mountains17.

The relative similarity between the risk factors was the basis on

which the members of the Doñana 2005 Project Committee of

Experts sent a mission to the Everglades in 2003 to seek points

in common for facing the complex task of restoring Doñana.

The case of the Danube Delta rests on similar assumptions.

All the conflict involved in conserving its immense basin and

associated wetlands in the many countries along its course cul-

minates in this delta.This is a conflict that also exists upstream,

as can be seen from the inclusion of the Donau-March-Auen

Ramsar site (Austria) in the Montreux Register in 1990. The

delta of the Danube is the largest in Europe,encompassing about

580,000 hectares, 113,000 of which are permanently covered by

water. Its survival is currently threatened by mistakes made and

decisions taken similar to those made last century in Doñana

and the Everglades, with the difference that we now have the

technical and scientific capacity to prevent the consequences of

major hydrological alterations. A shipping channel that the

Ukraine is dredging in the delta threatens the survival of over

500 species of birds and fish that inhabit this Biosphere Reserve.

Countries like Germany and Romania, the principal victims, and

international agencies like UNESCO and the Ramsar

Convention, asked for the works to be stopped and for an envi-

ronmental impact assessment be carried out on the project. But

the authorities of Kiev started building this channel on the

Bistroe Arm in May 2004, without informing Romania, where

80% of the vast marshland area is located.Their intention is to

open a link with the Black Sea.The Ukrainian government, which

This image, taken by the Terrasatellite, shows two coastalwetlands of the Baja Californiapeninsula. The darker circleshows the San Ignacio Lagoon,a World Heritage Site part ofthe El Vizcaino BiosphereReserve that also includes thelagoon system Ojo de Liebre atthe top-right of the image.Social pressure, determinationof environmental authoritiesand the involvment of interna-tional organisations allowedthe integral conservation ofthese salt marshes unique inthe world.The UNESCO’s missioncharged by the World HeritageCentre to prepare the reporton this threatened area wasmade up by Mechtild Rössler(UNESCO), Cipriano Marín(INSULA), Randall R. Reeves(Canada) and Pedro ManuelRosabal González (IUCN).

Photograph: Jacques Descloitres, MODISLand Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC.

38

has ignored all the complaints presented to them, justifies the

project by the fact that they need their own maritime-fluvial

channel in the region; a channel 120 kilometres long, with a

depth of 10 metres and a width of between 100 and 500 metres

to ensure that it is navigable.

The other side of the coin is represented by the case of El

Vizcaino. In an act without precedent in the Mexican

Government's management of the environment, President

Ernesto Zedillo announced the decision to completely cancel

the ESSA project during the "Evaluation of National Bio-diversi-

ty Conservation Policy" meeting, held on the 2nd of March 2000.

Backed by Mitsubishi, the ESSA project surrounded the San

Ignacio lagoon; a whale sanctuary declared a World Heritage site

and part of the Biosphere Reserve of the same name enclosing

one of the most interesting virgin marshlands on the planet.The

project consisted of developing a great industrial salt works that

would directly affect some 30,000 ha of land bordering on the

natural salt flats and would represent a major alteration to their

hydrological regime. The decision of the government was the

conclusive response to a report drafted by the Mission and sent

by UNESCO18 to evaluate the impact of the project on the nat-

ural values of the site. It was presented at the 23rd Session of the

World Heritage Committee held in Marrakech in November

1999. The UNESCO Mission's ruling explicitly recognised that

traditional salt production is not exactly an very aggressive activ-

ity with this kind of habitat and that the grey whale sanctuary

would not be seriously affected by it, but at the same time it did

warn that what made this project extremely dangerous was its

scale and the influence it would have on the hydrology of the

marshes. For the first time, a decision of this kind included two

concepts put forward to justify its rejection, breaking the bound-

aries of how losses in biological diversity would traditionally be

dealt with.The ruling argued that the activity should be an inte-

gral part of a sustainable development strategy in which water

was a central player, which was not the case, especially as the

project was within a Biosphere Reserve. Moreover, it included a

new social dimension in that there was a lack of provisos for

altering the existing natural landscape, resources that are

increasingly rare on the planet. It questioned the legal grounds

that made it possible to alter this common heritage, just when

other activities and economies that were far more environmen-

tally friendly were being developed in the area (selective fishing,

pharmacology, responsible tourism, and agriculture of native

products). For the first time, a whole coastal wetland of this size

has been rescued because of the convergence of several factors

that mobilised society and the scientific community: integrated

conservation of a wetland, non-intervention when there is a high

degree of uncertainty, strict application of sustainable develop-

ment criteria, and recognition of these areas as the heritage of

society as a whole. Some months later, James E. Brumm, Vice

President of Mitsubishi, declared in a public appearance that "the

preservation of the area in its natural condition is more impor-

tant that proceeding with the salt works".

As with the above cases, the Doñana Ramsar site was includ-

ed in the Montreux Register in 1990, following Recommendation

4.9.1, which noted that "despite positive actions, there is still a

risk of changes to the ecological character of the Ramsar site as

a result of water being drawn for farming and the development

of tourism, among other problems". The reasons for including

the site in the Montreux Register are grounded on the reason-

able doubt that these activities would over-exploit the regional

aquifer, hence diminishing the levels of groundwater, causing a

reduction in the duration and the level of seasonal flooding in

the Doñana Marshes. But, unlike Doñana, the other sites men-

tioned as benchmark sites are included in the List of World

Heritage in Danger.

This brief description of the planet's most emblematic

coastal wetlands, or at least those considered as included in the

leading international natural environment protection conven-

tions and programmes, enables us to put forward a new exem-

plar that shapes their survival.This is based on their hydrological

restoration as the fundamental challenge and the crux of all

actions. In fact, the World Water Development Report (2004)

explicitly recognises the essential role that these "living water

laboratories" play. In addition to the above cases, it mentions

other coastal wetlands of world importance like the Camargue.

The Report corresponds with the above views, encouraging the

development of international co-operation based on knowing

what can be implemented in these benchmark cases. It not only

Marshes and lagoons have always been a mysterious source of inspirationfor artists in several cultures. In the image, a reproduction of the painting"Crossing the Styx", by the Flamish peinter Joachim Patinir born inBouvignes in 1485.Prado Museum. Madrid.

39

highlights the importance of conservation policies, but also the

new challenges of generating innovation in the area of integrat-

ed management of water resources, the restoration of degraded

systems and the maintenance of acceptable water quality

standards.The challenge is not so much to overcome the

negative perceptions provoked by an alert ruling on the

conservation of an area, but rather to recognise that

critical situations have come about in these territories

that have generated solutions, be they right or wrong,

and that all the cases together as a whole provide an

enormous potential for scientific knowledge and

management know-how that could be harnessed or

replicated in many other coastal wetlands.

BENEFITS BEYOND THEIR BORDERS

Enhancing skills and exchanging experiences on the manage-

ment and conservation of these waterscapes will add value, as

we gain a better insight into the future benefits that the wet-

lands provide for mankind. The known beneficial functions of

the wetlands include:

- Export of biomass. Wetlands are systems

that offer an enormous wealth of flora and

fauna that are directly or indirectly usable

by man. These include both wild

species (fish, birds, plants) and domes-

tic species (rice, livestock, reeds, etc.)

Apart from this production, nutrients

are carried by watercourses, and the

run-off or re-charging of aquifers

feeds other freshwater or marine

environments, where they enter the

food chain and are re-cycled and

reused.

- Re-charging aquifers. This

occurs when the water fil-

ters from the wetland to the

aquifers below ground. The

water that reaches the aquifer is

usually of higher quality than the water

originally entering the wetland thanks to its

capacity to purify. Once in the aquifer, the water

can be drawn off for human consumption, or it can be

left to follow the subterranean flow until it rises to the sur-

face again in another wetland, in the form of aquifer discharge.

- Nutrient retention. In certain conditions, nutrients - especially

nitrogen and phosphorus - are retained by the plants and sedi-

ments of the wetlands, improving water quality and preventing

eutrophication. The nitrates can be reconverted into nitrogen

gas and fed back into the atmosphere as a result of denitrifica-

tion. The wetlands may sometimes act as natural water treat-

ment plants. On the other hand, some wetlands play an

important role in retaining CO2.The masses of marsh

plants, and especially the peaty organic deposits pro-

duced by the accumulation of the plants remains,

account for a large

proportion

of the car-

bon fixed as

organic mat-

ter. This capacity to retain

nutrients make many wet-

lands some of the most

productive ecosystems

known to man, to the

extent that they can com-

pete with systems of inten-

sive agriculture. In some African wetlands,

annual primary production of papyrus

amounts to 100 tonnes per hectare and

typha (bulrushes) varies

between 30 and 70

tonnes per hectare.

These figures are similar

to and even exceed the

commercial production

figures for maize (63

tonnes per hectare) and

sugar cane (60 tonnes

per hectare).

- Fisheries and shellfish

production. Marine

species provide 20% of

all the animal protein

consumed on the

planet. Two thirds of

the fish eaten

worldwide depend

on coastal wetlands at some

stage in their biological cycle, so this is

an extremely important function for mankind

that goes way beyond the fixed borders of these threat-

ened zones. Our knowledge of the role that wetlands play as

critical habitats necessary for the development of many wild

species in their larval and juvenile stages grows day by day, and

Waterwheels, wind-mills, stone walls andparticular buildingssuch as piledwellings, make upthe incredibly variedlist of constructiveelements associatedto coastal wetlandsthroughout theworld. In the image,engraving of an oldwind-mill of theJanubio salt-works.Lanzarote.Engraving: Antonio Ramos

40

some of these species are of great commercial value. In the early

stages of their life, these species use wetlands temporarily,

before moving to the surrounding habitats. For example, the

mangrove swamps of the Pacific coastlines maintain an average

of over one hundred species of fish that grow there before leav-

ing for coastal waters.

- Plant food. Wetlands are the natural habitat of rice, a principal

food cereal. Most varieties are grown in modified wetland habi-

tats. It is estimated that in Asia alone, over two billion people

depend on the sources of protein provided by wetland agricul-

tural production and fish.

- Biodiversity and genetic resources. From the point of view of

ecosystems, coastal wetlands are a basic source of genetic

resources that include potentially essential basic products, for

key industries like pharmacology in the future. One example of

such potential is found in the alga Dunaliella salina, from which

basic substances are extracted for treating cancer. Some wet-

lands are also valuable for the conservation of certain native

breeds and varieties of organism, like the Mostrenca cows and

the Lebrijana sheep of the Guadalquivir marshes, or the drum

rice that is still grown in the "veles" of s'Albufera, in Majorca.

- Protection from storms. Coastal wetlands help to dissipate the

force of the wind and the waves and often reduce the damage

caused by storms, which is especially important in tropical

False coloured image ofSouthern Florida takenby the Terra satellite. Itclearly shows the bigOkeechobee lake whichonce fed Everglades.The large, green-dottedbrown area is the pres-ent wetland area, evi-dently squeezedbetween a large stripopf cultivated landsand the Miami hugeurbanised area thatstretches along the east-ern coast. These mainfeatures are sufficientto understand the com-plexity of one of themost ambitious hydro-logical restorations evermade.

Photograph: Jacques Descloitres,MODIS Land Rapid ResponseTeam, NASA/GSFC.

This painting was produced in Costa Rica during the 7th meeting of theConference of the Contracting Parties (COP) to the Ramsar Convention,May 1999. The 7 indigenous artists, from the Solentiname archipelago inthe south-east corner of Lake Cocibolca, Nicaragua, live in fishing andfarming communities that are closely linked to their wetland environment.Their presence at the Conference was part of a much larger project organ-ized by IUCN-Mesoamerica that brought together local groups in severalcountries to discuss the importance of wetlands in their lives; an outcomeof the meeting was a "People's declaration on wetlands", which was subse-quently presented at the Conference. As part of the project, a workshopfor artists in Solentiname encouraged an artistic expression of the closerelationship between the people and their wetlands, and a group of theseartists, working during the COP in Costa Rica, produced this painting oftheir Solentiname environment. The painting is currently displayed in theoffice of the Secretary General of the Ramsar Convention in Switzerland.The 7 artists: F ernando Altamirano, Paula Clarisa Arellano, Rodolfo Arellano, Silvia Arellano, GloriaGuevara, Elba Jiménez, Rosa Pineda

41

regions.

- Stabilising the coast and controlling erosion. Typical wetland

vegetation can stabilise the coastline by reducing the energy of

waves, currents and other forces of erosion.At the same time,

the roots of the plants sustain seabed sediments.The vegetation

of riverbank wetlands, in turn, stabilises the banks of these rivers

and thus, reduces erosion.

- Climate change. It is suspected that the wetlands play an impor-

tant part in the earth's carbon cycle, although it is not known to

what extent.What is beyond all doubt is that draining, convert-

ing swamps into farmlands and the widespread degradation of

the wetlands releases large quantities of carbon dioxide and

other green house gasses that could make a substantial contri-

bution to climate change.

Despite the way they have been treated, other clear contri-

butions that these zones have made to human survival should be

assessed objectively.The constant supply of plant products for a

wide range of purposes other than food would be such a case:

for building related purposes (wood, reeds, cane), for making

utensils (bulrushes), for making furniture (wood, reeds), for mak-

ing chemicals (lime), or for making fuel (firewood, peat). The

coastal marshes have also been a major source of salt for cen-

turies, a basic commodity in our civilisation that countless activ-

ities and applications depend on. Finally, in today's knowledge

society, wetlands have become hubs of economic development

with the appearance of new activities like tourism. Doñana,

Kakadu, the Everglades and the Pantanal are good examples of a

different way of making a healthy profit from these zones, creat-

ing a new form of cultural co-existence.

In this process of change, a new way of seeing the wetlands

is taking root.They have managed to survive the passage of civil-

isation, and the accumulated cultural heritage to be found in

these waters should not be forgotten. Some wetlands sustain

traditional activities that form part of the history of entire peo-

ples. For example, the Mai Po swamps are the only place left

where the residents of Hong Kong can see how the Gei Wai

(nurseries) work, where the local community uses a centuries-

old traditional method for breeding prawns19. In Australia, many

wetlands are of enormous social and cultural value for their tra-

ditional aboriginal owners. They still lead an active ceremonial

life and still use semi-traditional hunting and gathering practices

in the marshes of the Coburg Peninsula (the world's first Ramsar

site). Other wetlands are of outstanding archaeological impor-

tance, like the Stavns Fjord Ramsar site (Denmark), well known

for its archaeological remains, and one of the first Bronze Age

settlements to include buildings from the time of the Vikings. On

the other side of the world, the Kakadu National Park, in the

Northern Territory of

Australia, offers a land-

scape in which exten-

sive swamp alternates

with rugged mountain

relief, with caves full of

prehistoric rock paint-

ings. 196 archaeological

sites have been identi-

fied in Kakadu, many of

which are at least

10,000 years old20.

Concerning architectural heritage, lagoons and coastal

marshes have been the setting for some incredible works in

which man has adapted to his environment, some of which still

survive. One only has to mention the "Stazione da Pesca"

(Fishing Posts) of the Venice lagoon, the "corrales" making har-

monious shapes in the shallow waters of the Atlantic estuaries,

the "fish houses" forming labyrinths on the coasts of Kerkennah,

the old mussel farms of "Étang de Thau", or the incredible salt

pans of Guérande.These blend perfectly with the topography of

the marsh, in contrast with the Roman linear design of the thou-

sand-year-old salt works of Trapani, Marsala and Ibiza21. All of

these are expressions that give food for thought about the

capacity we used to have for harnessing and adapting to our

environment. They are highly imaginative projects, like the

Palafittes, that have flourished in shallow waters throughout the

world. In some places, they provide shelter for ethnic cultures

surviving from former times, like the Warao of the Orinoco

Delta, where a sustainable development programme has been

started to maintain this ancient symbiosis22.

The power of coastal waterscapes not only reaches the tan-

gible world, it is also relayed in traditions, myths, customs, arts

History repeats itself. The opening of a new navigable canal threatensagain the survival of large areas of the Danubio delta, completely chang-ing its hydrological system.Photograph : Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC.

Human activity in coastal wetlands has cre-ated a yet little-known cultural, industrialand ethnographic heritage. In the photo-graph, an ancient wind-mill of the salt-works in the Secovlje Ramsar site(Slovenia).Photograph by Emil Hilje.

42

and crafts, building up an intangible cultural heritage that emu-

lates the diverse biological heritage that inhabits it. In this publi-

cation, J.A.Valverde offers a magnificent sketch of this aspect in

Doñana. Not in vain, preferential attention has been paid to the

marshes and lagoons that dot the shoreline, as much by the

World Heritage Centre, defining them as "Cultural Landscapes",

as by the European Landscape Convention. Both international

conventions emphasise the power of spaces in which the work

of nature has been wisely combined with the work of man.

Given all of this, and if we merge the scientific perspective

with the environmental and cultural points of view, a large part

of the world's coastal wetlands have become, without a shadow

of doubt, genuine laboratories of innovation for sustainable

development.These places that are so significant for science, the

environment and for biodiversity, can and should become melt-

ing pots of experience and problem solving that may prevent

what we are seeing today in former Mesopotamia. Over 20,000

km2 of wetlands surrounding the confluence of the Tigris and the

Euphrates in the south of Iraq were the cradle of an important

branch of world civilisation. 5,000 years ago, at the dawn of the

Sumerian culture, extensive natural marshes lived in harmony

with a society that worshipped water and created artificial

islands. Birds and shallow waters were used as calming images

throughout history, permeating art, music and alphabets. In a

mere two decades, thoughtless waterworks have wiped out

unique areas of this cultural and ecological jewel that will end up

being buried by this senseless oil war - a war that does not even

respect the waterscapes that were the ancestral origins of the

cultures that its promoters claim to defend.

The Kakadu National Park, in the Northern Territory of Australia, offers a landscape in which extensive swamp alternates with rugged mountain relief, withcaves full of prehistoric rock paintings. 196 archaeological sites have been identified in Kakadu, many of which are at least 10,000 years old. It is undoubtedlyan emblematic example of fusion between cultural and natural heritage in the same wetland.Photograph: Kakadu National Park.

During the last decades, experience showed that conservation of threat-ened species living in wetlands is increasingly linked with the amount ofwater resources that support these landscapes and to the functionalrestoration of their disturbed hydrological systems. Above, an imperialeagle, one of the symbols of Doñana.Photograph: Doñana 2005 files.

43

TABLE 6Coastal wetlands conatained in areas declared Biosphere Reserves or included in the World Heritage list and their coincidence with the Ramsar listof wetlands of international importance.

COUNTRY BIOSPHERE RESERVE WORLD HERITAGE SITE RAMSAR SITE

Algeria El Kala Marais de la MekhadaGermany Waddensea of Schleswig-Holstein Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer

Waddensea of Hamburg Hamburgisches WattenmeerWaddensea of Lower Saxony Wattenmeer, Elbe-Weser-Dreieck

Wattenmeer, Jadebusen & westliche WesermündungWattenmeer, Ostfriesisches Wattenmeer & Dollart

RügenArgentina Delta del Paraná

Costero del Sur Bahía de SamborombónMar Chiquita

Australia CroajingolongMornington Peninsula and Western Port Western Port

Fraser Island Great Sandy StraitKakadu National Park Kakadu National ParkWet Tropics of Queensland

Bangladesh Sundarbans SundarbansBelize Belize Barrier-Reef Reserve SystemBurkina Faso La Mare aux hippopotames La Mare aux hippopotamesBrazil Mata Atlántica Atlantic Forest Southeast Reserves Baixada Maranhense

Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves Reentrâncias Maranhenses

Canada Clayoquot SoundCharlevoixGrand Codroy Estuary

Chile Laguna San RafaelChina Shankou Mangrove Shankou Mangrove Nature Reserve

Yancheng Dafeng National Nature ReserveYancheng National Nature Reserve

Nanji IslandsColombia Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Sistema Delta Estuarino del Río Magdalena

Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta.Costa Rica Area de Conservación GuanacasteCuba Ciénaga de Zapata Ciénaga de Zapata

Península de GuanahacabibesBaconaoBuenavista

Dominicana Republic Jaragua-Bahoruco-Enriquillo Ecuador Archipelago de Galápagos Archipelago de Galápagos Humedales del Sur de IsabelaSpain Doñana Parque Nacional de Doñana Parque Nacional de Doñana

Urdaibai Ria de Mundaka-GuernikaCabo de Gata-Nijar Salinas del Cabo de GataMarismas del Odiel Marismas del OdielLanzarote

Estonia West Estonian Archipelago Hiiumaa Islets & Käina Bay Vilsandi - National ParkLaidevahe - Natural Reserve

France Camargue CamargueLa Petite Camargue

Archipel de la Guadeloupe Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin de la GuadeloupeIndia Sundarbans SundarbansIndonesia Komodo Parque Nacional de Komodo

Ujung KulonIran Hara Khouran Straits

Miankaleh Miankaleh Peninsula, Gorgan BayLapoo-Zaghmaz Ab-bandan

Ireland North Bull Island North Bull IslandMauritania Banc d'Arguin Banc d'ArguinMexico Alto Golfo de California

El Vizcaino Santuario Ballenero El Vizcaíno Laguna San IgnacioIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSian Ka'an Sian Ka'an

Netherlands Waddensea Area BoschplaatGriendWaddenzee

Nicaragua Río San Juan Refugio de Vida Silvestre Río San JuanPhilippines Palawan Tubbataha Reef Marine Park Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park

Polonia Slowinski Parque Nacional SlowinskiRumania Delta del Danubio Danubio Delta Danubio River DeltaRussian Federation Astrakhanskiy Volga River Delta

Commander IslandsSenegal Delta du Saloum Delta du Saloum

Djoudj DjoudjSouth Africa Cape West Coast Langebaan

Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park Upper Kwa Zulu NatalTunisia Ichkeul Ichkeul IchkeulUkraina Chernomorskiy United Kingdom Dyfi Cors Fochno & Dyfi

Loch Druidibeg Loch Druidibeg, Loch à Machair and Loch StilligarryNorth Norfolk Coast North Norfolk CoastBraunton BurrowsSilver Flowe-Merrick Kells Silver Flowe

United States of America Everglades & Dry Tortugas Everglades National Park EvergladesCarolinian-South AtlanticVirginia CoastCentral Gulf Coast PlainChannel IslandsCalifornia Coast RangesCascade Head

Uruguay Bañados del Este Bañados del Este y Franja CosteraVietnam Ha Long Bay

isms, from single cell microbes only visible to a microscope, to giant

trees, enormous whales and elephants.

Strictly speaking, Biodiversity is a quality or characteristic of liv-

ing entities, but the sense of the meaning has been broadened in

the literature, to include not only the very diversity of life on Earth,

but also to encompass all life itself, as an entity or a resource

(Heywood and Watson, 1995;Wilson, 1992).

Scientists distinguish and analyse Biodiversity at least on three

different levels of organisation: ecosystems, species and genes, the

traits and qualities of which have been defined and described by dif-

ferent authors, (Heywood and Watson, 1995; Raven, 1997;Wilson,

1992,1988,1997) and which are summarised in broad terms below.

An ecosystem is commonly known as a community of species

of organisms that interact between themselves and with the phys-

ical environment around them. Some macro-types of ecosystems

can be defined in general terms, as a tropical forest, a wetland or a

moor. But despite of the fact that ecosystems of a certain macro-

type may share certain features, they are always different, they are

never identical, due to differences in the identity of the species that

they consist of,or in the characteristics of the physical environment

around them. Some ecosystems, in turn, shelter unique, endemic

species that only exist in certain places and environments and

which can be found nowhere else.

One of the major problems facing biodiversity lies in these

unique features of an ecosystem and in the destruction and disap-

pearance of ecosystems with unique qualities, which are not even

45

The importance of Biodiversity

RODRIGO GÁMEZ *

45

The term Biodiversity, synonymous of Biological Diversity,

has become globally popular since the proceedings of the

National Biodiversity Forum, organised by the American National

Academy of Sciences and held in Washington D.C. in 1986, were

published in 1988 (Wilson, 1988). Biodiversity appeared in scientif-

ic literature nearly 20 years ago (Lovejoy, 1980), and it was already

being used in Costa Rica in scientific and conservationist circles

since1996. The Convention on Biological Diversity, a result of the

United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development

held at Rio in 1992,made a significant contribution to spreading the

concept on a global scale, introducing the term Biodiversity to the

general public.

In simple terms, the diversity of life forms that live in the bios-

phere is what we understand as Biodiversity. One quality of living

beings is that they are all different from each others. This gives

them the ability to occupy the most diverse forms of niches in the

biosphere, wherever they may find available energy, giving them, in

turn, the particular characteristics of the landscapes of the places

they occupy. We can see this in the full range of the Earth's natu-

ral formations, from the depths of the oceans to the summits of the

highest mountain ranges, and from the tropical rain forests to the

most arid and driest of deserts. We can appreciate it in the

immense and fascinating variety of shapes and sizes of living organ-

* National Biodiversity Institute.Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica.

Scientists analyse Biodiversity on several different levels of organisation, such as communities, species, and genes. In the picture, flock of terns in DoñanaNational Park.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

46

shared by other ecosystems close by, which may be similar, but not

the same.

Ecosystems are naturally difficult to classify and define, or even

to delimit geographically. Species, on the other hand, are easier to

define and describe, which is why they have become the focus of

attention of biologists for several hundred years, used as basic ele-

ments in dealing with taxonomic and phylo-genetic issues or stud-

ies of a bio-geographic nature.

But the definition of species too, faces problems. Biologists

define a species as a population of individuals capable of breeding

with each other, of freely exchanging their genes among the popu-

lation, under natural conditions.This concept is highly applicable to

most animals and plants, but it is unsure as to whether it is applica-

ble to populations of organisms that occupy different geographic

ranges.

Where the difficulty in using this concept of species becomes

most evident is in the case of organisms that do not reproduce

sexually, or in species in which sexual reproduction is unimportant

in their life cycle. This is the case of bacteria and archi-bacteria,

which are the most primitive and most abundant forms of life on

Earth. In these cases, other criteria are used for characterising and

classifying them, mainly bio-chemical and molecular in nature.

Biological diversity on a genetic level deals with the variability

caused by the appearance of different forms of the same gene, that

is, of the alleles, the product of mutations that, in turn, cause varia-

tions in the sequences of nucleotides of the DNA macro-mole-

cules. Sexual reproduction clearly also leads to a mixture of alleles

by recombination.There are also other processes that cause muta-

tions but, in the end, and regardless of their origin, it is the muta-

tions that directly affect the basic characteristics that determine an

individual and, in turn, a population.

The knowledge that we have of the biodiversity is still very lim-

ited.There is no consensus among scientists concerning the num-

ber of species that exist on the planet. Nearly 1.9 million of them

have been described scientifically, but estimations of the total num-

ber of species vary from 3 to 100 million, and 5 to 15 million is con-

sidered a plausible range. Our ignorance of Biodiversity at an eco-

logical and genetic level is even greater.

Given the nature of the processes that lead to its creation, bio-

diversity is the product of millions of years of evolution that occur

in a given place at a given time.This is something that we human

beings should appreciate and value, as a form of wealth of a nation,

just as we do with material and cultural wealth, and this is one of

the most precious legacies to be found in Doñana (Wilson, 1992).

Mankind has taken de facto control of the biosphere and the

tragedy that we face is that we are irrationally destroying this won-

derful work of nature.We have triggered the sixth great extinction

faced by biodiversity without yet understanding its origin and its

formation, characteristics or how it works. Moreover, we do not

understand the vital role that it plays for mankind, for our own

welfare.

The knowledge that we have of the biodiversity is still very limited. There isno consensus among scientists concerning the number of species that existon the planet. Nearly 1.9 million have been described scientifically, but esti-mations of the total number of species vary from 3 to 100 million.Photograph: CENEAM files.

The diversity of life forms that live in the biosphere is what we understand as the Biodiversity. One quality of living beings is that they are all different fromeach others. This gives them the ability to occupy the most diverse forms of niches in the biosphere. Pine trees emerging from a “corral” surrounded by dunesin Doñana.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

ecosystems worldwide. Such driving forces include: demograph-

ic factors; economic factors (e.g. trade); institutional, legal and

other governance factors; development and the use of new tech-

nologies; climate change; natural hazards; land use changes; envi-

ronmental policies (e.g., on use of fertilizers, biological control,

etc.); access to resources and use; etc.24.

The number of wetland biosphere reserves

worldwide is relatively small - compared with, for

example, the total number of wetland sites in

the world. However, they are important

due to their role as 'living laboratories'

for demonstrating workable, partici-

patory solutions to achiev-

ing sustainable develop-

ment. The Doñana

Biosphere Reserve is one

of such 'laboratories'.

Here, the tremendous

ongoing efforts to rehabili-

tate the site after the Aznalcollar

mine spill in 1998 will serve as a 'learn-

ing case' for many other sites with simi-

lar problems.

THE 'BIOSPHERE RESERVE' CONCEPT

Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal

ecosystems under a particular set of management regimes

known as the 'biosphere reserve concept.' They are internation-

ally recognized within the framework of the UNESCO's inter-

governmental programme on Man and the Biosphere (MaB), and

remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are

located.

Biosphere reserves are united globally into the World

Network of Biosphere Reserves: and currently there are 440

sites established in 97 countries. Although biosphere reserves

are found in very different geographical, economic and cultural

contexts, they do have a common interest in seeking concrete

solutions to reconcile biodiversity conservation with sustainable

use of natural resources, for the benefit of local people, based on

commonly agreed approaches.

47

Wetlands and Biosphere Reserveslaboratories of sustainable development

MIREILLE JARDIN *, SALVATORE ARICO *

47

Under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MaB)

Programme, at least 60 'biosphere reserves' in some 38

countries, out of a total number of 440 biosphere reserves in 97

countries, host wetland systems. These are sites dominated by

wetland ecosystems and where wetlands are the subject of

research and monitoring activities. Moreover, sites list-

ed both under the MaB Programme and the

Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, 1971) - the Ramsar

Convention - count at least 74 MaB biosphere

reserves and 85 sites under the Ramsar

List of Wetlands of International impor-

tance, in 43 countries.

These slight differ-

ences in counting can be

attributed to the fact

that certain biosphere

reserves may include

more than one Ramsar

site. In any event, these

figures show that there

is a significant number of biosphere

reserves having wetlands as their dominant

ecosystem type in all parts of the world.

The global distribution of wetland bios-

phere reserves is representative both from the point of view of

geographic and biogeographic features, which determine differ-

ent wetland types.Wetland biosphere reserves cover: wetlands

in arid and semi-arid lands such as wadis, gueltas or saline and

intermittent lakes; wetland systems associated with coral reefs,

mangroves, lagoons, inter-tidal mudflats and other types of

coastal systems; wetlands in mountain and highland systems,

including high altitude lakes; wetlands in tropical humid systems,

sub-tropical and temperate wetland systems; boreal wetlands,

including different bog, fen and mire systems; etc.

Moreover, and perhaps more importantly, as a whole, these

wetland sites are subject to most of the socioeconomic drivers

of environmental use and change that have an effect on these

* UNESCO's Division of Ecological Sciences and Man and the Biosphere ProgrammeSecretariat, UNESCO.The authors thank J. Robertson of UNESCO-MAB for her revision of the manuscript.

48

Ideally, fully functioning biosphere reserves perform three

main roles:

- conservation in situ of ecosystems and landscapes, as well as

their inherent diversity;

- the establishment of demonstration areas for ecologically

and socio-culturally sustainable land and water resource use;

and

- the provision of logistic support for research, monitoring,

education, training and information exchange related to con-

servation and sustainable development issues.

These functions are associated through a zonation system

(see Figure 1) consisting of a core area with minimal human

activities such as non-extractive research and monitoring (there

may be several patchy core areas within in a single biosphere

reserve). The surrounding area acts as a buffer for the core and

accommodates more interventionist human activities such as envi-

ronmental education, training, as well as tourism and recreation.An

outer transition area, or area of cooperation, extends outwards

and serves as a liaison with the larger region in which the biosphere

reserve lies, and promotes in particular the development role with

activities such as, traditional use or rehabilitation of ecosystems,

human settlements, agriculture, fisheries, etc. It is here that research

is applied to resolve resource use problems.

Initially, the three zones were presented schematically as a

series of concentric rings. However, the zonation is usually

implemented in many different ways to accommodate local geo-

graphic conditions and constraints (see Figure 1).This flexibility

allows for creativity and adaptability, and is one of the strengths

of the concept. In particular, the logistic function of biosphere

reserves described above aims to promote scientific research

and monitoring in biosphere reserves,which in some ways serve

as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating inte-

grated management of land, water and biodiversity.The way in

which biosphere reserves are organized and run differs from site

to site but the key idea is that a mechanism is set up fostering

cooperation amongst the participating institutions, which agree

upon an overall management policy for the whole biosphere

reserve. Such an overall policy or vision is particularly important

for wetland biosphere reserves, with their interconnectivity of

upstream and downstream actions.

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves serves to fos-

ter exchanges among sites, for example, knowledge about, or

experience in resolving, specific issues (such as conflicts over

access to resources), and to facilitate cooperative activities,

including scientific research and monitoring, environmental edu-

cation and specialist training.The World Network itself is com-

FIGURE 1Theoretical zonation scheme for biosphere reserves.

CORE AREA(S)

BUFFER AREA(S)

TRANSITION AREA(S)

Research Station

Monitoring

Education/training

Tourism

49

posed of a number of geographic regional and thematic sub-net-

works.The provisions pertaining to the establishment and man-

agement of biosphere reserves are spelled out in the Seville

Strategy for Biosphere Reserves and the Statutory Framework

of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves25.

WETLAND BIOSPHERE RESERVES AS

LABORATORIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Wetland systems stabilize mobile substrata through the

mechanical action of wetland plant species,which thus reduce soil

or sediment erosion and allow other species to establish them-

selves.They are a source of organic matter, which is the basis for

complex trophic (food and energy) interactions, and which makes

wetlands among the most productive ecosystems in the world.

They provide home and shelter to many species, including

humankind.They also provide many other services, including sup-

plies of freshwater, maintenance of water quality, fibers for cloth-

ing, medicinal plants and animals, active compounds for pharma-

ceuticals, etc.

Yet, wetland systems worldwide are subject to unsustainable

human impacts, which continue increasing in frequency and inten-

sity.Habitat fragmentation and loss, over-harvesting of species and

populations, introductions of invasive species, pollution, climate

change - all these factors affect negatively the sustainability of wet-

lands and their continued provision of ecological services that are

a precept to human well-being. In particular, wetlands are particu-

larly prone to receiving discharges and toxic material from activi-

ties upstream (as was the case with the Doñana with the mine

spill): this underlines the need to publicize the results of rehabili-

tation work for the benefit of other countries.

Although neither science nor policy, nor their combined

efforts have succeeded in formulating a 'magic' cocktail of ingredi-

ents for ensuring sustainability in man's interaction with nature,

there are lessons that start emerging in the context of specific dis-

ciplines with respect to what makes sustainable development pos-

sible, including lessons relating to wetland systems.

As one example, there is evidence that the success of education

programmes depends on proper programme design, on approaches

which ensure a high degree of engagement of participants, on the

degree of impact of the programme on increasing knowledge about

the issues being dealt with, on the respect for the specificity of local

perceptions,etc., as shown in Example 1 below. In addition,education

programmes need to regularly evaluated and monitored, so that they

can be adapted to changing conditions.

The global distribution of wetland biosphere reserves is representative both from the point of view of geographic and biogeographic features, which determinedifferent wetland types. Wetland biosphere reserves cover: wetlands in arid and semi-arid lands such as wadis, gueltas or saline and intermittent lakes; wetlandsystems associated with coral reefs, mangroves, lagoons, inter-tidal mudflats and other types of coastal systems; wetlands in mountain and highland systems,including high altitude lakes; wetlands in tropical humid systems, sub-tropical and temperate wetland systems; boreal wetlands, including different bog, fenand mire systems. In the phortograph, Trinitario River wetlands, Cuba.Photograph by Bárbara García Moreda.

50

CONCLUSIONS

Biosphere reserves provide a tool for sustainable development,

including of wetlands, in that they strive for a balance between con-

servation of biodiversity and of key ecological services, sustainable

use of resources, and the equitable sharing of benefits arising from

the utilization of those resources and biodiversity.They are adapt-

ed, both in their purpose and structure, to cushion changes and to

provide means to adapt to them.They provide an array of mecha-

nisms for all relevant stakeholders for discussing, negotiating and

responding to present and emerging pressures and issues. Not less

importantly, they provide a tool for preventing conflicts over access

to and use of natural resources and geographical space. In short,

biosphere reserves, including wetland biosphere reserves, can help

a great deal in consolidating and linking the environmental, eco-

nomic, social and cultural pillars of sustainable development.

Experiences gathered in the case of wetland biosphere

reserves, examples of which are contained in Box 1 below, have

demonstrated that sustainable development requires, inter alia23:

- undertaking conservation actions of key ecological services

and of the biodiversity within those ecosystems, and aligning

local conservation efforts with national and international

objectives, including through transboundary conservation

measures (see Example 2);

- ensuring sustainable economies, through the promotion of

'quality economies' (see Example 3) and/or of measures for

the sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of the

resources under consideration;

- ensuring social and cultural sustainability of the human popu-

lations inhabiting biosphere reserves (see Example 4);

- using scientific research and monitoring to tailor sustainable

development actions to local conditions and needs (see

Example 5).

Wetlands are a source of organic matter, which is the basis for complex trophic (food and energy) interactions, and which makes wetlands among the mostproductive ecosystems in the world. In the image, false coloured satellite view of the Lena River delta, the largest protected area in Russia.Image: Landsat 7 TM, USGS-NASA (7/27/2000).

51

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN THE WETLAND CAPE WEST COAST BIOSPHERE RESERVE.The Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve lies on the coast to the northof Cape Town in South Africa. It is characterized by the local dominantbiome - the fynbos (Mediterranean sclerophyllous shrublands), with spe-cific coastal marine areas and wetland systems.The area is an importantnursery for several fish species as well as a haven for birds (the area hoststhe largest colony of gulls in South Africa): people are also very muchpresent, engaged in farming and fisheries.The active local environmentaleducation center has played an important role in achieving a balancebetween the ecologically and economic supporting functions of this wet-land site.

CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES IN THE WETLAND TONLE SAP BIOSPHERE RESERVE.The Great Tonle Sap Lake, located in central Cambodia, is the largestfreshwater body in South-East Asia. The Biosphere Reserve covers thelake as well as the flood plains, which play a key economic role for theregion, in that they provide 80% of the proteins consumed within thecountry.The area is a living demonstration on how combined ecohydro-logical and ecological conservation approaches can sustain the key ecolog-ical functions and services of his huge wetland system, on which severalmillion people depend.

PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIES IN THE WETLANDYANCHENG BIOSPHERE RESERVE.The Yancheng Biosphere Reserve is locat-ed in the central part of the east coast ofChina and covers an area of 280,000hectares. Some 90,000 people live in thissite, plus some 20,000 visitors every year.Increasing demand for land puts greatpressure on the wetland systems in thearea, with wetlands being normallyreplaced with managed fishponds. In

order to reach a compromise between ecological and social sustainabil-ity in the biosphere reserve, a combination of natural and social sciencestudies are conducted, and the information collected used for adaptinglocal economic activities to the features of the wetland system in thearea, so as to promote appropriate technologies and habitat manage-ment measures.

ENSURING SOCIAL STABILITY IN THE WETLAND LOBAU BIOSPHERE RESERVE.The Lobau Biosphere Reserve in Austria Major is a multi-habitat site,which is characterized by hardwood forest systems (including partly arti-ficial tree monocultures), rivers, lakes, and wet meadows.The area is sub-ject to human activities such as small-scale fishing, timber production andrecreation. However, because of its important role as the area that pro-vides groundwater resources for the city of Vienna, the area has beenprotected since the early last century so that it can perform this func-tion sustainably (the area has been significantly man-managed and adapt-ed to this end ).As access to water can be one key factor of social sus-tainability (as demonstrated by the numerous conflicts over access towater resources worldwide), the sustainable management of this wetlandarea guarantees, in addition to ecological sustainability, also the sustain-ability of a non-negligible portion of Austrian society.

RESEARCH & MONITORINGIN THE WETLAND CIÉNAGAGRANDE DE SANTA MARTABIOSPHERE RESERVE.The Ciénaga Grande de SantaMarta Biosphere Reserve islocated in the northern part ofColombia and covers an areaconsidered to be one of themain coastal wetlands in SouthAmerica. Research activities inthis biosphere reserves arevery developed and span fromfundamental studies, aimed atthe collection of baseline datafor future reference, to appliedresearch on monitoring ofwater quality, biodiversity stud-ies at the species and ecosys-

tem levels, environmental and strategic impact assessments, and socioe-conomic studies.The information collected is used for sustainably man-aging the fisheries in the local coral reef and mangrove systems, and toplan local agricultural activities (banana and African palm plantations).

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

EXAMPLE 3

EXAMPLE 4

EXAMPLE 5

Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in DoñanaPhotograph by Antonio Sabater

FUNCTION AND VALUE OF WETLANDS:NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE

The function and value of wetlands raise problems not just

aesthetic and moral (nature conservation). Wetlands play a cru-

cial role in almost all biogeochemical processes that sustain the

biosphere, and provide a variety of products (goods) and func-

tions (services), which are essential to mankind's well being,

including the production of food and natural substances, the

assimilation of wastes, the remineralization of organic matter

and a significant contribution to the regulation of the world's

climate.

Wetlands act as natural traps, for organic materials produced

within their fertile waters as well as for materials entering from

surrounding terrestrial, aquatic and coastal environments. The

resulting organic-rich sediments are the sites of intense micro-

bially mediated degradation processes,which control sedimenta-

ry geochemical distribution and recycle vital nutrient elements

and other mobile chemical end-products to overlying waters. In

this context, in order to understand and to better control the

seasonally variable eutrophication process, it is important to

examine the mechanisms and rates of sediment-water recycling

systems driven by the degradation reactions, eventually leading

to reducing conditions and anoxia.

The structure of benthic communities has a strong influence

on the fluxes of nutrients from the sediment to the water col-

umn, and therefore, on the whole wetland productivity.

Quantitative measurements of such processes are still sparse so

that those global estimates of sources and sinks or of com-

pounds of climatic and ecological importance remain uncertain.

The presence of human activity on wetlands is not neces-

sarily incompatible with the maintenance of rich biodiversity

53

Wetlands and Sciencescientists to help nature conservation practitionersand society to set priorities in wetlands

PIERRE LASSERRE *

53

* University “Pierre et Marie Curie” - Paris, France.Former Director of the UNESCO’s Division of Ecological Sciences and Secretary of the MaB Programme.

Wetland ecosystems are intrinsically dynamic, and many features that are most valuable for human activities are naturally variable, with a complex interplay ofbiological, chemical and physical factors over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. The scientific challenge is therefore to gain sufficient knowledge ofenvironmental processes to assess the consequences of current patterns of human interferences and their future trajectories. In the image, a view of the OdielMarshes protected area, one of the Biosphere Reserves of SW Spain seated in the scope of Doñana.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

54

and healthy ecosystems. Nevertheless, in many wetlands, native

endemic species and communities have been destroyed or

replaced due to inadequate conservation measures, ill-advised

agricultural mono-cultures, or inappropriate intensive aquacul-

ture. Expanding tourism and the intensification of agriculture

place considerable pressure on freshwater and coastal wetland

ecosystems.

In the Parc Natural s'Albufera, a coastal wetland in the

Northeast of Mallorca, Spain, freshwater supply to the wetland

decreased significantly in the catchment, as a result saltwater

intrusion increased with considerable impact on the wetland

biodiversity.A long term monitoring of abundance and diversity

of submerged vegetation community provides useful information

to evaluate the sustainability of current tourist developments

and land use in the s'Albufera catchment, and offers a common

framework to assess opportunities and constraints for linking

socio-economic and conservation interests26.

In addition, the invasion of alien species is now recognized as

one of the major threats to biodiversity and ecosystem function-

ing27. In Europe, the current piecemeal invasion legislation lends

itself, moreover, to the unfortunate management of introduced

species in a growing number of wetlands, saltmarshes and

lagoons.

Typical examples are invasion of aquatic vascular plants, such

as Myriophyllum sp., Lagarosiphon sp., and Ludwigia spp., origi-

nally from South America that have been introduced into

European wetlands, e.g. the "marais" and lakes of the South West

coast of France and the Spanish wetlands, including Doñana28.

The spread of the invasive native clonal grass Elymus athericus

is one of the most significant changes that have affected the

plant communities of European salt marshes in the last decade29.

The idea of broad distributional ranges of aquatic plants col-

onizing wetlands and their limited taxonomic differentiation,

need reappraisal.With the application of new taxonomic crite-

ria, for example, the combination of reproductive isolation and

ecological differentiation proposed in the ecogenetic concept30,

and tools such as molecular markers and genomics, broadly dis-

tributed species will be shown to be composed of groups of sib-

ling species. Recent work has revealed limited genetic variation

within aquatic plant species.Variation within populations is par-

ticularly low. In contrast, variation among populations seems to

be rather high, mainly due to the persistence of long-lived

clones. According to Santamaria31, the alleged uniformity and

"benign" character of the aquatic environment is a misrepresen-

tation of this type of habitat.Aquatic habitats are heterogeneous

environments, but this heterogeneity largely occur at relatively

small scales (within water bodies and among neighbouring ones).

This small-scale environmental mosaic tends to be repeated

regionally, and it is only in this sense that the wetland environ-

ment should be considered uniform.

We should recognize that the vast majority of wetland

microbes, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, remain uncharac-

terized.Their role should be studied using the innovative tools

of genomics, in particular with respect to key processes such as

degradation of organic matter, nitrogen fixation, or even photo-

synthesis. Until this is better understood, there is little hope of

developing realistic models of ecosystem functioning. A further

example is our lack of understanding of how marine organisms

(from bacteria to fishes and algae) respond to stress. Such

knowledge is critical if we are to predict the response of marine

communities to factors such as pollution or coastal engineering.

Given the complexity of these challenges, there is an urgent

need for the scientific community to help conservation practi-

tioners, decision-makers and society to take appropriate meas-

ures that go beyond the obvious impulse to protect economical-

ly valuable species and landscapes providing services, or aesthet-

ically appealing ones. Classical plans established for wetlands and

their surrounding terrestrial and coastal-marine areas, however,

are mostly oriented towards local measures of conservation and

pollution prevention, with little tangible effort being directed on

large scale inventories and long term monitoring. Furthermore,

data collection and monitoring networks are often embedded in

fragmented institutional framework.

A high level of international scientific expertise is needed in

order to develop methodologies for the better understanding

Wetland's conservation and management requires research initiatives atscale in space and time that cannot be encompassed by any single countryor loose consortium of countries. Knowledge exchange and creation ofreseaerch networks are among the best tools to establish sound conserva-tion bases. In the image, birds-of-prey radio monitoring in the DoñanaNational Park.Photograph: Antonio Sabater.

55

and detection of ecosystem change, as well as the evaluation of

ecological functions. Modelling work, monitoring and indicator

work and scientific experimentation all need to be better inte-

grated, given the current high level of uncertainty and igno-

rance32.

During the 1990s, ecological science increasingly turned its

attention to environmental problems and the challenge of pro-

tecting biodiversity. For example, in 1991, the Sustainable

Biosphere Initiative laid out a research programme aiming at

providing answers to critical questions regarding environmental

management33. The involvement of distinguished scientists as

Robert Paine in the scientific review of the Exxon Valdez spill

pushed him to review the monitoring programme that followed

the spill, and to suggest ways in which environmental monitoring

should be improved34. Another significant action refers to the

capacity to provide sound guidance on biodiversity knowledge

and conservation priorities in coastal and marine areas35,36.

Initiated by the Network of European Marine Research

Stations (MARS), the EU Scientific Network of Excellence

MARBEF can be taken as a demonstrative successful example of

integration in research and monitoring of marine/coastal biodi-

versity. Activities are centred around three themes: a) global

pattern of biodiversity across spatial and temporal scales; b)

biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, assessed at different

levels of organization (genes, species and functional groups),

ecosystem modelling, and experimental tests; c) economic,

social and cultural value of biodiversity, including theoretical and

practical aspects of sustainable management, and monitoring of

the health of ecosystems.

ARE WE ACHIEVING SUSTAINABILITY

FOR EUROPEAN WETLANDS?SCIENCE-POLICY INTERACTIONS

Wetland ecosystems are intrinsically dynamic, and many fea-

tures that are most valuable for human activities are naturally

variable, with a complex interplay of biological, chemical and

physical factors over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales.

The scientific challenge is therefore to gain sufficient knowledge

of environmental processes to assess the consequences of cur-

rent patterns of human interferences and their future trajecto-

ries. Since research advances, policy-making, and changes in soci-

etal behaviour can each take several years or decades to achieve,

therefore, many decisions must be made on the basis of imper-

fect evidence.

Managers and decision-makers must work hand-in-hand with

scientists and better make known their needs, thus making

research in phase with the demand of society. It is axiomatic that

sound environmental policies must be based on sound environ-

Scientific research in the marine areas surrounding coastal wetlandsrequires special attention. Knowing and understanding their key-process-es is critical if we are to predict the response of marine communities tofactors such as pollution or coastal engineering. In the image, Astroidescalycularis, a threatened coral species living near the coast of Doñana.Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

56

mental science. There are problems,however, in that relationship.

Thus cultural differences between researchers and policy-makers

reduce the efficiency of communications between them, affecting

the flow and use of scientific information37.

Since complex, dynamic systems are likely to change during

the time between information gathering and the policy response,

knowledge deficiencies are near-inevitable. Policy decisions can-

not therefore be post-poned until science produces certain

answers,but must necessarily be made on the basis of risk assess-

ments and the much-discussed precautionary principle38. These

considerations are fully applicable to wetlands.

Scientists need to recognize that policy decisions within

democracies are essentially pragmatic constructs, taking account

of public acceptability, cultural perception, business interests and

media attention. In contrast, policy-makers need to recognise

that scientific information is inherently incomplete and

unknown, albeit that fundamental "natural laws" are universal

and unchanging.There is an extensive literature on this relation-

ship for a range of environmental areas39,40.The initial outcome of

environmental research is the acquisition of information on the

status and behaviour of wetland ecosystems. Such effort is fund-

ed by public bodies primarily with the expectation of direct soci-

etal benefit: the information gained has the potential to change

the behaviour of society (via legislature and/or management

practices) in ways that improve the human use of natural

resources and nature conservation.

THE MELDING OF SCIENCE AND SOCIETY:RESEARCH SITES AND BIOSPHERE RESERVES

In the evolution of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere

(MaB) Programme, launched in 1971, it was unquestioned excel-

lence of participating scientists which elevated applied research

to its proper status. The connection between basic and more

applied environmental research has emerged in several aspects

of the MaB approach and of the highly successful Biosphere

reserve concept that emerged from it41.

Recent trends in modern conservation ecology include a mix

of: (1) controlled experimental removal of species and manipu-

lations of ecosystems, (2) ecosystem approach, and (3) natural

history and monitoring. The lessons learned from field experi-

ments and recent research emphasizing the functions of species

in biogeochemical or ecosystem processes and their role in

ensuring reliable ecosystem functioning42,43,44, have been impres-

sive and are reshaping our understanding of ecological systems

and ecosystem functioning.Therefore, the fundamental ecologi-

cal science has the capacity to provide sound guidance on con-

servation priorities in wetlands.

Policy-makers and managers require practical, defensible rec-

ommendations now.They are usually forced to proposing quick

partial solutions, often based on very local scientific observa-

tions.

What can scientists offer? They can provide theoretical and

practical elements for evaluating the complex compromise

involved in managing wetlands for either biodiversity conserva-

tion, selecting indicators and criteria to assess effects of freshwa-

ter use in wetlands, safeguarding ecosystem services. Moreover,

the scientists typically work to the rhythm of multi-annual fund-

ing and project cycles. They track complex phenomena whose

changes may sometimes be confirmed only after many years or

event decades have elapsed. Therefore, biodiversity scientists

being asked for advice by managers and policy-makers are con-

fronted to a dilemma:

- should they respond by providing the "best practice" sce-

nario? or,

- should they reply that they cannot provide advice in the

absence of data, or reliable records?

WETLAND SCIENTIFIC NETWORKS OF EXCELLENCE:A EUROPEAN RESPONSE TO A PRESSING DEMAND

Wetland's conservation and management requires research

initiatives at scale in space and time that cannot be encompassed

by any single country or loose consortium of countries.

Widespread realisation that wetland habitats are strongly influ-

enced by accelerating changes, largely derived from human activ-

Initiated by the Network of European Marine Research Stations (MARS),the EU Scientific Network of Excellence MARBEF can be taken as a demon-strative successful example of integration in research and monitoring ofmarine/coastal biodiversity.Photograph: CENEAM.

57

In this context, the scientist today has more than ever the

responsibility of entering into the "social demand" arena, of

probing into how decisions regarding nature conservation and

regional development are made, and who they affect.There are

now strong reasons for reinforcing cooperative initiatives

between existing networks with complementary targets and

geographical distribution.

Progress through integrated wetland management will be

conditioned by the degree to which "accountability" and "trust"

issues are successfully tackled. No process of integrated wetland

management can produce legitimate answers and effective solu-

tions to the challenges posed without meaningful public (i.e. a full

range of interest holders) inclusions in the procedures.The pub-

lic need to be incorporated in a proactive,participatory and con-

flict minimising fashion.

The need for "balancing the scales", policies for increasing

biodiversity's chances through bioregional management has been

widely recognized and discussed these last 10 years, and inte-

grated in the range of classifications and networks of protected

areas of outstanding national and regional cultural and biological

value (e.g. EU Habitat 2000, Council of Europe, RAMSAR,

UNESCO MaB biosphere reserves) as contasted to the World

Heritage sites for identifying areas of outstanding global impor-

tance.

The biosphere reserve concept (UNESCO-MaB Seville

Strategy, 1995), attempts to integrate, through appropriate land

zonation (i.e. core areas,buffer zones, transition areas) and active

participation of local people to activities which are compatible

with the preservation of wildlife values. Presently, a total of 78

biosphere reserves in 45 countries (UNESCO data 2002) are

ity, whether stemming from local pressure or from climate

change, should foster plans:

- to protect their highly important biodiversity from the

spread of invasive species,

- to focus on the characteristics of adjacent watershed fea-

tures and prevent pollution,

- to integrate, in addition to the recognised resting area func-

tion for a wide array of migratory birds, the many physical

and other ecological functions and socio-economic values,

- to improve understanding of wetland processes and dynam-

ics, and of how climate change in combination with other

human induced pressures is likely to become a main critical

factor in wetland degradation and loss.

Achieving these ambitious goals require a diversity of skills,

expertise, resource and networks of researchers and sites. A

critical mass of research workers and wetland conservation

managers, and decision-makers needs to be reached. Once

attained, this should significantly boost appropriate basic scientif-

ic studies and applied measures for appropriate conservation

and regional development of wetlands and their surrounding ter-

restrial and coastal-marine biota.This can be done by:

- producing communication tools for scientists and managers

involved in wetland research within and outside their region;

- developing strong training programmes designed to spread

excellence;

- creating data banks of primary data and metadata;

- producing high-impact scientific publications, and promoting

public information;

- promoting submission of collaborative proposals for joint

research by natural and socio-economic scientists;

The Biosphere Reserveconcept (UNESCO-MaBSeville Strategy, 1995),attempts to integrate,through appropriate landzonation (i.e. core areas,buffer zones, transitionareas) and active partici-pation of local people toactivities which are com-patible with the preserva-tion of wildlife values.Presently, a total of 78biosphere reserves in 45countries are wholly orpartially RAMSAR wet-lands In the image Azure-winged Magpie, an Asianspecies introduced intoSpain.

Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

58

wholly or partially RAMSAR wetlands. These programmes are

ideally linked to strong education and training programmes, and

are usually driven by science and government needs to provide

experimental sites where planning, monitoring and research can

be achieved on the ground.

European-wide collaboration will allow us to effectively

address the effects of global change on wetland ecosystems over

a nested array of relevant sales, both in terms of spatial (local to

regional), biogeochemical structures, and biological (molecular

to ecosystem) levels of organization.The European dimension of

organized cooperation is even more imperative because of the

contiguous and open nature our wetlands, including the dangers

of transfer and introduction of invasive species.There is a criti-

cal need to develop networks of field infrastructures acting as

wetland observatories, in reference sites, encouraging the devel-

opment of a more effective interplay between research, conser-

vation and management processes at regional and sub-regional

levels. It is clear that conservation and sustainable use of

European wetlands will require research and management plans

at unprecedented geographic scales.

There are clear provisions (following in particular the deci-

sion of Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable

Development, 2002) on the need to establish networks of rep-

resentative protected areas that include wetlands. In 1995 (Sofia,

Bulgaria), the Environment Ministers of 54 European countries

endorsed the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity

Strategy. Following the recommendations of the Dubronik

Symposium (October 2003) on marine and coastal biodiversity,

the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (May 5th,

2004) underlined that "research networks be encouraged, such

as the European Union's Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Functioning (MARBEF) Network of Excellence, which aim to

integrate the most reliable scientific knowledge into policy-mak-

ing and management decisions" (Council of Europe, 2004).

Of a total of 100 "reference" and "focal" sites selected all

over Europe, for intensive and comparative research activities

and several salt marshes have been identified45. Conceptual and

field oriented cooperation between MARBEF Network of

Excellence and UNESCO-MaB is now envisaged to help nature

conservation practitioners and society to set priorities in coastal

and marine areas42. In this context, biosphere reserves, wholly or

partially RAMSAR wetlands, offer privileged biodiversity obser-

vatories and arenas for the study of multi-purpose management

melding science and society.

In conclusion, maintaining and enhancing the dialogue among

scientists, policy-makers and the public will ensure that critical

and reliable information is developed and communicated and,

also, continue to elaborate innovative monitoring and, therefore,

to invigorate sustainable wetland management, improving the

human use of natural resources and nature conservation.

From this perspective, the Doñana National Park offer

unique situation, where the mingling of human action and natu-

ral ecology has been ancient, complex, and profound.Maintaining

Doñana integrity is essential, an absolute priority. Future objec-

tives should combine biodiversity conservation, sustainable

ecosystem management, in a coherent approach of high scientif-

ic value and relevance to human society. Doñana is an interna-

tional treasure that deserves full concern and attention.

An old, deep, and complex co-existence of human action and natural envi-ronment makes of Doñana National Park an extraordinary e reference forwetland conservation

View of the River Gualdalquivir and the Doñana marshes.Photograph kindly provided by the Seville Port Authority:

"The landscape…… has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological, environ-

mental and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to economicactivity and whose protection, management and planning can contribute to jobcreation;

… contributes to the formation of local cultures and … is a basic compo-nent of the European natural and cultural heritage, contributing to human well-being and consolidation of the European identity;

… is an important part of the quality of life for people everywhere: inurban areas and in the countryside, in degraded areas as well as in areas of highquality, in areas recognised as being of outstanding beauty as well as everydayareas;

… is a key element of individual and social well-being and … its protec-tion, management and planning entail rights and responsibilities for everyone."

Preamble to the European Landscape Convention

The European Landscape Convention applies to the entire ter-

ritory of the Parties and covers both land areas and water areas,

and applies both to inland waters, such as lakes and areas of brack-

ish water and marine areas - coastal waters and the territorial sea.

The Convention is therefore of major importance for wetlands.

The wetlands' highly productive ecosystems constitute a remark-

able natural and cultural heritage because of the richness of their

biology and landscape.

ORIGINS AND FRAMEWORK OF THE CONVENTION

An international intergovernmental organisation set up in 1949,

the Council of Europe is based in Strasbourg, France. It currently

consists of 45 member states46. Its main objectives are to promote

democracy, human rights and the rule of law and to seek common

solutions to the main problems facing European society today.The

Organisation is active in environment protection and in promoting

sustainable development in line with the Recommendation of the

Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe to Members

States on the Guiding Principles for sustainable spatial development

of the European continent, previously adopted by the European

Conference of Ministers responsible for regional planning

(CEMAT). The aim is to bring the economic and social require-

ments to be met by the territory into harmony with its ecological

and cultural functions and therefore to contribute to long-term,

large-scale and balanced spatial development.These seek to protect

59

Wetlands and the European Landscape Convention

MAGUELONNE DÉJEANT-PONS *

59

* Head of the Spatial Planning and Landscape Division of the Council of Europe.

The European Landscape Convention applies to the entire territory of the Parties and covers both land areas and water areas, and applies both to inland waters,such as lakes and areas of brackish water and marine areas, including also coastal waters and the territorial sea. In the image, sunset in the coast of Doñana.Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

60

Europeans' quality of life and well-being taking into account land-

scape, cultural and natural values47.

Origins of the convention

On the basis of an initial draft prepared by the Congress of

Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, the Committee of

Ministers decided in 1999 to set up a select group of experts res-

ponsible for drafting a European Landscape Convention, under the

aegis of the Steering Committee of cultural heritage (CDPAT) and

the Committee for the activities of the Council of Europe in the

field of biological and landscape diversity (CO-DBP). Following the

work of this group of experts, in which the principal governmental

and non-governmental international organisations participated, the

Committee of Ministers adopted the final text of the Convention

on July 19th, 2000. The Convention was opened for signature in

Florence, Italy on October 20th, 2000 in the context of the Council

of Europe Campaign "Europe, a common heritage".The Convention

entered into force on March 1st, 2004.As at March 29th, 2003, it was

ratified by twelve States and signed by sixteen other States48.

WHY A LANDSCAPE CONVENTION, AND WHAT

ARE ITS BENEFITS FOR WETLANDS?As an essential factor of individual and communal well-being

and an important part of people's quality of life, landscape con-

tributes to human fulfilment and consolidation of the European

identity. It has also an important public interest role in the cultural,

ecological, environmental and social fields, and constitutes a

resource favourable to economic activity, particularly to tourism.

The advances of production techniques in agriculture, forestry,

industrial and mineral productions techniques and in regional plan-

ning, town planning, together with the practices followed in town

and country planning, transport, networks, tourism and recreation,

and more generally the global economic changes, have unfortunate-

ly in very many cases led to degradation, deterioration or transfor-

mation of landscapes. It is therefore necessary to react to this evo-

lution.

While each citizen must of course contribute to preserving the

quality of landscape, it is the responsibility of the public authorities

to define the general framework in which this quality can be

secured.Thus, the Convention lays down the general legal princi-

ples, which should guide the adoption of national and community

landscape policies and the establishment of an international co-

operation in this field.

Relationship with other existing texts

The signatory states declare in their preamble that they wish

"to provide a new instrument devoted exclusively to the protec-

tion, management and planning of all landscapes in Europe".Today,

the convention is in fact the foremost international treaty dealing

exclusively with the protection, management and enhancement of

the European landscape.A few international legal instruments are

concerned with the subject of landscape, either directly or indirect-

ly. None of them, however, deals directly, specifically and fully with

European landscapes and their preservation, in spite of their invalu-

able contribution to our natural and cultural heritage and the

numerous threats facing them.The convention aims to fill this gap:

it is thus distinct from the Unesco Convention concerning the

Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of

November 16th, 1972, both formally and substantively.The two con-

ventions have different purposes, as do the organisations under

"The landscape has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological, environmental and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to eco-nomic activity ... contributes to the formation of local cultures and … is a basic component of the European natural and cultural heritage". Fragments from thePreamble to the European Landscape Convention.Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

61

whose auspices they were drawn up. One is regional in scope, the

other world-wide. The Council of Europe convention can be

regarded as complementary to the Unesco one. As regards sub-

stantive scope, the Council of Europe convention covers all land-

scapes, even those that are not of outstanding universal value, but

does not deal with historic monuments, unlike the Unesco conven-

tion. Similarly, its main objective is not to draw up a list of assets of

exceptional universal value, but to introduce protection, manage-

ment and planning rules for all landscape based on a set of princi-

ples.Thus each convention has its distinctive features49.

In the work leading up to the drafting of the convention, con-

stant reference was made to existing international and national

legal texts concerned with landscape50.The convention states in its

preamble that it has regard to the legal texts existing at internation-

al level in the field of protection and management of the natural and

cultural heritage, regional and spatial planning, local self-government

and transfrontier co-operation, in particular the Convention on the

Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern,

September 19th, 1979), the Convention for the Protection of the

Architectural Heritage of Europe (Grenada, October 3rd, 1985), the

European Convention on the Protection of Archaeological

Heritage (revised) (Valetta, January 16th, 1992), the European

Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between

Territorial Communities or Authorities (Madrid, May 21st, 1980)

and its additional protocols, the European Charter of Local Self-

government (Strasbourg, October 15th, 1985), the Convention on

Biological Diversity (Rio, June 5th, 1992), the Convention concern-

ing the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage

(Paris, November 16th, 1972), and the Convention on Access to

Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to

Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus, June 25th,1998).

In order to avoid any difficulties with other international legal

instruments, the convention states that it shall not prejudice stricter

provisions concerning landscape protection, management and plan-

ning contained in other existing or future binding national or interna-

tional instruments51. The Convention on Wetlands of International

Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, February

2nd,1971, as amended by the Protocol of December 3rd, 1982 and the

Amendments of May 28th, 1987) could be one of them.

SCOPE

The landscape is now recognised irrespective of its exception-

al value, since all kinds of landscapes influence people's surround-

ings and deserve to be taken into account in landscape policies.

Many rural and peri-urban areas in particular are undergoing pro-

found changes and should receive more attention from the author-

ities and the public at large.Among them there are a large number

of wetlands that have been progressively drained, but which still

save relevant natural, cultural and landscape elements.

An original feature of this convention is that it applies to ordi-

nary landscapes no less than to outstanding ones.This comprehen-

sive coverage is justified for the following reasons: every landscape

forms the setting for the lives of the population concerned; urban

and rural landscapes interlock in complex ways; most Europeans

live in towns and cities (large or small), the quality of whose land-

scapes greatly affects their lives; and finally, rural landscapes occupy

an important place in the European consciousness.

Extending the scope of local authorities' official landscape

action to cover the whole of national territory does not mean,

however, that the same measures and policies must be applied to

all landscapes.These measures and policies should be adaptable to

particular types of landscape, which, depending on their specific

characteristics, will need various forms of treatment at local level,

ranging from the strictest conservation via protection,management

and planning to actual creation.These various treatments may pave

the way for major socio-economic development of the area con-

cerned.

The convention is not confined, either, to the cultural or man-

made components of landscape: it is concerned with all of these

and how they interconnect. This dimension significantly involves

green corridors and space interconnection, being Doñana and its

surroundings a good exemple of it.

CONTENT OF THE CONVENTION AND DOÑANA

The terms used in the convention are defined in Article 1 in

order to ensure that they are interpreted uniformly by everyone

concerned with the well-being of Europe's landscapes:

- "landscape" means an area, as perceived by people,whose char-

In his Mediteranski Brevijar, the great Mediterranean poet PedragMatvejevic, expressed beautifully and enigmatically the value of the largesalt marshes of the coast: "sage men say that white salt has to be stored toprevent black days". Image from the film of Antonioni dealing with the saltworks of Trapani.

62

acter is the result of the action and interaction of natural

and/or human factors52;

- "landscape policy" means an expression by the competent pub-

lic authorities of general principles, strategies and guidelines

that permit the taking of specific measures aimed at the protec-

tion, management and planning of landscapes;

- "landscape quality objective" means, for a specific landscape, the

formulation by the competent public authorities of the aspira-

tions of the public with regard to the landscape features of their

surroundings.

The Contracting Parties undertake to implement four general

measures:

- to recognise landscapes in law as an essential component of people's

surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural

and natural heritage, and a foundation of their identity;

- to establish and implement landscape policies aimed at land-

scape protection, management and planning;

- to establish procedures for the participation of the general

public, local and regional authorities, and other parties with an

interest in the definition and implementation of landscape poli-

cies;

- to integrate landscape into its regional and town planning poli-

cies and in its cultural, environmental, agricultural, social and

economic policies, as well as in any other policies with possible

direct or indirect impact on landscape.

The Contracting Parties further undertake to implement, in a

consecutive manner, five specific measures:

- Awareness-raising; this involves increasing awareness among

civil society, private organisations and public authorities of the

value of landscapes, their role and changes to them;

- Training and education; this involves promoting: training for

specialists in landscape appraisal and operations; multidiscipli-

The European Landscape Convention (Florence, 2000) defines the landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and inter-action of natural and/or human factors”. Spain was one of the signatory States of the European Landscape Convention, and is at present in process of ratifying it. Inthe image, landscape of pine trees on the sands of Doñana.Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

63

of measures taken under the provisions of the convention, and in

particular: to render each other technical and scientific assistance

in landscape matters through the pooling and exchange of experi-

ence, and the results of research projects; to promote the

exchange of landscape specialists in particular for training and infor-

mation purposes; and to exchange information on all matters cov-

ered by the provisions of the convention53.

Transfrontier landscapes are covered by a specific provision: the

Parties undertake to encourage transfrontier co-operation at local

and regional level and, wherever necessary, prepare and implement

joint landscape programmes54.

Contemporary lifestyles are such that people aspire more and

more to rediscover an unspoiled setting and to preserve their natu-

ral as well as cultural heritage. By means of this growing social

demand, landscape gains or regains prestige and begins to be per-

ceived as a major component of sustainable development policies. It

is necessary to recognise the importance and value of landscapes and

reconciling the right to achieve profitability with the right to enjoy

well-being, health and scenic beauty.

Situated between soil, sea and sky,wetlands are magic and special

attention must be given to them and specialy to Doñana, as one of

the major symbols of European wetlands.

nary training programmes in landscape policy, protection, man-

agement and planning, for professionals in the private and pub-

lic sectors and for the relevant associations; school and univer-

sity courses which, in the relevant subject areas, address the val-

ues attaching to landscapes and the issues raised by their pro-

tection, management and planning;

- Identification and assessment; this involves mobilising the inter-

ested parties with a view to improving knowledge of the land-

scapes and guiding the landscape identification and assessment

procedures through exchanges of experience and methodolo-

gy, organised between the Parties at European level;

- Landscape quality objectives; this involves framing landscape

quality objectives for the landscapes identified and assessed,

after public consultation;

- Implantation; this involves introducing instruments aimed at

protecting, managing and/or planning the landscape.

At the international level, one of the most relevant features of

the Convention is that the Contracting Parties undertake to co-

operate in the consideration of the landscape dimension of inter-

national policies and programmes, and to recommend, where rele-

vant, the inclusion in them of landscape considerations. They fur-

ther undertake to co-operate in order to enhance the effectiveness

A few international legal instruments are concerned with the subject of landscape. None of them, however, deals directly, specifically and fully with Europeanlandscapes and their preservation, in spite of their invaluable contribution to our natural and cultural heritage and the numerous threats facing them. The conven-tion aims to fill this gap: it is complementary to the Unesco Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972 and to themore recent one aiming at safeguarding the intangible heritage (2003). In the image, view of the “pajareras” of Doñana, cork oaks full of life at the hedge of themarshes, a symbol of identity that go beyond their biological value.Photograph: Antonio Sabater.

Purple heron (Ardea purpurea) in DoñanaPhotograph by Antonio Sabater

PROTECTED AREAS CORNERSTONES

FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Protected areas are essential components in national and glob-

al conservation strategies. The importance of protected areas is

widely recognized at international level. Establishment and manage-

ment of protected areas are central to Article 8 on in situ

Conservation of the Convention on Biological Diversity.The World

Summit on Sustainable Development Plan of Implementation has

specifically called for the establishment of a representative system

of marine protected areas by 2012 and for the promotion and sup-

port for conservation of 'hot spot' initiatives, and ecological net-

works. One of the indicators for meeting goal 7 of the Millennium

Development Goals ("Ensure Environmental Sustainability") is the

"amount of land area protected to maintain biological diversity".

65

Protected areas,biodiversity conservationand sustainable development in wetlandsissues and prospects

KALEMANI JO MULONGOY *,SARAT BABU GIDDA **, DAVID COATES **

65

Protected areas -national parks, nature reserves and other

areas where special measures are taken to conserve biodi-

versity and ecological processes- have long been recognized as a

key tool to counter loss of the world's biodiversity.Their impor-

tance ranging from conservation of biological diversity, storehous-

es of genetic material, provision of essential ecosystem services for

human welfare, and contribution to sustainable development, has

been recognized at multiple levels, from international bodies, to

national governments, local groups, and communities

Almost all countries have a system of protected areas,

which now cover some 12 percent of the planet's land surface,

making them one of the earth's most significant land uses.

While they represent our best chance of effective in situ con-

servation of biological diversity, protected areas have many

other demands upon them. Comprehensive and effectively

managed protected areas networks at national, regional and

consequently at global levels are critical elements in the imple-

mentation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

However, while we have clearly made significant progress in

conserving representative terrestrial ecosystems, recent

assessments indicate that conservation of marine and coastal

biodiversity is woefully inadequate, with less than one per cent

of the Earth's marine ecosystems protected. Other biomes,

including some major types freshwater systems and grasslands,

are also poorly represented. Protected areas also have to com-

pete for limited financial resources in the allocation of nation-

al budgets; this is a difficult task, when many governments are

faced with major developmental issues such as health, poverty

alleviation and the provision of essential infrastructure.

Nevertheless, the key environmental services that are provid-

ed by protected areas underpin many aspects of sustainable

development and this role is increasingly recognized as we deal

with a period of global environmental change unprecedented in

human history.

Scientific Technical and Technological Matters DivisionSecretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD). The views expressed are of authors and do not necessarily purport the CBD.* Head ** Programme Officer

Almost all countries have a system of protected areas, and they now coversome 12 percent of the planet's land surface, making them one of theearth's most significant land uses. Coastal wetlands have a particularimportance for biological diversity conservation among all protectedareas, especially if we take into account that 37 % of total world popula-tion lives within 100 km from the coast (FAO, 1998).Photograph: The Nature Conservancy

66

The extent of world's protected areas

The most comprehensive dataset on protected areas world-

wide is the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) managed

by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre working in

partnership with the IUCN World Commission on Protected

Areas and a consortium of internationally active organizations and

networks. Protected areas are established for many purposes, and

can be classified by management objective. IUCN has developed a

system of six categories of protected area defined by primary man-

agement objective (Box 1), and about two thirds of the sites in the

WDPA have an assigned IUCN management category. Of these

sites the most numerous are categories III and IV, while in terms of

area occupied, categories II and VI predominate. The categories

offering the strictest protection from outside influence (categories

Ia and Ib) make up a much smaller proportion of both the number

and area of the sites.The cumulative growth rate of protected areas

as per IUCN management categories is given in Figure 1 demon-

strating that those categories concerned with landscape (category

V) and with resource management (category VI) have increased

more rapidly in recent years.

Global protection of biodiversity based on habitat analysis

UNEP-WCMC has analysed global protected areas data as far

as possible by biome type to give a first indication of protection in

different regions and different ecosystems. Initial comparisons were

made using the framework developed by Udvardy56 in 1975, which

classifies the world into 14 terrestrial biomes. It shows that nine of

the 14 terrestrial biomes in the Udvardy system have now met or

exceeded the target of 10 per cent representativeness.By contrast,

the biomes falling well behind the global average include temperate

grasslands and lake systems, while temperate needle leaf forests

and temperate broadleaf forests are also both below 10 per cent

coverage. Many countries have designated protected areas under

the various international agreements and programmes that recog-

nize specific sites.These include the World Heritage Sites (World

Heritage Convention), Ramsar Sites (the Convention on wetlands

of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat) and

Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO - Man and Biosphere Programme).

PROTECTED AREAS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Values and benefits of protected areas

Protected areas provide a wide range of values and benefits to

humanity. They provide vital protection to many indigenous and

local peoples and space where they can continue traditional

lifestyles.A disproportionate amount of the world's drinking water

comes from forest-protected areas (for instance a third of the

world's hundred largest cities draw a substantial proportion of

their drinking water from protected areas). Marine protected areas

provide fish breeding grounds and thus maintain fisheries: in conse-

quence local fishing communities often support them. Parks and

reserves are important "green lungs" providing space for people to

enjoy recreation.They help to protect cultural and spiritual values.

They are also increasingly recognized for their role in mitigating cli-

mate change by sequestering carbon and by buffering countries

against impacts such as sea-level rise and extreme weather events

in particular cyclones and flooding.The values of a national protect-

Protected areas provide vital protection to many indigenous and localpeoples and space where they can continue traditional lifestyles. Severalcoastal marshes and wetlands offer fish breeding grounds and thus main-tain fisheries: in consequence local fishing communities often supportthem.Photograph: WWF International

67

ed area network are thus more than the traditional issues of

wildlife conservation and extend, spatially, far beyond the bound-

aries of the sites. IUCN summarized the main benefits of protect-

ed areas as58: scientific research; wilderness protection; preserva-

tion of species and genetic diversity; maintenance of environmental

services; protection of specific natural and cultural features;

tourism and recreation; education; sustainable use of resources

from natural ecosystems; and maintenance of cultural and tradi-

tional attributes.

Broadly, the benefits of protected areas can be divided into

direct use values and benefits; indirect use values and benefits;

option values; and non-material values and benefits. Taken togeth-

er, these constitute a protected area's total economic value. The

concept of Total Economic Value (TEV) has been widely used to

attempt to convert all values and benefits of natural ecosystems

into simple economic terms. Instead of focusing only on direct

commercial values. One 1997 study estimated the annual value of

ecosystem services from the entire biosphere at $33 trillion, not-

ing that most of this value is outside the market59.

Role of protected areas in poverty alleviation and sustainable

development

People living in rural areas have long depended on natural

resources. Commodities such as animal skins, bamboo, construc-

tion materials, firewood, fish, game meat, honey, medicinal plants,

resins and timber have been harvested from protected areas for

thousands of years. Local people have often developed mechanisms

for managing these resources sustainable and allocating benefits.

Properly managed tourism in protected areas can also bring con-

siderable income without threatening the natural resource base.

More important still are the ecological services protected areas

can provide. Particularly important services at the community level

include soil regeneration, nutrient cycling, pollination, recreation,

pure water and maintenance of harvestable resources. Such bene-

fits are difficult to quantify and even local people may take them for

granted.

Increasing population levels,more sophisticated technology, and

changing social, economic and political structures have removed

many traditional controls on resources management. If sustainable

benefits are to be provided to local communities more effective

controls may be required to ensure that populations of plants and

animals are maintained at viable and productive levels60.

KEY ISSUES

Threats

The ecological viability of many protected areas is under threat,

and some have already been significantly degraded.A 1999 survey

of threats to forest protected areas by IUCN concluded that "con-

siderably less than 10 percent of protected areas has been subject

to any kind of analysis of threat, and far less have been subject to

Cumulative rate of protected area coverage by IUCN managementcategory (data from UNEP-WCMC )57.

Category Ia - Strict Nature Reserve: Protected area managed main-ly for science.Area of land and/or sea possessing some outstandingor representative ecosystems, geological or physiological featuresand/or species, available primarily for scientific research and/orenvironmental monitoring.

Category Ib - Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly forwilderness protection. Large area of unmodified or slightly modi-fied land, and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence,without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected andmanaged so as to preserve its natural condition.

Category II - National Park: Protected area managed mainly forecosystem protection and recreation. Natural area of land and/orsea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one ormore ecosystems for present and future generations, (b) excludeexploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designationof the area and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, edu-cational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must beenvironmentally and culturally compatible.

Category III - Natural Monument: Protected area managed mainly forconservation of specific natural features: Area containing one ormore specific natural or natural/cultural features which are of out-standing or unique value because of their inherent rarity, represen-tative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance.

Category IV - Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected areamanaged mainly for conservation through management interven-tion.Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for man-agement purposes so as to ensure the maintenance of habitatsand/or to meet the requirements of specific species.

Category V - Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managedmainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation:Area ofland, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction ofpeople and nature over time has produced an area of distinct char-acter with significant aesthetic, ecological and/or cultural value, andoften with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of thistraditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance andevolution of such an area.

Category VI - Managed Resource Protected Area: Protected areamanaged mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems:Areacontaining predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed toensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversi-ty, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of naturalproducts and services to meet community needs.

Box 1

IUCN Protected Areas Management Categories (1994)55

Figure 1

68

detailed assessment"61. Threats to protected areas can be divided

into direct threats which directly stress the biological components

of the protected area, indirect threats which drive the direct

threats, and underlying causes which comprise broad socio-eco-

nomic forces often far from the site. Encroachment by farmers, for

example, may pose a direct threat to a protected area. This

encroachment may be driven, however, by an indirect cause - the

rapid privatisation and concentration of agricultural land in adjacent

areas.The underlying cause for this situation, in turn, may be subsi-

dies or other changes in government policy aimed at boosting

export agriculture to help pay off debts to international financial

institutions.Another threat example is the large-scale declassifica-

tions of parts of or entire protected areas, legally agreed between

national ministries and agro-industrial, timber, mining or oil and gas

companies.These may be prompted by the budgetary needs of the

relevant countries, driven, in turn, by the underlying cause of struc-

tural adjustment policies and constraints.

System and network design

Today, the theory and practice of protected area design are

becoming increasingly sophisticated, due to a better understanding

of their role of protection of biological diversity. Recently, several

analyses have demonstrated that current protected area systems

do not adequately cover key biodiversity features. For example, gap

analyses carried out for the World Parks Congress in 2003 demon-

strated that at least 300 critically endangered species, and at least

237 endangered and 267 vulnerable species of bird, mammal, turtle

and amphibian have no protection in any part of their ranges62,63.A

comprehensive planning exercises of protected areas should con-

sider conservation needs of whole, ecologically distinct regions,

known as ecoregions or bioregions, which cover large areas and

often extend across national borders. Governments and NGOs

have collaborated on ecoregion conservation planning exercises in

many parts of the world, drawing on information about biodiversi-

ty, threats and pressures and socio-economic data to propose com-

prehensive conservation strategies that include, but are not limited

to, comprehensive networks of protected areas. The aim of such

networks is usually to include representative samples of all major

ecosystem types and species, in large enough quantities to be viable

in the long term: 'ecologically representative protected area net-

works' are now recognized as a foundation of national and region-

al conservation strategies.

The design of protected area networks therefore needs to take

into account the needs of many different species and ecosystems.

It also needs to look beyond the borders of individual protected

areas to question whether it is important that these areas be linked

by other suitable forms of habitat and how this might be achieved,

and also at how protected areas can themselves be protected from

outside pressures. The importance of connectivity is increasingly

being recognized. Protected areas that are surrounded by urban

development or agricultural land are more like islands than parts of

a broader landscape or seascape and can easily lose species

through natural processes or as a result of human pressure.

The WCPA framework (Source: Hockings et al. 2000).

Figure 2

The values of a national protected area network are thus more than thetraditional issues of wildlife conservation and extend, spatially, far beyondthe boundaries of the sites. The main benefits of protected areas as: scien-tific research; wilderness protection; preservation of species and geneticdiversity; maintenance of environmental services; protection of specificnatural and cultural features; tourism and recreation; education; sustain-able use of resources from natural ecosystems; and maintenance of cultur-al and traditional attributes. In the above photograph, a view of theKakadu National Park.Photograph: Ramsar

69

Protected area networks therefore usually include corridors link-

ing protected areas, buffer zones around protected areas,which are

geographically isolated from protected areas but serve as staging

posts for migratory species such as birds.

Governance

Governance is about power, relationships, responsibility and

accountability. Some define it as the interactions among structures,

processes and traditions that determine how power is exercised,

how decisions are taken on issues of public concern, and how citi-

zens or other stakeholders have their say. In a protected area con-

text, a basic understanding of governance refers to who holds man-

agement authority and responsibility and can be held accountable

according to legal, customary or otherwise legitimate rights. In this

sense, governance is crucial for the achievement of protected area

objectives (management effectiveness), determines the sharing of

relevant cost and benefits (management equity), is key to prevent-

ing or solving social conflicts, and affects the generation and suste-

nance of community, political and financial support. The manage-

ment of protected areas has often been based on models that

exclude the local resident populations and perceive their concerns

as incompatible with conservation.While the IUCN protected area

categories V and VI are conceived to be more inclusive of human

communities, virtually all IUCN categories can be compatible with

resident or user communities. In the light of the principles of good

governance, national protected area systems can enter an era of

renewed strength. Four main protected area governance can be

identified64: government-managed protected areas; co-managed

protected areas; private protected areas; and community-con-

served areas.

Management effectiveness

Protected areas are only effective in helping to ensure the con-

servation and sustainable use of biological diversity if they are effec-

tively managed.Various national and international organizations are

working on this issue, with the aim of helping individual sites and

systems to develop more effective management. Much of this work

is based on guidelines for evaluating effectiveness published by the

IUCN World Commission on Protected areas65.Management effec-

tiveness evaluation measures the degree to which a protected area

is protecting its values and achieving its goals and objectives. Its pri-

mary aim is to help better management, but it can also help guide

project planning and resource allocation, provide accountability and

transparency, and increase community awareness, involvement and

support. Evaluation will also enable managers to anticipate future

threats and opportunities. The IUCN World Commission on

Protected Areas developed a framework for assessing management

effectiveness of protected areas (figure 2).Based on this framework

several methodologies are developed from rapid assessments of

protected area systems to detailed monitoring of individual pro-

tected areas. Depending on available time and resources and the

objectives of evaluation, the processes range from complex and

expensive to simple and cheap. The World Bank and WWF have

developed a simple, site-level assessment system for tracking

progress in effectiveness.The methodology,which is also being used

by the Global Environment Facility, is designed to provide a relative-

ly quick, easy and consistent system for reporting progress in a

diverse range of protected areas.

While significant progress has been made on developing

methodologies, assessments of management effectiveness have so

far been undertaken in only a small percentage of the world's pro-

tected areas.A major challenge is to have these tools widely used

and to have monitoring and evaluation established as core business

within protected areas management: to achieve this there needs to

be a further increase in awareness of the benefits of evaluation;will-

ingness to use such systems; and capacity of often under-resourced

areas to conduct evaluation.

INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS AND PROSPECTS

CBD Programme of work on protected areas

The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD at its sev-

enth meeting building upon the Millennium Development Goals,

Most coastal wetland protected areas present special problems in terms oftheir establishment, management and sustainability. In particular, mostrely upon water inflow from surrounding areas in order to maintainecosystem health and integrity. The need to include buffer areas in the sur-roundings of protected wetlands is an increasing need. In the case ofDoñana, the protected area system includes this dimension, through a net-work of protected areas that enclose the most sensitive zones such as theDoñana and Odiel marshes. In the photograph, the mouth of the OdielRiver.Photograph: Juanta de Andalucía

70

the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable

Development and the Durban Accord and Plan of Action from the

Vth World's Parks Congress, adopted a programme of work on

protected areas.The overall objective of the programme of work is

to establish and maintain, "comprehensive, effectively managed and

ecologically representative systems of protected areas" that collec-

tively, will significantly reduce the rate of loss of global biodiversity.

Implementation of the programme of work will thus contribute to

the three objectives of the Convention, its strategic plan, the

Millennium Development Goals in particular poverty alleviation

and sustainable development.

The programme of work on protected areas contained a spe-

cific set of targets and timetables primarily organized around

national-level actions. The programme of work consists of four

interlinked elements mutually reinforcing and cross - cutting in

their implementation. In essence, programme element 1 deals with

what protected area systems need to conserve and where.

Programme elements 2 and 3 cover how to effectively implement

protected are systems, including issues such as the policy environ-

ment, governance and participation, and capacity building.

Programme element 4 covers the steps needed for assessing and

monitoring the effectiveness of actions taken under programme

elements 1-3. Each programme element is structured into specific

goals - targets - and activities.The programme of work contains 16

goals,which are outcome-oriented statements of ultimate purpose.

Each goal is accompanied by a target that sets a specific date by

which the goal is to be accomplished, and in many cases provides

indicators to measure progress towards the goal.A list of activities,

92 in total follow each paired goal and target that individual coun-

tries should consider to meet their commitments to achieve the

identified goals and targets.

The overall target deadline for implementation of the pro-

gramme of work is 2010 for terrestrial and 2012 for marine areas.

The COP has put forward intermediate target dates for many

activities with time bound deadlines of either 2006/ 2008 or 2010/

2012 or 2015, in recognition of the fact that many of the goals and

targets will require a phased, step-by-step approach.

PROTECTED AREAS AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Inland aquatic ecosystems are very diverse and include rivers,

their flood plains and estuaries, lakes, bogs, swamps, marshes and

coastal wetlands such as mangrove forests and lagoons. They

include all of the world's freshwater ecosystems but many are also

brackish-water or saline (as, for example, with some inland seas). In

many parts of the world inland water ecosystems continue to be

intensely modified and degraded by human activities. Freshwater

ecosystems are the world's most threatened biome and the one

under the most rapidly escalating pressure due to demands upon

water resources for development purposes.

Inventories of inland aquatic ecosystems are incomplete, incon-

sistent in coverage and difficult to undertake for a number of rea-

sons including: difficulties with definitions, limitations of maps, ill-

defined boundaries and the limitations of remote sensing. Heavily

vegetated wetlands (e.g., swamps or naturally flooded forests) and

difficult to inventory because of technical difficulties discerning

land/water interfaces and problems of definition regarding what

constitutes land or wetland. A particular feature of many inland

aquatic ecosystems is their highly seasonal nature (especially the

expansion and contraction of many wetlands, such as on river

floodplain, due to seasonal changes in flooding).This marked tem-

poral dimension complicates classification systems, including legal

descriptions, across spatially and seasonably variable land-water

interfaces. Without good time-series data such wetlands are also

difficult to quantify, even locally.

The most systematic registry of protected areas for inland

Figure 3

Annual history of Ramsar site designations66.

Marine and coastal areas are severely under-represented in the global net-work of protected areas. In the photograph, the Nature Reserve of Curto-Pichetto, a partly abandoned area of salt pans in Slovenia. Photograph: Sergio Gobbo

71

water ecosystems is the list of sites maintained under the auspices

of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,

Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran, 1971). There are

presently 146 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1469

wetland sites, totaling 128.9 million hectares, designated for inclu-

sion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.A

number of Ramsar sites are also declared jointly with the World

Heritage Convention. Data for protected areas at the national or

local levels have not been adequately compiled.

All inland water and most coastal wetland protected areas

present special problems in terms of their establishment, manage-

ment and sustainability. In particular, most rely upon water inflow

from surrounding areas in order to maintain ecosystem health and

integrity. Buffer zones around the protected areas are desirable, as

with any terrestrial protected area. But inland and coastal wetland

protected areas require management measures within the entire

watershed or catchment, that is - well beyond the protected area,

which maintain both the ecological quality and quantity of water

being fed to, and often through, the wetland. In this sense they rep-

resent one of the clearest examples of the need for the ecosystem

approach to planning and management.To be effective, inland and

coastal wetland protected areas must be planned, established and

managed within a basin-level framework that fully adopts integrat-

ed resource management planning. For rivers, which include those

feeding most wetlands, a critical need is to maintain ecological con-

nectivity along their entire length. Dams and other major infra-

structure fragment rivers and disrupt connectivity. Such develop-

ment must be planned with due regard to sustaining ecosystem

functioning in rivers and the substantial ecological services provid-

ed by wetlands.

CBD Programme of work on marine and coastal areas, with par-

ticular attention to the wetland coastal areas.

Marine habitats and ecosystems are severely under-represent-

ed in the global network of protected areas. Concern about this

under representation reflected in decision VII/5 and accompanying

Programme of Work on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity

under programme element 3 (marine and coastal protected areas)

and operational objectives 3.1 to 3.5. These operational objectives

include:

- 3.1:To establish and strengthen national and regional systems of

marine and coastal protected areas integrated into a global net-

work and as a contribution to globally agreed goals.

- 3.2:To enhance the conservation and sustainable use of biological

diversity in marine areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction

- 3.3: To achieve effective management of existing marine and

coastal protected areas

- 3.4: To provide support for and facilitate monitoring of national

and regional systems of marine and coastal protected areas

- 3.5: To facilitate research and monitoring activities that reflect

identified global knowledge gaps and priority information needs of

management of marine and coastal protected areas.

Marine protected areas vary in management objectives in the

same way as their terrestrial counterparts. Decision VII/5 puts for-

ward a marine and coastal biodiversity management framework

consisting of two types of marine and coastal protected areas: (i)

Multiple use protected areas, which may permit extractive uses but

contain areas that are more strictly controlled for biodiversity pro-

tection. Such controls may also have other (e.g., economic or

social) objectives. Examples include controls on fishing (e.g.,

restricting bottom trawling),on the removal of certain species (e.g.,

habitat forming species), rotational closures, and controls on pollu-

tion and sedimentation. Such areas can protect particular species

or life cycle stages (such as spawning); help to maintain connectivi-

ty and buffer more strictly protected areas. (ii) No-take zones,

which permit no extraction and are managed to maintain their

ecology or to allow natural restoration. Such strictly protected

areas form the backbone of the marine biodiversity conservation

measures and need to be selected for coverage and representation

in the same way as land and freshwater sites.There is ample evi-

dence that such no-take zones can have short and long-term ben-

efits to human communities through, for example, helping to main-

tain fish stocks Decision VII/5 also acknowledges that marine and

coastal protected areas on their own are not be enough for con-

servation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and that they need to

Delimitation of protected coastal marshes and wetlands is usually a com-plex challenge. This is due to the variability of the flooded area, the diffi-culty to mark an exact border, the conflicts existing with upper riverbasins, and also to the influence of groundwater. The Doñana 2005 projectis contributing, through its research plans and modelling tools, to elimi-nate this uncertainness. In the photograph, El Acebrón pond, in DoñanaNature Park.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

72

be incorporated into a framework of sustainable management

practices over the wider marine environment.

CBD 2010 biodiversity target

The Parties to the CBD acknowledged, in 2002, the continued

threat to biodiversity from human activities. For these reasons, the

Conference of the Parties adopted a Strategic Plan, in which Parties

committed themselves to a more effective and coherent implemen-

tation of the three objectives of the Convention in order to

achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of bio-

diversity loss at the global, regional and national level, as a contri-

bution to poverty alleviation and for the benefit of all life on earth.

This target was subsequently endorsed by the World Summit on

Sustainable Development.

Parties recognized that in order to achieve the Strategic Plan,

and its 2010 biodiversity target, they required a framework to facil-

itate an assessment of progress made-a framework within which

national and regional targets could be set, and indicators of

progress identified.The resulting framework, adopted by Decision

VII/30, is structured around seven focal areas, which together rep-

resent both responses to the drivers of biodiversity loss, and the

means to achieve the three objectives of the Convention. The focal

areas are:

1) Reducing the rate of loss of the components of biodiversity,

including: (i) biomes, habitats and ecosystems; (ii) species and pop-

ulations; and (iii) genetic diversity;

2) Promoting sustainable use of biodiversity;

3) Addressing the major threats to biodiversity, including those aris-

ing from invasive alien species, climate change, pollution, and habi-

tat change;

4) Maintaining ecosystem integrity, and the provision of goods and

services provided by biodiversity in ecosystems, in support of

human well-being;

5) Protecting traditional knowledge, innovations and practices;

6) Ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of

the use of genetic resources; and;

7) Mobilizing financial and technical resources, especially for devel-

oping countries, in particular, least developed countries and Small

Island developing states among them, and countries with

economies in transition, for implementing the Convention and the

Strategic Plan.

Protected area coverage is one of the headline indicators iden-

tified for assessing the progress in 2010 biodiversity target. This

indicator has direct relevance to goal 7 (Ensuring Environmental

Sustainability) and target 9 (Integrate the principles of sustainable

development into country policies and programmes and reverse

the loss of environmental resources) of the Millennium

Development Goals. The targets for focal areas are now being

incorporated into the existing programmes of work of the

Convention and will be the basis of future review or formulation of

new programmes. Other Conventions, processes and stakeholders

have been invited to contribute, in their own areas of interest, to

both achieving the targets and monitoring progress towards them

using suitable indicators. However, national implementation of the

programmes of work will be the backbone of progress towards

achieving the 2010 biodiversity target.

In the face of increasing human pressure on planet's resources, an effective global protected area system is the best hope for conserving viable and representa-tive areas of natural ecosystems, habitats and species to achieve 2010 biodiversity target. Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity through its variousprogrammes of work agreed on a far-reaching and ambitious programme of action to establish and maintain "comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologi-cally representative systems of protected areas" that, collectively, will significantly reduce the rate of global biodiversity loss. Wetlands represent ecosystems ofimmense importance to biodiversity and humans. The ecosystem goods and services they provide have been historically seriously undervalued but are becom-ing increasingly recognized. The provisions of the CBD, working in partnership with the Ramsar Convention, cover most of the requirements for the improvedplanning, establishment and management of effective networks and systems of protected areas for wetlands at the local, national, regional and global levels.In the photograph, a spoonbill in the Marsh of Doñana.Photograph by Jose María Pérez de Ayala

73

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31. SANTAMARIA L., 2002. Why are most aquatic plants widely distrib-uted? Dispersal, clonal growth and small-scale heterogeneity in a stress-ful environment. Acta Oecologica, 23: 137-154.

32. TURNER, R.K., 2000. Integrating natural and socio-economic science incoastal management. Journal of Marine Science, 25: 447-460.

33. CORILA-UNESCO (in press). Lagoons and coastal wetlands in the glob-al change context: Impacts and management issue. Proceedings of theInternational Conference CORILA-UNESCO (26-28 April 2004), Venice.

33. LUBCHENCO, J., OLSON, A.M., BRUBAKER L.B., CARPENTER,S.R., HOLLAND, M.M., HUBBELL, S., LEVIN, S.A., MACMAHON,J.A., MATSON, P.A., MELILLO, J.M., MOONEY, H.A., PETERSON,C.H., PULLIAM, R., REAL, L.A., REGAL, P.J., AND RISSER, P.G.,1991.The sustainable Biosphere Initiative: An ecological research agenda.Ecology, 72: 371-412.

34. PAINE, R.T., RUESINK, J.L., SUN, A., SOULANILLE, E.L., WON-HAM, M.J., HARLEY, C.D.G., BRUMBAUGH, D.R., SECORD, D.L.,1996. Trouble on oiled waters: Lessons from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 27: 197-235.

35. LASSERRE, P., MCINTYRE, A.D., OGDEN, J.C., RAY, G.C.,GRASSLE, J.F., 1994. Marine laboratory networks for the study of thebiodiversity, function and management of marine ecosystems. BiologyInternational, IUBS, sp. Issue N. 31, 33 p.

36. HEIP, C., HUMMEL, H., (ed) 2000. Establishing a framework for theimplementation of marine biodiversity research in Europe. EC-DGResearch/ESF Marine Board/MARS Network/UNESCO Venice Office.European Science Foundation, Strasbourg, 48 p.

37. TURNER, R.K., SUBAK, S., ADGER, N., 1996. Pressure, trends andimpacts in coastal zones: Interactions between socio-economic and natu-ral systems. Environ. Manag., 20: 159-173.

38. GOLLIER, C., JULLIEN, B. Y TREICH, N., 2000. Scientific progressand irreversibility: an economic principle of the precautionary principle.J. Public. Econ. 75: 229-253.

39. LIPIATOU, E., Y CORNAERT, M.H., 1999. Marine research and policyinterface: an overview from the session. In: Marine Research and PolicyInterface. Ed: M. Cornaert & E. Lipiatou. Research in enclosed seasseries, No6 EC Brussels: 5-8.

40. NORSE, D. Y TSCHIRLEY, J.B. 2000. Links between science and policymaking. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 82: 15-26. UNESCO-MaB, 1995. The Seville Strategy. Paris: UNESCO.

41. BATISSE, M., 1997. Biosphere reserves: a challenge for biodiversity con-servation & regional development. Environment, 39: 6-15.

42. LASSERRE, P. 2004. Marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:European scientific network of excellence (MARS/MARBEF). 4th Int.Symp. On the Pan-European Ecological Network. Marine and coastal bio-diversity and protected areas. Council of Europe, Env. Enc. No 56: 77-92.

43. KAREIVA AND LEVIN (eds) 2003. The importance of species.Perspectives on expendability and triage. Princeton and Oxford: PrincetonUniversity Press.

44. MORRIS, J., (2004). Effect of changes in sea level on th productivity, bio-geochemistry, and stability of salt marshes. In: “Lagoons and coastal wet-lands in the global change context: impact and management issues.Proceedings international Conference, CORILA-UNESCO, Venice 26-28April 2004.

45. WARWICK, R.M., EMBLOW C., FÉRAL, J.P., HUMMEL, H., VANAVESAATH, P., HEIP C., 2003. European marine biodiversity researchsites. BIOMARE Implementation and networking of large-scale long-termmarine biodiversity in Europe. EU, NIOEO-CEME, Netherlands.

WETLANDS AND THE EUROPEAN LANDSCAPE CONVENTION

46. As at 29 March 2003: Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan,Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, CzechRepublic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Georgia, Greece,Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania,Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,Romania, Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia and Montenegro,Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, "the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia", Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom.

47. Concerning the natural and cultural heritage, see the other conventions ofthe Council of Europe: Convention on the Conservation of European

NOTES AND REFERENCES

74

Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 19 September 1979), Convention forthe Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe (Granada, 3 October1985) and European Convention on the Protection of the ArchaeologicalHeritage (London, 6 May 1969) (revised, Valetta, 16 January 1992).

48. See Appendix 2. The convention came into force on the first day of themonth following the expiry of a period of three months after the date onwhich ten Council of Europe member states have consented to be boundby it, with the deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance orapproval.

49. The explanatory report states that in order to co-ordinate action under thetwo conventions, consideration could be given to scientific co-operationbetween the Unesco World Heritage Committee and the Committees ofExperts mentioned under Article 10 of the European LandscapeConvention, under Article 13.7 of the Unesco Convention of 16 November1972, and as suggested in Article 7 of the convention.

50. These include, apart from the Unesco Convention concerning theProtection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, the Convention forthe Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe, the Convention onthe Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, the EuropeanConvention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage, Committeeof Ministers Recommendation 95 (9) on the integrated conservation ofcultural landscape areas as part of landscape policies, Committee ofMinisters Recommendation (79) 9 concerning the identification and eval-uation card for the protection of natural landscapes, the MediterraneanLandscape Charter, the European Community regulation on agriculturalproduction methods compatible with the requirements of the protection ofthe environment and the maintenance of the countryside, the EuropeanCommunity directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wildfauna and flora, the European Community directive on the assessment ofenvironmental effects, and other important national, EuropeanCommunity and international instruments.

51. Article 12 of the convention (Relationship with other instruments). Thewording of this article is based on model provisions already used in otherinternational conventions in order to deal with the problem of linking upconventions concerned with similar fields.

52. The term "landscape" is thus defined as a zone or area as perceived bylocal people or visitors, whose visual features and character are the resultof the action of natural and/or cultural (that is, human) factors. This defi-nition reflects the idea that landscapes evolve through time, as a result ofbeing acted upon by natural forces and human beings. It also underlinesthat a landscape forms a whole, whose natural and cultural components aretaken together, not separately.

53. Article 8 of the convention (Mutual assistance and exchange of informa-tion). Recent years have seen a burgeoning of political, professional andacademic interest in the subject of landscapes, hence the development ofa growing body of experience and expertise on which member states, localand regional authorities and others can draw as they seek to implement theconvention. At the same time, the growth of electronic communication andthe arrival of the Internet have provided radically improved tools forexchanging ideas and, indeed, for the technical study of landscapes. These

developments create a much wider basis for the exchange of ideas andmutual support than was possible even a decade ago, allowing local actorsthroughout Europe to take part and thus creating a true "landscape democ-racy”.

54. Article 9 of the convention (Transfrontier landscapes). This articlerequires the parties to set up transfrontier programmes for the identifica-tion, evaluation, protection, management and planning of landscapeswhich straddle borders. In doing so, they are asked to rely as far as possi-ble, in accordance with the subsidiarity principle defined by the EuropeanCharter of Local Self-Government, on local and regional authorities, andto use the implementation tools advocated in the European OutlineConvention on Transfrontier Co-operation between TerritorialCommunities or Authorities in Europe of 21 May 1980 and its additionalprotocols.

PROTECTED AREAS, BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATIONAND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN WETLANDS:ISSUES AND PROSPECTS.

55. ANON, (1994). Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories,IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Gland, Switzerlandand Cambridge, UK.

56. UDVARDY, M., 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provincesof the world. Prepared as a contribution to UNESCO's Man and BiosphereProgramme Project No.18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN.

57. See UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/10/INF/12.58. MULONGOY, K.J., CHAPE, S., (Eds) 2004. Protected areas and biodi-

versity: an overview of key issues. CBD Secretariat, Montreal Canada andUNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

59. COSTANZA et al. The value of world's ecosystem services and naturalcapitol. Nature, 387:253-260.

60. MULONGOY, K.J., CHAPE, S., (Eds) 2004 op.cit.61. IUCN, 1999. Threats to Forest Protected Areas: Summary of a survey of

10 countries carried out in association with the World Commission onProtected Areas. Research Report for the World Bank/WWF Alliance forForest Conservation and Sustainable Use. November.

62. RODRIGUES, A.S.L., et al. 2003. Global Gap Analysis: Towards a rep-resentative network of protected areas. Advances in Applied BiodiversityScience, No.5. Centre for Applied Biodiversity Science, Washington. D.C.

63. RODRIGUES, A.S.L., et al. 2004. Effectiveness of the global protectedareas network in representing species diversity. Nature 428, 8 April 2004.

64. BORRINI-FEYERABEND, G., 2004. Governance of protected areas,participation and equity. In Secretariat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (2004). Biodiversity issues for consideration in the planning,establishment and management of protected area sites and networks,Montreal, SCBD, pp 100-105.

65. HOCKING, M., STOLTON, S., DUDLEY, N., 2000. Evaluating effective-ness: A Framework for Assessing the Management of Protected Areas.IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

66. http://www.wetlands.org/RSDB/

NOTES AND REFERENCES

77

and branches of the rivers to the initial game reserves.The exten-

sion of the National Park in 1979 with the inclusion of a 77,260-ha

"pre-park" buffer zone, and the creation of a 52,529-ha Nature

Park around it in 1982, have extended the Doñana title, as direct-

ed by the Doñana 21 Trust. It now encompasses the municipalities

of Huelva, Seville and Cadiz to an area of almost 250,000 ha.

After the latest extensions in 2004, the Doñana National Park

currently covers 54,720 ha and the Doñana Nature Park that sur-

rounds it covers a further 53,709 ha, offering a spectacular protect-

ed area of 108,429 ha altogether.

A CHANGING FACE

The current appearance of Doñana is no more than two thou-

sand years old, as its terrain is sedimentary and recent, the result

of the action of winds, tides and rivers. Doñana is the product of

changes in a large estuary situated in the mouth of the

Guadalquivir River, which formed with the last rise in sea level, and

which has gradually been filled with sediments brought down by

the river flooding, by the tides, currents and storms of the Atlantic

Ocean, and by sand carried in by the wind to form dunes.

The area covered by Doñana came about as a consequence of

a range of geological processes that have taken place in the Lower

Guadalquivir Basin. They can be summarised in a series of steps

that help us understand the basic characteristics of how it is now.

At the end of the Tertiary Age, there was a general subsidence of

what is now the Guadalquivir Basin, forming a deep sea in which

blue marl was deposited to depths of up to 1,000 m.Then, in the

Quaternary Age, a much finer layer of red sand was deposited in

the shallow coastal environment of the Guadalquivir Estuary.The

Doñana singularly encompasses every dimension imagina-

ble for a protected space. We have before us a tremen-

dously changeable, rich and diverse territory whose originality is

reflected as much in its geo-morphological evolution as in the gen-

esis of its ecosystems. It is also reflected in the historic episodes

that have given it its reputation and especially in the role that it has

played for science and the world of nature conservation in recent

decades. Presided over by water as the fundamental player in all its

vicissitudes, this is a reserve of life that has changed its appearance

and its social function constantly and without interruption.Today it

is symbolised as one of the great platforms on which some of the

most important acts in the agitated history of environmental pro-

tection and aquatic ecosystems unfold.

Until the mid 20th century, Doñana was the name of a historic

swathe of big game hunting grounds with a landscape of scrub and

forest that was bounded to the East by the Guadalquivir Marshes

and Estuary, and to the West by a dividing line based on a track run-

ning from El Rocío Church to Torre de la Higuera in Arenas Gordas

(Coarse Sands), as this section of the Gulf of Cadiz shoreline was

known.

An interest in hunting initially, and later wildlife, attracted

hunters, zoologists and conservationists who spread the news of

the ecological treasures of the area, clearly linking it to the name

Doñana. El Médano and the Dunes, Las Rocinas, Las Marismas and

the Isla Mayor, the Branches of the Guadiamar and Guadalquivir

rivers, Rocío itself, Lomo del Grullo and Coto del Rey all took a

back seat to the new name used both to identify the zone and what

was to become a symbol of conservation in Spain.News of this nat-

ural wealth was spread by turn-of-the-century travellers,who com-

pared the Guadalquivir marshes with those of the Ganges because

of their overwhelming wealth of waterfowl.They were referring to

a grand space of 250,000 ha of flood plains crossed by the four

branches and channels of the Guadalquivir and Guadiamar Rivers -

Caño Guadiamar, Caño Travieso, the Torre Branch (Brazo de la

Torre), the Eastern Branch (Brazo del Este) - leaving extensive flat

islands between them with large shallow pans, "lucios", on them.

The creation of the 6,974 ha Biological Station and Reserve in

1964, and its inclusion in the Scientific Research Council, made

Doñana an administrative and research property, and a short time

later in 1969, it was enhanced with the creation of the Doñana

National Park (35,000 ha), adding marshes, the shallow island lakes

The Time of the Marsheslands marked by water and diversity

Location of Doñana and mouth of the River Guadalquivir.

78

lower basin of the Guadalquivir continued to evolve in the same

way as the sea lowered.After sea-level stabilization (approximately

6,000 B.C.), an advancing coastal bar running NW-SE was pro-

duced, formed by wind-blown sands and material carried down by

the Tinto, Odiel, Piedras and Guadiana rivers, then subject to long-

shore drifts. This bar gradually closed the Guadalquivir Estuary,

forming an interior lagoon of calm waters that made it into record-

ed history.This was the Ligurian Lake of Phoenician times and the

Ligustinus Lake of the Roman Empire. Sediments from the mainland

were deposited on the lakebed and currently form the base of the

Marshes.The surface level of this 50-100 m thick sedimentary layer

is made up of fine silt and blue-grey clays.

As a result of these processes, the characteristics of the

Doñana are said to be broadly divided into three major landscape

units: the "cotos" or stable sand dunes, the coastal string of shifting

dunes, and the Marshes. Looking further, there is the Guadalquivir-

Guadiamar estuary, with its islands and channels; the shoreline with

its beaches and its embryonic dunes; further west, the cliffs and sta-

ble dunes of El Medano de El Asperillo; and to the north, the gen-

tle hills of La Campiña.

Half the sands, including beach, dunes and cotos, are recent

wind-born mantles (during the 15th-16th centuries) laid over older

dune formations, after the Flandrian transgression.These, in turn,

are superimposed over continental detritic formations, of sand and

gravel. These continental formations are permeable and stretch

extensively within and beyond the Park, resting on a Miocene

marine deposit.Their impermeable clay deposits form the wall of

the great Almonte-Marismas aquifer that underlies much of

Doñana.

The current Marshes cover an area of some 27,000 ha, approx-

imately half the area of the National Park.Yet, they account for only

part of the 140,000 ha known at the beginning of the 20th century

as the Guadalquivir Marshes. "Las Marismas" (The Marshes) is the

traditional name for the low-lying flood plains on either side of the

Guadalquivir Estuary. The left bank has given in to an intense

process of transformation while only the right bank of the estuary

has survived as the Doñana Marshes. Moreover, they are no longer

tidal; they act as a floodplain now fed by rains and by streams.

The Marshes are carved up by a network of seasonal water-

courses, some more recent and active than others.These include

channels (the caños) on the right hand side of the Marshes, or the

so-called “albinas” on the, now disappeared, left hand side.The oth-

ers, effectively ancient watercourses, were only activated at times

of heavy flow, often finding themselves filled to the brim and cut

across by other more recent watercourses. The ancient water-

courses correspond with the so-called “quebradas” (gorges).

Within them, areas of higher points alternate with much lower

stretches.These are the well-known “lucios” (shallow pans) of the

Marshes.

Water patterns in the Doñana Marshes maintain forms remi-

niscent of the different stages in its development.There are wind-

ing tidal channels, older straighter branches of the river later cut off

as ox-bow lakes, and silt or sandy-silt levies, called "vetas", flanked

by palaeo-channels.There are old sand bars with accumulations of

shells and elongated troughs along stretches of canal, forming lucios

like Los Ansares and El Largo, or the old tidal areas bordered by

levies, forming more regular lucios like Buen Tiro, Seville or El Real

and Herrero on Isla Mayor.

HISTORIC GENESIS OF THE

DOÑANA ECOSYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES

Historically, Doñana was a space nearly ten times smaller, lim-

ited to some 30,000 ha of cotos, owned by the House of Medina

Sidonia. Communally owned, it ran between the municipalities of

Almonte, Hinojos, Aznalcázar, the Marshes and the beach. From

Sanlucar, on the other side of the Guadalquivir River mouth, the

Dukes have run "their" Doñana for six centuries: the woodlands,

livestock, crops and, receiving special attention, big game hunting.

An interest in hunting initially, and later wildlife, attracted hunters, zoolo-gists and conservationists who spread the news of the ecological treasuresof the area, clearly linking it to the name Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

The Marshes, however,were not initially the property of the Duke,

because they had been granted to the city to be used as summer

grazing lands, after the conquest of Seville in 1248.

History and archaeology highlight the fact that the infertile sta-

ble sand dunes and the neighbouring marshlands remained a

desert, a demographic vacuum whose only settlements were huts

for fishermen, herdsmen and coal merchants.There are, however,

Neolithic records of both the permanent and temporary use of the

zone. These are found in cabin floors from the Bronze Age, in

Roman salt fish works1 and in pottery remains from the last three

thousand years,which have been found in Doñana. Such findings are

to be expected in a flourishing regional setting where Tartessians,

Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans,Visigoths, Muslims and

Byzantines have all played an important historic role.

The first historic record of these territories dates from 1262,

when Alfonso X "The Wise" declared them "Royal Hunting

Grounds", shortly after the 1261 conquest by the Count of Niebla

who exploited them.The Rocinas Forests attracted the attention of

Alfonso X in his Hunting Book (Libro de La Montería) because of the

good boar hunting. It was later, in 1294, when King Sancho IV would

grant this royal game reserve to Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán "The

Good", although the grant was not effective until the next generation

when, in 1309, King Fernando IV confirmed the land settlement to

Alfonso Pérez son.

The House of Medina Sidonia, which maintained Doñana in its

estate until 1895, has conserved much of the documentation gener-

ated in the course of these six centuries in its Duchy Archives in

Sanlucar.This provides us with an exceptional international case in

conservation: a protected area with a detailed description of its his-

tory spanning centuries1.This has allowed the documentation of dis-

putes between the Duchy and its neighbouring municipal authorities

to be analysed2. Milestones such as historic changes in early wood-

lands, scrublands and pastures are documented, along with livestock

grazing and resource use3.

All this research has managed to demarcate a series of stages

in the historic management of Doñana that start with the creation

of the Royal Estate in 1262. It remained almost unaltered due to its

use as a big game hunting reserve, until 1636, when it was opened

up to grazing livestock.Table 1 shows the different stages in land

management through to modern times.

Documentation from the 13th and 14th centuries refers to

Doñana as a "woodland", (Bosque de Las Rocinas).The quantitative

descriptions that have been put together from documents from

1636 reveal a thick and diverse forest dominated by cork and

juniper trees.The situation changed rapidly around this time with

the introduction of livestock to improve the profitability of the

Duchy's properties during an economic crisis. The livestock and

herdsmen cleared the woods and it must have begun to look more

like open grassland, as the rich forest soil began to produce pro-

ductive pastures. But the low clay content of these predominantly

sandy soils led to their degradation, a process that was accelerated

by pig farming. Finally, to maintain the productivity of these exhaust-

79

Historic stages in the management of Doñana.TABLE 1

PERIOD PREDOMINANT LAND USE

1262-1636 Mediterranean forest and scrubland managed as a game reserve for deer and boar. Almadrabas (Tuna fish salting works) of Torre Carboneras.1636-1670 Thinning. Open forest with pastures for cattle and sheep. Big game hunting. High point of the tuna fishing and salting industry.1670-1709 Overgrazing by sheep and pigs, controlled burning of scrub. Sandy soils cultivated and dunes mobilised. Livestock, big game hunting, fish salting works.1709-1737 Extensive felling of cork trees. General de-forestation.Trial pine nut plantations in Marismillas. Livestock, big game hunting, fish salting works.1737-1895 General spread of pine plantations to the stable coastal dunes. Livestock, big game hunting, fish salting works. Salt works in the marshes.1895-1950 Fragmentation of the property, sold to new owners who maintain the big game hunting and the livestock and forestry business.

Umbrella pine plantations. The start of the "polderisation" of the marshes to convert to rice fields and eradicate malaria.1952-1992 Scientific takeoff and birth of conservation. Creation of the National Park and the Nature Park. Extension of the Doñana administration.

Profound agricultural change and tourism development.The end of controlled burning and planting of pines and eucalyptus.1992-2005 Sustainable development fostered by the authorities. Restoration of degraded ecosystems and environmental quality management of the area.

The Doñana territory is broadly divided into three major entities: the sta-ble sand dunes, the coastal string of shifting dunes, and the Marshes. Thephotography shows the Marshes between Madre de las Marismas channeland the Biological Reserve in the Municipality of Almonte.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

80

ed soils, a slash and burn policy was introduced, with a 10-12 year

cycle, which ended up transforming the surviving remains of the

original woodland into a pyrophytic scrub of heather, gorse and

Halimium that now predominates.Although these well-document-

ed traditional burns were few and far between, controlled burning

did impact as ecological degradation5.

It was not until 1737 that the first trials were carried out with

pine nut plantations, although they had been successfully established

in nearby areas, like Villamanrique, for centuries. As tree coverage

grew well in Marismillas, high-density plantations were possible for

firewood production and low-density plantations for shipbuilding.

Some areas of the beach dune systems that had started shifting in

the 17th century were re-forested after 1805. Favourable results led

to these pines being sown on other areas of stabilised dunes further

inland, with the pine ending up as characteristic of the dunes rather

than the original juniper species. Further inland, pruning, livestock

pressure and controlled burning reduced the counts of oak, cork

tree, strawberry tree, wild olive, cottonwood and ash to a token

presence, except for along the water lines, pond borders or areas

where the sands meets the Marshes,where gallery forests and trees

for shade and shelter survived.The traditional woodland vegetation

gave way to scrubland that, with burning, was overcome by pyro-

phyte species.

A comprehensive knowledge of all these processes and of the

evolution of the Doñana ecosystems constitutes the foundation of

the ambitious restoration projects that have emerged in recent

years, including the Doñana 2005 Project.

CHANGES IN THE TRADITIONAL USE

OF DOÑANA RESOURCES

Throughout this time, there has been a permanent conflict

between game and other alternative land uses: grazing and forestry,

fishing and gathering, and salt works.The current context of oppos-

ing interests competing for land has a background spanning cen-

turies in Doñana.Neighbouring municipalities sometimes sought to

benefit from one of the resources; at other times, it was the

landowners who tried different forms of exploitation.

The confrontation between the Duchy and the inhabitants of

Almonte is well known. Lawsuits were dragged through the courts

for centuries over the ownership of "lands in question" to the

northwest of the National Park. This legal battle was no isolated

incident. The western boundary between the properties of the

Duchy and the municipality of Almonte roughly followed the pres-

ent road to Matalascañas that was staked out and marked. Herders

and woodsmen were not to cross it, with threat of imprisonment.

The current appearance of Doñana is nomore than two thousand years old, as itsterrain is sedimentary and recent, theresult of the action of winds, tides andrivers. Doñana is the product of changesin a large estuary situated in the mouthof the Guadalquivir River, which formedwith the last rise in sea level, and whichhas gradually been filled with sedimentsbrought down by the river flooding, bythe tides, currents and storms of theAtlantic Ocean, and by sand carried inby the wind to form dunes. The satellitepicture shows the true to life result ofthese processes and the survival of theDoñana Marshes on the right bank of theRiver Guadalquivir.

The History of Doñana starts with the Roman settlements of the 2nd centu-ry B.C., which survived up until the 7th century A.D. These people livedmainly from fishing and fish salting in the area known as Marismas delGuadalquivir, or the Guadalquivir Marshes. But, despite its reduced pop-ulation and remoteness, Doñana has always formed part of a flourishingregional environment, where Tartessians, Phoenicians, Greeks,Carthaginians, Romans, Visigoths, Byzantines and Muslims have allplayed an important historic role. The photograph shows one of the tidaltowers that provided protection against the raids by Berber corsairs.A village that ran the tuna fishing works, known as "almadrabas", grewup around it.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

81

The competition between the different land uses on either side of

the line led to a growing tension at the boundary, and the stakes

were often moved or removed altogether, triggering conflict.After

a spate of confrontation, the borders would be marked out once

more.The records of these interventions offer an exact picture of

the state of the vegetation throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.

Up until 1628, Doñana retained its character as a cork tree for-

est with junipers and Mediterranean woodland scrub, run exclusive-

ly as a private game reserve. Since then, new land uses have been

authorized:pastures were leased to grazers, and the herdsmen were

allowed to cut whatever wood they needed for their huts and for

fires.This change in vegetation took place very rapidly with these

new land uses.The forest was first thinned and then cleared to take

on the look of grasslands. In 1636, the trees still covered 45% of the

area, falling to 36% in 1647 and 27% five years later.

Fluctuations in the finances of the Duchy, periods of inflation in

the Spanish economy in the 16th-19th centuries, and demand for mer-

chandise exported from Sanlucar to America are all reflected in

Doñana's alternating land use: cattle, sheep, goats and the expansion

of pig farming that virtually destroyed the pasturelands and soil. On

top of the grazing, one can add the exploitation of bark, cork, tim-

ber, firewood, and charcoal, which gradually reduced the tree cover,

and also the introduction of controlled burning techniques to pro-

mote tender new pastoral growth6. Over the centuries, there has

been an accumulation of changes in the ecosystems of the dunes:

deforestation, regression of the original native foliage, an invasion of

the pyrophitic scrub, halimium (Halimium halimifolum) and the

degradation of the soils.

Two other historic interventions are of outstanding signifi-

cance: the planting of grape vines and pine nut trees.The demand

for wine and the attempt to bring in settlers encouraged the plant-

ing of vineyards in Las Marismillas, in the extreme south of Doñana

opposite Sanlucar. Wine growing is possible in these sandy soils

where wild grape vines already formed part of the natural vegeta-

tion, and the first wine producing trials appear to have taken place

in 1773.According to Granados Corona (1988), this was initially a

success and there were 60,000 vines in the area by 1778. It later

declined and the vines, fruit orchards and the attempts at colonis-

ing Las Marismillas were all abandoned, leaving behind only a few

allotments and some huts. It has been suggested7 that the second-

ary formation of dunes on the coast shaping the current mobile

dune system took place in various stages since the 17th century.This

The above images clearly show the siege of Doñana, started in the middle of last century. Comparing the two images the transformation of the northern sideof the marshes is evident. The left image, showing still unaltered marshes, was taken in 1956, while the one on the right corresponds to 1999 situation.New rice fields, farms, and channelings clearly outline the sharp boundary that isolated Doñana from its surroundings.The right image is a detail of the orthophoto of the Doñana marshes produced in the framework of the Doñana 2005 project.

The photograph shows a reconstruction of the traditional huts in the cen-tre of el Poblado de la Plancha, currently a tourist centre. After 1785, thevines and fruit trees were abandoned leaving just a few allotments and ascattering of huts.

82

was due to the clearing of junipers to make way for vineyards -

intense felling that possibly came with over-grazing during a period

of unstable climate.

As mentioned, another important historic intervention in this

region was the planting of pine nut trees. In 1737, the Duchy decid-

ed to try out a pine plantation in El Puntal. The results were prom-

ising and the plantation area was extended. Later it was gradually

introduced to the "corrales" (inter-dune valleys) and the stabilised

dunes close to Sanlucar, and from 1805, in the corrales of the

mobile dune system. In contrast to the outcome of the grape vines,

the pine plantations gave excellent results, offering timber, fire-

wood, charcoal and pine nuts, and they soon became a character-

istic feature of Doñana.The forests that had dominated the face of

Doñana up until the 17th century were once again outstanding in

the 19th and 20th centuries.

These major conflicts and interventions in the historic uses

described above do not exhaust the full list. Owners tried fruit

trees, olives, carob trees, mulberry trees and poplars but the hos-

tile environment prevented any financial success and any odd trees

that have survived from those trials are testimony to their efforts

spanning centuries. Of the animal kingdom, beehives were exploit-

ed and fish (carp and eels) were introduced to the ponds, although

traditional livestock and game species always prevailed.

There was also widespread collection of natural produce

grown in the wild. This was more a complementary use of

resources, rather than an alternative land use.The most important

of these was the collection of ducks, geese and wildfowl eggs,which

were the basis of the confectionary industry in Sanlucar. Rabbits,

hares and partridges were lesser game in the sand country. Other

natural products saw quick surges, like the collection of flexible wil-

low branches for barrel hoops, charcoal from the heather stock for

gunpowder, resin oil from juniper berries for curing livestock dis-

eases, leeches for medical use and even cochineal for dyes.

Exploiting the Marshes was traditionally shared between Seville

and its neighbouring municipalities and the Duchy. It focussed on

livestock.The local cattle can survive for months on boggy land and

they even graze on water plants by swimming into the deeper

channels. Summer droughts, river flooding or sometimes an unusu-

al cold snap,would constrain livestock rearing, but this shortfall was

covered by raising local marsh horses and Lebrija sheep, both of

which are very hardy.

Separate mention should be given to the salt flats and fish salt-

ing works. The former, situated in the Marshes and fed by the

Guadalquivir Estuary, remained operative until the mid 20th centu-

ry.Yet, the salt flats on the other bank still cling to life, although pre-

cariously.The most important of the fish salting works were those

at Torre Carboneros above the present beach, which used large

quantities of wood and cork from Doñana for floats and for fires

and huts for the thousands of workers.Tuna production in Torre

Carbonero became a traditional resource, which represented a

healthy income for the Duchy.

Throughout this process,we can see how the historically sparse-

ly populated Doñana and the Marshes were basically maintained as a

game reserve with few other uses until the 16th century.The situation

changed categorically in the first half of the 17th century, giving rise to

conflicts over the different land use between Doñana and the sur-

rounding area. In 1895, the last Duke of Medina Sidonia died without

leaving an heir. The traditional property was broken up and sold to

Protected by the dunes and the marshes and hidden by the forests, is theDoñana Palace, a country house that was the seat of the Dukes and theirguests. Doña Ana de Silva y Pantoja, elder daughter of the Duchess ofEboli and wife of the Fourth Duke, who commanded the unfortunateInvincible Armada, left Sanlucar to live in the Palace until shortly beforeher death in 1610. Because of her long stay here, the Palace came to beknown as Doña Ana. Francisco de Goya visited the Palace in 1797, as aguest of the then Duchess of Alba, Maria Cayetana de Silva, the widow ofthe XV Duke. He dedicated some of his best paintings to her, including"Sólo mia" (Mine alone), a full-length portrait against a background of veg-etation and water that is usually associated with the Laguna de SantaOlalla of Doñana. A pine nut tree and brushwood are recognisable, as isthe form and colour of the dunes and the estuary tidal flats of bothDoñana and Sanlúcar.

83

different owners, who maintained its role as a game reserve as well

as for traditional livestock and forestry activities. Along with the aris-

tocracy, the new owners included members of the emerging

European industrial bourgeoisie that were to pioneer the transfor-

mation of Doñana and the surrounding areas in the 20th century.

RECENT CHANGES IN THE DOÑANA LANDSCAPE

The historic balance of the Doñana region, based on the

exploitation of livestock, forestry and hunting resources, became

extremely unstable as the 20th century advanced.The stable sand

country - the cotos - was re-planted with faster growing forestry

species and the Marshes were transformed for rice growing.The

historic Marshes have been reduced from the 140,000 ha they ini-

tially covered to the 27,000 ha that are presently conserved.

This has been felt in the cotos, with pine nut trees re-planted

from the 1950s on, followed by eucalyptus in the 70s.The second

phase of the Almonte-Marismas Plan was implemented, as a result

of the development mindset of the time, to irrigate the sandy soils

to the north of Doñana Park,where the constant pumping of water

had drained and desalinated the Marshes.At the same time, the left

bank of the estuary underwent a radical transformation. It was con-

verted from flood plain grazing pastures into productive irrigated

land fed by the Lower Guadalquivir Canal.The major transforma-

tion to the Marshes,which border the present National Park, start-

ed in 1940, with the general spread of the trials that had started in

the 20s.This transformation created a new landscape of rice pad-

dies served by a network of canals that, together with the newly

created villages, changed the traditional marshes completely. The

origins of this great wave of changes go back to 1926, with the cre-

ation of the Islas del Guadalquivir S.A. company, that started trans-

forming the marshes into rice fields using polders.After careful lev-

elling, the irrigation waters in the rice paddies are re-circulated to

prevent brackish water entering the circuit from the estuary.This

was one of the major transformations of the Doñana hydrological

system that had a substantial impact on the design of the present

strategy for conserving the wetlands. The transformation was

begun on Isla Minima and has been extended south along the right

bank to now cover an area of 53,000 ha.

With regard to the important changes arising from replanting

trees, the landscapes of sandy hills that formed the previously

1940 marked the start of major transformation to the right-hand bank of the Guadalquivir River, which borders today's Doñana Park, creating a new landscapeof rice paddies served by a network of canals, which, together with the new towns, radically changed the appearance of the traditional marshes. After carefullevelling, the rice "paddies" re-circulate the irrigation waters, thus preventing brackish estuary water from entering the system. This is one of the major transfor-mations to the Doñana water system that has had a profound impact on the design of the current conservation strategy for the marshes.Photo: CENEAM files.

84

forested cotos to the west of Doñana, soon drew the attention of

the authorities who conceived a re-forestation plan for them in

1895.Political and financial difficulties delayed this intervention until

1938, when 55,000 ha were planted with umbrella pine trees in an

area running from El Asperillo and Matalascañas, to Huelva village.

In 1940, it was the turn of the eucalyptus, as has occurred in many

sensitive areas around the world.Thus, the scrub and lagoon basins

on sandy substrates were planted with Eucaliptus globulus and E.

camaldulensis to supply a regional fibreboard factory that was built

during the Economic Development Plan. Industrial development

gained ground to the west, next to the Huelva Estuary, with the

installation of a large chemical complex, including an oil refinery, a

fertilizer plant and, later on, diversification into other areas.These

have had major repercussions in the region.

In line with the development mindset, from the early 50s, the

philosophy of the aforesaid Almonte-Marismas Plan took root,

aimed at bringing some 46,000 ha of the different parts of Doñana

and the surrounding areas into cultivation.This was a grand project

backed by the FAO that proposed major agricultural development

founded on harnessing the abundant water resources of the

Turn-of-the-century travellers compared the Guadalquivir Marshes withthose of the Ganges because of their overwhelming wealth in waterfowl.They were referring to a grand space of 250,000 ha of flood plains crossedby the four branches and channels of the Guadalquivir and GuadiamarRivers - Caño Guadiamar, Caño Travieso, the Torre Branch (Brazo de laTorre), the Eastern Branch (Brazo del Este) - leaving extensive flat islandsbetween them with large shallow lakes called "lucios" on them. Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

85

Almonte-Marismas Aquifer System, estimated at some 400

hm3/year.The decrees that brought about the transformation were

enacted in 1972 and 1974 and the plots of land were distributed in

the 80s.

Hence, with ups and downs, and successes and failures, changes

to the Marshes and their adjacent sands came about.The private

sector gave way to the public initiative for the first time in Doñana,

when the Spanish Government, in collaboration with the FAO,

undertook this enormous agricultural reform, draining 100,000 ha

of marshes. Finally, some 35,000 ha were designated for growing

rice and 100,000 ha of irrigated land for cotton and beetroot. In

course of this vast operation, some 25,000 ha were transformed by

equipping them with wells and pumping and irrigation infrastruc-

ture.This change in the use of the land meant the existing forests

and pastures diminished, and the rivers and streams were chan-

nelled into a single watercourse called Arroyo del Partido, which

fed into the marshes surrounding El Rocío.Thus, some 15,000 ha

were brought into cultivation, which meant extracting about 60

hm3 of water a year.Over the years, this has had a significant impact

on the water table, which has progressively dropped in many

places, leaving traditional springs and lucios dry.

Cultivating and irrigating such a large area of land, in an agricul-

tural region dominated by dry land farming and mainly cash crops,

has turned out to be difficult and controversial, like all such experi-

ments of the time. In the end, this whole operation shifted into

strawberry growing, using advanced and highly technical farming

methods.These include green houses, grow-bags under plastic and

an intensive use of water, fertilisers, weed killers and pesticides.

The intensification of agricultural development coincided with

the start of tourism.Attention should be drawn to the appearance

of the typical large tourist resorts of the Spanish coast, where the

boundaries between the concept of mass tourism and the con-

struction industry and the real estate business remain blurred and

confused to this time. The towns of Matalascañas and Mazagon

appeared on the coast, the former right on the edge of the

National Park. These large-scale interventions were preceded by

attempts to build tourist developments in the very heart of

Doñana, and major coastal road projects to open up the area for

settlement, such as the absurd idea of building the Huelva-Cadiz

motorway, with the first section running right along the coastal

stretch of Doñana as far as Sanlucar. Under such pressures, the tra-

ditional harmonious landscapes of Doñana suffered major and pro-

found changes, endangering the conservation of species and

ecosystems and opening the gates to controversy over the sustain-

able management of the region.This enormous impact, transform-

ing the region in a few short years, has certainly put the survival of

After 1737, planting trials with pine nut trees were undertaken, which had beensuccessfully grown in nearby areas since the reign of Felipe II. The excellenttree cover growth in Marismillas made it possible to conduct high density trialsfor firewood and low density plantations for ship building. From 1805, someareas of the beach dune system that had become unstable in the 17th centurywere re-planted. In this way, Doñana started one of its characteristic phasesbased on forestry. The photograph shows a recreation of a firewood and char-coal holding in the Doñana area.Photo by Jose Maria Perez de Aayala. CENEAM file.

The extreme mobility of the dunes, which became unstable again in the17th century, can be clearly seen in this picture. We can see the collar of thewell at “Cuartel de los Inglesillos” that was successively raised on thecrest of a dune to avoid being buried. The dune has shifted since then andthe whole structure is now exposed. Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

its natural legacy in danger. Doñana, like so many other coastline

strips, wetlands and forests that were destroyed by the develop-

ment boom of the 60s and 70s, found itself at a great disadvantage

in its struggle for survival.The tourism versus conservation dilem-

ma opened the first door towards the Doñana paradigm, which,

thanks to a collective contribution, started to weigh in favour of

more sustainable solutions.

Nature finally triumphed, allowing conservation in Spain to take

shape. As the first benchmarks were created and public concern

was articulated, strategies were set to face the future battles of the

86

View of the Guadalquivir River mouth showing, on the left, the large"arrow" of dunes that closes the mouth and the marshes in the back-ground. The Salt Works of Sanlúcar can be seen to the right of the image.Photo: CENEAM files.

new millennium.

THE FUNDAMENTAL ROLE

OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The final conservationist stage, in which Doñana highlights the

links between the environment and society, has been grounded in

science.The discovery, protection and presentation of this scientif-

ic aspect to the media, and from the media to the global commu-

nity, have been achieved by university faculties and the CSIC

(Spanish Higher Research Council).The arguments in favour of pro-

tection are scientific.The soundness of the conservationist offer is

founded in investigative excellence that has provided examples,

data and references that stand out in the world literature and act

as valid currency in the critical debates that have presided over this

outstanding site in recent decades.

Apart from appearing in the press and other media,Doñana has

also secured its presence in the scientific media, in conferences and

symposia, and in leading journals, thanks to its stakeholders and

institutions. Some lines of research, like bird and mammal ecology,

have reached levels of excellence, followed closely by limnology,

Aerial view of one of the “corrales“ of Doñana, inclosed by the dunes.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

87

The role of the scientific community has been decisive in conserving the Doñana legacy. Some lines of research, like bird and mammal ecology, have reachedlevels of excellence, followed closely by limnology, vegetation ecology, eco-physiology, ethology, hydrology, soil sciences and a large appendix of others. Thus,the scientific approach has unexpectedly opened doors to international recognition. Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Alfonso XIII's 1908 visit to Doñana. This was a time of uncertainty aboutits future, as the property was broken up when the last Duke of MedinaSidonia died without heirs in 1895.Photograph: Files of the Doñana Biological Station.

vegetation ecology, eco-physiology, ethology, hydrology, soil sci-

ences and a large appendix of others.There exist some 3300 arti-

cles on Doñana and its surroundings.

The support provided by scientific data in public opinion cam-

paigns and in the controversies that have arisen in the face of key

projects (roads, housing developments, water management), has

been crucial. In Doñana, there have also been studies of plant and

animal populations, and the levels and composition of chemicals in

waters over long periods of time. In some cases this spans thirty

years or more, thus offering valuable sequences for measuring cli-

mate change and the effects of alterations to the local environment.

This wealth of information about the Park is continually

enhanced, thanks to over 120 research projects currently on

course. This scientific infrastructure represents a continual rein-

forcement of Doñana, guaranteeing the necessary information is

available to undertake future initiatives and to respond to any con-

flicts and controversies that may arise in the near future.

88

BASIC INFORMATION ON

DOÑANA AND ITS SURROUNDS

The only way to approach the current view of Doñana and get

an idea of the new challenges involved in its conservation and

hydrological restoration is with a broader geographic view. This

starts with what is known as Greater Doñana (Ambito de

Doñana). It is especially true if we are talking about water and nat-

ural processes, as functional inter-relationships, water basins,

ecosystems and species mobility generally pay very little heed to

administrative boundaries.

Greater Doñana

The definition of what is known as Greater Doñana arose ini-

tially from the Sustainable Development Plan for the Doñana Area

(1993) and the limits are clearly established in the Greater Doñana

Regional Planning Master Plan. It is an area of 2,733 km2 between

the Guadalquivir River, the 50 km of beaches of the Huelva coast,

the mouth of the Tinto and Odiel Rivers and bounded to the north

by most of the road corridor linking Seville and Huelva. However,

for the purposes of this chapter, the scope has been extended to

include the umbrella pine forests of Bonanza, the Algaida Marshes

on the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and the marshes at Odiel river-

banks on the west coast of the district (Figure 1).The connections

between these places and Doñana are quite clear, as they have cer-

tain natural processes and species in common.

Greater Doñana is home to a population of 107,049 inhabitants

(2002 census), which has grown at an uneven rate. In the period

1991-2002, there were variations that range from 2.5% in Lucena

del Puerto to 31.1% in Moguer. Basically, the population is divided

among several settlements that form a fringe around the protect-

ed natural areas.

The administrative complexity of the district can be seen from

the fact that there are 12 municipalities. There are Almonte,

Bollullos Par del Condado, Bonares, Hinojos, Lucena del Puerto,

Moguer, Palos de la Frontera and Rociana del Condado in the

province of Huelva; there are Aznalcazar, Pilas, La Puebla del Rio,

Villamanrique de la Condesa and Isla Mayor in the province of

Seville; and there is Sanlúcar de Barrameda in the province of Cádiz.

This is a territory, therefore, of over 280,000 ha, whose identity is

determined by the Doñana National Park. It has water as a com-

mon thread, both in the form of watercourses that mark the route

of the surface waters and in the effect the aquifers have in deter-

mining this same geography underground. Figure 2 shows the

enlarged Greater Doñana, highlighting the surface water network,

the main settlements and the road network.

The protected zones of Greater Doñana

In 1262, King Alfonso X the Wise established the lands of Las

Rocinas as a Royal Crown game reserve, but the name of Doñana

did not appear until 1599.The name of these lands was established

a century on, when the seventh Duke of Medina Sidonia had a

palace built for his wife, Doña Ana Gomez de Mendoza y Silva, in

the heart of the countryside.The surrounding lands soon became

known as the Forest of Doña Ana, the Estate of Doña Ana, and so

on, until it was finally shortened to the name we now know.

The long road to protect and conserve Doñana reached its first

milestone in 1963, when the Spanish State acquired some 7,000 ha

in collaboration with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and created

the Doñana Biological Reserve. Doñana was declared a National

Park in 1969 and it has been extended on several occasions.The

first of these extensions took place in 1978; the most recent one,

in February 2004, to the present surface area of 54,291 ha.This area

includes a mosaic of ecosystems that provide refuge for a biodiver-

sity that is unique in Europe, especially the Marshes, which are

extraordinarily important staging and breeding grounds and winter-

feeding grounds for thousands of European and African birds.

Other exceptional and outstanding sites are La Vera, the dune sys-

tem and the series ofponds that run around the edge of the Park.

There are also unique and seriously endangered species living in

Doñana, like the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) and the

Spanish lynx (Lynx pardinus).

Presently, few areas are the object of so many classifications as

Doñana, a clear indication of its international importance. In 1980,

it was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.Two years later,

the National Park was declared a Ramsar Site. This declaration

specifies that "Doñana is one of the largest and most important

remaining wetlands in Europe. It consists of a vast coastal marsh-

land complex in the floodplain of the lower Guadalquivir River, sep-

FIGURE 1Greater Doñana

89

arated from the Atlantic Ocean by an extensive system of both

active and stabilized dunes.The area is of international importance

for breeding, staging and wintering birds. It is the breeding site of

the endangered Marbled Duck Marmaronetta angustirostris and

the rare gull Larus genei.The trees found on the grasslands of La

Vera support a large mixed nesting colony of Ardea cinerea,

Egretta garzetta, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ciconia ciconia and

Platalea leucorodia. Nesting species in the Marshes also include

Anas strepera, Aythya ferina, Netta rufina, Porphyrio porphyrio

(1,000-2,000 pairs), Fulica cristata, Himantopus himantopus,

Recurvirostra avosetta and Chlidonias hybridus.Wintering species

include Anser anser (80,000), Anas penelope (120,000), A. acuta

(20,000), A. crecca (170,000), A. clypeata (80,000), Fulica atra

(40,000) and Limosa limosa (40,000). In descending order of pre-

dominance, it includes the following wetlands types: Sp,Tp, E, M, N,

Ss,Ts, 4.The area contains both fresh and saltwater marshes, sea-

sonal marshes, dunes and permanent and seasonal lakes”.

On the 23rd of September 1985, the Council of Europe award-

ed the Doñana National Park the European Diploma for

Management, which has been renewed in 1990, 1995, 2000 and

2005. On the 15th of January 1988, it was declared a SPA (Special

Protection Area for Birds),pursuant to Directive 79/409/CEE of the

2nd of April 1979 concerning the Conservation of Wild Birds in

Europe.This means that the Spanish State accepts the commitment

to prevent the deterioration and contamination of the habitat and

to prevent any disturbances that could affect the birds. In 1990, it

was included in the Montreux Register of sites that face threats to

conservation.And, finally, in 1994, Doñana was finally entered in the

UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.

Doñana National Park should be seen as the heart of a net-

work of zones that cover an area of 121,647 ha altogether, or just

over 40% of the entire Greater Doñana area, including the Doñana

FIGURE 2The above image highlights the water network of Doñana and its surrounding area, and the location of the region's population. The colouredtopographical representation of the terrain shows the scope of the original marshes that, until the 19th century, covered much of the depressionformed by the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.Image: Junta de Andalucía.(Andalusia Regional Government)

90

Nature Park around the National Park. The very declaration of

Doñana as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve defined the National

Park as a core zone, with an area of over 26,000 ha of lands that

now form part of the Nature Park as a buffer zone, and an unde-

fined transition zone around that.

Figure 3 shows all the declared nature spaces in the Doñana

area and Table 1 lists their category, time of declaration and the

municipal districts involved. Some of these spaces have also been

designated SPAs, Ramsar Sites, or Sites of Community Importance

(Table 2). These include the Marismas del Odiel on the western

edge of Greater Doñana, declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1984.

The 53,709 ha of Nature Park share similar landscapes with the

National Park, along with the habitat of diverse animal and plant

species, including massive pine forests, marshes in different stages

of development and stretches of river branches and channels of the

Guadalquivir, that used to flood the marshes. The series of areas

that make up the Nature Park include, first of all, the Algaida Marsh

close to Sanlucar de Barrameda, very close to the mouth of the

Guadalquivir River on the other side of the river from the borders

of the National Park.This is a strip of natural marshland flooded by

the tides, unlike the rest of the Guadalquivir marshes that only

receive rainwater from certain watercourses. There are still salt

flats to be found in these marshes that are visited by flamingos and

avocets in search of refuge and food. Close by is the Pinar de la

Algaida,where a popular pilgrimage is held in October.This pine nut

forest stems from large-scale historic replanting carried out in the

early 19th century and other plantations later on.Within in, there

are nesting populations of black kite, with over a hundred pairs,

buzzards, booted eagles, magpies and azure winged magpies.

Former ponds, like the Laguna del Ansar, attract flocks of geese that

are highly appreciated by hunters.The pine forest is also the site of

1. Doñana National Park (the recent extensions can be seen within its borders).)

2. Pre-Park areas (maritime zone, transition zone with the Rocina stream)

3. Doñana Nature Park (area of El Abalario and El Asperillo cliffs)

4. Doñana Nature Park(Coto del Rey pine forest)

5. Doñana Nature Park (Isla Mayor, Entremuros del Guadiamar and Brazo de la Torre)

6. La Algaida marsh and pine forest7. Brazo del Este Nature Reserve8. Dehesa de Abajo Concerted Nature Reserve9. Marismas del Odiel Nature Area

(including the Burro marsh and the Isla de en Medio Nature Reserve)10. Lagunas de los Palos y las Madres Nature Area11. Estero de Domingo Rubio Nature Area12. Guadiamar Green Corridor

FIGURE 3Protected Areas in Greater Doñana.

El Asperillo cliffs, in the Doñana Nature Park. Behind the coastal strip, thearea contains countless ponds of extraordinary scientific and natural inter-est.Photograph: Junta de Andalucía (Andalusia Regional Government)

91

El Santuario del Lucero, a former holy place where remains from

several diverse ancestral cultures have been found, and the Pozo de

los Caveros, a well of Roman origin.

Another area of interest that falls within the Nature Park is the

Coto del Rey pine woodland, situated in the municipal district of

Hinojos, whose woods provide refuge for several birds of prey.

Furthermore, it also includes marshes, which have been trans-

formed to a greater or lesser extent for rice growing, and channels

and other watercourses like the Torre Branch, Isla Mayor and

Entremuros del Guadiamar. These attract birds living in Doñana

during summer and winter droughts. In the province of Huelva are

the Hinojos pine forests and marshes, which attract thousands of

waterfowl when they flood. Down on the coastal strip of the

municipality of Almonte, we find the spectacular El Asperillo cliffs,

with its system of fossil dunes. Further inland is the Abalario com-

plex, dotted with small but fascinating ponds that have been under

restoration.

Other local land has been classed as Natural Areas,Reserves or

Protected Landscapes.The Dehesa de Abajo estate, located in the

municipal district of Puebla del Río, has great ecological wealth and

also provides a link between the marshes and the woodlands. It

floods at certain times of year, making it ideal for large numbers of

migratory species. Cañada de los Pajaros is also nearby. This is a

private nature reserve, with a wide variety of waterfowl, and

1. River Guadalquivir 9. Partido stream2. Torre Branch (Brazo de La Torre) 10. La Rocina stream3. River Guadiamar 11. Brenes channel (Caño de Brenes)4. River Guadiamar channeling 12. El Abalario complex and peri-dune ponds of the National Park.5. Entremuros 13. Current flooding marsh zone.6. Travieso channel (Caño Travieso) 14. Cañada Mayor stream7. Guadiamar channel (Caño Guadiamar) 15. La Cigüeña stream8. Madre de las Marismas channel 16. Majaberraque stream

The Travieso channel is shown here to be connected after the restoration work carried out as part of the Doñana 2005 Project.

FIGURE 4Water-related toponyms in the Doñana marshes.

92

includes wetlands and nesting grounds. On the opposite bank of

the Guadalquivir River, the Eastern Branch (Brazo del Este) Nature

Area is found.This is one of the former branches of the river sur-

rounded by marsh transformed into rice fields - a reasonably large

wetland area made up of Quaternary sediments and alluvial

deposits of gravel, sands, silt and clays. It provides habitat for the

typical marshland vegetation.

To the far west, there are other emblematic protected areas.

The Marismas del Odiel Biosphere Reserve, declared as such in

April 1983 and covering an area of 7,158 ha, encompasses the

Nature Reserves of the Burro Marshes and Enmedio Island. The

marshes at Odiel are maintained by the coastal dynamics of the

Atlantic shoreline of Andalusia. Their character as tidal marshes

gives this wetland the dynamism of a landscape gifted with the

rhythm of flooding and draining twice daily. This makes it highly

productive. Apart from aquatic vegetation, there are also charac-

teristic Mediterranean scrub species - home to a large colony of

spoonbills, one of its leading assets.The Biosphere Reserve is locat-

ed next to Huelva, the capital of the westernmost province of

Andalusia and port with an ancient history of important Roman

and Tartessian achievements.

Behind the coastal strip of Greater Doñana, there are two

other Nature Areas: Palos and Las Madres ponds and Estero de

Domingo Rubio. Up until recently, the "estero" (swampy flats) were

a typical tidal marsh system from end to end, subject to flooding

twice a day. But now, the tides barely affect the upper stretch,

because the drains of the roads that cross it have become clogged

up.These blocked drains, along with the water that feeds into this

area from a series of small streams, have modified this stretch into

a lake regime, presenting an interesting combination of fresh and

saltwater biocenoses.

More to the north of the National Park, the last of these clas-

sified spaces is the Guadiamar Green Corridor Protected

Landscape. It was declared as such due to an unfortunate accident

when toxic mud spilt from the Boliden mine tailings at Aznalcollar

on the 25th April 1998.The recovery of this area, after cleaning up

and removing the sludge, gave rise to one of the most ambitious

projects ever carried out in the Doñana area. It generated a green

corridor to provide an ecological union with the protected areas

of La Sierra, whilst at the same time recovering the environmental

quality and functionality of the historic course of the River

Guadiamar.

With Doñana as a Biosphere Reserve and given the network of

protected spaces and how they work now, it would seem advisable

Aerial photograph of the Doñana Marshes taken from the south. In theforeground, you can see Las Marismillas pine woodland which surroundsLucio del Membrillo. To the left and in the background, you can see theHinojos Marshes.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

1. Madre de las Marismas channel 9. Lucio de Mari López2. Rosaliman channel 10. Lucio del Lobo3. Guadiamar channel 11. Lucio del Cangrejo4. Travieso channel 12. Hinojos marsh5. Torre Branch 13. Gallega marsh6. Brenes channel 14. Vuelta de La Arena7. Lucio del Membrillo 15. Santa Olalla pond8. Lucio de los Ánsares

Doñana National Park boundary

FIGURE 5The extent of the Doñana National Park Marshes.

FIGURE PROTECTED NATURE AREA PROVINCE Nº MUNICIPALITIES YEAR DECLARATION / EXTENSION. LEGISLATIONDECLARATION

National Park Doñana National Park Huelva - Seville 4 1978 Law 91/78 (BOE 12/1/79) / Extension: 6/2/2004

Nature Park Doñana Nature Park Cádiz - Huelva - Seville 10 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89) / Extension: D 2/1997

Nature Area Brazo del Este Seville 4 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)

Nature Area Enebrales de Punta Umbría Huelva 1 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)

Nature Area Estero de Domingo Rubio Huelva 1 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)

Nature Area Lagunas de Palos y las Madres Huelva 2 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)

Nature Area Marismas del Odiel Huelva 4 1984 Law 12/1984 (BOJA 25/10/84)

Nature Reserve Isla de Enmedio Huelva 1 1984 Law 12/84 (BOJA 25/10/84)

Nature Reserve Marisma del Burro Huelva 2 1984 Law 12/1984 (BOJA 25/10/84)

Concerted Nature Reserve Cañada de los Pájaros Seville 1 1991 Agreement 30/4/91 (BOJA 7/6/91)

Concerted Nature Reserve Dehesa de Abajo Seville 1 2000 Agreement 31/01/00

Natural Monument Acantilado del Asperillo Huelva 1 2001 Decree 226/2001, of 2 October

(BOJA 135, 22/11/2001)

Natural Monument Acebuches de El Rocío Huelva 1 2001 Decree 226/2001, of 2 October

(BOJA 135, 22/11/2001)

Natural Monument Pino Centenario Huelva 1 2003 Decree 250/2003 of 9 September

del Parador de Mazagón

Protected Landscape Guadiamar Green Corridor Seville 7 2003 Decree 112/2003 of 22 April

93

to review current zoning, as new protected areas have constantly

been included since 1980, including areas of hydrological connectiv-

ity like the Green Corridor of Guadiamar.

This area, along with all areas that make up the Nature Park,

should be included in the buffer zone, including all water catchment

basins as a transition zone, because water is the lifeblood of Doñana

and its raison d'etre.

Geography of the water

Figure 4 shows the main events of the hydrographical network

that have an impact on Doñana, including the courses, rivers and

streams referred to in this article.The picture shows the different

watercourses that feed into the marshes,with its current floodplain

represented, along with the major "caños" (channels) that trans-

port most of the water in the flooding process.

The present hydrographical network, through the 20th century,

has been altered slightly from the original pattern. Firstly, there is

the Rocina stream to the west of the marsh,which merges with the

Partido stream at Rocío, creating the Madre de las Marismas

stream covering a basin of 620 km2 between the two and providing

an annual average of 140 hm3. Further east, we find the Cañada

Mayor stream with a basin of just under 70 km2, which feeds into

Guadiamar channel. Before it was channelled into the Torre Branch,

the Cigüeña stream also fed into the same channel.The channelling

works have also prevented vast quantities of water feeding into the

Guadiamar channel from the Guadiamar River, as used to happen

when the river flooded its banks. It is estimated that this river pro-

vided an average of some 325 hm3 from a catchment area of 1,070

TABLE 1

FIGURE 6Ecological Units of Greater Doñana

Pine forest PasturesEucalyptus groves MarshWild-olive groves Shallow lakes (Lucios)Cork-oak groves Salt-pansJuniper groves Non-irrigated cropsLow woodlands (Monte Bajo) Irrigated cropsInterdunal valleys (Monte Negro) Rice fieldsMobile dunes OlivesCliffs-Canyons StrawberriesVera - grasslands

*Source: Juan B. Gallego Fernández, 1997.

94

km2. This situation is repeated with the Majaberraque stream.

Nowadays, this water is channelled along Entremuros into the

Torre Branch, draining into the Guadalquivir River.One of the lead-

ing objectives of the hydrological restoration projects started in

recent years is to resolve this atypical situation.

Another hydrological aspect worthy of highlighting in Doñana

is the string of 'peri-dune' ponds that border the National Park

Marshes, and their continuation in the Abalario marsh complex

between the Rocina stream and the coast.All of these elements, of

extraordinary ecological interest, are influenced by the behaviour

of the aquifer.

Figure 5 shows the layout of the three major caños (channels)

- Madre de las Marismas, Guadiamar and Travieso - in the Marshes

floodplains. These finally converge into Brenes channel before

reaching the Guadalquivir River. It is important to note that the

Travieso channel used to act as an overflow channel when the Torre

Branch flooded its banks. To get a better understanding of how

water is used in this area, it is worth mentioning that the Torre

Branch now acts as a drainage channel for over 400 hm3 of water

that are pumped from the Guadalquivir River for irrigating the local

rice fields.

Figure 5 also indicates the main "lucios" (depressions that hold

the water for a longer time), in contrast to the "vetas" or "paciles"

(areas that normally remain above water level during times of

flooding), and the names of the main marsh areas.

The behaviour of groundwater is dealt with in detail in Chapter

3.This is of vital importance in understanding the Doñana hydro-

logical system. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning at this stage

that there is a major aquifer under the marsh area and the adjacent

zones, with reserves of up to approximately 5,500 hm3 of water.

These vast resources have led to some highly misleading views in

water management.The capacity to harness these reserves is lim-

ited.Also the essential ecosystems of Doñana require high phreat-

ic levels, according to what extent they depend on springs and the

proximity of the phreatic layer. Bearing these constraints in mind,

the Guadalquivir River Hydrological Plan, adopted in 2001, consid-

ers that the resources of this aquifer, known as the Almonte-

Marismas Aquifer, show a deficit of 51 hm3 in comparison with fore-

seeable demand.

Figure 6 shows the ecological map of Greater Doñana, drawn

up by Juan B. Gallego Fernandez in 1997, in which the waters of

Doñana can be seen in a regional context from a bird's eye view.

This view of Greater Doñana is completed in Figure 7, showing the

main towns in the area, the road system dominated by the Seville-

Huelva motorway, and the location of the protected areas. The

information on land use is fully developed in chapter 5.

FIGURE 7Road system and settlements in the Doñana area

PROTECTED NATURE AREA AREA (ha) MAB RAMSAR SCI/SAC SPAS

Doñana National Park 54,251Doñana Nature Park 53,709Brazo del Este 1,336Enebrales de Punta Umbría 162Estero de Domingo Rubio 480Lagunas de Palos y las Madres 693Marismas del Odiel 7,185Isla de Enmedio 480Marisma de El Burro 597Cañada de los Pájaros 7.43Dehesa de Abajo 617.71Acantilado del Asperillo 11.85Acebuches de El Rocío 0.63Pino Centenario del Parador de Mazagón 0.2Guadiamar Green Corridor 2,076.8

TOTAL PROTECTED AREA OF GREATER DOÑANA 121,607.62

TABLE 2

95

The decisive yearsthe role of Doñana in the history of conservation

MAURICIO GONZÁLEZ GORDON *

95

When in May of 1952 Francisco Bernis and Jose Antonio

Valverde came to visit me in Jerez on their way to

Doñana, I could not have imagined the repercussions that our

meeting would later have. I think none of us could have. Doñana,

until then, had been a unique hunting ground, and, as such, the

object of passion of many generations of hunters, and aside from

an occasional study, at that time it was only just beginning to be

acknowledged as a natural treasure meriting protection at all costs.

Doñana had been, from the 18th century until just forty years

ago, a vast expanse of land virtually free of any human activity

except for that of hunting.

Midway through the 19th century, interest in Doñana took a

somewhat more scientific turn. In 1846, Antonio Machado, our

patriarch of poets, had already begun to describe the birdlife of the

* Ornithologist and pioneer of the Doñana conservation.

Members of the Doñana Expedition of 1957. José Antonio Valverde, Guy de Mountfort and Max Nicholson participated, among the others,in this third expedition. The publications resulting from these expeditions made the Doñana heritage widely known throughout Europe.Files of the Doñana Biolgical Station.

region. Interest in the area was reflected in the descriptions made

by certain visiting Romantic writers, revealing idiosyncrasies typical

of the period's hunting aficionados that journeyed to Doñana,many

from abroad and almost always English, in whom the passion for the

hunt was coupled with a love for natural science.

This dual passion, for the hunt and for nature, led my grandfa-

ther, Pedro González Soto, into an association with Abel Chapman,

Walter J. Buck and Alexander Williams, all of them Englishmen, in

order to acquire the hunting rights for the Coto de Doñana hunt-

ing reserve in 1897. The four friends combined hunting with the

observation and study of nature, which Chapman and Buck had

earlier commenced in their book "Wild Spain"8. After associating

with my grandfather, the two published "Unexplored Spain"9, dedi-

cated to the Spanish monarchs Alfonso XIII and Victoria Eugenia, in

which thirteen chapters out of a total of forty dealt with their

expeditions and observations in the Coto de Doñana.

96

My father cherished Doñana. While passing through London

on his way to Chile where he was working as an engineer on the

construction of the Ferrocarril Longitudinal (Longitudinal railway),

he read news that the Coto was up for sale. He immediately wrote

my grandfather urging him to find a way to buy the land with the

offer of returning it to Spain while assuming the post of administra-

tor and game warden of Doñana.His wish to purchase Doñana and

to be its guardian was not to be granted at that time, but did come

true later when in 1940 he and two friends, the Marques del Merito

and Salvador Noguera, were able to acquire two thirds of the total

surface area of Doñana and when, shortly before his death in 1980

at the age of 93, he was named Honorary Headkeeper of Doñana

National Park by Spain's national park service, the National

Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICONA).

He had always admired and held the gamekeepers of Doñana,

to whom we owe so very much, in high esteem, a feeling that was

transmitted to his children and grandchildren.After all, as Alberto

Ruiz de Larramendi, the Park's Director Curator, states so well in

his book "Doñana cara a cara" ("Doñana Face to Face"),with regard

to the ones who are no longer with us, "… they are part, in their

own right, of the history of Doñana.They have bequeathed to us a

life of work in benefit of the conservation of these lands, in their

hopes that Doñana should be more than a mythical name in the

millennium that we now embark upon."

From our earliest childhood, my father transmitted his special

feelings of love for Doñana to my brother Jaime and me. In my case,

I poured them into birdlife, a hobby that was more practical than

scientific. Owing to this I have had the good fortune to meet and

get to know people of great renown in ornithology and biology in

general, such as Francisco Bernis and Jose Antonio Valverde, who

were undoubtedly among the most eminent in our country. I both

greatly enjoyed and was honoured by their friendship.

My brother Jaime was more the hunter than I, and bearing in

A happy confluence landowners’, scientists’ and nature-lovers’ enthusiasmallowed in a difficult moment the rescue of Doñana as a World HeritageSite.Photograph kindly provided by M. González-Gordon.

His dual passion for the hunt and for nature lead Pedro González Soto into an association with Abel Chapman, Walter J. Buck and Alexander Williams, in orderto acquire the hunting rights for the Coto de Doñana hunting reserve in 1897.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

97

mind Ortega y Gasset's conditions in his magnificent essay10, which

stated that hunting activity should be scant, he was, I believe, the

first to establish quotas on hunts in the Coto, both for large game

and ducks and geese, and even set a time limit (11.00 h) for shoots.

In short, I would affirm that the concurrence of love for nature

and for the hunt that was always present in the private owners of

Doñana is what permitted its preservation as a natural paradise. In

an interview we did in 1975, Jose Antonio Valverde stated it thus:

"To understand the situation, it must first be made clear that it was

the private owners of the hunting reserve who saved Doñana and

the Marshes from the general devastation of the environment in

Spain arising from the period of forced sale of Church and commu-

nally-owned property known as the Desamortización.Not that this

directly affected Doñana, but the owners at that time refused to be

swept into the ensuing frenzy of deforestation and ploughing up of

virgin territories. Doñana was defended at all costs against every

onslaught and both heritors and later owners continued to protect

and fight for the reserve, even at the risk of losing their property

in the process. To avoid the latent threat of expropriation of the

lands for social ends nothing would have been easier than to dis-

member them and sell them in plots"11.

Valverde was referring to the projects, fortunately abandoned,

to "colonise" the Coto and the marshlands, that arose during the

Primo de Rivera dictatorship and during the Second Republic; but,

fundamentally, he was recalling the serious shift that began on April

1st, 1952, stemming from a new governmental decree ordering the

afforestation -with eucalyptus trees!- of Doñana, under threat of

expropriation. The project, like those of earlier years, could have

signified the end of what we today know as Doñana National Park.

As the owners,we sought for a review of the new law and, after

a visit Franco paid to Doñana in 1953 during which he asked my

father if the afforestation already carried out had caused any dam-

age to Doñana, my father and I sent him a memorandum that we

prepared with the collaboration of Francisco Bernis, and which

Bernis drew up, in which, among other things, we stated: "…. the

Coto de Doñana, is, first and foremost, a precious relic of inviolate

nature, in whose midst is sheltered perhaps the most extraordinary

and renowned zoological community yet extant in Europe"… "We

entertain doubts as to whether the afforestation of the Coto with

exotic trees would constitute an issue of vital importance to our

nation. On the other hand, it is our profound conviction that pre-

cisely what is truly conducive to the interests of Spain is the preser-

vation of the Coto de Doñana and the protection of its wild vege-

tation, so as to allow the wholesale conservation of its rich and var-

ied wildlife as well."… "… within the general plan of feasible con-

servation in Spain, the Coto de Doñana merits the utmost atten-

tion."… "As a present and potential reserve, Doñana has no peer

in Spain nor perhaps in all of Europe".We ended thus, " … and as

long as we remain the proprietors of the Coto, we commit our-

selves to its conservation….as a reserve worthy of Spain, given that

we consider that this unique estate is worthy of the privileges

granted to protected reserves and national parks"12. Undoubtedly,

we had reached these conclusions, my own family as well as

Francisco Bernis, Jose Antonio Valverde and myself, in the meeting

we held in May of 1952, after, just a few days earlier, the threat of

expropriation was published in the official government bulletin.

Having staved off the eucalyptus threat as well as another proj-

ect to plant 6,000-hectares with guayule plants in the middle of the

Coto for rubber production - which we had also opposed - we

embarked on a decade of fervid activity to preserve Doñana, result-

Midway through the 19th century, interest in Doñana took a somewhatmore scientific turn. In 1846, Antonio Machado, our patriarch of poets,had already begun to describe the birdlife of the region. The book"Unexplored Spain" is published in 1910, in which thirteen chapters out of atotal of forty dealt with observations made in Doñana.Photograph kindly provided by M. González-Gordon.

98

- The first visit, in 1952, of French scientists, who were joined by GuyMountfort and Roger T. Peterson, which brought about the organisationof Mountfort's expeditions to Doñana in 1956 and 1957.

- The commencement, in 1953, of permanent scientific research in theDoñana wetlands with the ringing of 2,000 herons by the ringingscheme of the Aranzadi Society of Sciences of the San Telmo Museumin San Sebastian, Spain.This work, organised by Jose Antonio Valverde,continued on into the sixties, during which time a total of 15,000 mem-bers of the Ardeidae family were rung.

- The afforestation of Doñana was stopped as a result of the memoran-dum presented by my father and myself in November of 1953, to whichI earlier referred.

- The Spanish Ornithological Society (S.E.O.), a private association com-mitted to the study and protection of birdlife, was established in 1954(also determined in our 1952 meeting) by six founding members inMadrid,Valladolid, Barcelona, Burgos, Huelva and Jerez. Fifty years laterour group has 8000 members.

- In December of 1954 the first issue of "Ardeola", the Iberian Journal ofOrnithology and Bulletin of the Spanish Ornithological Society was pub-lished, Spain's first wholly ornithological journal. The first issue beganwith the publication of Francisco Bernis's "Prontuario de la AvifaunaEspañola" ("Compendium of Spanish Birdlife")13 which included 395species from Portugal and the Balearic and Canary Islands and listed thescientific and Spanish names approved by the Master List Commissionof the S.E.O.This magnificent piece of work resulted in "the outstand-ing and rapid growth of ornithology in Spain", a hope that the authorhad expressed in his letter to the readers which served as a prologueto the first issue.

- The first study in the history of Spain on Spanish bird migration waspublished14.

- In 1956 and 1957 I helped to organise Guy de Mountfort's second andthird expeditions into Doñana and suggested that he invite Jose AntonioValverde to the 1957 expedition, which he did. Both expeditions werea resounding success and are reflected in "Portrait of a Wilderness"15.The book made Doñana widely known throughout Europe and allowedValverde to, on the one hand, transmit his ideas to expeditioners on theneed to adopt conservation measures in the Doñana wetlands and, onthe other hand, meet Max Nicholson, director general of NatureConservancy, who invited Valverde to England to visit different centresand research laboratories.

- The publication in Spain, in 1957, of the adaptation of the work byPeterson, Mountfort and Hollom "A Field Guide to the Birds of Britainand Europe" which I translated and Francisco Bernis adapted.This trans-lation-adaptation was an anticipated response, which Mountfort himselfproposed and Bernis,Valverde and I accepted, to the obstacles that we

expected would arise concerning a prompt general adoption of theapproved nomenclature of the Master List Commission of the S.E.C16.

- In 1958 Valverde summoned fellow ornithologists to two sessions dur-ing the XII International Ornithological Conference held in Helsinki. Heproposed an international fund-raising project to purchase part of themarshlands which are an essential winter shelter for Nordic Anatidaespecies. During the conference, the International Committee for BirdPreservation issued its 11th Official Resolution, advised by the IWRB(International Wildfowl Research Bureau), calling for the protection ofwetlands in different European countries, including Spain. The protec-tion of Spanish wildlife was discussed during the technical meeting ofthe IUCN held in Athens.

- The first general study on Spain's conservation needs, "La protection dela Faune en Espagne: ses problemes"18, was published.

- The Juan March Foundation awarded Jose Antonio Valverde a grant tocarry out a study on the Marshes from which "a protection programmethat could lead to the setting up of a reserve will be prepared".

- In 1960 the Spanish Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC) pub-lished, in the Archives of the Institute of Acclimatisation in Almeria,Valverde's study entitled "Vertebrates of the Marshes of theGuadalquivir" (an introduction to his environmental study), in which hestressed the urgent need for a biological field laboratory in theMarshes19.

- José Maria Albareda, CSIC's Secretary General, authorised and encour-aged the start of the quest for international funds in order to purchase6,000 hectares of the Marshes.The quest, from the very beginning, wassupported by the IUCN, the IWRB, the International Council for BirdPreservation (ICBP/CIPO- now called BirdLife International) and theComité Internationale de la Chasse. Delegates from these organisationsmet in June, 1961 with Mr. Ibañez Martín, the Minister of NationalEducation, offering to finance the acquisition of the marshlands if theCSIC were to set up a research centre within it. Upon reaching anagreement, the protocol was signed in October in Jerez. Days later,members of the Mountfort expeditions held a meeting in London, sim-ilar to those held with the Spanish government, calling for support fora higher governing body that would be set up in Switzerland and calledthe World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Doñana, as Jose Antonio Valverde usedto say, was not a creation of the WWF, but quite the contrary!

- In 1962 the CSIC founded the Patronato Estación Biológica de lasMarismas (Biological Station of the Marshes Trust).

- In 1963 the funds for the proposed purchase of the marshes werereleased and with a matching contribution from the WWF were invest-ed in the acquisition of 6,700 hectares of the property known as theCoto Palacio de Doñana which is transferred to the CSIC.

- In 1964 the CSIC established the Doñana Biological Station and NatureReserve.

- The establishment of the Doñana Biological Station and its directionentrusted to Jose Antonio Valverde -which was highly innovative in theworld of conservation- was the final factor needed to, at last after sixyears, declare Doñana a National Park. Jose Antonio Valverde was des-ignated, as he well-deserved, its first director conservator.

MAIN MILESTONES

Spanish imperial eagle in Doñana.Photograph kindly provided by M. González Gordon.

In an interview we did in 1975, Jose Antonio Valverde stated it thus: "Tounderstand the situation, it must first be made clear that it was the privateowners of the hunting reserve who saved Doñana and the Marshes from thegeneral devastation of the environment in Spain arising from the periodknown as the Desamortización”.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

99

ing from the seed sown during our May 1952 meeting. Our efforts

culminated in the purchase of the lands, in 1963, by the World

Wildlife Fund, to be ceded to the Spanish Higher Council for

Scientific Research (CSIC), on which the following year the Doñana

Biological Station would be established.

In a letter sent to me in 1997, Francisco Bernis stated, "Apart

from the two or three first national parks established in Spain… it

can be affirmed that the first national park to be driven by modern

conservationist theory is none other than that of the Marshes of

the Guadalquivir. This, and its precursor, the Doñana Biological

Reserve, was and continues to be our country's most resounding

conservationist event."

In view of the brief historical summary offered within these

pages I believe it is evident that without the confluence at Doñana

of private owners and scientists, all devoted to nature conservan-

cy, the protectionist theses that took root so profoundly and so

quickly within Spain - and most likely outside as well - would not

have been possible.

In addition, this confluence took place during certain years, the

decisive years, in which public authorities were not inclined - the

In 1962 the CSIC founded the Patronato Estación Biológica de lasMarismas (Biological Station of the Marshes Trust) and, in 1963, 6,700hectares of the property known as the Coto Palacio de Doñana wereacquired with a contribution from the WWF, and transferred to the CSIC.In 1964 the Doñana Biological Station is established. The photo shows thePalace of Doñana at the time of the acquisition.Photograph kindly provided by M. González-Gordon.

The Decree of 1952 ordering the afforestation of Doñana was one of the biggest threats to the survival of this area. Private owners drew up a memorandumagainst the application of the Decree that, among the others things, stated: “ ... the Coto de Doñana, is, first and foremost, a precious relic of inviolate nature, inwhose midst is sheltered perhaps the most extraordinary and renowned zoological community yet extant in Europe”... “We entertain doubts as to whether theafforestation of the Coto with exotic trees would constitute an issue of vital importance to our nation. On the other hand, it is our profound conviction that pre-cisely what is truly conducive to the interests of Spain is the preservation of the Coto de Doñana and the protection of its wild vegetation, so as to allow thewholesale conservation of its rich and varied wildlife as well.”Phototograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

moment had not yet arrived - towards such conservationist theo-

ries. Even more, the threat of expropriation in 1952 was perhaps

the factor that triggered such a combination of efforts.

Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides) in Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

initial catalyst for gaining protection for Doñanaa.Valverde, and all

the others who helped him, used these articles as a foundation

for their work of converting Doñana into a protected area for all

to enjoy.

The Doñana Biological Station was created in 1964, including

the Biological Reserve of the same name. Its founding father,

Valverde, was also its first director. Hence the first step towards

the "official" protection of Doñana was taken. Although the

Reserve was not a legally valid category of protection in Spanish

legislation that could ensure its conservation,Valverde, as direc-

tor, was a fair guarantee of this. In fact, four years later, he man-

aged to persuade the authorities to declare Doñana a National

Park, whose 37,425 hectares encompassed the Biological

Reserve.At that time,Valverde had also managed to create a small

residence in the Reserve and that a certain amount of human

support was available to facilitate research work in the National

Park.

Ever since the Reserve was declared,Valverde attempted to

attract scientists to use it as a research area. This was far from

being a simple task in a country, like Spain at the time, in which

research potential was minimum and any interest in studying

renewable natural resources even less. Perhaps that is why the

first scientific article of interest was written by Valverde himself,

when he published "Estructura de una Comunidad de

Vertebrados Terrestres" in 1967, as the first number of the

101

Research in Doñanathe necessary relations between science and natural resource conservation

FERNANDO HIRALDO CANO *

101

Most people would obviously consider scientific research

as the natural foundation on which measures aimed at

conserving the ecosystems of a given place, the processes that

occur there and the species that inhabit those ecosystems should

rest. Another obvious point of this scenario is that any research

carried out in a protected natural area should give priority to the

conservation needs of that area. My experience in Doñana and

other areas, however, suggests that the necessary dialectic that

should be established between research and conservation does

not always occur, and when it does, it is often not as creative or

as positive as could be expected.On this point, as in other aspects

of the management of protected areas, the Doñana experience is

rich and varied and it offers much that we can and must learn,

both for those who work here and for those who work in the

field of these intimately linked activities in any other protected

area of the world.

This is the context that justifies the need to offer a brief sum-

mary of scientific activity in Doñana since active protection meas-

ures were first put in place, in 1964, when the Biological Reserve

was created, and their relations with the conservation of the

National Park.

RESEARCH AS THE DRIVING FORCE

BEHIND THE CONSERVATION OF DOÑANA

Research and conservation have always gone hand in hand in

Doñana. In the 1950s, Francisco Bernis and José Antonio Valverde

published several articles that highlighted the ornithological

wealth of Doñana. Apart from these two scholars, there were

also contributions by other researchers, including Ferguson-Lees,

Mountfort and Peterson. These first scientific works started to

raise awareness of Doñana and of the threats hanging over the

park and some of the species that inhabited it, like the lynx and

the imperial eagle.The need to conserve Doñana started to take

shape nationally and internationally. In this respect, one especially

important milestone was Valverde's article, "An ecological sketch

of the Coto Doñana", published in British Birds and later extend-

ed and enriched in the work "Vertebrados de las Marismas del

Guadalquivir" published in the Archives of the Almeria

Acclimatisation Institute.These scientific articles represented the

* Director of the Doñana Biological Station.

Source: Database of theResearch CoordinationOffice of the DoñanaBiological Station.

FIGURE 1Evolution of the number of research projects carried out in theDoñana National Park.

Number of projects in force for each year

102

"Monografías de la Estación Biológica de Doñana". Valverde

raised new issues in the area of Spanish terrestrial ecology, con-

cerning predator-prey relations and the organisation of commu-

nities. Thus he made (independent) contact with the school of

thought that was making a name for itself at the time in the flour-

ishing field of terrestrial ecology in the U.S.A.This work, based on

ecological research conducted in Doñana, undoubtedly had a

major impact on young Spanish workers taking their first steps in

Zoological and Ecological research, especially those studying ver-

tebrates.

However, the objective of opening the Reserve up to research

was not attained until the mid seventies and investigation did not

become consolidated until well into the eighties (Figures1 and

2).The contributions made by the team led by Fernando

Gonzalez Bernaldez, from the University of Seville Department of

Ecology, were especially important in these early stages. Their

work cast light on the functional aspects of the plant communi-

ties of Doñana; the fundamental relations that existed between

groundwater and surface waters and the role they play in model-

ling ecosystems. Other leading contributions included both the

detailed mapping of the Reserve vegetation, which was later

extended by the same team, spatially and conceptually, to cover

the rest of the Park, and for the questions raised that led to

debate and measures aimed at curbing actions in the National

Park and the surrounding area that could perhaps irreversibly

affect many of the ecological processes that attracted such a con-

centration of biological diversity to Doñana.Their contributions

were decisive for enhancing the management of Doñana's ecosys-

tems. If the conservation actions implemented in Doñana were

not all correct, this was probably due more to the fact that the

recommendations made by this team were not always followed,

rather than the measures themselves not being either right or

appropriate. As in the case of Valverde, the work conducted

marked a substantial advance in Spanish terrestrial ecology and

they were decisive for modernising this discipline, and even more

so for extending the use of multi-variant statistics in data process-

ing.

The above clearly shows the importance of research in the

early days of "official conservation" in Doñana, and the transcen-

dental impact of the investigation carried out in the National Park

on the development of the fields of Botany, Zoology and Ecology

in Spain.

THE UPS AND DOWNS OF RESEARCH IN DOÑANA

Research work has increased significantly in Doñana over the

last twenty years. If we take the number of projects and explo-

rations registered in the Research Co-ordination Office of the

Doñana Biological Station (Figure 1) as an indicator, a clear

increase in the number of projects can be observed in the eight-

ies, stabilising around fifty in the nineties.This increase in research

activities has also made it possible to make a better selection of

projects given authorisation to use the Doñana National Park as

a study area. In fact, if we look at the publications that have orig-

inated from these projects, we can see a clear increase in publi-

cations that have had a major international impact, while publica-

tions of local interest have remained stable.

The fact that science with an impact, "good science" is done

in a National Park does not necessarily mean that they are doing

the research that should be done.These scientific activities could

be focussed on relatively unimportant aspects for discovering an

in-depth view of the system. It may neglect other, more necessary

aspects that are of greater interest for improving the conserva-

tion prospects of the area. Although it is always a risky business

to make value judgements of this kind, a review of the lines of

research covered by the different projects will help to give us an

The Doñana Biological Station, and its Biological Reserve of the samename, was created in 1964. The founding father, Jose A. Valverde, was alsoits first director. In the photograph, Prince Juan Carlos (that later became

King Juan Carlos I of Spain) at the opening of the Bolin laboratory in 1972.The opening ceremony was also attended by Valverde and Felix

Rodriguez de la Fuente.

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Source: Database of theResearch CoordinationOffice of the DoñanaBiological Station.

FIGURE 2Evolution of the number of publications about Doñana.

Numer of articles published in magazines listed in the Science Citation Index

Other technical-scientific publications

103

idea of the situation in Doñana. In Figure 3, we have divided the

projects carried out since 1978 into different lines of research.

This division may be somewhat coarse, but it is sufficient for our

objectives.The projects classed as "functional aspects of ecosys-

tems and ecological relations in Doñana" account for the major-

ity of projects. Even though nobody could doubt the importance

of these projects, there are far too many of them in comparison

with the other lines of work.

Aspects like the "surface hydrology and hydro-geology of

Doñana National Park and its drainage basin" are essential for

understanding the Doñana ecosystems. These are decisive areas

that require more attention, as is also true of projects concerned

with the re-generation of the vegetation, endangered species and

pollution.

Our results also show that little scientific effort has been

focussed on issues related to the Park and how it interacts with

its surrounding environment and with visitors. Further studies in

these areas seems fundamental for improving our understanding

of these difficult relations and, thus, make progress in the quality

of interactions with the neighbouring towns and the role of the

park as an environmental education tool. The heads of research

and management of the National Park are well aware of this sit-

uation. Why has it not been corrected? To date, National Park

funding for adequate research into priority issues has been few

and far between. On the other hand, there have been no clear

mechanisms for demonstrating these preferences to the scientif-

ic community as a whole. Most of these projects were approved

by research financing agencies or entities without any kind of rela-

tions with the Park. So the projects were assessed on their scien-

tific quality, without considering the importance they could have

for the Park, which was only able to make any kind of selection

after the fact.This situation has now changed. First of all, a specif-

ic call for projects has been opened for National Parks as part of

the "National Research Plan", funded by the Ministry of the

Environment, in which priority is given to lines of research pro-

posed by National Parks. On the other hand, the recently adopt-

ed Doñana National Park Use and Management Plan includes the

elaboration of a Sectorial Research Plan. This document, to be

approved by the Board, will be drafted by scientists, with the

counselling of managers, and it will focus on the research aspects

that are considered of special interest for the National Park. In

the selection process, special consideration will be given to the

immediate interest of a potential project for improving manage-

ment.With these two new tools, the research situation in Doñana

takes another step closer to the desirable optimum situation.

Doñana will be a living laboratory, open to the entire scientific

community and research will provide the necessary information

and scientific standards for taking management decisions in the

Park.The new lines of funding opened up should not represent a

considerable increase in the number of projects conducted there,

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Identifying nature conservation problems and proposing ways of solvingthem has been an important contribution made by many of the differentlines of research conducted in the Park. The scientific contributions relatedto how the aquifer works and its relations with surface waters and vegeta-tion, and studies related to the populations of endangered species like thelynx and the imperial eagle, have been especially important.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

a) Surface hydrology and hydro-geology of the National Park and itsdrainage basin.

b) Strategy and methodologies for re-generating plant formations and asso-ciated processes.

c) Biology and ecology of endangered species: Factors that affect the size oftheir populations.

d) Ecological effects of abiotic (contaminant) and biotic elements (invasivespecies) introduced in the National Park.

e) Functional aspects of ecosystems and ecological relations in Doñana.

f) Man's interactions with his environment in the National Park.

g) The response of visitors and inhabitants of the area to the Park's systemof public use and its message.

Source: Database of theResearch CoordinationOffice of the DoñanaBiological Station.

FIGURE 3Number of projects in the different lines of research.

Number of projects (1978-2002)

104

as the Park has a limited capacity to host these projects.The fore-

seeable increase in the number of scientists seeking funding to

work in Doñana should make for a better selection of projects,

with the emphasis place firmly on the criterion of scientific qual-

ity and how a project responds to the current conservation prob-

lems faced by the Park.

During this period, and despite the deficiencies already

described, Doñana has been an area open to science and the

research results have provided valuable information for improving

conservation work in the National Park.The former can be clear-

ly seen from the publications and the reports produced during

this period (Figure 2), and from the fact that the Doñana

Biological Reserve was included in the European Commission's V

Framework Programme, "Trans-national access to major research

facilities", designed to sponsor access to Doñana for research

teams from other European countries.

Identifying conservation problems and proposing ways of

solving them has also been an important contribution made by

many projects in the different lines of research conducted in the

Park. In this area, the scientific contributions related to how the

aquifer works and its relations with the surface waters and the

work done on populations of endangered species like the lynx

and the imperial eagle have been especially important. In these

cases, many of the results produced by the research work done

have not been applied to the conservation of the Park, clearly

highlighting the need to improve the mechanisms that are

presently used for transferring research results to the area of

management. The first steps towards solving this problem have

In a protected natural area, priority should be given to research aimed atcovering its conservation needs and requirements.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

From 1950, Francisco Bernis and José Antonio Valverde published several articles that highlighted the ornithological wealth of Doñana. These led to others,including contributions by Ferguson-Lees, Mounfort and Peterson. These early scientists started to disseminate the enormous flow of information to be foundin Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

105

probable already been taken with the measures put in place as

part of the "National Plan" and the "Use and Management Plan"

that we have mentioned previously.

It could be said that the research/conservation relations in

Doñana have been positive, but that there is room for improve-

ment, and that mechanisms are being put in place that are expect-

ed to make this relationship more productive.Accumulated expe-

rience in this area suggests that it is not enough to make a pro-

tected natural area an attractive study site for scientists to guar-

antee that it gets the research it needs.The budgets of these areas

should include funds for research that can direct projects in the

direction of whatever lines of research may be considered as pri-

ority.And this should be done without closing the door to other

research projects that do not directly address immediate conser-

vation problems. In the mid and long term, these contributions

will help us to understand the system as a whole, help us to iden-

tify problems at an early stage, when they are easier to solve. I

would say that the relations between science and conservation in

a protected natural space should never be conceived as a con-

frontation between basic science and applied science or the appli-

cations of science. Both of these are necessary and, in the end,

there are only two forms of science; good science and bad sci-

Greater attention should be paid to aspects related to the surfacehydrology and hydro-geology of Doñana National Park and its drainagebasin and to those addressing the regeneration of the vegetation, endan-gered species and pollution, as these are all fundamental for understand-ing Doñana's ecosystems.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

Research programmes have had a profound impact on the conservation ofDoñana. In the picture, results of breeding lynx in captivity for laterrelease.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

ence. The former is always applicable, sooner or later, and the lat-

ter is never applicable.We must provide incentives for the lines

of research that most interest us, fostering a dialogue between

scientists and managers, but we must not forget that one of the

most important functions of a protected natural area is to open

its doors to science to generate the knowledge we need to understand

the world we live in.

“La Saca de Yeguas” (The Mares' Roundup)a centuries old tradition in Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

The creation of the Doñana National Park was the result

of a process that was driven more by individual will and

impulses than by general planning or a long term political proj-

ect. When the efforts of a few dedicated people were translat-

ed into printed letters in the Official State Gazette, the preser-

vation of what is perhaps the very best of Spanish nature,

endangered at the time, was assured. But the future preserva-

tion of this space was obviously not ensured per se. In the years

between that time and now, the National Park has undergone

many changes.These changes, in general, have always been for

the good and they have helped to consolidate the conservation

of the Park that is no longer questioned by anybody. From time

to time, somebody is always determined to compare "the state

of Doñana now" with how it was in the past, and, of course,

depending on the ideology of the person making the compari-

son, they will consider that Doñana is "in a better state than it

has ever been in", or "on the edge of extinction". I firmly believe

that it has improved constantly since it was declared a National

Park. This improvement is often founded on controversy and

sometimes on confrontation.These improvements are also off-

set by the changes suffered by the area around the National

Park, where, of course, transformation has inevitably led to a

reduction in the natural state of the environment. Doñana is no

longer an isolated, marginal and wild area in lower Andalusia.

But, despite all this, the Park, as a whole, has continued to flour-

ish. It has grown as a support for conserving the biodiversity,

and it has also developed as a facility in the service of this con-

servation, providing information to visitors, scientific know-how

and it also makes an important contribution to the quality of life

of the district.

107

The milestones that madeDoñana a National Park

JESÚS CASAS GRANDE *

107

* Head of the department of planning and technical programmes for National Parks.Ministry of the Environment, Spain.

The National Park of Doñana is the result of a Solomon-like agreementthat has attempted to strike a balance between the simultaneous presenceof three different policies on the same territory: nature conservation, agri-cultural transformation and the development of the tourist industry.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

The work of the Doñana Board, driving a Sustainable Development Plan, and the institutional support for this from the National Park played an important roleto secure the support of the European Union to carry out the project. In the picture, sands barrs in the marshes boundary merge into one in the sunset ofLa Vera.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM Files.

But, in the course of these

thirty five years, we have also

witnessed a succession of del-

icate situations involving the

National Park, with significant

social repercussions. Doñana

was declared a National Park

as the result of a Solomon-like

agreement in an attempt to

strike a balance between three

different models that were

applied to the same territory

at the same time, which were

probable incompatible in prin-

ciple.These three models; nature conservation, agricultural trans-

formation and mass tourism, were not only highly difficult to com-

bine, they were also obliged to co-exist shoulder to shoulder,with-

out any kind of buffer zone between them.The result is obvious:

visitors to Doñana are constantly amazed by the lack of balance

that enables the most protected area of Europe live alongside

areas of intensive farming or high density tourist resorts, only sep-

arated from them by a simple fence.

In the course of this same period of time, and in parallel with

the National Park, the district has also undergone a major social,

cultural and economic transformation. And the demands of the

population have grown.These demands have often been associat-

ed with the National Park.The Park has always been a touchstone,

the heart of each and every one of the major issues.

If you could take an objective view, something I still find impos-

sible, when analysing the distance between the current situation

and the situation of forty years ago, the result would probably be

surprising. It is now a shared opinion that the driving force for the

regional planning of this district is the National Park. It has not

only become a determining factor in vertebrating all land uses and

activities; it is also the main catalyst of economic activity by a long

way. Anything that does not have some kind of connection with

the National Park is difficult to sell nowadays.The ambition of the

district is to become a benchmark for sustainable development. It

is true that names are merely names, and that there are more

doubts than certainties behind the concept of sustainable develop-

ment, but this ambition is indicative of the extent to which the

concept has taken root in a society that, initially was not very

prone to changing its attitude towards life until very recently.The

National Park is now well accepted and its value recognised.This

is a situation that was unthinkable forty years ago. Forty years ago,

the Park was a conceptual, political and social dwarf, facing enor-

mous battleships of transformation that had social approval, polit-

ical backing and financial resources.Although it many not be easy

to understand, David defeated Goliath in this story too. Not only

did he defeat him, he even managed to persuade Goliath that it

was better for both of them to live side by side, David's way.

Doñana was declared a National Park by a Decree passed in

1969. But the modern history of Doñana really did not start until

1978, when it was re-classified in Parliament.To outside eyes, this

re-classification was apparently a mere legal consolidation at the

highest level. It brought an expansion in the area of the National

Park that increased from around 35,000 hectares to 54,251

hectares, bringing in major areas of marshes, Coto del Rey, the

beach and Marismillas, in comparison to the original declaration.

But the Doñana Act was far more than just a law. For the first time

in Spain, it meant the implementation of a participative process

prior to enacting the law, in order to build an initial, fragile social

consensus in declaring a protected area. It was the first law enact-

ed by Parliament after the Constitution was adopted, and it is

Doñana was declared a NationalPark by a Decree passed in 1969. Butthe modern history of Doñana reallydid not start until 1978, when it wasre-classified in Spanish Parliament.

Colony of flamingos on a Marsh "veta" (rised old levee).Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

impregnated with the same spirit of consensus and balanced

progress that enlightened our political leaders at that time. The

Doñana Act was not just a decision of the Spanish Parliament.

Behind this Act, and basically behind its limits, there were hours of

deliberations in the Inter-Ministerial Environmental Commission

(CIMA, from its acronim in Spanish), in which the different sectors

presented their demands and finally reached a reasonable agree-

ment. If this preliminary agreement had not been tacitly accepted

by all concerned, implementing the National Park in practise

would have been even more eventful.

The Doñana Act was totally innovative. It introduced the pri-

ority of conservation over any other activity in the National Park

as a basic concept. It created the first buffer zones and areas of

influence for a National Park, outside its borders, where part of

the management and conservation activity was transferred, includ-

ing the Park administration and the Board, although these buffer

zones were not given the same degree of protection. It took on

board the criterion of drainage basin, for both surface and ground-

water, and how these could affect the National Park. It established

the possibility of maintaining private property ownership within

the protected area, although this was subject to accepting the

determinations of the Park managers who, in the case of a dis-

agreement, were empowered to expropriate land to nationalise it.

It recognised the need to manage the National Park based on

planning and with its own, specific administration, and it sanctioned

the vital presence of the Board as an organ of social consensus,

support, deliberation and participation. All these issues, which we

work on in protected areas, may seem obvious now and inherent

in any declaration of this kind, but it is good to remember that

they grew out of the Doñana Act. Much of what has happened

since, both in Doñana in particular and in Spanish nature conser-

vation in general, is a direct consequence of the fact that Doñana

had and has excellent legislation. This law acted as a model for

other areas and even today, twenty five years after it was enacted,

it remains absolutely valid and up to date.

The first consequence of this law was the creation of an

administration for the National Park.This is a dedicated adminis-

tration and independent from the Doñana Biological Station that,

for many years had acted as the tacit administrator of Doñana. It

is true that the new administration, belonging to the Ministry of

Agriculture at the time, was seen as being non conservationist, or

openly hostile to the ideology of the National Park. For years,

newspaper archives collected pages and pages on the conflict

between Doñana National Park and Doñana Biological Station.

There was talk of Doñana having two heads, and of there being

open discrepancies that made park management sterile.The diffi-

culty in striking a balance and for the two administrations to work

together in a common area, but each with its own clearly defined

Doñana is one of the few protected spaces that has managed to consoli-date an independent scientific unit as part of the Park. The picture showsthe Palace of Doñana, seated in the Doñana Biological Reserve.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

110

responsibilities, one a management body and the other a research

body, was a built-in handicap for the development of the National

Park.The controversy reached its height in the early eighties, and

the idea of two "de facto" administrations for the same area was

even considered, each with its own administrative procedures and

arrangements.These teething troubles, which were not exempt of

personality cults and over-inflated egos in both administrations,

has undoubtedly been the main constraint on the National Park as

a working entity.

Today, there is an evident balance and the two administrations

maintain reasonable relations, but, with the advantage of hindsight

and their capacity to resolve their differences, there remains a cer-

tain general feeling that the model has not worked, or that the

dynamic generated by its dual approach was not the right one. In

reality, once again with hindsight, and in the light of the innovations

formulated from Doñana to other pro-

tected areas, the only thing that has not

been transferred is precisely this, the idea

of creating an independent scientific unit,

sited in the protected area. The law

declaring Las Tablas de Daimiel a National

Park, enacted immediately afterwards,

included the possibility of creating a

Biological Station in the Park, although

this was never done. The following

National Parks Acts have not contemplat-

ed this possibility. Neither has the abun-

dant regional legislation that has been

developed in the course of the last few

decades. It is probably obsolete now as a

concept, as we now have more complex

models and more people are involved, and the very role and pres-

ence of the administrations in managing protected areas is clearly

in flux.This approach is now tinged with the sepia of old photo-

graphs, as there appears to be a mutual understanding of the role

that each institution can play in the future of the National Park.

Another consequence of the Doñana Act was to bring to an

end a series of transformations in the National Park that were

either planned or in course in the neighbouring zones. The

Almonte-Marismas Plan suffered slight cuts, the "World Hotel"

complex moved out of the National Park grounds, the possibility

of a coastal road running between Huelva and Cadiz (provinces

crossing the Park) was discarded, etc.These decisions took sever-

al things beyond the boundaries of the National Park. In some

cases, for example, in reducing the area of the Almonte-Marismas

Plan, the social tension was shifted to the area around the National

Park. And in others, such as the case of the "World Hotel", the

issue was to transfer the complex elsewhere, in this case, border-

ing on the National Park, propitiating a new, probably unforesee-

able, direction for developments: the National Park was starting to

have an impact on its immediate surroundings.

We started to glimpse the curious phenomenon of osmotic

involvement.The National Park felt "threatened" by the transfor-

mation of its surroundings that, to some extent, represented a

threat to the continuity of the natural systems and processes

encompassed therein. But at the same time, the surrounding area

felt threatened by a National Park with the ability to induce, from

an imprecise but notorious position, changes in organisation.The

National Park feared its surroundings and the surrounding area

feared the National Park.

The "World Hotel" was designed as a shorefront complex on

Marismillas lands, to the south of the National Park. The law

declared the affected area part of the

National Park, but the project already had

enough papers and permits to present a

solid case for litigation with the govern-

ment.The result was a permutation of the

project to lands to the west of

Matalascañas, south of El Acebuche,

beyond the borders of the National Park.

There were changes in the ownership,

probably due to the financial difficulties

faced by the developers and in the mid

eighties, the project reappeared in the

guise of "Costa Doñana", a powerful

development initiative with significant

political support and social backing. The

position of the Park administration, which

could, in theory, afford to stay out of the operation, was critical,

highly critical. In fact, the park administration formed part of an

opposition movement to the project, with the silent acquiescence

of the government it belonged to.The opposition generated ten-

sion in the district at a time of economic difficulties, and did not

exactly win many friends among the authorities. From time to

time, there were even highly complicated moments.The fact that

the controversy reached its height during the regional government

election campaign created a fertile breeding ground for seeking an

outside solution that took the form of a International Committee

of Experts.The Committee was created to solve the controversy.

What happened is history. For the first time in the history of Spain,

a protected area was able to generate a debate on planning the

area around this protected area, but outside of the system.

What is known as the "Experts' Report" consolidated much of

what the National Park was defending as its position. Deep down,

There is currently no doubt that the driving force behindthe regional planning of this district is the NationalPark. It has not only been decisive for vertebrating usesand activities, it is also the main catalyst to economicactivity by a long way.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

111

effects of this process are evident. On the one hand, a certain and

increasingly flourishing economy has been created, based on con-

servation. But much more important than this activity is the fact

that a culture of sustainability has been consolidated as a bench-

mark and the view of the National Park in the district as the prin-

ciple argument for accepting the sustainability culture.And you can

only smile wryly when the legacy of "Costa Doñana" converted

it was a formidable support for the theories promoted by the

managers of Doñana. In essence, the report proposes that the

future of the district of Doñana was more closely associated with

the conservation of its natural assets than with their transforma-

tion, and the environmental differential of the district was the main

argument for gaining a leading place in the competition with other

areas. But harnessing the advantageous difference that lay in the

excellent state of conservation of the area obviously required

extra investment in resources, capacity building, training and tech-

nology that the district could not provide on its own.The work of

the Doñana Board, driving a Sustainable Development Plan, and

institutional support for this from the National Park was perhaps

responsible for with the major financial support that the authori-

ties, basically the regional authorities, finally obtained for the Plan

and completed with the support of the European Commission.

Obviously there was a political opportunity that was seized, and

part of the money invested has probable not been put to the best

possible use, but the change has been obvious and pronounced;

and not only in appearances. In summary, you want to remember

the sensation that it was thanks to the National Park that the dis-

trict attracted a formidable flow of investment and activity. The

Much of what has happened in the last decades, both in Doñana in parti-cular and in Spanish nature conservation in general, is a direct consequen-ce of the fact that Doñana had and has excellent legislation. This law actedas a model for other areas and even today, twenty five years after it wasenacted, it remains absolutely valid and up to date.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Marshes and dunes. In this water colour, two areas of Doñana meet. In the foreground, we find geese on the sand. On one side, the cork oaks of La Vera withthe imperial eagle flying over them, and, in the background, the Marshes with groups of flamingos and avocets. A water colour that reflects the area that hasbeen saved for conservation.The painting has been prepared by Regla Alonso Miura and Rosalía Martín Franquelo.

112

into "Castillo de la Luz”, has also finally found its place in the area,

this time over 25 kilometres from the borders of the National

Park.

Some may wonder if there wasn't a certain social toll to paid

for travelling this path.And the answer is yes there was, and it was

not cheap.The history of Doñana also contains a page of conflicts

with a social environment that demanded the recovery of title to

the use and rights of the land.This title was neither justified, nor

was it possible to deliver.The administration tried to undermine

the critics in every way possible, with unequal results, by embark-

ing on a range of different initiatives.

First of all, it increased its capacity to invest in local labour.The

investment budget was increased four fold in three years in the

early nineties, and the number of local employees increased from

less than twenty to over three hundred. But despite all the finan-

cial effort made, this job creation policy did not mark a turning

point or strike a balance in demand until well into the nineties,

when the employment situation of the district was turned around

and moved towards full employment and a significant presence of

immigrant labour.The positive side of all this is that the formida-

ble investment effort that has been maintained and practically all

the infrastructures and facilities of the National Park are now

complete and almost more money is now spent on maintenance

than on investment.

The second step was an attempt to create a social economy

associated with managing the area. In the early eighties, the initia-

tive of creating the "Marismas del Rocio" Co-operative to run the

public visits to the National Park, was the first attempt to consol-

idate a local economy based on the National Park, not only in the

area, but also in Spain in general. Looking back over this now, and

despite the many delays that the task has suffered, it has obvious-

ly been a resounding success, an in situ benchmark that clearly

shows that it is possible to live off the resources of the National

Park, but not by exploiting it in traditional ways.The Co-operative

Nobody fishes in the National Park today; nor is their any irregular camp-ing, nor are vehicles allowed to circulate freely along the beach and that,in itself, is good for conservation, it is good for Doñana and it is good forits surrounding district. For this reason too, we can now maintain one ofthe most outstanding images of Doñana: observing geese when they con-gregate at dawn on Cerro del Trigo to eat sand.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

113

is one of several active nature tourism initiatives that have been

generated. In the light of the demand, supply would obviously have

appeared, but it is also reasonable to think that the National Park

administration would not have opted for a local solution. Many of

the companies that now trade would probably not have had the

social location that they do.

Third; the network of National Parks promoted a line of sub-

sidies for actions around the National Park. Initially, these were

only for Local Councils, but they have gradually been increased and

opened up to companies, families and non-profit making organisa-

tions. In this aspect, the balance is a bitter sweet one.The results

are relatively satisfactory with regard to social aspects, but they do

entail the risk of generating a dependent society with no intention

whatsoever of using this exogenous resource as a catalyst.

In the years that have transpired, almost all the major mile-

stones associated with the National Park have been implemented

beyond its boundaries. The management of Doñana has mainly

been a kind of tutorship or an extra push brought to bear on what

was going on outside of Doñana, with very few exceptions. One of

these that requires a mention is the issue of the beach use.The

National Park beach forms part of the National Park, exactly in the

same way as any other part of the Park.Turning this beach into a

free and open space for all, without any significant limitations, has

been a more complex task that one may imagine. Initially, there

was conflict with the illegal ranches built on the beach in the late

seventies.Then the irregular traffic had to be regulated in the late

eighties. Obviously, in both cases, the rules were clear, and in both

cases, the National Park administration took a firm and solid

stance. From the point of view of attitudes today, this attitude may

seem somewhat strict, but the results were excellent.The park's

attitude to the invasions of crab hunters in the first half of the

eighties deserves the same consideration. Once again, the admin-

istration took up a complicated struggle, with some striking

defeats in some years, but with regard to maintaining its position,

114

which was evidently supported by the regulations, it won accept-

ance and credibility for the Park authorities in the medium term.

Nowadays, nobody fishes for crab in the National Park, neither do

they camp illegally, or roam freely in cars along the beach… and

that is a good thing for conservation, per se, it is positive for

Doñana and it is good for the district as a whole.This is a clear

example of how a willingness to maintain a dialogue, always essen-

tial, cannot ignore the letter of the law in the application of the

rules when any contravention of these rules is clearly harmful to

the general interests.

During the same time, there has also been another process,

concerning the evolution of what are known as the traditional

uses of the land, which is also worth mentioning.When the area

was declared a National Park, as has been mentioned, the declara-

tion was accompanied by a resurgence of the demand to "return"

Doñana to its residents. Initially, the area declared a National Park

was mostly in private hands.The administration later nationalised

this land, either by buying it or by expropriating it.This move to

public ownership put demands for land use on the table that had

hardly been considered to date.These demands to be able to use

the land were enhanced and reinforced by the desire to recover

traditional uses, forming part of local traditions that are abundant

in the district. It is still too early to assess the results of this situ-

ation.The National Park maintained a relatively firm stance in the

early nineties, in defence of the general interest, but it softened its

positional significantly in the mid nineties. Everybody still remem-

bers the livestock invasion, which, it is true, was not significant

from the point of view of numbers, but it was a turning point from

a qualitative point of view.The effect this had on other protected

areas, as Doñana was a basic yardstick in Spanish conservation, is

to give an exaggerated pre-eminence to traditional uses, some of

which are little more than alleged traditions, in management plan-

ning.This is an open question, and one we will have to return to in

the years to come. There is a general impression that some of

these are not traditional uses at all and in many cases, considering

them as such merely sustains something that forms part of the

past.There is an appreciable new school of thought that does not

necessarily identify tradition with balanced, sustainable conserva-

tionism, a school of thought that will probably put things back into

perspective in the coming years; a perspective in which traditions

are not excluded, but neither are they raised to the category of

absolute truth.

The Doñana experience has acted as a foundation for spreading the idea that protected areas require their own, specific administration, which should be based inthe area of the National Park, and which should have sufficient human resources for administration, technical work, public use and services.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

115

Like most other things in life, Doñana has been moved by the

principle of action and reaction. Part of the administrative power

the space now has is due to the mortality of birds in the mid eight-

ies.The sensation of ignorance and impotence, of not being able to

do something that had become a media phenomenon is closely

associated with the reinforcement that park management has

undergone in the second half of the eighties. Here too, Doñana is

a yardstick. Nowadays, nobody would argue about the fact that

protected spaces require their own, specific administration, which

should be locally based and should have sufficient administrative

staff, technical staff, park rangers, public use resources and servic-

es. The consolidation of the management machine of Doñana

National Park, with over 500 employees and, in some years, a

budget of almost 10 million euros, seems impossible to understand

if it is not supported by a formidable political base that was creat-

ed in the late eighties. Doñana could have adopted another man-

agement model, with far less people and with far less resources.

But, if we accept that the National Park is the differential yardstick

in planning the district, then this is the only possible model. One

as yet unsolved issue is whether such a high degree of resource

allocation remains strictly necessary, once the process is launched,

or whether, on the contrary, the organisational drive provided by

managers has led to excesses, completely out of place, at practi-

cally all levels of district action that should be reconsidered and

shifted towards focussing spending on the objectives of the

National Park.

Finally, something should perhaps also be put down to luck.

Luck disguised as an economic boom that few could have fore-

seen. In the early eighties, after a long period of drought, the

National Park authorities promoted an initial regeneration of

water resources that, despite its failure, is worth reconsidering

because it highlights the anxiety of the management who felt over-

whelmed by social pressure and convinced that the progressive

decadence they were witnessing was unstoppable. The Almonte-

Marismas Plan, however, found neither the water, nor the agricul-

tural know-how, nor the markets that their ideologists were

dreaming of, and the Plan failed.And although there was no short-

age of fingers pointing accusingly at the National Park as the cul-

prit of the failure, it really had nothing to do with it.The develop-

ment of the tourist industry along the coast beyond Matalascañas

also failed to find the quality of services, products or complemen-

tary activities, and also failed. Some of the failures of other region-

al planning models touched upon in the district consolidated their

pre-eminent position over the National Park, as the up-side, but

also generated a current of playing the victim that was only

plugged when the treasure trove of resources associated with the

Sustainable Development Plan appeared on the horizon.

Hence, by way of conclusion, one would like to believe that cir-

cumstances have always been on the side of the National Park.

Although it is also true that there has always been someone with

vision enough to grasp the opportunities offered. From the time it

was declared a National Park, Doñana has always been conserved,

with better fortune at some times than others, and no change in

this conservation policy has ever been considered, in fact, it has

continued to expand in practise. The creation of what was first

called the Doñana Area Natural Park, now called Doñana Natural

Park, and its successive extensions, and the creation of other pro-

tected areas in the immediate proximities of the National Park, the

increasing involvement of the National Park in defining policies and

strategies that go beyond the borders of the Park,Doñana 2005.All

of these are examples of this attitude, clear examples of how the

National Park has always been a growing and expanding reality.

The National Park has recently been extended, the third time

in its history that this has happened. It now encompasses the orig-

inal lands that were transformed and opened up for farming, and

which will shortly recover their natural state. This is an unusual

event, because it not only signifies continuing with the policy of

protecting well conserved areas under the Doñana umbrella, it

also means implementing another policy, a policy of restoring

transformed lands and returning them to something like their

original state.This time, however, the district has understood these

changes, and they support them.The extension has been planned

and implemented on the basis of a broad consensus That is the

conclusion, rather than a paradox.What started out as a defensive

mechanism to save something of the virgin territory from the

unstoppable advance of alleged progress has become the main

argument for ensuring that the future is possible.And it remains a

great National Park.

The public use of Doñana and the flow of visitors became one of the firstlinks with the local economy of the area. In the photograph, the Palace ofAcebrón, one of the old Doñana mansions now adapted as a visitor centre.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

116

1. The present Duchess has studied the Archives from an historic stand pointand has also analysed the management of the Torre Carboneros TunaFishing Post. Ojeda (1990) published an historic analysis of the transfor-mation of Almonte.

2. This material has been analysed by Professor Martin Vicente's team fromthe University of Seville, who laid the fundamental groundwork for study-ing the ecological history of Doñana.

3. GARCIA MURILLO et al (2000, 2003), while studying place names,identified the changes in the landscape units of the Cotos, El Albario andLas Rocinas, thus offering a regional framework for the ecological histo-ry of the Park.

4 GRANADOS CORONA, M., MARTIN VICENTE, A., FERNANDEZALES, R., GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1984. Long term vegetation changes inthe stabilized dunes of Doñana National Park. Vegetatio, 75:73-80.

5. GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1977. The effects of fire in the vegetation of DoñanaNational Park. En: Mooney, H., Conrad, F. (Eds.) Symposium on the envi-ronmental consequencies of fire and fuel management in mediterraneanecosystems. Technical Report WO-3.U.S.Forest Service. Washington: 318-325.

6. GRANADOS CORONA, M, MARTIN VICENTE, A., FERNANDEZALES, R., GARCÍA NOVO, F. 1987. Evolución conjunta del paisaje y sugestión. El caso del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Estudios Territoriales24:183-187.

7. GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1990. The origin of the Doñana Ecosystems. En TheNational Park of Doñana. ICONA, Lunberg. Madrid: 8-17.

8. CHAPMAN, A. & BUCK, W.J., 1893. Wild Spain. London, Guerney andJackson.

9. CHAPMAN, A. & BUCK, W.J., 1910. Unexplored Spain. London, E.Arnold.

10. ORTEGA Y GASSET. J., 1948 prólogo, Yebes. Conde de, Veinte años deCaza Mayor. Editorial Plus Ultra. Madrid.

11. VALVERDE, J.A., 1975. Doñana y las marismas del Guadalquivir: surescate y sus problemas presentes y futuros. Ardeola. Número especial.

12. GONZÁLEZ GORDON M. & MAURICIO GONZÁLEZ, D., 1953.Exposición a F. Franco Bahamonde.

13. BERNIS, F., 1954. Prontuario de la Avifauna Española. Ardeola Vol 1. 14. VALVERDE, J.A., WEICKERT P, 1956. Sobre la migración de varias

garzas españolas. Munibe 1956 II.15. MOUNTFORT, G., 1958. Portrait of a Wilderness. London, Hutchinson.16. PETERSON, R., MOUNTFORT, G.., HOLLOM, P.A.D., 1957. Guia de

campo de las aves de España y de Europa. Barcelona, Ediciones Omega S.A.17. MOUNTFORT, G.., HOLLOM, P., 1954. A field guide to the birds of

Britain and Europe. London, Collins.18. VALVERDE, J.A., 1959. La protection de la Faune en Espagne: ses proble-

mes. Comptes Rendues de la Reunion Technique d'Áthens de l'UICN VolV:31-43.

19. VALVERDE J.A., 1960. Vertebrados de las Marismas del Guadalquivir.Archivos del Instituto de Aclimatación Vol. IX Almería.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

119

Doñana's waters, using a series of aerial photographs taken over

thousands of years, we would see how the final stretch of the

Guadalquivir depression was quickly filled in with the sediments it

transported.This included sediments from other water courses like

the River Guadaira, on the left bank, the Huelva River and the

Guadiamar River on the right bank. The great gulf gradually gave

way to increasingly smaller bays where spreading tidal flats and

marshes finally took over the area, constructing a silt plain above

sea level.The Doñana Marshes are the last phase of this landfill in

our sequence of pictures, forming a floodplain that is separated

from the tides of the estuary, fed only by rainfall and continental

waters.

Almost a million years of shoreline evolution would by synthe-

sized in these brief images.This shoreline has seen rises and falls in

In The Birth of Venus,Botticelli makes the goddess emerge on

the coast, in an allegory that could well represent the appear-

ance of Doñana at the other end of the Mediterranean.This unique

place arose out of its relationship with the sea, and water is the

essence of its birth and formation.As with the birth of Venus, the

wetlands that give form to Doñana recreate the landscape with the

passage of each season, renewing its flora and fauna and consolidat-

ing over time its well-deserved fame.

With water as a common thread, it is easier to understand the

natural systems and functional relations that turn the wetlands into

the dynamic environment that is the foundation of its great diver-

sity.Water has been the cause and agent of change, a building block

of the landscape, and is now the main argument for its restoration.

If we took a bird's eye view of the evolution of the world of

Water as the main player

Every year, whether wet or dry, the Donaña Marshes come out in an explosion of life. In this canvas, Boticelli paints a picture that could be interpreted as theemergence of Doñana, showing Venus arriving at the coast, pushed by the wind, after her birth. On her right, we see Zephyr, the Greek god of the west wind,considered the gentlest of all winds, and father of two immortal horses. Next to him is Chloris, the nymph of flowers and springtime. On land, we find one ofthe Horai, the nymph of the seasons, covering herself with her mantle to show that the mysteries of Venus are hidden, like in Doñana, where science attemptsto unravel the complex secrets of nature.Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

120

sea level of almost 200 metres in each direction with successive

Pleistocene ice ages, all of which has remodelled valleys, water

courses and deposits.The shoreline advanced up the Guadalquivir

valley during the marine transgression of the interglacial periods,

due to rises in sea level.This contrasts with periods when water

accumulated as continental ice during the ice ages and falls in sea

level made the river channel grow deeper and longer. These old

courses of the Guadalquivir and Tinto Rivers are still recognisable

on the coastal shelf, as underwater canyons that run south for

some 15 or 20 km from today's coastline.

For a million years, Mother Nature has experimented with

building a mosaic of different environments along the coastline of

the Gulf of Cadiz and the Guadalquivir Depression, varying the

placement and proportions of seas and continents, floodplains,

land and water species, and the populations that migrated to the

enclave. For this reason, Doñana represents the final act in a long

and enriching ecological process that has unfolded at the cross-

roads of the biosphere, at the meeting point of Africa and Eurasia,

of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, of seas, rivers and lands.

Each episode and each transformation has left its marks, patterns,

processes and actors that all echo to the present, allowing us to

interpret their origins.

The final episode started about 20,000 years ago, at the end

of the last ice age (Würm, in Europe), with a eustatic rise of some

175 metres. The seawater flooded the coastal plain and

Guadalquivir depression for the last time, in alternating periods of

relative stability and quick episodes. In the Tyrrenian Age, about

6,500 years ago, the seawater reached its highest level, approxi-

mately 0.5 m above the present sea level, later receding to sta-

bilise at its present level. A new episode of a rising sea level has

been triggered during the 20th century, which could mean a rise of

some 10 - 15 cm in the 21st century, a considerable amount for

such a low-lying and flat coastline.

The variation in the sea level is a predominant agent of change

in marsh and estuary systems, but it is one that is not only due to

eustatic fluctuations and global changes in the sea level. By zoom-

ing in on much shorter periods - of hours or days - we can dis-

cover the oscillations of the tides, with a maximum range in the

area of 3.6 m.The wind, in turn, also affects rises and falls in the

sea level, and storms can raise the high tide mark by the odd

metre or two, carrying water with sediments onto the shore.

Within the Guadalquivir depression, rain and flooding rivers play

the same role, turning it into a flooded plain that, before river

dyke systems were built, covered an area of over 200,000 ha of

water surface. Over longer periods of time, erosion and sedimen-

tation were to be the agents that modified the level of the bot-

tom and, thus, the depth of the water column: the present-day

Marshes have risen by 0.5 to 3 mm a year. Finally, if we revert back

to a geological point of view, we see the tectonic movements that

induced blocks to shift vertically by tens of metres during the

Pliocene and Pleistocene Ages.

The balance between sea and continental waters has been

dynamic, with shifting boundaries between the different water

masses in their varying salinity, chemical composition, suspended

matter, temperature, origin and persistence.Water that varies in

its regime and salinity, either connected to or separated from

other water masses, make up a varied mosaic of contrasting habi-

tats, the foundation of the extreme bio-diversity of this territory.

The sea level is the absolute limit to the dry land and so too to

the areas where infiltration and run-off occur. Thus, we enter the

other world of Doñana water, where the surface waters flow to

feed a complex drainage network, carrying inputs of water, nutri-

For a million years, Mother Nature has been experimenting with the con-struction of a diverse mosaic of environments along the coast of the Gulfof Cadiz and the Guadalquivir Depression, varying the placement andproportions of the seas and continents, the floodplains, the land and waterspecies, and the populations that migrated into the enclave. The successivevariations in sea level have helped to forge what are now the greatDoñana Marshes. Photograph: CENEAM Files.

The balance between sea and continental waters has been dynamic, withshifting boundaries between the different water masses in their varyingsalinity, chemical composition, suspended matter, temperature, origin andpersistence. Water that varies in its regime and salinity, either connected toor separated from other water masses, make up a varied mosaic of con-trasting habitats, the foundation of the extreme bio-diversity of this terri-tory. The photograph shows the mouth of the River Guadalquivir, withPinar de las Marismas pine forest on the left and in the Park, and the saltpans of La Algaida Nature Area on the right at the far end.Photograph: CENEAM files.

ents, solutes and sediments to the Marshes and the shoreline.

Underneath this area of terra firma there is a powerful aquifer that

plays a decisive role in the current configuration of this varied

mosaic. The survival of this area depends on factors such as the

input of surface waters and the behaviour of the water table.The

streams and rivers that converge on this area provide the in-flow

that floods the Marshes for part of the year, but the existence of

permanent wetlands and ponds is also due to groundwater welling

up.

GROUNDWATER,THE HIDDEN DEFENDER

OF DOÑANA’S DIVERSITY

Although not obvious at first glance, the role of the groundwa-

ter is an extremely important one.They do not just guarantee the

inputs that increase the flooding of the marshes, they also provide

vital sustenance in summer so that both animal and plant life can

maintain a year-round presence there. If it were not for these hid-

den resources, the major ecological reserve that Doñana has come

to represent would never have been possible. In the dune ecosys-

tem, for example, where the level of the water table is close to the

surface, the soil in the corrales (inter-dune valleys) retains moisture

all year round and peridune ponds swell in winter months.

Moving onto the subterranean geography of the water, the

Doñana zone is located at the southern tip of aquifer system num-

ber 27 (according to the classification of the Spanish Institute of

Geology and Mines) and, within this system, it forms part of the

Almonte-Marismas sub-system.The Almonte-Marismas Hydro-geo-

logical Unit is a free detrital aquifer in the NW sector. It is confined

and charging under the marsh sediments of the eastern zone,

stretching under an area that encompasses almost 3,000 km2.The

natural limits to this aquifer are imposed by the Tinto River and the

impermeable outcrops of blue Miocene marls, which coincide

roughly with the route of the Seville-Huelva Motorway to the

north and west; and to the east and south-east by the Guadiamar

River and the rising waters from Quaternary rock that surrounds

the marshes; and by the Atlantic Ocean to the south.The depth of

121

FIGURE 1

In the image, a few geological features of the Doñana aquifer (the Almonte-Marismas Hydro-geological Unit), useful to understand the hydrological behav-iour of the area, have been superimposed over the satellite photograph(Landsat-5).The blue marls of its impermeable bottom appear on the surface in the north ofthe area. The River Guadiamar acts as a subterranean watershed with theEspartinas sub-unit. Then follow the basal sands of Late Pleistocene, whose thick-ness under the marshes reaches almost 200 metres.Wind blown sands are next in the sequence, surrounding the left side of themarshes, reaching a thickness of 200 metres in the Acebuche area. The dunecover, which include older stabilised dunes of the quaternary period and therecent dune system, is characterised by high permeability and it is then an impor-tant recharge area.Then we find the marsh bowl of Doñana, with its impermeable basement madeof clay, silts and sand. In the satellite image it has been coloured of light blue,showing the original boundary of the big marsh.The area of "La Vera" has been differently coloured, emphasising this ecotonelocated between the silt-clay area and the sands, two materials with very differ-ent reply to water permeability. It is therefore a strip of springing water, anemblematic area of Doñana that maintains the humidity in the dry period.

1

2

3

4

5

67

1 LATE MIOCENE - Blue marls 5 RECENT DUNE SYSTEM

2 MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE - Basal silts 6 MARSHES3 LATE PLEISTOCENE - Basal sands 7 LA VERA 4 AEOLIAN SANDS

122

the aquifer gradually increases from the north,where it is just a few

metres deep, to over 220 metres in the South, under the marsh

sediments.

The impermeable base on which the permeable sediments rest

is made up of a powerful formation of Miocene blue marls, whose

ceiling gradually descends as we move from north to south, from

about 50 m above sea level, to about 250 m below sea level on the

southern border of the coastal strip. Most of the natural charge of

the unit occurs by direct filtration of rainwater falling in the areas

in which the water table is free and much less of it produced by

surplus irrigation water.

Concerning the character of the permeability of these materi-

als in facilitating the flow of groundwater, it can be seen that there

is also a clear north-south variation. The areas at the edge and

under the marshes are far more permeable than the northernmost

zones, where there is a higher proportion of silt material and the

water is transported more slowly. For this reason, the largest draw-

ings of groundwater currently in operation are concentrated

around El Rocío and all along the edge of the marshes.The amount

of water drawn up artificially from the aquifer is similar to the

amount discharged naturally.

The increase in extracting groundwater, which has affected the

water table to such a degree, arose from the development mindset

of the seventies, when the great irrigation strategy of the Almonte-

Marismas Plan was conceived.The plan appeared in 1971 as a result

of declaring the creation of the Almonte-Marismas irrigation zone

to be a programme in the national interests. It covered an area of

45,940 ha in the provinces of Huelva and Seville,which meant prac-

tically the entire immediate ring of land around Doñana. Since then,

the aquifer has been studied in greater depth and new protection

instruments have been arbitrated for the Doñana National Park

and Nature Park, and so the zone that can be irrigated has been

successively restricted, until now, at only 6,000 ha. Most of the

water extracted from the water table is now used for growing rice.

Moreover, there is another important event for the management of

groundwater resources that must be taken into consideration. It

occurred on the 1st of January 1986,when the Water Act came into

force, proclaiming all waters, be they surface or underground

waters, as public property, although the transitory provisions do

recognize the private ownership of the groundwater that were

being exploited before this date. Even in this case, if the owner

wished to increase the amount of water they draw up, or if they

wish to modify conditions of use of the water, they would need a

formal administrative concession covering the entire usage, which

is of great importance for both the present and the future manage-

ment of the waters of Doñana.This exception has created prob-

lems that have been identified, for example, in the Aznalcazar Marsh

and more specifically on the Hato Blanco and Hato Raton estates.

Large volumes of water are drawn up from the aquifer to irrigate

rice, leading to the formation of a cone-shaped depression in the

phreatic layer. This has grave consequences for the region where

rice growing occurs in the north of the Marshes, and especially at

Coto del Rey.

The influence of rising water discharging from the water table

to the surface is key to the survival of many of the outstanding

ecosystems and landscapes of Doñana.We can see that discharges

on the southern shore and within inter-dune valleys or corrales,

have allowed the formation of temporary ponds, characteristic of

this environment. To the east, in a lowland strip called La Vera,

formed by a sandy rib running around the Marshes, the water table

allows emerging water in the depressions, creating ponds, like El

Hondon and El Sopeton, and springs from which some of the canals

that drain to the marshes flow. Further north, between El Rocío

and the old Santa María stream (Arroyo de Santa Maria), near

Almonte, there was a string of seasonal ponds that were also fed

by springs arranged in a network that discharged into the right

bank of the Partido stream (Arroyo del Partido) until the mid 20th

century. Unfortunately, they have all disappeared because of the

agricultural transformation caused by the abovementioned

Almonte-Marismas Plan (part of Sector II).The last few ponds dried

up in the year 1987.

Another important area of springs is El Abalario, in line with the

Rocina stream (Arroyo de la Rocina) and south of it, running along

a small tectonic step, with a string of ponds, in an area reaching to

The influence of rising water discharging from the water table to the sur-face is key to the survival of many of the outstanding ecosystems andlandscapes of Doñana. We can see that discharges on the southern shoreand within inter-dune valleys or corrales, have allowed the formation oftemporary pond, characteristic of this environment. The picture shows aview of one wooded corral beyond a dune in the foreground. Pinus pineadominates tree cover in dune corrals.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

123

the Matalascañas-Mazagon road which gets flooded during heavy

rainfalls. Dozens of small springs and seasonal ponds appear here

too, with tributaries that feed the "algaidas" (creeks of sand areas)

and flow into the Rocina stream from the right bank. There is

another interesting unfolding of events the El Abalario area. The

regular input of waters with a low mineral content from the aquifer

has led to the creation of peat bogs.The largest flood plain is the

chain of ponds called Laguna de Ribetehilos, which has been

restored and at times of heavy rain, covers a large area.

To the west of Doñana, on its detrital formations, there are

three interesting ponds, which are protected areas: Laguna de Las

Madres, very close to Mazagon, and what are known as Laguna

Grande and Laguna Pequeña de Palos, the latter two closer to the

Park. Laguna de las Madres, practically destroyed by the human

greed of the 1960s, forms the last part of the Avitor stream and is

fed with waters with low mineral content from the water table.The

most interesting aspect of this pond lies in the formation of a peat

deposit in the flooded basin. Pollen studies of the peat deposits

have provided a record of vegetation over the last 6,000 years. In

general terms, these studies indicate that there have not been any

changes in the species identified, but rather variations in abundance

shown by fluctuations in climate and by expansions and reductions

in the size of water surface. Unfortunately, the dense gallery vege-

tation and part of the abundant peat deposits have been exploited,

hence, diminishing the ecological interest of Las Madres.The two

Palos ponds, also connected to the water table, occupy eroded

depressions in the detrital formations, their drainage impeded by

wind blown sands. Although they have lost their original dense

shoreline vegetation, they still offer extensive surface areas of

water, and they act as suitable wetlands for vertebrate water fauna.

If we change our perspective again and superimpose a map of

the major differences in chemical composition over this extraordi-

nary range of groundwater inputs, we see a significant diversity in

water environments.We would find springs with an extraordinary

range of pH values (1.9 to 9.6), or with different concentrations of

several elements such as N, P, Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, Mn and others. It has

been discovered that the characteristics of the water that feeds the

Doñana springs may depend on depth. Mineralization may increase

with depth, although human influence appears to be a commanding

factor.On the surface,mineralization is low and very irregular. If the

location is favourable for discharging from greater depths, the

water that rises has a higher mineral content and rises at a more

The impermeable nature of the clay silt that covers the Doñana depressionguarantees the permanence of water for long periods of time. The plain isonly interrupted by small elevations almost imperceptible to the payper-son, known as paciles and vetas, and dotted with water-filled depressions,caños, lucios and quebradas, that form a subtle hydrographical network.Small variations in water level allow for a wide variety of environments tobe housed in the Marshes.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

124

regular rate. So different water bodies under the influence of the

same multi-year water cycle may respond differently, i.e. annual

flooding, flooding in certain years, continual drop in the water table

level under the basin. It is clear how this water narrative shows us

its incredible capacity for creating diverse niches of life, before it

even surfaces.

THE CHANGING FLOW OF WATERS

THROUGH THE DOÑANA MARSHES

Having lost their former tidal influence, the variable water sur-

faces that dot the most outstanding landscapes of Doñana depend

almost entirely on the input of rain waters and the overflow from

the rivers and streams that converge on the great trough of the

Marshes.The low permeability of silts that form their foundation

guarantees that the waters will remain for long periods of time.The

landscape is only interrupted by small elevations known as paciles

or vetas, flat depressions (lucios) and river beds (caños, quebradas)

that perform as a subtle hydrographical network.These small vari-

ations in the water level cause a variety of environments that can

be seen in the zones of pools, ponds, pans, and channels.

The great marsh plain has always been subjected to a variable

flooding regime, which has depended on rainfall and the flow of

watercourses draining into the Marshes.The flood process starts

slowly and evolves progressively between October and November

and under natural conditions, the Marshes continue to fill until

water level reaches the heigth of the levee or right embankment of

the Guadalquivir River, in the area known as Las Salinas and Los

Rompidos. This acts as a natural overflow, channelling the excess

waters into the estuary of the Guadalquivir River, "Wadi al-Kabir"

or Great River or as it was called by the Arabs.This was how the

maximum flood levels were regulated and the spatial limits to the

non-floodable marsh ecosystems were set - areas of exceptional

value as refuge for the terrestrial wildlife in times of major flood-

ing.

The flooding phase lasts through until March or April, which is

normally when a balance is struck between water inputs and evap-

oration / transpiration. From this time on, water loss through evap-

oration and transpiration leads to a progressive drying out of the

marshes until the annual cycle is completed.The input of surface

waters, before the hydraulic developments began in the mid 20th

century, guaranteed this cycle, with areas remaining flooded well

into summer, or even all year round.

But to gain a more detailed insight of how the water cycle

works in the Marshes and the effects of the changes that have

occurred, one has to understand the character the varying inputs

of surface waters and their different systems. The contribution

made by rainfall is determined, in broad terms, by an annual aver-

age rainfall of 575 mm, which, on average, is distributed as follows:

20% in spring, 5% in summer,35% in autumn and 40% in winter. The

autumn rains are generally torrential while in spring and winter

they are produced by frontal perturbations with a lower intensity.

With regard to river and stream input, consideration must be

given to the fact that the Doñana Marshes have always been cov-

ered by a complex hydrographical network formed by branches

of the Guadalquivir and Guadiamar rivers and the La Rocina, Los

Sotos, El Ajolí and Las Cañadas streams. One of the major contri-

butions comes from the Guadiamar River, which stems from

beyond the Doñana aquifer system, and which has a much greater

catchment basin than the other sources of surface water, except

for the Guadalquivir River itself.The Guadiamar River is the final

tributary feeding into the Guadalquivir River on the right hand

bank before the river mouth. Until mid XX century, its basin was

Although not so obvi-ous at first sight, therole of the groundwa-ter is extremelyimportant, providingvital sustenance to theanimal and plant lifein times of low rain-fall. The pictureshows a temporarypond in a corral slack,between active dunes.

Photograph: CENEAM files.

125

the main hydrological sub-system that flooded the Doñana

marshes. It is still one of the few unregulated river complexes of

the Andalusian hydrographical system.

Inputs from the branches of this river account for over half the

input of water into Doñana. For an average year, it was estimated

at 225 hm3/year. Its high inter-annual irregularity must be empha-

sised, comparing the 19 hm3 debit for the year 1982/83, or the

extremes of 724 hm3 in 1962/63 .This water feeds in through the

Guadiamar channel (Caño Guadiamar), basically during winter rises

in the water level,or through the Travieso channel (Caño Travieso).

The inputs from this latter stream normally used to be fresh water,

although it was able to feed in brackish water in late summer

because of the influence of the tides and the connection with Torre

Branch (Brazo de La Torre). Moreover, from a broader perspec-

tive, the layout and geographic situation of the Guadiamar basin

turns this watercourse into the most important corridor connect-

ing Doñana's coastal ecosystems with those of the Western Sierra

Morena, specifically the Sierra Norte and Sierra de Aracena ranges.

Another major component of the input that defines the surface

hydrological system is that of the fresh waters from the Rocina

stream and its tributaries.They are notably supported by contribu-

tions from groundwater draining out of Doñana's aquifer. Oddly, this

system provides relatively regular flows throughout the year,

although the average annual contribution shows a pronounced fluc-

tuation, ranging from 1.5 hm3 in cycles of drought to a maximum of

73 hm3 recorded in 1995/1996, the period of highest rainfall and

flooding on record in Doñana in the last thirty years.

However, the regulation of this intricate and delicate hydrological

network was to be radically transformed. Some areas of the former

marshes had already been dried out and used as grazing pastures for

livestock by the end of the 18th century.Walls and locks were to be

used to control the flooding of the low lying areas, letting in fresh

water from the estuary during the "botamentos" (fllodings during

very high tides), to promote the growth in the Marshes of grass and

macrophytes for livestock consumption. But the most profound

transformations in the hydrological regime took place in the second

half of the 20th century, basically by two actions: the draining of the

Marshes to convert them into irrigated farmland and rice paddies,

and the regulation of the Guadalquivir River basin through dam build-

ing. Both these changes are closely interrelated, as it was essential to

build reservoirs and diversion canals in order to supply irrigation

water to the farmlands and rice fields in summer. For example, the

Canal de los Presos (Channel of the Prisoners), built by political

detainees after the Civil War,was a key project for granting the water

supply for farmland irrigation on the left bank of the estuary.The reg-

ulation of the Guadalquivir had other clear impacts, such as the

dredging of the shipping canal between Sanlucar and Seville thus

favouring one branch of the river over the others,which finally led to

their silting up.

Another wave of changes was produced at the hands of the

development mindset that orchestrated the Almonte-Marismas

Plan.This plan had altered basins and extensive marshlands and the

functionality and layout of the channels and branches of the

Guadalquivir, such as the Torre Branch.At the same time, the dig-

ging of deep wells lined with steel and the use of submerged elec-

tric pumps had a profound effect on the functioning of the aquifer4.

And so the goalposts of Doñana's hydrological system were

permanently shifted. It triggered processes to accelerate, disturb-

ing a centuries-old balance. The most important interventions in

recent decades that have changed the original way these wetlands

were arranged and their most significant consequences can be

summarized as follows:

- The transformation of tidal marshes into reclaimed land (pol-

ders) for rice growing on the right bank (55,000 ha) and for irri-

gation crops (10,000 ha) on the left bank.

FIGURE 2In the image, the original Doñana network has been superimposed overthe survey and the satellite photograph (Landsat-5), highlighting the for-mer rivers and streams that flowed into the Marshes. The system isbounded to the right by the River Guadalquivir. The current flood area ofthe Marshes has been coloured in, bounding to the south on the dune sys-tem and Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) in the confluence with theGuadalquivir, and to the north by the town of El Rocío. Also clear is thebordering flood corridor known as the Encauzamiento Guadiamar.The most significant lucios, or depressions, in the Marshes area have beenhighlighted. The watercourses marked within this zone are locally knownas caños. Following the coast line to the west, a major pond complex hascome about, running from the edges of the Doñana Marshes, along a stripbetween the Rocina stream, Arroyo de la Rocina, and the coast. The ElAbalario pond complex and the peri-dune ponds of Doñana make up adiverse and rich wetland system.

The image, built upfrom a Digital SurfaceModel developed forthe Doñana Marshes,clearly shows the sub-tle network of thehydrographical system.The intersection of thetwo channels, CañoMadre de las Marismasand Caño Guadiamar,can be seen on the left,both of which convergeinto a channel knownas Caño de Brenes. Onthe right, the Traviesochannel can be clearlyseen, and at the bot-tom, the Lucio de losAnsares. The scale givesa clear idea of how theslight variations in theterrain define the par-ticular hydrologicalsystem of Doñana..

5

Elevation (m a.s.l.)

0

127

- The draining and desalination of mainland marshes on the right

bank (10,000 ha), under the auspices of state promoted projects

and private initiatives, forming a fringe of transformed areas

around National Park marshes.

- The regulation of the Guadalquivir River basin with 52 large

dams.The winter maximum floods (bujarretes) have disappeared

and the maximum river flow is now in late summer. This flow is

wholly controlled by River Authority (Confederación

Hidrológica del Guadalquivir) and it is aimed at maintaining low

salinity (under 4g/l) waters in order to use them to irrigate rice

paddy fields.

- Major flash flooding has diminished or been reduced excessively

by the headwater irrigation trenching. So inputs to the

Guadalquivir when these would have coincided with high tides

have been reduced.

- The construction of drainage canals and retaining walls to pro-

Since the earlier tidal influence has been lost, the variable water surfaces that create the Doñana landscapes now depend almost exclusively on the input ofwater from rains and floodwaters of the rivers and streams that flow into the great trough that is home to the Marshes. In this picture, water is leaving theMarshes for the estuary by the Old Cherry canal during a period of flooding (note the muddy waters and near-full canal).Photograph: CENEAM files.

128

tect crops from the flash flooding of the Guadiamar, the Torre

Branch (Brazo de La Torre), the Cigüeña and Partido streams

(Arroyo de la Cigüeña and Arroyo del Partido) and the River

Guadalquivir.This has led to a fragmentation of water resources.

- The decline in the tidal function of the Torre Branch since the

turn of the century.This was a consequence of building the regu-

lation reservoirs mentioned above, together with the digging and

dredging work carried out in the River Guadalquivir to facilitate

shipping.This aspect is especially worrying because of the reper-

cussions it has on fish life.

- The loss of functionality of the Guadiamar and Travieso channels.

The first case came about in 1955 when diversions to the

Guadiamar River were constructed in order to clean up the land

for later cultivation.Then, the Travieso channel lost its connection

when they converted Caracoles estate to polders in 1969. In this

way, waters were prevented from continuing to flood former

marshes (Marisma Gallega, Cantarita, Caracoles and Isla Mayor),

thus reducing the marshes to a mere one third of their original

area.

- The transformation of sectors II and III of the Almonte-Marismas

Plan, which cleared extensive areas of brush and large areas of

forest to the north and east of El Rocío, levelling the land and dig-

ging wells to draw on what were then considered to be inex-

haustible water table resources. Private owners fuelled changes,

bringing new areas into cultivation, including the rice fields in

Hato Raton. In most cases, this has led to falls in water table

levels, with springs in depressions drying up and some old

"lucios" disappearing.

- Concentrating surface drainage in a new canal bordered with

walls in the Partido stream, causing erosion in the channel and its

banks, an increase in the transport of sands, and the consequent

formation of a sandy delta of some 300 ha that now covers part

of the National Park Marshes in the proximity of the village of El

Rocío.

- Planting of eucalyptus groves in areas of what is now the Nature

Park. This has provoked an increase in transpiration and falling

water table levels in zones like El Abalario, which has led to the

drying out or shrinking of the local ponds. Ribetehilos pond is a

clear example of this, with a drastic decline of aquatic resources

and clean spring water.

- Extracting water from the water table to supply new settle-

ments, such as Matalascañas tourist resort. Cones of depression

resulted, which penetrate into the National Park and can be felt

as far as Charco del Toro. In the same way, the extraction of

groundwater in the municipal districts of Almonte, Hinojos and

Vilamanrique have caused a general fall in water table levels in

the Nature Park and the surrounding area.The level has fallen by

as much as 20 m in Villamanrique (NE of the Park).

Faced with this situation, it would be worth considering the

obvious: the changes that have been wrought on many wetlands

through the pressures of human activity over time, is causing them

to shift towards a new scenario. In relative terms, this is a different

and sometimes equally as diverse and valuable scenario. In fact, very

The image shows a reproduction of an early meteorological record entryof 1888, an exceptionally wet year. To the early decades of the 20th centurythe inhabitants of Doñana district faced the challenge of the changingwaters: cycles of floods and droughts, storms, overflowing of the streamsand the major floods of the Guadalquivir River. An extract from Murray'snarrative gives us a good idea of this view:"The Guadalquivir… when it reaches Seville, gradually casts off its fineclothing until it becomes little more than an enormous canal that windsacross the great plain; when the steamer we are travelling in rounds itsbends, one after another, the spectacle that opens before our eyes is farfrom picturesque, and the only living thing to be seen are the vast herds ofbulls that graze on its banks. And these animals are walking on treacher-ous ground, as they are just a few palms above the water level, and, there-fore, exposed to frequent floods that carry them away, as happened tothousands of head of cattle in the winter of 1837, when the incessant rainsswelled the flow of the "great river" in a way that the inhabitants of itsbanks had never seen before. It was not only these pastures that wereunderwater, the entire countryside around Seville was turned into a widesheet of water with isolated villages sticking up above the water here andthere; not even the city escaped the catastrophe, as all the neighbourhoodsclose to La Alameda were flooded and impassable for several days."Source: R.D.Murray. 1849 The Cities and Wilds of Andalusia. 2 vol. R. Bentley Ed.

The Fernandina Cut (Corta Fernandina) was made in 1816, isolating theTorre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) from the Guadalquivir and, therefore onlyreceiving water inputs from the Guadiamar River. The picture shows thedrawing of this canal at the time, opened at the Island called Isla Menorby the Compañía de Navegación in 1816.Source: Port of Seville Archives.

129

FIGURE 3The great Marsh plain has always been subjected to a variable regime of flooding that depends on rainfall and the flows provided by the watercourses that feedinto it. The flooding process starts slowly but surely between October and November, and, in natural conditions, the Marshes continue to fill until they reachthe high water line defined by the lowest area of the right levee or bank of the Guadalquivir, at the area known as Las Salinas or Los Rompidos. The sequenceof images, according to the Digital Surface Model, shows us how the flooded areas evolve, depending on the level reached by the water in the flooding-drain-ing process, providing an excellent tool for studying and zoning the different aquatic ecosystems. The water mass that fills corresponds with the Lucio de losAnsares.

130

few marshland areas are now in a strictly "natural" state.

Nevertheless, most of the changes listed go beyond this abstract

threshold.They cannot be justified any longer.We have abandoned

the development whims of the past and the historic mistakes

caused by scientific ignorance of the biological legacy the area is

home to.

This is the context, the new challenge and the basic work to do

in restoring the water cycle in Doñana. It has begun translating into

initiatives like the Doñana 2005 Project and the Guadiamar Green

Corridor. It is not just a question of correcting the effects of his-

toric cultural treatment of our natural heritage; it is simply about

cleaning up after the absurd decisions taken in certain decades of

the 20th century,with a view to establishing a hydrological basis that

will allow the marshes to survive in a dynamic world.

In contrasting how the water cycle worked in the recent past

when the main rivers and streams draining into the marshes had

full use of their free space, we can illustrate with current points of

reference. It is enough to highlight some examples of indicator

species that have now disappeared completely, or which are seri-

ously endangered by a loss of, or modification to their habitat. In

the case of waterfowl, we could mention the great bittern

(Botaurus stellaris) that used to maintain a large breeding popula-

tion that no longer exists because of the disappearance or degra-

dation of large formations of helophyte vegetation; the glossy ibis

(Plegadis falcinellus), which disappeared as a breeding species in the

1950s following the disappearance of bulrushes when major trans-

formation of the marshes started, although recovery of this species

has now been triggered; the marbled teal (Marmaronetta angu-

stirostris), which almost disappeared because of changes to the

clear water marsh system; and finally the white headed duck

(Oxyura leucocephala) that requires the deep waters of certain

areas that used to remain flooded for long periods of time.

Although less visible, other important changes have taken place

in the waters of Doñana.These concern aspects related to water

"quality" in the broadest sense of the word, something that has only

become a cause for concern in the world of conservation in recent

decades, yet it is possibly just as important as the challenges of

restoring the natural hydrological functioning of the water systems.

A general understanding of these waters, and especially the

The changes induced in many wetlands by the pressure of human activity, has pushed them toward new scenarios, scenarios that are different and in somecases flourishing with new forms of diversity. But, most of the changes in the hydrological system carried out between 1950 and 1980 can no longer be justifiedfrom any perspective. Alleviating the effects makes up an important part of the new challenges facing the hydrological restoration of Doñana, as these havenow translated into specific initiatives like the Doñana 2005 Project and the Guadiamar Green Corridor. In the image, flamingos are seen in the marshes.Photo by José María Pérez de Ayala.

A view of the Santa Olalla pond. It is the largest pond in the dune area ofDoñana. Its variable regime is clearly shown by its desiccation happenedseveral times in the last decades. Nevertheless, in 1624 King Philip IV washunting in this area on a large boat for the whole day. The mute swan(Cygnus olor) was breeding in this pond until 1750. It is a pesent one of thesites where the white headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala) has started breed-ing again.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

131

influence of these other water properties, is certainly recent.We

know that during the 19th century, chemists started to document

the major changes in composition and that, later on, with the

appearance of microbiology, studies of small aquatic organisms

began.Limnology combined physics and biology to understand how

different water masses work and, in the 20th century, integrated

responses to the effects of human intervention were first offered.

Applying molecular techniques to identify micro-organisms has

recently revealed an astonishingly diverse panorama of life. Old

species are made up of a multitude of lines that differ widely in their

activity, production of toxins, smells and irritant molecules.

Advances in analysis, in turn, providing access to concentrations of

less than 1 ppb, are now discovering compounds that have come

from drugs like female hormones, beta-blockers, anti-inflammatory

medication, antibiotics, cosmetics like ceramides and cleansing

products like tensio-actives in our waters, apart from the weed

killers and pesticides that we already know about. Even in these

concentrations, some of these molecules have been shown to have

harmful biological effects.

We are, therefore,entering a scenario of an ecological mutation

in aquatic resources, caused by chemical changes and by the intro-

duction of biological species and strains from other areas.Almost

the entire drainage network is affected by these kinds of impacts,

as pollutant substances are used in all human and agricultural set-

tlements, including those in the Doñana area.

All of this forces us to take a broader view of the management

of Doñana, a view that encompasses the basins. For even if we

resolved the main aspects of the ecological restoration of the sur-

face waters, the invisible effects on the quality of the Doñana's

water sources would persist.

A sample of data and events show how far we still have to go

to strike a harmonious balance with an ecosystem as exceptional

as Doñana:

- The urban spread represented by the Matalascañas tourist

resort, set in the very borders of the National Park and with

summer peaks of 175,000 inhabitants, generates a large volume

of wastewater that affects the shoreline at this time of year.

However, in recent years these affects have been resolved since

the installation of a wastewater treatment plant, including terti-

ary treatment that might meet the demands of golf-course irri-

gation.

- The growth of Almonte, and to a lesser extent Rociana and the

disastrous state of its collectors and the wastewater treatment

plant, mean that the Santa Maria stream, that later changes its

name to El Partido stream, receives raw wastewater or half-

treated spills that contaminate it before passing on these effects

to the marshes of the National Park.

- Discharges from Villamanrique into the Cigüeña stream (Arroyo

de la Cigüeña) and urban and industrial waste from Pilas,

Aznacazar, Hinojos, and Sanlucar la Mayor, with little or no treat-

ment, still reach the Guadiamar River today. The river also still

suffers spills of brine, oil press dregs and untreated urban efflu-

ent.

- The Aznacollar mining basin, exploited almost since early times

but far more intensely from the 18th century on, has accumulat-

ed a large volume of slag.This has sustained profound long-term

levels of contamination at the head of the Guadiamar River, via

the Agrio tributary. Its acid waters which, in times of low water

contain dissolved metals, have been documented in the mid

stretch of the Guadiamar River since the 1970s3.But a new phase

This orthophoto shows us part of the advancing dune system, interruptedby the green strips of the "corrales". The marsh is practically dry. Beyondthe sands of wandering dunes we can observe a green-coloured area ofsands saturated by the water springing from the aquifer, which are cov-ered of woody vegetation. In a different colour, on the bottom-right, the ElHondón pond, fed by springing water.Orthophoto: Ayesa.

Ship navigating on the River Guadalquivir seen from the Doñana Marshes.Photograph kindly provided by the Seville Port Authority.

132

in mining was initiated in 1990, which managed to accumulate

nearly 6 hm3 of excess minerals, mostly finely ground pyrites and

arsenopyrites, in a pool next to El Agrio. It spilled when the banks

of the pool dramatically burst in 1988.

- Seville's wastewater treatment is very good, but the Estuary

receives the discharges and spills from the towns of Alcalá del

Río, La Algaba, Santiponce, Camas, Sanjuán, Gines, El Aljarafe,

Coria and La Puebla on the right bank, and from La Rinconda and

its industrial estates on the left bank. Moreover, other inland

towns, like Utrera and Los Palacios, only partially treat their

wastewater, which ultimately reaches the Estuary or its tributar-

ies. This depressing picture means that the last stretch of the

Estuary, which forms part of the National Park, is polluted and

eutrophicated, creating a strange need to, at least partially, dis-

connect Doñana from the Guadalquivir.

- The first incident of massive waterfowl poisoning was detected

in 1970, causing recurrent spates of deaths during summer.The

1972 episode was estimated to have taken 40,000 birds, the 1986

episode 22,000 and there were other less deadly episodes in the

1990s, until measures were taken to collect dead birds and mon-

itor the water mass.

The Guadalquivir Hydrographical Authority (Confederación

Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir) has been systematically monitoring

water quality in Doñana since 1989, using its 18-point monitoring

network that includes all surface watercourses that affect or feed

Doñana, plus other points in the interior of the marshes.An under-

standing of the water quality data, heightened by the Aznacollar

accident, has made it possible to alert the authorities about this

new dimension in the management of water resources associated

with Doñana, and a wide range of actions has now been implement-

ed.There has been a substantial reduction in the organic pollution

recorded in El Partido stream and the Guadiamar River. This has

managed to put a brake on the onerous wastewater problem that

used to affect the National Park.

Nevertheless, in the face of this complex scenario, in which it is

essential to admit that even if the main sources of pollution are

eliminated, the collateral effects will take a certain time to disap-

pear, Doñana comes up with new surprises, as always. In this terri-

tory, certain water masses are still conserved that maintain a pris-

tine composition. This is of great importance for science, as it

makes it possible to work on its ecosystems in conditions that no

longer exist in the rest of the park.These are the spring waters in

the Nature Park and National Park that are fed by the aquifer sys-

tem, and they do not currently present any evidence of pollution.

In this way, the El Abalario ponds in the Nature Park and the 'peri-

dune' ponds of the National Park have become biochemical yard-

sticks, natural controls of the state of surface waters and every

effort must be made towards their conservation.

THE SURFACE WATER DILEMMA:THE FIRST SIGNS OF DRYING OUT

The first publications on the study of insects in 1971, suggest-

ed that the marshes were, in fact, made up of a mosaic of different

water masses that varied greatly in depth,duration,mineral content

and chemical composition2.Aguilar Amat, Ramírez Diaz and Montes

conducted the first numeric analyses of the chemical characteris-

tics of the waters of the Marshes, and, with Antonio Torres, they

published an ecological map of the National Park in 1977, a map

that is still consulted today3.

From a more detailed insight into all water-related aspects, the

first attempts at explaining the heterogeneity of the Marshes have

been taken, based on hydrological structures that cause the chem-

ical and physical variations in the water.Being such an extensive ter-

ritory with over 30,000 ha of floodable land, studies of it with tra-

ditional instruments advanced very slowly, until recent decades

when remote sensors and refined procedures for accurate topo-

graphical surveying have become available.

FIGURE 4

Layout of the ponds fed by groundwater in Greater Doñana On the edge of the Marshes, where the caños and lucios are highlighted,peri-dune ponds can be seen, laid out along the sandy rim that bordersthe flood zone, all of which are integrated within the National Park. To theleft, the string of ponds in the El Abalario area can be seen below thestream known as Arroyo de La Rocina. Most of them fall within the NaturePark, where there is a group of peaty ponds that have undergone one ofthe most interesting restoration operations of recent times in Doñana.

133

The first interpretation trials, dating from 1977, used satellite

images from the Landstat Satellite (then ERTS-1)4, giving a water

surface area of 26,000 ha. Sufficiently powerful computer-support-

ed numeric models for making fine numeric simulations in the

marshes were not accessible until the 1990s. Hence, topography

accurate to the millimetre and numeric flooding models have only

been available since early 2004, after the development of a marsh-

es modelling project. This has been promoted since the Doñana

2005 Project, with the support of the Inter-ministerial Commission

of Science and Technology (CICYT).

It is feasible that the recent history of water in Doñana might

have been written differently, had we had the means and knowledge

that we have now. In 1970, the FAO5 report drew attention to an

important aquifer with high quality waters, capable of supporting an

extensive irrigation area of sandy soils. In 1971, the Almonte-

Marismas Plan was declared a Zone of National Interest with an

area of 45,960 ha, 30,000 of which could be irrigated. Sandy soils

were brought under the plough by irrigating them with groundwa-

ter. The transformation of the marshes grew by way of drying them

out and desalinating the soil with deep drains. Grande Covian,

heading the IRYDA project, accepted the task as a crusade against

a hostile natural environment, to push back the agricultural fron-

tiers beyond the barren lands of the marshes. In his words, he was

"rescuing the marshes and cotos (stable sand dunes)."

The plan's proposal took into account the low revenues from

the area involved, the climate that was ideal for fruit orchards, and

the fact that there were annual inputs into the aquifer (overestimat-

ed by 400 hm3). The plan ignored the ecological impacts, despite

their clear inclusion in a preliminary report by Herteaux6 (1970). It

was mistakenly accepted that the entire local population of farm

workers would find employment in the production of the new

high-tech crops.The slow implementation of the plan delayed crop

production and water extractions until 1980, with some 14,000 ha

being prepared for irrigation, of which some 4000 ha were distrib-

uted among settlers and their co-operatives, although not all of this

land was farmed. On the other hand (and not included in the land

area of the plan) the private sector had started farming a larger

area of land and the volume of water extracted in 1990 was around

50-55 hm3 per year12. And so, from 1972 onwards, the historic

wilderness of Doñana and its marshes was to suffer anew from the

The inundation of the marshes seen from the satellite.The sequence of Landsat satellite images, taken over several years, clearly shows the water filling of the Marshes. The inundation starts slowly and progressive-ly between October and November, the flooding phase lasting usually until February-March, when equilibrium levels between water intake and evapo-transpi-ration are reached. Then losses from evapo-transpiration increase, leading to a progressive desiccation of the marshes, followed by the summer drought thatclose the cycle.Image montage made by Carlos Urdiales.

134

interference of this plan - on top of the polderisation that had

started in 1918, the stabilization of the dunes with pine trees in

1938, the planting of eucalyptus in 1941 and the urbanization of

Matalascañas after 1968.

The agricultural trials carried out on the transformed sandy

soils produced mediocre results in citric and stone fruits, because,

in much of the region, there was a ferruginous base layer just a few

decimetres below the surface.This layer tended to cause a small

hanging water table, causing puddles to form in the area and pre-

venting roots from growing. But, at the same time, the private sec-

tor created a large, 223 ha plantation of strawberry fields near

Mazagon, with the aid of peat dug from Las Madres lagoon, which

turned out to be the best agricultural option.Thus, the crops that

spread to Moguer, Palos and Lucena in the eighties extended to

the Almonte-Marismas Plan and to Lepe-Isla Cristina to the west

of the Odiel River.

At a practical level, the farmers of Almonte, Hinojos and

Villamanrique were used to small irrigated fields and orchards, and

larger plots for dry land farming, using old-fashioned farming meth-

ods like the hoe and animal power. The plots offered in 1980 by

the Almonte-Marismas Plan averaged 17.5 ha per family and were

mechanized farms, endowed with wells that were equipped with

submerged pumps and electricity connections. They were designed

for an entrepreneurial mentality in a slick export market, with agri-

cultural services, warehouses and a processing industry. None of

these things had existed in the local farming of the time. So, the

take-off of these crops was slow in the context of administrative

chaos of the state maintaining ownership of plots of land that were

not always farmed, but which did act as collateral to guarantee the

loans of their tenants to finance other sectors.After years of neg-

lect, some of the pumps and irrigation systems fell into ruin until

the administration took over the debts in the nineties, taking back

these plots of land and redistributing them,but this time with deeds

of ownership.

The private sector created plantations of citric fruits, stone

fruit and strawberries outside of the Almonte-Marismas Plan, occu-

pying scrublands or by clearing forests.The entire area of the Palos

ponds was occupied, despite being declared a protected area. On

the banks of the Odiel estuary, the small Pliocene hills were flat-

tened to fill in the depressions that used to able to fill up as ponds

or bogs and cover the tidal marshes.This process of encroachment

converted the public domain of shoreline, municipal countryside

and woodlands into private plantations, with the support of local

authorities and the acquiescence of the public administration.

The current intensive farming of Sector II is highly productive,

exporting strawberries to European markets, and is now starting to

diversify into raspberries, with pilots of garden flowers and plants.

The old Sectors I-Villamanrique and II-El Rocío have been restruc-

tured and Sector III Marshes have been mostly abandoned. The

owners of Hato Blanco have turned an area of sandy soils into rice

fields, using groundwater in what could be described as the most

incoherent case of farming in the region.

The ecological impacts of this profound transformation can be

assigned to a range of different processes. Firstly, there is, the

destruction of the vegetation cover and soils in the sandy areas

(sectors I and II). Then, there is the concentration of the surface

drainage network in two artificial canals to replace the Marin chan-

nel (Caño Marín) and the Partido stream and preventing them from

working as inter-connected water courses connected to the

Cañada Mayor to the East, during times of flooding. And finally,

there is the draining of wetlands dotted with small canals, pools,

temporary ponds and lucios,which used to covered the Guadiamar

overflow area and drained into the Travieso channel and the

Guadiamar River, joining the Brenes channel (Caño de Brenes) and

the Madre de las Marismas, and finally draining into the Torre

Branch.

A combination of drains and canals with earth banks to con-

fine the floods, have transformed the Guadiamar River and the

Cigüeña stream - a tributary on the right bank, into almost ruler-

straight watercourses at almost sea level to provide maximum

drainage.The upper stretch of the Torre Branch - which ran east,

was reduced to nothing, the Guadiamar and Travieso almost disap-

peared and the Torre Branch was narrowed and filled in.There was

an enormous geo-morphological transformation and the old

The Almonte-Marismas Plan represented the 'point of no return' fornature, due to the extensive farming on sands in the area of Doñana whichhas not ceased expanding and has become more and more mechanised,constantly increasing the extractions of water. The private sector hadalready created a large, 223 ha, strawberry plantation near Mazagon, withthe help of peat taken from Las Madres lagoon, which turned out to be thebest agricultural option. Hence, farming that had spread in the eighties toMoguer, Palos and Lucerna, now spreads to the Almonte-Marismas and toLepe-Isla Cristina to the west of the Odiel River, making Huelva the lead-ing European strawberry producer.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

135

Doñana marshes lost their water inputs from the Guadiamar River

and the Cigüeña, and were cut off from the Torre Branch.The water

flowed only along the canals and the great wetland had been bro-

ken up into fragments.

As the agricultural changes advanced, other impacts made

themselves felt: swapping the scrubland, pastures and woodland for

farmland, with its power lines, metal fences, wells, huts and rubbish

dumps among other things.The increase in the population and the

extension of the water supply into Almonte, Rociana and Bollullos

increased discharges into the Santa María and Partido streams.The

waste from Hinojos, Pilas,Villamanrique and Aznalcazar affected the

Alcarayon stream and the Guadiamar River. On top of the urban

waste, there was also untreated industrial waste from olive oil

plants, wineries, poultry farms, workshops and other installations.

Mining activity in Aznacollar produced acid waters with a high

metal content that flowed into the Guadiamar River at low waters.

Contaminated water invading Doñana began to exceed the self-

purifying capacity of its tributaries.

Nature can maintain its balance with human activity for long

periods of time, sometimes for centuries. But in some cases, the

introduction of new technologies or a major intervention mark a

threshold, when nature is forced to sound the retreat before find-

ing a new balance.The Almonte-Marismas Plan represented such a

major threshold because it triggered cultivation of the sands in the

Doñana area. The process has not stopped expanding and has

become more technological and mechanized, extracting increasing

quantities of water, generating ever more agricultural waste so that

the effects of using agrochemicals are more prominent.

Fortunately for conservation, although the Almonte-Marismas

Plan was implemented without any consideration given to the envi-

ronment, at least it was implemented slowly. It was developed dur-

ing the 'golden decade' of the 70s, at the same time as the National

Park was extended (1969-79), in coincidence with the change of

political regime in Spain. In 1969, the Decree that created the Park

was published in the same issue of the Spanish Official Gazette as

the FAO Experimental Plot for future crop trials.And poor admin-

istrative co-ordination led to an overlap of some hectares between

the park and the plot. Ten years later, the Park was extended at the

expense of Sector II, fragmenting it because the Rocina stream was

protected, and exploiting the aquifer was brought into doubt.

The effects of pumping were revealed in the eighties as alarm-

ing, causing concern among conservationists. But sufficient informa-

tion had become available to discover the actual extent of these

effects. The hydrology of the lower Guadalquivir River had been

outlined by Vanney in 1970.This was a starting point for hydro-geo-

logical studies that linked up with the surface hydrology studies in

the reserve and the limnology studies started in 1970 by the

Ecology Department of the Hispalense University in Seville. The

Doñagua Project, conducted by the Universities of Granada and

Seville, created a piezometric network with impressive continuous

recordings.The works of the Institute of Geology and Mining and

the CEDEX continued, with isotopic studies of the waters. The

Complutense Universities and Catalonia Polytechnic set up new

surveys, which were implemented first by the Geological Services

of MOPU and later by the Guadalquivir Hydrological

Confederation.The National Park ranger service started recording

systematic piezometer readings and the surface levels that were to

generate data sets and make it possible to analyse the problem

quantitatively9.

At this time, Professor Ramon Llamas coined the term

"daimielisation" (in reference to the problems faced by Las Tablas

de Daimiel - Damiel's Tables) for the process of a natural area dry-

ing out due to an overexploitation of the aquifer, and the term won

wide acceptance,with debates on whether Doñana was indeed fac-

ing these circumstances.The water problems vary from one sector

to another, according to findings from analyses developed by the

team of Josep Dolz of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia. In

the north, surface flows have been reduced and untreated waste-

water is discharged into the Doñana Marshes and the streams.

Agricultural water consumption has caused a fall of several metres

in Sector III (Villamanrique) and to a lesser extent, some five

metres, in Sector II (El Rocío). Concentrating water flows in the

Partido stream increases the transport of sands, and a delta is start-

ing to appear over the marshes, next to El Rocío. Channelling the

Prof. Ramon Llamas coined the term "daimielisation" (in reference to theproblems faced by Las Tablas de Daimiel, or Damiel's Tables) for the processof a natural area drying out due to an overexploitation of the aquifer, andthe term won wide acceptance, with debates on whether Doñana wasindeed facing these circumstances.Photograph: CENEAM. Files.

136

Guadiamar River prevents flooding of the marshes in winter. In his

contributions, Benigno Bayán details the steps in the process of

hydraulic transformation and J.A. Mintegui describes the changes in

the Partido stream regime, after all these complex and necessary

interventions to prevent the growth of sandy deltas over the

marshes. Finally, wells have been dug on the borders of the park to

supply the Matalascañas resort and the depression cones have

reached as far as Charco del Toro pond.

The accumulated evidence has shown that, since the 1980s,

there has been a fall in the deep piezometer readings of the

National Park near the areas where water is drawn. Research

conducted in this field has allowed us to understand that, between

the main aquifer and the surface, there are interspersed water

retardants - detrital clay or silt formations, and localised layers of

peat and that diminish the vertical flow of the water. This provides

the conditions for a surface aquifer, whose discharges are impor-

tant from an ecological point of view. Studies carried out by Muñoz

Reinoso have shown the relations between the levels of the

aquifer, the discharges in different topographic situations and their

role in the vegetation21. This has re-evaluated the 1975 Gonzalez

Bernaldez model of the relationship between topography and

scrub composition. On sandy ground, in times of heavy rains, the

emergence of spring waters with low electric conductivity spreads

to the small depressions.Annual rains, concentrated in autumn and

winter, feed the surface aquifer, which then discharges into the

extensive depressions. Part of the annual infiltration makes it

down to the lower aquifer, the level of which follows a multi-year

cycle, feeding ponds and lower zones and the grassland area of La

Vera. These waters have a higher conductivity than the intermedi-

ate ones and they can reach hyper-saline concentrations.

La Vera, the grassy edge of the Marshes, may receive all three

kinds of input after episodes of intense winter rains during wet

cycles. The massive discharges flood the edge of the marshes and

create watercourses hundreds of metres wide, as in the case of El

Martinazo,where the flowing surface area is over a kilometre wide.

The marsh sediment of silt and clay is almost impermeable and the

upward flow it allows is very weak, except where it emerges in par-

ticular clusters, the so-called "Eyes" (Ojos) of the Marshes.The cur-

rent piezometric decline means that vertical flow has changed

direction, and perhaps the surface waters now slowly filter down.

During dry cycles, the aquifer levels behave differently. The

hydrophytic vegetation and ponds in the National Park that are fed

by them show tendencies that vary greatly in time and in chemical

composition, affecting the nutrient dynamics and the progression of

plankton.The Limnology Group from Hispalense University, head-

ed up by Julia Toja, has done intense research on the peri-dune

ponds, the composition of the phytoplankton and zooplankton, the

annual fluctuations in nutrients and the effect of the bank vegeta-

tion and water run-off on the chemical composition of the ponds.

A pioneering article by Ramon Margalef on the plankton of the

ponds that addresses this aspect has been included in this book, as

a tribute to this great limnologist.This intense work has produced

a classifying system for water masses in the sandy substrate of the

National Park, as well as long data sets on the ponds of Santa Olalla,

Dulce,Taraje, Zahillo,Verde, Charco del Toro and Las Pajas.

Other authors have studied different aspects of the ponds, like

the sediments and water balance,macro-invertebrates and the sub-

merged macrophyte vegetation.Apart from the peri-dune ponds of

the National Park, the ponds of El Abalario, located in the Nature

Park,have been studied by Pablo Garcia Murillo and his group, com-

prising another set of facts that have attracted scientific attention.

Obviously, the Marshes themselves have also been studied in depth.

For example, El Lucio del Cangrejo is the object of a multi-discipli-

nary study that began in 2003. This includes the study of macro-

invertebrates, waterfowl, fish and shoreline vegetation.

Hydro-geological evidence and a large part of all the scientific

work done demonstrate that conserving the diversity of Doñana

and the flows of the surface water masses cannot be separated

from maintaining the aquifer in close to natural conditions. So

water extraction has to be reduced to levels that will guarantee the

sustainability of the ecosystems, whilst at the same time the chem-

ical composition must be monitored to ensure that this is not

altered by discharges or pollutants. In 1992, the "Ruling of the

International Commission of Experts on the Sustainable

Development of Greater Doñana"13 proposed reducing the level of

water extractions and to maintain them at a level of 55-60

hm3/year, a target that has yet to be reached.

The proposal of the Almonte-Marismas Plan was based on the low rent ofthe zones for intervention and on the favourable climate for fruit growing.However, the capacity of the aquifer was over-estimated and it ignoredthe ecological impacts, despite these already being clearly pointed out in apreliminary report by Herteaux in 1970. The image shows a view of a stripof the marshland edge where it meets the sand.Photograph: CENEAM files.

Strabo, the famous Roman historian, wrote of the existence of

two mouths to the Guadalquivir River, with an inland lake (Lacus

Ligustinus) from which two channels flowed to the sea. Between

the channels was, according to oral tradition, an island on which

a city with the same name as the river was situated,Tartessos, the

capital city of a mining and trading emporium located in the

south-eastern lands of the Iberian Peninsula; the kingdom of the

legendary Argantonius (between 630 and 550 BC).

The geomorphological research carried out in Doñana and

the Gulf of Cadiz has allowed us to distinguish up to 5 evolution-

ary episodes.The three oldest, dating from 30,000 to 2600 BP, are

stabilised and cover a large area spreading out towards the inte-

rior of the continent.The two most modern (in historical time)

are found on the coastal zone, are smaller in extent and frequent-

ly overlapping, and comprise the most outstanding dune complex-

es. In some sectors the dune systems have encroached upon the

marshland and eclipse it, in the same way that they are superim-

posed upon the older dune systems. These dune systems inter-

face with a network of freshwater ponds, of which the Santa

Olalla is the most significant, created by the discharge from the

water table underlying the dune fronts.

The migration of the active dune systems is approximately

north-east with a variable rate of movement of 5 m/year. The

dune morphology is asymmetric, with a longer leeward slope and

aeolian deflation depressions, locally known as "corrales".

With regard to coastal barriers, the most outstanding is the

coastal stretch of Doñana, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir

137

The geomorphologicalevolution of Doñana

JOAQUÍN RODRÍGUEZ VIDAL *

137

Geology tells its tale within a framework of millions of

years and Doñana is, geologically speaking, just a bird

passing in flight. Its origins date back only six thousand years while

its present appearance goes back only about two thousand.

Doñana is nothing more than a large estuary that was formed

during the last rise in sea level, the same general level that still

exists today, and which determines the wetlands' maximum sheet

of water.

Since then, the deep estuary of the Guadalquivir River has

been filling with the sediments brought by river floodwaters, by

tides, and by Atlantic currents and storms, as well as the sands

blown by the winds in the form of dunes.This slow but continu-

ous work the different environments that we now know and

enjoy.

* Professor of External Geodynamics, Department of Geodynamics and Palaeontology, University of Huelva, Spain. Doñana and the Gulf of Cadiz in its early evolutionary stage.

FIGURE 1

138

River and La Algaida on the left bank. Both were initially formed

by the deposition of beach material, and are disfigured on the

most part by the dunes that are encroaching upon the mouth of

the estuary.

The coastal stretch of Doñana is the large coastal complex of

the Gulf of Cadiz; it presents an elongated form stretching 25

kilometres NNW-SSE and is the coastal prolongation of the El

Asperillo Sandcliffs. In its morphology it is possible to distinguish

several minor episodes of progradation (infilling or accretion

towards the interior of the estuary) formed by beach crests and

troughs: these are the Marismilla and San Jacinto spits to the far

SE of the strand. Dating of these ancient beaches reveals a recent

advance of the coast (during the last 2,000 years) of about 2-4

m/year.

On the opposite bank of the mouth of the Guadalquivir is the

La Algaida spit the coastal prolongation of the Chipiona-Sanlucar

de Barrameda section measuring 12 kilometres SSW-NNE. It is

completely bordered by marshes which denote its relict charac-

ter. Although it has undergone subsequent changes, the origins of

this sedimentary formation dates back prior to 2500 BP.

The coastal systems of this sector of the Atlantic were

formed during several phases of coastal advance (Figure 1). The

first, established at a regional level, and occurring between 6500

and 4700 BP, the second between 4200 and 2500 BP, the third

between 2200 and 1100 BP, and the fourth between 1000 BP and

the present. All advance phases were separated by successive

erosion phases. The extensive area situated behind the coastal

strands is occupied by fluvial-coastal formations; these are the

Guadalquivir marshlands. Sediment accumulation developed pro-

gressively as the coastal formations encroached upon the estuary,

thus revealing the direct relationship between the two processes.

A variety of diverse morphologies resulting from the intense

fluvial-tidal dynamics can be distinguished within the marshland.

There are oxbow lakes filled in by silting, ancient levees, alluvial

fans, and what are known as "vetas". Vetas are sandy spits with

remnants of malacofauna,which seem to stem from intensive ero-

sive events, such as storms and tsunamis.The most ancient vetas

are the Carrizosa and the Veta la Arena, dating from 4755 BP,

while the most recent are La Plancha and Vetalengua, dating from

1808 and 1753 BP.

Natural estuarine areas of the type of Doñana are fragile, sen-

sitive to change and transform rapidly. Doñana's landscape evolu-

tion, aided by human intervention, tells us that it is currently in a

state of advanced maturity, without being old.When old-age does

arrive, and it could be very soon, the landscape will change into a

wide desiccated coastal plain with no marshlands, upon which the

dunes will advance inland.The mouth of the Guadalquivir will be

completely fluvial, with scant tidal influence and will advance into

the sea creating a deltaic point that will shift slowly towards the

southeast and will join with the Punta del Malandar to the west,

and with the coast between Sanlúcar de Barrameda and Chipiona

to the east, transforming the present appearance of the territory.

This prediction of the evolution of Doñana is common to

nearly all tidal estuaries, and it should proceed thus, excepting

human modifications that, almost surely, would accelerate the

siltation processes of the Doñana Marshes.

The future management of Doñana National

Park and its surroundings, perhaps the area

most sensitive to change of all

Spanish coasts, will be debat-

The migration of the active dune systems is approximately north-eastern with a variable rate of movement of 5 m/year. The dune morphology is asymmetric,with a longer leeward slope and aeolian deflation depressions, locally known as "corrales".Photgraph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

139

ed between two models: that of its siltation and natural transfor-

mation into a dry coastal plain, and that of the gradual encroach-

ment of the sea and coastal recession owing to the rise in sea

level brought about by climate change. Society must take into

account that this unique area of nature is geologically ephemeral

and that its permanence should be achieved through human

measures under strict scientific control; decisions of any other

nature would not be beneficial towards conserving Doñana in a

state similar to its present condition.

Natural estuarine areas of the typeof Doñana are fragile, sensitive tochange and transform rapidly.Doñana's landscape evolution,aided by human intervention, tellsus that it is currently in a state ofadvanced maturity, without beingold.

The “Flecha de Doñana”, an arrow-shaped, 25 km-long coastal strand, is the prolongation of the El Asperillo sandcliffs. The image shows a partial view of the“Flecha” close to the Marismillas pine grove, where the Visitor Centre of the National Park is located.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

Coto del Rey Palace. Doñana.Photograph: CENEAM

were contributed by the Pliocene fluvial network with its headwa-

ters in the high relief of what is now Sierra Morena, to the north

of Doñana.This Deltaic Unit is more developed to the north of the

aquifer than to the west.To the south-east, under the marshes, the

sediments become finer and less permeable and, therefore, from a

hydraulic point of view they are considered part of the imperme-

able substrate of the aquifer.

- Beneath the marshes, the upper part of the Deltaic Unit is

replaced by alluvial gravel layers deposited between the Pliocene

and the Quaternary (Alluvial Unit in Figure 1).The Alluvial Unit lies

mainly under the marshes, where its thickness is up to about one

hundred metres; its lateral extension is limited and to the south it

is interspersed with layers of much finer sediments (sands, silts and

clays) of marine platform and estuarine origin; they disappear

before the present day coast line.The Alluvial Unit is covered by a

fairly uniform layer (50 to 70 metres thick) of Quaternary silts and

clays of estuarine and tidal origin ("Marismas" Unit in Figure 1), and

it is separated from the present sea shore by the coastal eolian

sand spit of Matalascañas-Malandar, also dating from the

Quaternary Age.

- In the south-west sector of the aquifer the Deltaic Unit is far less

developed (less than 15 metres thick) and the Alluvial Unit seems

to be absent, at least in the form of gravel deposits. A thick sedi-

mentary deposit (between 20 and 80 metres) of medium-grain

sand, coming mainly from the continental shelf and the shoreline

relief of the Algarve-Huelva coastline, accumulated over the Deltaic

Unit.Although it is called the Aeolian Unit (Figure 1), these sands

have different origins: the deepest layers originated in a submerged

141

The Doñana aquifer andits relations with the natural environment

MARISOL MANZANO *, EMILIO CUSTODIO **

141

The district of Doñana contains a large sedimentary aquifer,

convening an area of about 3400 km2, that is of outstand-

ing environmental and human importance, as groundwater plays an

essential role both in the generation and maintenance of a wide

variety of ecologically important natural habitats, and in the subsis-

tence and development of a population that depends almost entire-

ly on this groundwater for their domestic water supply and for

crop irrigation.The formerly Aquifer 27 and now Aquifer 05-51 +

04-14 in the catalog of the Geological Survey of Spain (IGME), is

officially known as the Almonte-Marismas Hydrogeological Unit,

and in practice simply as the Doñana Aquifer.

From the hydrogeological point of view it is an "aquifer system",

that is, a set of spatially and hydraulically interconnected units of dif-

ferent origin and ability for storing and transmitting water. It is

comprised of Pliocene (between 5 and 2 million years old) to

Quaternary (less than 2 million years old) sediments, deposited in

the Guadiana-Guadalquivir rivers arc, over a thick (exceeding 2000

m in places) substrate of Miocene (between 24 and 5 million years

old) blue marls, which acts as an impermeable base to the aquifer

throughout its extension. Most of the permeable sediments are

unconsolidated, fine grained ones that were deposited in fluvial-

marine (coastal, alluvial, aeolian, estuarine, tidal) sedimentary envi-

ronments.The aquifer system thickness varies spatially, from a max-

imum in the south-east (>300 m under the Marshes, near the

coast), to less than 100 m in the south-west (El Asperillo-El

Abalario), and to the north it ranges between 10 and 50 m thick.

Recent geological studies and works still in course65 explain the

aquifer geometry and its hydrological characteristics as a function

of the environments in which it was formed and of the processes

that led to the accumulation of the sediments. Figure 1 shows the

main geometrical and structural features:

- A layer of silts, loams and fine sands of deltaic origin, aged between

the Pliocene and the Pleistocene, was gradually deposited over the

Miocene blue marls and the clayey-sandy sediments that cover

them (Deltaic Unit in Figure 1; which corresponds to the Basal Silts

and Basal Sands of older studies) (IGME, 1982). These sediments

* Technical University of Cartagena, Spain.** Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.

Soil CO2 sampling in anaturally vegetated areaof the wind-blownsands, to determine car-bon isotopic composi-tion in the aquiferrecharge area. The amount of carbon-14 dissolved in ground-water allows a reason-able estimation of water'residence time in theground.Photograph by Emilio Custodio.

142

FIGURE 1Regional geology and geometry of the Doñana (or Almonte-Marismas) aquifer.

PLIO-CCUATERNARIOUM Unidad de Marismas.ArcillasUE Unidad Eólica.ArenasUD Unidad Deltáica. LimosUM Unida

PLIO-QQUATERNARY TTERCIARY ((Miocene)

UM Marsh Unit. Clays MA Blue marls Lucio (permanent shallow pond)UE Aeolian Unit. Sands Sands and silts River, streamUD Deltáic Unit. Silts National Park limitUD Deltáic Unit. Sands Natural Park limitUA Alluvial Unit. Sands and gravelsAlluvial deposits of the Guadiamar River

143

beach, the intermediate ones in an emerged beach and also from

alluvial deposits, and the shallower ones have been wind

borne.Actually, most of these sands have been re-worked through-

out the local geological history, shifting from one sedimentary envi-

ronment to another in later times.The upper layers, deposited by

the wind during different dune episodes in the course of the

Quaternary41, form what is known as the Doñana Coastal Aeolian

Mantle42,43, the second largest aeolian mantle in western Europe,

covering an area of some 400 km2. Interlayered with these sands

there is a layer of marine clays that stretches from El Abalario vil-

lage to the east to connect with the clays of the marshes.This is the

result of an old westwards pulsation of the shoreline and, from a

hydrogeological point of view; it differentiates the upper sands,

which act as a water-table aquifer, from the lower ones, which

behave as a semi-confined aquifer53.

On a regional scale these Pliocene-Quaternary sediments, as a

whole, create two perfectly differentiated hydrogeological areas,

although they are side by side without a break and hydraulically

connected:

1. The sands, which cover the entire western sector from the Tinto

River valley to the Guadalquivir River marshes, stretch north to

Villamanrique de la Condesa and reach the Guadiamar River valley.

This river valley separates the Doñana aquifer from the Aljarafe

aquifer (see Figure 1).The sands are the outcrop of the permeable

materials of the aquifer system, and acts as an impluvium to aquifer

recharge from rain water. Until about 10 years ago, the whole sand

sector was considered a single water-table aquifer, but when the

Guadalquivir Water Authority (CHG) installed a network of nest-

ed piezometric observation stations it was confirmed that although

the upper part of the sands and silts contains the water-table, deep-

er down semi-confined layers can be clearly seen with different

piezometric levels due to the three-dimensional flow.This causes

upward and downward vertical flows at different spots of the

aquifer, which play an important role in generating and maintaining

the natural habitats with the constant discharges into them of low

mineral-content fresh water on the western edge of the marshes,

and also by maintaining the dense phreatic vegetation that thrives

in some areas.

2. The marshes, under whose clay sediments the gravels and sands

that make up the confined part of the aquifer's permeable sector are

found.The clays and silts of the Marisma Unit also are part of the

aquifer system, behaving as an aquitard with respect to the underly-

ing more permeable sediments.They contain connate salt water in

their pores that has slowly been moved from the time of their for-

mation to the present day, mostly by upward vertical flow to the

surface of the marshes51,64.The confined part of the aquifer accounts

for some 1800 of the 3400 km2 of the aquifer surface.

HOW THE AQUIFER SYSTEM WORKS

The only water source to recharge the aquifer is the infiltration

of rainwater falling on the sands. Irrigation surpluses do not pro-

duce a net recharge, as irrigation is done with waters drawn from

the aquifer itself, but they do modify the quality of groundwater.The

scarce surface runoff does not provide much recharge either.The

regional water-table (Figure 2a) is a tight reproduction of the ter-

rain topography, with some local modifications due to localised and

intensive groundwater extractions.The figure shows that the rivers

and streams are lineal groundwater discharges or drains, some of

which are permanent and others seasonal. It also shows how the

topography favours the formation of a piezometric dome in the

western sector of the sands, whose highest altitude (some 60

metres) coincide with the highest topographic heights close to El

Abalario village. On a regional scale, most of the groundwater

moves south and east from the sands and silts, that is, towards the

area where the aquifer becomes confined under the marshes, and

towards the shore. On a local scale, part of the groundwater fol-

lows other, shorter routes (towards the rivers, streams and

lagoons).

The south-east sector of the confined aquifer contains a large

mass of long residence time water (several thousand years) of high

salinity.This is sea water that was trapped in the pores of the sed-

iments at their time of deposition, when the sea level raised after

the low stand glaciation, or it is partly evaporated sea water in

lagoons or "lucios", and later modified by a series of physical and

chemical processes within the sediments55,57.The sea level went up

fast about 10,000 years ago, and stabilised some 6000 years ago.

This saline water has not been displaced towards the sea by the

fresh water flowing from the cropping-out sands over the last few

thousand years due to the flatness of the area.

The natural discharge of the aquifer system takes place in sev-

eral ways: into the sea along the entire coastal strip (the springs and

seepages of the El Asperillo-El Arenosillo cliff, to the west, are a

good example of this, although most of the discharge occurs dif-

fusely along the coast45); into the streams (Las Madres, La Rocina, El

Partido, Cañada de la Mayor, Río Loro, etc.) and rivers (lower

stretch of the Guadiamar and Tinto rivers); along the sand-clay

interface to the northern and western bounds of the marshes

(ecotone); by direct evaporation from the water-table (this is

An old well, close to Don Ignaciohouse in La Vera. At an earlier time itwas a flowing well, at least during thewet season. Nowadays it is not flow-ing due to the drawdown of thepiezometric levels caused by intensegroundwater pumping for irrigationof the areas S of La Rocina.Photograph by Emilio Custodio

144

favoured by its shallow depth in the western sector); through tran-

spiration of the phreatophytic vegetation (especially in the area

between El Abalario and La Rocina and between Los Cotos and the

marsh); as linear or diffuse discharges into shallow brooks, and

through the discharge, in periods of high levels, of phreatic water to

the hundreds of small wetlands (lagoons, vegetated stream belts

and small topographic depressions) of different geo-morphological

origin to be found on the surface of the Quaternary and Pliocene

sands55,56,62,63.

A small, poorly known part of groundwater flow may carry on

towards the confined aquifer instead of discharging along the

sands-clays contact. Once in the confined area, part of this water

may discharge onto the marsh surface by means of very slow

upward flows through the clays51. Little is known about the possi-

ble deep groundwater discharge into the sea and, if it exists at all,

it could well be very small, as most of the aquifer under the marsh-

es contains confined salt water.The Matalascañas-Malandar coastal

sand spit contains the water-table level of local recharge over the

dunes.This shallow groundwater in the dunes discharges towards

the sea shore, and towards the different wetland types to be found

in the inter-dune depression strips or "corrales"44. The confined

areas have flowing aquifer levels (with a piezometric level that is

above the surface height of the terrain), but the possible deep dis-

charge into the sea is difficult to explain, as the fresh water head at

the depth of the confined gravels is insufficient to off-set the pres-

sure difference with sea water due to its greater density.This aspect

is presently the subject of more detailed studies.

This scheme of natural behaviour of the aquifer must have been

operative since the last sea level stabilisation, about 6000 years

ago70,71, until about 30 years ago. In the last three decades, the nat-

ural flow system has been locally modified due to intensive and

concentrated pumping taking place just near some of the aquifer

natural discharge areas (Figure 2b): along the northern and north-

west marsh-clay and sands boundaries (in the proximity of El Rocío

and Villamanrique de la Condesa villages), and to the western cor-

ner of the aquifer, in the Mazagón-Palos-Moguer sector.The spatial

concentration of farmlands has had three effects: 1) a local draw-

down of the water-table level and of the deep piezometric levels

FIGURE 2A) Regional piezometry of the Doñana and Aljarafe aquifers. B) Location of main pumping centres within the aquifer. See geological legend in Figure 1.

Lines with the same phreatic level

Elevation of the phreatic level (in metres) above the sea level

A

B

145

(between several centimetres and a few metres); 2) a reduction of

the natural discharge, which has been replaced in part by artificial

discharge through wells48,61,66,67,68,69 and 3) a local reversal of the

hydraulic gradient and of the groundwater flow direction, slowly

shifting the saline waters confined under the marshes towards the

agricultural pumping centres in the north-east, some of which are

slowly salting up.

Localised intensive exploitation of groundwater has had a vary-

ing impact on the entire aquifer, but at a local scale (around El

Rocío, La Rocina,Villamanrique, Palos, Moguer, etc.) it has caused

significant natural environment modifications.The most significative

ones are the decreased water availability for the phreatophytic veg-

etation and for the fresh water brooks that sustain much of the

wild herbivore population in summer time (Figure 3). Also the

hydroperiod (flooding time) frequency of many small wetlands of

the aeolian mantle has diminished, changing them from permanent

to temporary or from seasonal to inter-annual (Figure 4). Some

wetlands have disappeared completely, as can be seen from some

local names for places where there are no longer any wetlands54,55,56.

The locally intense groundwater extractions to supply towns and

tourist resorts (Matalascañas, Mazagón) or for environmental uses

(Acebuche) also have a negative effect on the water-table and,

therefore, on the water availability to habitats (vegetation, flooding

of wetlands)53.

Another human action that has made a significant contribution

to the appreciable water-table drawdown (of tens of centimeters,

and impacting on a kilometric-sized area69) and to the consequent

modification to the water processes of many wetlands, was the

introduction of foreign plant species (e.g. eucalyptus) that displace

native vegetation through their greater accessibility to groundwa-

ter with their deeper roots and the corresponding drawdown they

produce.This is the case of the El Abalario-La Mediana-La Rocina

area, where much of the natural discharge of water-table waters to

the Ribetehilos and Mediana wetland complexes, and other isolat-

ed lagoons, had completely dried up due to the introduction of

eucalyptus trees some fifty years ago. However, the eradication of

practically all these trees in the area ten years ago, as part of the

Doñana Natural Park restoration plan, has favoured a recovery of

much of the original water cycle of these lagoons.

The average time that groundwaters remain in the terrain

varies over a wide range, depending on the local conditions of each

place. From studies of environmental radioisotopes (tritium and

carbon 14) in the water, it results that the time for recharge water

to reach the water-table from the land surface varies from less than

one to a few years; groundwater discharging in the coastal springs

of El Asperillo is only a few years old; groundwater regional flows

discharging through the coast or through the sand-marsh bound-

aries spends several decades in the ground, and the deep wells

under the marshes tap water 1000 to 15,000 years old40,49,55.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY

OF THE DOÑANA GROUNDWATER

The chemical composition and natural quality of groundwater

is the result of a series of inter-related factors such as the geology,

climate, topography, biological processes and how the land is used.

They combine to give water what is known as natural chemistry

baseline or chemical background.The first factor that contributes

to the chemical background of an aquifer

is the chemical composition of the rain

that fails on the aquifer. Rain contributes

solutes of both marine and terrestrial ori-

gin, as well as gasses in different propor-

tions, depending on where the clouds

come from and their spatial trajectory.

Once in the ground, evapotranspiration

increase the saline concentration of the

water, that will vary from one place to

another. Besides this process, there is also

a series of interactions between the water

and the soil that take place from the

moment the rainwater starts to infiltrate.The main processes are:

dissolution of soil CO2 into the water during its transit through the

soil; precipitation and dissolution of minerals out of and into the

water; adsorption of substances initially dissolved in the water on

clays, organic matter and iron oxides; ion exchange of some cations

initially dissolved for others initially adsorbed on the soil solid sur-

faces; oxidation-reduction reactions; bio-degradation of some dis-

solved substances, etc.To understand the chemical reactions taking

place between the soil water and the soil solid matrix, and to quan-

tify their contribution to groundwater chemical background, it is

crucial to determine the mineral composition of the terrain, the

chemical composition of rain water and that of the infiltrating

water.

The chemical background of the Doñana aquifers, and the

processes that originates it, are reasonably well known after

detailed studies of the chemical composition of the water and the

mineral composition of the terrain at different depths. By way of a

summary,on a regional scale the origin and chemical characteristics

of groundwater are as follows:

- In the unconfined zones of the aquifer, the chemical background

of groundwater is controlled by the following processes: the com-

position of the local rain water, which comes from the Atlantic

ocean and is of the sodium-chloride type; saline concentration of

soil water produced by evapotranspiration; dissolution of CO2

Discharge of groundwa-ter to the sea throughsprings and seepages inthe El Asperillo cliffs.Photo by Marisol Manzano.

146

from the soil; chemical equilibrium of groundwater and calcite

(CaCO3) in the aquifer layers in the places where carbonates are

present (sandy water-table sector to the north of the marshes and

the coastal sand spit); chemical equilibrium with silica and feldspars

in the layers where carbonates are absent (western water-table

sector).As a result, in the western water-table area groundwater is

of the sodium chloride type, with low mineralisation and acid pH

(between 4.5 and 6), all of which is due to the dominance of the

marine aerosol in the recharge water and to the practical absence

of easily soluble or hydrolysable minerals in the terrain. In the

northern water-table sector groundwaters have a higher mineral

content, and they are of the sodium-calcium chloride-carbonate

type with clearly alkaline pH values (7 - 8.5) due to the presence of

carbonate remains in the sediments. In the sandy spit along the

coast pH values are also alkaline, due to the presence of shells

remains in the sands, but the water is usually of the sodium-chlo-

ride type due to the dominant contribution of marine aerosol to

the dunes.

- In the transit from the water-table to the confined aquifer, the

chemical background of groundwater changes mainly due to

groundwater mixing with the old sea water encroached under the

marshes. Apart from progressively increasing the salinity of the

water under the Marshes, this mixture is accompanied by geo-

chemical processes such as ion exchange of Na for Ca and Mg on

the fresh-salt mixing front, sulphate reduction as the ambient

becomes anoxic, and local calcite precipitation or dissolution, con-

trolled by temporal and spatial changes in the calcite chemical equi-

librium. The resulting groundwaters have a mineral content that

varies between moderate to very high (even higher than the min-

eral content of sea water), they have no measurable sulphate, may

contain methane and, due to the effect of ion exchange with the

clays, they are locally harder (excess of Ca and Mg) or softer

(excess of Na) than would be expected from a simple mixture,

depending on the trend to salinization or to freshening.

The clays forming the Marismas Unit also contain pore water

that is more saline than the sea water.The high salinity found in the

upper 40-50 m of these clays has been explained as the result of

sea water evaporating on the Marshes surface, when they behaved

as tidal marshes, and of the later downward transport of these salts

through the clay pores51,64.

In most of the aquifer the chemical composition of groundwa-

ter is stable both on a regional and on a local scale. However, in

some places of the aeolian mantle, and at a very local scale, shal-

low groundwater may change considerably its salinity, pH and ion

composition, even on a temporal basis. These changes occur

mainly near the ponds of Los Cotos area and along La Vera

aquifer discharge area.The reason is that, around certain ponds,

regional or local groundwater flow systems dominate depending

on the season of the year (dry or wet), driven by changes in the

hydraulic gradient between the ponds water level and the water-

table in the surroundings52,53. Besides the change of scale of the

groundwater flow network in the course of the year, major chem-

ical changes occur inside the water of the ponds that are trans-

mitted to the surrounding phreatic water in the terrain. For

example, strong evaporation in the dry season causes the precip-

itation and accumulation of salts (sodium chloride, calcium sul-

The area of Doñana is characterised by an extraordinary abundance of wet-lands. The geomorphological origin and hydrology of these wetlands variessignificantly, but most of them depend on groundwater. Water processes arethe main factors controlling wetland behaviour, and therefore, their ecology.The picture shows the western boundary of the flooded marsh seen from LaVera.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

147

phate and may be calcium carbonate too) in the floodable zones

of the wetland basins, often accompanied by a reduction of sul-

phate into sulphide and the accumulation of reduced sulphur in

the sediments of the pond bottom. In the next wet season, a large

part of these salts is re-dissolved and transferred to the sur-

rounding local phreatic water along with the sulphur, once again

oxidized to sulphate (not in all the ponds), hence modifying the

salinity of groundwater close to the water-table and, eventually, its

ion composition. Another frequent process is the dissolution of

iron, abundant in Doñana as nodules and as coating of sand grains,

when the water redox potential drops and the acidity increases

around the abundant peaty soils generated in old and recent

lagoon beds.All these chemical changes, which usually occur with

the first rains after a long dry period, are fast, and they are trans-

Fine and medium-grained sand

Gravel and coarse sand

Impermeable o less permeable

Water-table

Deep piezometric level

Flow line

Rain recharge

Spring

Flowing borehole

Free water evaporating

Phreatic transpiration

Well pumping

FIGURE 3

Simplified sketchshowing intensivegroundwater pump-ing effects in the ElRocío andMatalascañas areas.Without pumpingactivity (natural state,left sketches), waterrecharge from thesandy area flowstowards the deepest ofthe aquifer and thenlocally raises and dis-charges close toLa Rocina and the sea.If this state is dis-turbed by water-pumping (rightsketches), both thepiezometric level ofdeeper beds and thewater-table in uppersands descend, thehydraulic gradientbetween them increas-es, and most flowpaths become down-ward. As a result, thenatural discharge toLa Rocina and the seadecreases. (Modifiedfrom Custodio andPalancar, 1995).

NATURAL SSTATEEL ROCÍO

DISTURBED BY WATER PPUMPINGEL ROCÍO

MATALASCAÑAS MATALASCAÑAS

(a)

(b)

Unsaturated zone Water level in wells/boreholes

148

mitted to the phreatic water around the lagoon when the water

level of the pond rises higher than the adjacent water-table after

a rainy period.These shallow phreatic waters discharge into local

depressions in the land surface (other lagoons, streams, channels,

edges of the Marshes) after short transit lengths, thus highlighting

the changes that have occurred inside or close to the lagoons.

The natural vegetation, both the vegetation that depends on

the moisture of the ground and the vegetation that depends on

phreatic water, has adapted to local groundwater chemistry. So, in

the western water-table sector there are vegetal species that are

adapted to acid waters with a low mineral content and poor in

nutrients; in the northern water-table sector, the scarce remain-

ing natural species are adapted to alkaline waters, but also poor

in nutrients, while around the lagoons with high evaporation rates

and in the coastal sectors of the aeolian mantle, the vegetation is

adapted to saline waters.

But the groundwater chemical background above explained is

today locally modified by human activity. Thus, in the shallower

levels of the sandy unconfined areas (less than 40 metres deep)

some products derived from chemicals used in agriculture appear

(mainly nitrates, but pesticides, other nutrients, metals used in

phyto-sanitary products, etc. can be expected), as well as industri-

al pollutants (mainly heavy metals that have been air-transported

from the industrial area of Huelva -some 30 km to the west-, and

perhaps also from the open cast mining activities in the Iberian

pyritic belt -some 50 km to the northwest-), which entered the

aquifer through the recharge water after rain dissolution of

atmospheric dust and gasses49,57.Also, some agricultural wells that

pump water from the confined layers at a depth of 40-50 metres

in the north-east of the Marshes contain agricultural nitrates that

have reached well catchment areas, either after percolating

through the ground, or by entering directly through the space

between the well piping and the ground. All these observations

are consistent with the water residence times calculated using

the environmental radioactive isotope tritium, which are a few

years for the shallower waters, and over 40 years for groundwa-

ter deeper than 35-40 metres45. In the confined zones there is no

human impact, and groundwater composition corresponds main-

ly to chemical background.

Although there is little information on water pollution of

rivers and streams, existing data indicate that certain substances

originating from human activity have reached the protected areas

of Doñana. Hence, the streams and rivers that flow towards the

marshes from the north carry heavy metals and organic com-

pounds from the local food industry and farming activities

(Almonte, Hinojos, Pilas).The source of some of these substances

is very close to the protected zones: in the sandy sector south-

west of El Rocío, much of the surplus irrigation water, with high

sulphate and nitrate contents, and probably containing pesticides

and other agricultural chemicals, discharges into small streams

coming from the farmland area.These polluted waters end up in

La Rocina or in La Vera, both of which are zones of dense vege-

tation and outstanding ecological value, to a large extent because

they are areas in which high quality groundwater discharge after

a long residence time underground.

THE DOÑANA WETLANDS

AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH THE AQUIFER

As already said, Doñana is characterized by a great abundance

of wetlands.The geo-morphological origin and hydrology of these

wetlands is diverse, but most of them are directly dependent on

groundwater45,55,59,60. Significant work has already been done on their

genetic and hydrological classification, an essential step for manag-

ing these wetlands62,63.

The main control factor of how these wetlands function, and

therefore of their ecology, is their hydrology46.This term encom-

passes factors such as the water origin in the wetland, how this

drains, its hydro-period (flooding frequency and duration), the

water mineralisation and its ionic type54,55.As most of the Doñana

wetlands are dependent on groundwater, a determining factor of

their hydrology is wetlands position in relation to the aquifer

regional flow network. Because of the large diversity of local fac-

tors there is a wide variety of genetic-hydrological types; but a few

main hydrological types can be established, along with their leading

characteristics, which, in broad terms, are56:

- In the water-table area,where regional recharge takes place, there

is an abundance of both permanent and temporary wetlands

appearing in the rainy season when the water-table intersects small

aeolian, erosive or simply morphological depressions (like the inter-

dune flats) existing amid both the old and the present day dunes.

This is due to the fact that, except in the areas in which the aquifer

is intensively developed, the water-table is generally shallow and it

easily intersects the low topographical features of the terrain. In the

dry season, direct phreatic evaporation and the transpiration of the

vegetation draws the water-table down to below the land level. In

these conditions, intense sporadic rains may accumulate to build up

The "eyes of the marsh"are localised, smallround areas where slowupflowing water, comingfrom shallow or deepsand beds dischargesonto the surface throughthe clay layers. Photograph by Emilio Custodio.

149

small water bodies in these wetlands.They remain there, perched

on the water-table for some time, thanks to the relatively imper-

meable nature of fine material and organic remains accumulated on

the lagoon floor; short after they disappear by evaporation.

Because of land use changes and aquifer development, nowadays

there are few naturally permanent wetlands left over on the sands

(Dulce, Santa Olalla, Las Madres -partially excavated-). Some of

them are artificially maintained as permanent bodies of water,

either because they are artificially fed by means of wells (El Huerto,

Las Pajas,Acebuche), or because the basin has been locally excavat-

ed ("zacallones") to provide livestock permanent access to water-

table (Alamillo, Moguer, Mata de los Dominguez…).

Some wetlands in the western water-table sector are fed by infil-

trating rain that feed temporary local flows perched within the

unsaturated zone of the terrain, above the regional water-table. On

their way down to the water-table, these infiltrating waters may

eventually find less permeable ground layers (compacted soils, old

lagoon beds, peaty layers, etc.) that facilitate their lateral displace-

ment rather than vertical flow, thus discharging into nearby small

depressions in the ground surface that come across in their trajec-

tory.

The wetlands located in the recharge area show a wide variation of

water mineralisation both in space and time. In general, the waters

are of the sodium-chloride type, or intermediate between sodium-

chloride and calcium-bicarbonate types.The temporary changes in

mineralization and ionic type depend mostly on changes in the bal-

ance between water inputs and outputs and on the chemical reac-

tions that occur within the lagoon, in which the biota plays a cru-

cial role. Regardless of the water origin and permanence, all wet-

lands over the sands sustain aquatic and phreatophyte species that

have helped to retain the wind-blown sands for hundreds or thou-

sands of years, thus helping to create the extensive and lush aeo-

lian mantle that runs along the Doñana coast.

- Most of the wetlands located in areas of groundwater natural dis-

charge are wet soils that support dense vegetation, with or with-

out a body of free standing water, and located in the lower parts of

small streams ("algaidas"). In natural conditions they are permanent

water-table discharge areas that allow aquatic and phreatophytic

FIGURE 4Functioning of the groundwater dependent Doñana's wetlands: water discharge to valleys, streams and small depressions.The above sketch shows water functioning in the most common wetland type in Doñana, comprising water discharges (both phreatic and from deeperbeds) to small depressions (ponds) and to valleys and slopes (streams). Under high water-level situations (wet year or undeveloped aquifer) the water-table always reaches the soil surface, giving rise to permanent laponds and streams, and to thick belts of riparian vegetation. This vegetation acts as anactive filter to contaminants (e.g. nutrients) transported by surface flows, and contributes to decrease soil erosion and to maintain environmental humiditythrough transpiration. Under low water-level situations (dry year or a situation altered by groundwater development) groundwater discharges only takesplace in the wet season and not every year, giving rise to seasonal wetlands or also interannually flooded areas. Phreatophytic vegetation then decreases,together with its protecting effect against erosion, the generation of atmospheric humidity and the neutralisation of some contaminants.

WET YEAROR

AQUIFER UNDERNATURALREGIME

DRY YEAROR

AQUIFER UNDERDISTURBED

REGIME

precipitation

precipitation

precipitation

precipitation

evaporation

evapotranspirationneutralisation of

pollutantsevapotranspiration

water-table

flow(river or stream)

water-table

evapotranspiration

flow

soil erosion and transport

of contaminants

water-table inwet year/season

water-table in dry year/season

soilerosion and

transport of contaminants

water-table

PERMANENT DISCHARGE TO LAGOONS PERMANENT GENERATION OF SURFACE FLOWS

SEASONAL/INTERANNUAL DISCHARGE SEASONAL/INTERANNUAL FLOW GENERATION

150

vegetation to survive all year round.This is the case of the small

streams, watercourses and brooks that flow into La Rocina and the

marshes along La Vera and La Retuerta, and also is the case of some

permanent streams, gullies and springs that run into the sea over

the western coastal cliffs of El Asperillo (e.g. Rio Oro). La Rocina

stream is also a linear drainage of both shallow and deep ground-

waters that supports a relatively well-conserved riverine forest

along its banks. The streams running into the Marshes from the

north (El Partido,Cañada de la Mayor, etc.) used to maintain dense,

water-table fed riparian vegetation, but in this case the vegetation

was cleared long ago to prepare the land for farming and for roads

and tracks. Its flow, especially in the lower stretch, is still of phreat-

ic origin most of the year, as the runoff from the rain is only signif-

icant when the precipitations are intense. In general, these waters

have a medium to high mineralisation, variable throughout the year

because of local processes of evaporation and chemical reactions,

as the groundwater inputs have a stable composition.

- In the Marshes, were the aquifer is confined, there are also differ-

ent types of wetlands. Some of these are fed from groundwaters.

The Marshes themselves, formerly mostly tidal and nowadays dom-

inantly fluvial, receive water from the rivers and streams that, in

turn, drain as base-flow the sandy aquifer to the north and north-

west of the Marshes. Other wetland types found in the Marshes

are: seasonal ponds of fresh to saline waters, which are remnants

of the winter flood; permanent ponds ("lucios") of fresh to saline

waters,whose water source can be either phreatic water discharge

from the coastal sand spit and/or remnants of the winter floods

(some of these "lucios" habitats are nowadays artificially maintained

with groundwater pumped from the confined gravels and sands);

small circular areas of permanently saturated sand ("eyes of the

marsh") fed by upward groundwater flows ascending from sandy

layers of varying depths; and tidal wetlands, of which only one

remains on the right bank of the Guadalquivir river, near the river

mouth.

Much of the extraordinary biodiversity that makes Doñana

world famous is the integrated result of combining the different

hydrological types of wetlands together with their location, their

water salinity and their chemical composition in a fluctuating envi-

ronment.

As already mentioned, intensive groundwater development for

over twenty five years, localised in areas where the aquifer dis-

charges naturally, has caused accumulated local drawdown of the

deep piezometric levels that, in turn, has induced lowering of the

water-table height.As these falls have not yet stabilised, the prevail-

ing hydrodynamic situation is a transient one evolving towards a

new equilibrium in accordance with the current aquifer recharge

and discharge.These piezometric drawdowns cause a reduction of

the natural groundwater seepage at the sand-clay interface, the

drying of formerly flowing boreholes placed along the same area,

the water-table lowering, the decrease of the upward seepage

through the marsh clays, and the generation of a large piezometric

depression cone in the north-east of the marshes, which has also

induced a slow south-to-north shift of saline groundwater.

Wetlands close to the aquifer regional discharge areas (around

the marshes and on the aquifer western edge) are the most vulner-

able to intensive groundwater development of deep and shallow

aquifers, but they are not the only ones.The numerous wetlands of

the El Alamillo-El Acebuche-El Abalario-La Mediana sector have also

been affected by the water-table drawdown caused by a combina-

tion of pumping for irrigating farms next to La Rocina and an

increase of phreatic evapotranspiration since eucalyptus trees were

introduced in the area some decades ago.The original phreatophyt-

ic vegetation of Los Cotos, La Vera and the northern edges of the

marshes have also experienced difficulties in drawing water from a

water-table that is now much deeper, and many specimens are dry-

ing up. As a consequence, many small wetlands situated close to

farmlands (El Acebuche; El Alamillo; El Peladillo; La Mediana and La

Rocina, to the west; Villamanrique and Guadiamar, to the north)

that were permanent 20 or 30 years ago, are now seasonal or even

sporadic, only flooded in very wet years.

One additional effect of the water-table drawdown in areas

close to the marshes perimeter is a reduction of groundwater dis-

charge into the many existing streams, brooks, algaidas, etc., whose

fresh water contributions, be it directly or via La Rocina creek, are

very important for the marshes in the dry season. Many of these

water sources used to be permanent, but today they are seasonal

and, moreover, they carry water from irrigation surplus, which

means that they introduce nutrients, organic matter, pesticides, etc.

into areas of high ecological value. Finally, another effect has been

the change in the dry and wet seasons length, which affects vegeta-

tion access to phreatic water46,69 and increases the water stress

duration.

can be seen at an average height of 3.6 metres above sea level.The

height of the soil surface determines its connections with the sea,

in such a manner that the marshes are only connected to the sea

during very high tides.The practical lack of relief is only interrupt-

ed by a few elevations of old levees and islets and by depressions

which corrspond to channels, riverbeds, shallow ponds and gullies

that make up a shallow hydrographical network.This determines

the hydraulic behaviour of the Marshes and favours the existence

of a wide variety of environments, which, in turn, promotes a flora

and fauna that is highly differentiated in both time and space.The

temporal diversity is motivated, to a large extent, by the acute

annual variation of water levels of the Marshes.Apart from a rich

variety of fauna, the productive surfaces are also rich in quantity. It

is estimated that approximately half a million water fowl spend the

winter in the National Park, a population which requires some 50

tonnes of food per day. It is thanks only to these special weather,

soil, and hydrological conditions that local productivity can meet

such a high demand in the Marshes.

The Doñana Marshes are located in an area of mild

Mediterranean climate, with an Atlantic influence that keeps the

temperatures within narrower limits.The average annual rainfall in

the region is approximately 600 mm and real evaporation-transpi-

ration is estimated at between 400 and 500 mm/year.

It is essential to consider the fact that the prevailing winds play

151

The paths of waterin the Marshes: changes in the hydrological network.

BENIGNO J. BAYÁN JARDÍN *

151

The area covered by Doñana has been subject to the range

of geological processes that have occurred in the Lower

Guadalquivir. At the end of the Tertiary Era, there was a general

subsidence of what is now the Guadalquivir basin, forming a deep

sea in which blue marls were deposited to a depth of up to one

thousand metres.

During the Quaternary period, a much thinner layer of red

sands were deposited in a shallow coastal region: the Guadalquivir

estuary.The evolution of the lower Guadalquivir basin continued

along the same path and a coastal sand bar started moving in a

NW-SE direction. This bar was formed by the deposit of wind-

blown sands and materials from the Tinto, Odiel, Piedras and

Guadiana rivers, which drifted on the coastal marine currents. A

series of successive bars gradually closed off the Guadalquivir

estuary, forming a shallow lagoon of calm waters between the bar

and the open sea, which survived up until historic times.This was

the Ligur Lake of the Phoenicians, later called Lake Ligustinus

under the Roman Empire.The sediments from the mainland were

deposited in the bottom of this lake, which now form the base of

the Marshes.The most superficial part of this layer, between 50 and

100 metres thick, is made up of fine silt and grey-blue clays.

At the same time, systems of sand dunes developed that must

have reached a considerable height. The shifting dunes we see

today reach a height of 40 metres above sea level, advancing on the

Marshes at a rate of between three and six metres a year.The rate

of advance is accelerated when the vegetation that stabilises the

sands disappears, as has repeatedly occurred.

The Doñana Marshes have been created as the result of the

silting up of the lagoon caused by the estuary being enclosed.

Sedimentation rates have been estimated at 1 to 2.5 millimetres

per year over the last few millennia. Up until the 18th century, the

marshes of both sides of the estuary were heavily influenced by

tides.They completely lost this tidal influence and became conti-

nental in nature, although some peripheral areas retained tidal

marsh surfaces.

The continued input of sediments from the streams draining in

the old lagoon forged the present topography, where a great plain

* Director of projects and works: "Doñana 2005 Project". Guadalquivir Water Authority

The subtle hydrographical network of the Marshes allows for a widerange of environments. Knowing how they work and discovering thecomplex paths of the water are essential for keeping the niches of biodi-versity alive.Photograph by Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.

152

an important role in the behaviour of water level in the Marshes

as they displace these waters. Water level may vary by several

inches as wind force and intensity change, although the prevailing

winds are blowing from the west.

ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHICAL NETWORK

Along the River Guadalquivir, down river from Seville and La

Puebla del Río, and some 60 kilometres before the mouth at

Sanlúcar de Barrameda, the river branches, forming an arm on the

left bank, East Branch (Brazo del Este) , which creates Isla Menor,

and another branch on the right bank,Torre Branch (Brazo de la

Torre), which forms Isla Mayor. The original area of the marshes

encompassed the entire area situated between these two branch-

es of the Guadalquivir, together with large areas to the east of East

Branch and to the west of Torre Branch (Figure 1).

La Rianzuela stream, or Majaberraque, flowed out into the

Northern part of Torre Branch, as did the River Guadiamar, which

had very little flow close to the mouth, and it flooded over the

right banks almost every year.This flooding fed Guadiamar chan-

nel (Caño Guadiamar), a broad and seasonal water course. The

course of Guadiamar channel flows slightly south, receiving the

waters of the Cigüeña stream (Arroyo de La Cigüeña) on its right

bank and, further down, it receives the waters of the Almirante,

Sajon, Portachuelo, Juncosilla and Cañada Mayor streams.

We should now turn our attention to Travieso channel (Caño

Travieso) that runs approximately E-W across the Marshes. It

divides off the right bank of Torre Branch, at a place known as

Vuelta de la Arena, and runs into Guadiamar channel (Caño

Guadiamar) from its left bank. Travieso too only acts as an over-

spill channel for the flood waters of Torre Branch.

The Rocina stream (Arroyo de La Rocina) flows to the west

of the Marshes, next to the village of El Rocío, where it joins

Partido stream (Arroyo del Partido), creating the Madre de la

Marisma channel, which, in turn, joins Guadiamar and Travieso

channels to create the Brenes channel, which finally drains into the

River Guadalquivir, downstream from the confluence with the

Torre Branch.

The drainage of waters flooding the Marshes into the

Guadalquivir and Torre Branch was impaired by the levees of estu-

ary which formed a high bar next to the river bed slowing down

the flow of the waters along Brenes, Figuerola and Buen Tiro chan-

nels.This bar less than two metre high was known as Montaña del

Rio (River Mountain) and although the name may seem somewhat

exaggerated, it should be considered in the context of immense

and almost horizontal plains where the levee made a noticeable

elevation.

Montaña del Río also controlled the entry of brackish water

from the Guadalquivir estuary during high tides.This tidal input to

Doñana was, and continues to be, negligible.

ALTERATIONS TO THE ORIGINAL

HYDROGRAPHICAL NETWORK

Transformations brought to the original hydrographical net-

work date back to the first interventions in 1775. The Corta

Fernandina (Fernandina Cut) was made in 1816, isolating Torre

Branch from the Guadalquivir and only received water inputs,

therefore, from the Guadiamar. In more recent times, work was

carried out around the Doñana National Park by the former

Ministry of Public Works, through the Guadalquivir Water Board.

These works (channelling water courses and modifications to the

hydrological system) started in 1947 and were finished in 1977

(Figure 2).

The major works undertaken involved channelling the banks of

River Guadiamar, which could also be called the channelling of

Torre Branch. Basically, this consisted of building two long parallel

earthen walls about one kilometre apart.The floodable area was

limited to the marsh span between the walls, channelling the water

directly into the Torre Branch.The right hand wall starts before the

River Guadiamar drains into Brazo de la Torre, preventing water

spilling from River Guadiamar into Guadiamar channel. La Cigüeña

stream, which also fed into Guadiamar channel, is also channelled

FIGURE 1

The old hydrographical network of the Marshes, where the former floodarea can be observed. The original marsh surface encompassed the entirevast area that stretched among river branches, reaching much of the cur-rent farming land to the north.

153

along this upper stretch of the right hand wall.The left hand wall,

on the other hand, collects the waters of La Rianzuela stream, or

Majaberraque stream, in the early stretch. The place where the

River Guadiamar runs into the Torre Branch is usually considered

the end of the first stretch of the channelling.

All along the second stretch, the walls follow the course of

Torre Branch, as far as La Vuelta de la Arena, where the third

stretch starts. Here, the walls move away from the natural course

of Torre, heading south in a straight line, until they finalise when

they come back to Torre Branch, close to its mouth. Moreover, in

this third stretch, a transversal wall has been built, running west,

towards El Rocío. This crosses the former course of Guadiamar

channel,while, a little further south, the right hand wall crosses the

natural course of Travieso channel.The latter has been eliminated

as it crossed "Los Caracoles" estate, used for farming until recent-

ly.

During all this time, the Guadalquivir river action has been

eroding Montaña del Río levee, especially during floods. But this

natural process has accelerated during the 20th century due to the

waves produced by river traffic of larger and ever faster vessels

bound to Seville at high tide. Over the last few decades, Montaña

del Río has been largely destroyed by this process and the Marshes

drain much faster; it also makes it easier for unwanted brackish

water seep to the Marshes from estuary.

HYDRAULIC FUNCTION

Given the highly impermeable nature of silts forming the

marsh deposits, for the purposes of analysing water inputs and

outputs, they can be considered as isolated from the underlaying

aquifer. So, once the tidal influence was almost lost, the water bal-

ance of Doñana Marshes is made up of the rains falling directly on

them, inputs from the rivers, upwellings from the freatic level in La

Vera and La Retuerta, evaporation-transpiration and outputs along

a range of smaller tributaries.

The Marshes of Doñana, which currently cover 27,000 ha in

the Park, follow a marked annual cycle.The process starts when

the Marshes are filled up, normally in the months of October and

November. In this situation, in which only the highest ground (lev-

ees, islets) remain above water level, a maximum of 17,000 ha

become marshy, with an estimated volume of 35 hm3 of water, giv-

ing an average depth of around 20 cm.This stage, the boggy phase,

lasts until March or April, while the relation between water input

and evaporation-transpiration is kept in balance. Losses through

evaporation-transpiration gradually dry out the surface, until, by

the end of the summer, only the deepest depressions retain some

highly saline waters (shallow ponds, gullies and some channel

stretches).

As a consequence of all the actions described in the hydro-

graphical network as a whole, the inputs into the Doñana Marshes

from the rivers were limited to waters from Madre de las

Marismas stream (with a basin of 620 Km2) and Cañada Mayor

stream (basin of 70 Km2).The average annual input from Madre de

las Marismas is estimated at approximately 140 hm3, with record-

ed minimum of 31 hm3 and a maximum of 475 hm3. But, moreover,

most of these resources come from the free aquifers of the dunes.

After these interventions, the obvious consequence has been a

FIGURE 2

Major transformations were brought on the water courses of the Marshes duringthe 20th century. In a first stage, the major channelling works were carried out andmodifications made to the hydrological system from 1947 to 1977. The secondstage was a response to the interventions made in this period, known as theWater Regeneration stage, encompassing the period from 1982 to 1987. In boththese periods, major damage was done to the Marshes, some produced by thementality of the time prone to intervention, and other damage was due to a lackof sufficient scientific knowledge.

1 River Guadalquivir 7 Partido stream

2 Torre Branch 8 Cañada Mayor stream

3 Travieso channel 9 La Cigüeña stream

4 Guadiamar channel 10 River Guadiamar

5 Madre de las Marismas channel 11 Majaberraque stream

6 Rocina stream 12 East Branch

Limit of the National Park before17-03-2004

Floodable area - Marshes

154

major decline in the available water resources in the Marshes as the

inputs from Guadiamar and Travieso channels are now prevented

from entering.To highlight this fact, one only has to point out that

the rains that fell in November and December 1989 led to an input

from the River Guadiamar at the beginning of the channelled sec-

tion (basin of 1,070 Km2), estimated at 325 hm3, while the input

from the streams draining directly into the Marshes were estimat-

ed at approximately 125 hm3. The total rainfall for these two

months in the Park and the surrounding area was 600-700 mm.

Bearing this in mind, one will probably ask about the motives

for carrying out such costly works to the detriment of the natural

marsh system.You should remember that a few decades ago, one

of the challenges mankind was facing was to drain wetlands, which

had historically been a focus of disease and their soils were

assumed to be suitable for farming.Times have now changed and

there has been a growth in social concern for and interest in

nature, and the challenge that man now faces is the complete oppo-

site from a few decades ago; i.e. man now has to save wetlands.This

change in mentality has driven a series of actions aimed at recov-

ering the functionality of Travieso and Guadiamar channels and

Montaña del Río, which, as we have said, was seriously damaged.

REGENERATING WATER RESOURCES

FROM 1982 TO 1987The objective was to recover the surface waters that used to

flood the Doñana Marshes along their original courses, hence

making these riverbeds functional once again.

The first work tackled was to restore the Montaña del Río

levee, consisting of the construction of an earthen wall, using the

deposits from the nearest marshes as source material.This wall is

14 km long, running parallel to the right bank of the River

Guadalquivir, 250 m away from it, except where it goes around a

salt flat. From south to north, the work starts in the area of dunes

near the mouth of the river, and it extended as far as the conflu-

ence between the river and Torre Branch. From here, it runs

upstream for a kilometre, along the right bank of the Torre. It

should be pointed out that, unlike the usual procedures for "clas-

sical" engineering, these works have avoided straight lines, respect-

ing the areas of thickest vegetation and trying to blend into the

landscape.

Depressions or shallow pond with some islands inside have

been designed in holes from which materials for the wall had been

excavated. Each pond covers an area of approximately three

hectares, a depth of less than one metre (some were deeper) and

an unexcavated area has been left in the middle to act as an island

when the lagoon floods in winter.A series of flood gates have been

installed in canals and depressions to control the water level in the

Marshes.The work finished in December 1983 and soon after, the

natural vegetation, especially shrubby sea bright, colonised the

banks, so the wall now blends in well with the landscape and exca-

vated grounds perform as natural ponds.

In the interim years, the water level in the Marshes has been

considered too high, causing major problems to the associated

ecosystems.The problem lies in the fact that the wall is too high

and there are not enough flood gates and the existing ones are

too small to avoid water drainage.The work was carried out with-

FIGURE 3

Hydrographic Network of Doñana Marshes and new boundaries of the NationalPark, with a simplified view of the Marshes after the actions included in theDoñana 2005 Project. In this representation, the floodable area includes "LosCaracoles" estate, recovered as natural marshlands for the future. It also includesthe recovery of water courses and the suppression of major channelling worksand water barriers that have accumulated in the recent history of Doñana.

1 River Guadalquivir 7 El Partido stream

2 Torre Branch 8 Cañada Mayor stream

3 Travieso channel 9 La Cigüeña stream

4 Guadiamar channel 10 River Guadiamar

5 Madre de las Marismas channel 11 Majaberraque stream

6 Rocina stream 12 East Branch

Limit of the National Park before 17-03-2004

Floodable area - Marshes

155

The satellite picture shows the Montaña del Río levee as a line around theflooded Marshes (upper part of the picture), running parallel toGuadalquivir and Torre Branch riverbeds.False colour image from the Landsat satellite (2000).

View of the Montaña del Río levee and the "sacatierras" excavation grounds. It should be pointed out that, unlike the normal procedure in "classical" engineer-ing works, straight lines have been avoided, respecting the areas of densest vegetation and attempting to blend the works into the landscape. The hollows leftby excavation for the wall have been shaped in shallow ponds of approximately three hectares each, with a depth of less than one metre, and an unexcavatedarea has been left in the middle to act as an island when they are flooded in winter.Photograph: CENEAM files.

out the necessary scientific counselling, so important points of

view were not taken into consideration.

The second work undertaken in this process of regenerating

water resources is what is known as the Centre-North Project. In

essence, this is the transfer of up to 6 m3/second debit from the

River Guadiamar, taken from the Vuelta de la Arena bend, using a

pumping station, to the course of Guadiamar channel, at Junta de

los Caños, in order to make them flow into the Marshes.This proj-

ect uses existing drains from the Almonte-Marismas irrigation

zone, and it was finished in May 1985. In all these years, these

works have been used very little because the quality of the water

was unsuitable for the Doñana Marshes, making it a failed experi-

ence that, once again, highlights the need to plan projects of this

kind on a scientific and multi-disciplinary basis.

The third works addressed, the so-called South Project, was

aimed at making Travieso channel functional again.Works consist-

ed of building an earthen canal, 0.50 metres deep and 250 metres

wide, just South of "Los Caracoles" estate, within the boundaries

of the Doñana National Park, connecting the channelled part of

Guadiamar with Travieso channel. This canal is 2,100 metres long,

running in ample bends to blend in with the landscape. Works

were completed by September 1987. The so-called South Project

only comes into operation during those floods of River Guadiamar

that can fill the channel, but it has been seen that, once the initial

flood waters pass, most of the water coming in through the South

Solution returns to the Guadiamar channel, following the same

course, but in the opposite direction.

157

A Numerical Hydrodynamic Model for the Marshes of Doñana National Park

JOSEP DOLZ, ERNEST BLADÉ, JOSEP GILI *

157

The Marshes of Doñana National Park comprise a very

complex water system whose qualitative characteristics

are fairly well known, whereas its quantitative aspects are not. It

should be noted that currently there is scant information on such

important hydrological data as the relationship between water lev-

els and flooded marsh surface, temporal evolution of marsh inflow

and outflow rate, evaporation and evapotranspiration, temporal

and spatial evolution of water levels and physical, chemical and bio-

logical characteristics, water flow characteristics, and the impact of

wind on water flow. An understanding of these variables is essen-

tial to precisely defining the actions required to prevent the degra-

dation of the marshes.

The Guadalquivir River Basin Authority (Confederación

Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir), aware of and sensitive to these con-

cerns, commissioned, within the framework of the Doñana 2005

project, a numerical model to study the hydrodynamics of the

marshes. To do this required detailed knowledge of the marsh

topography and of the water outflow from the catchments that

* School of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Spain.

The numerical hydrodynamic simulation model of the Marshes allows for the calculation of the temporal evolution of water levels and velocity at differentspots in the area. The above image shows the drainage network superposed to the wavy natural canals of the Gallega marsh.

drain to the marshes. These variables had previously been

researched in a study also commissioned by the Guadalquivir River

Basin Authority.

The marshes are located in an area of very low topographic

relief and the drainage system is therefore defined by minor alti-

metric variations. This type of drainage system to a large extent

determines water flow in the marshes, particularly at the beginning

of the flooding period and towards the end of the recession of the

water levels.Therefore, in order to study the hydrodynamics of the

marshes, detailed topographic information must first be available,

particularly with regard to the relief of the terrain.This information

is especially difficult to obtain given the extension (40,000 Ha) of

the Park and the required altimetric precision of the measurements

(down to a few decimetres).

An emerging technology known as laser altimetry is now avail-

able for obtaining digital terrain models (DTM). The technique

consists of laser pulse emissions directed from an airborne instru-

ment that scan the terrain.The instrument receives a signal reflect-

ed back by the surface and calculates the distance based on the

signal's round-trip time-of-flight. Although the measurements have

158

The Marshes are located in an area of very low topographic relief and the drainage system is therefore defined by minor altimetric variations. Image obtainedfrom the Digital Surface Model (DSM) showing an area nearby the Doñana Palace. The vegetation, higher than water, has a lighter colour. Trees can be seen asyellow dots.

an accuracy of around one centimetre, the calculation of the loca-

tion of the aircraft (obtained through the Global Positioning

System, GPS), and the direction in which the laser pulse was emit-

ted (obtained through an Inertial Navigation System, INS) can intro-

duce errors, rendering a final accuracy of about 15 centimetres.

Laser altimetry is capable of measuring the elevation of several

tens of thousands of surface points per second.The technique is an

excellent way to obtain a DTM of the flat extensive area of the

marshes owing to the high density of surface points and the accu-

racy of the measurements. Consequently, the system was used to

determine the mean coordinates (surface and height) of a surface

spot every 3 m2 in the approximately 40,000 ha of marshes. The

height and distribution of the vegetation at the time the measure-

ments were taken (September 2002)71 were fairly accurately deter-

mined as well.The image below shows, as an example, the Digital

Surface Model (DSM) of an area nearby the Palacio de Doñana.

The numerical hydrodynamic simulation model of the marsh-

es72 allows for the calculation of the temporal evolution of water

levels and flow rates at different spots in the marshes and is based

on Saint Venant equations for gradually varied open channel flow.A

one-dimensional approach is used to study flow in the network of

stream channels and a two-dimensional approach (associated to

the one-dimensional approach) is used to analyse the flow in the

rest of the marshes. The water levels and velocity are measured

every 10 minutes at each of the 200 x 200 m2 cells into which the

marshes have been divided. Both intervals, time and space, could be

shorter, but would involve a longer calculation time.

The calibration and validation of the model was undertaken

using field data on the annual evolution of inflows and the water

levels at specific spots in the marshes. Field data on infiltration,

evaporation and the impact of wind on water flows are also neces-

sary to ensure that the model can adequately take these factors

into account for optimal performance.

Based on the finished digital terrain model, the numerical model

was developed and the first calibration-validation process was car-

ried out in March 2004. Field data used for this purpose was

obtained from the measure stations that had been set up in the

area the previous year. The calibration-validation process will

advance systematically as new field data is obtained. In a later stage,

this hydraulic model (temporal evolution of water levels and veloc-

ity) will be used as the basis for the study of other phenomena

associated with the hydrodynamics of the marshes, such as the

transport and sedimentation of solid load and the evolution of

water quality.

The conclusions of these studies will provide us with a very

powerful tool to understand the hydrodynamic behaviour of the

marshes and the likely impact of the measures that may be taken

for their protection.

Elevationmasl

15

10

5

0

ing years in which it was flooded by fall and winter spates.The rest

of the time the land was left untended as the sandy soil could not

ensure a harvest. The advent of new farming technologies posed

the possibility of putting the lands to agricultural use, and so in

1981, within this context and to that end, seven kilometres of the

lower reach of El Partido stream were channelised, immediately

upstream of its outlet to the marsh.

Channelisation of the stream substantially modified the way in

which the streamflow circulated during peak flows, concentrating

the flow in such a way that when it finally debouched into the

marshes it generated a new alluvial fan, due to the expansion of the

current and the subsequent deposition of the solid load which up

to then was incorporated in the flow. In other words, the chan-

nelling had moved the former alluvial cone towards the interior of

the marsh.

The increase in the surface area of the marshes occupied by the

new alluvial fan between 1982 and 1998 is shown on Table 1.These

159

El Partido streaman example of the challenges posed by hydrological restoration

JUAN ANGEL MINTEGUI AGUIRRE *

159

* Professor, Department of Forestry Engineering (Hydraulics and Hydrology unit) ofthe Technical College of Forestry Engineers, Polytechnic University of Madrid.

FIGURE 1El Partido stream watershed: Significant sections.

A La Calancha streamB La Cárcaba streamC La Parrilla streamD Paraje de CabezudosE Santa María streamF Partido streamG Section 1H Section 2I Section 3J Section 4

A B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

Unforeseeable mid- and long-term consequences can

result from changes to the hydrological system and alter-

ing of the waterways in a system as fragile as that of Doñana. El

Partido stream is a typical case of the damaging effect of interven-

tions that, although well-intentioned, are not supported by a sound

base of precautionary foresight and monitoring of induced effects.

El Partido stream is a small watercourse with a low gradient,

less than 0.2 % on its lower reach, which flows directly into the El

Rocío marsh to the north of Doñana National Park. The stream is

fed by a catchment area covering 307.37 Km2 and has maximum

and minimum elevations of 121 and 5 metres respectively. The

headwaters present moderate slopes which decline with the

descent towards the area dominated by the stream, in which there

are wide zones that do not exceed 1% (Figure 1).

The stream has a marked torrential character owing to its

proximity to the ocean and the orientation of its catchment area,

which is exposed to the penetration of Atlantic storms as there are

no obstacles to moderate their advance. Hence, fall and winter

downpours cause the discharge of the stream to multiply from

twenty to thirty times its mean summer flow, estimated at 5 m3/s,

and to even exceed these values under occasional extraordinary

circumstances. Similarly, with the exception of its moderate slope,

the rest of the catchment morphology is characteristic of a torrent

catchment: with its catchment area, gorge, and, prior to 1981, its

former alluvial cone and even its own drainage channel. This chan-

nel, called Caño Ajolí and today filled with sand, was where the

stream current finally flowed sediment-free into the Doñana

Marsh.

Originally, the stream's spate flow would expand outwards

before it reached the marsh, generating a series of secondary chan-

nels in such a way that the scant depth of the channels could not

exert shear stress capable of breaching the resistance and initiating

the motion of the sands that made up their beds. In fact, these

streams were forced to drop their entrained sediments, thus form-

ing the initial alluvial fan. Subsequently, once the floodwaters reced-

ed, the streamflow was conveyed smoothly through the drainage

channel into the marsh, devoid of sediments.

Occasionally the land surface of the alluvial fan was farmed,dur-

160

tion and directly applying it. Furthermore, while on the one hand El

Partido stream presents a torrential character typical of mountain

torrents, given that it presents very significant liquid and solid dis-

charges (refer to the aforementioned 58 spate events); on the other

hand, its bed, comprised almost exclusively of sands, its slight slope

and prolonged periods of concentrated flow differentiate the stream

from mountain torrents, making it necessary to test many types of

equations.

In regard to the discharge of suspended load, water samples

were collected from section 3 of the stream during the transit of

the spates and later studied in the laboratory to determine the

concentration of sediments. In short, application of the MUSLE

model estimated a total volume of 1,151,957 m3 of suspended sed-

iment discharged by El Partido stream into the El Rocío marsh

between 1995 and 1998.A mean concentration of 6.86 g/l74 of sus-

pended sediment was established for the group of 58 spate events

studied.

Finally, in order to determine the bed load deposited into the

marsh, an estimation was made of the 1995 to 1998 annual

increase of the volume of El Partido stream's alluvial fan within

the marsh itself and its surroundings, using all of the information

shown in bold- in Table 1, and based on which the table was

completed.

On the other hand, in order to verify that we were really

dealing with a bed load discharge, the erosion of the floor and

sides of the channelled segment of the stream was evaluated

using the information obtained from the 1996, 1997, 1998 aerial

photographs and from the topographical map of the channelled

section made in June of 199975. We were thus able to verify that

there had been downcutting of the bed of the channel of over 2

metres with respect to the level of the terrain in 1981.This made

it evident that although erosional versus sedimentation phenom-

enon had taken place on the channel floor, there had been a

remarkable predominance of the first. Additionally, retrogressive

erosion of El Partido streambed was found along an over-2-kilo-

values were determined after delimiting the successive expansions

of the fan on aerial photographs taken during the corresponding

years and then transferring the data to a GIS in order to correctly

identify, situate and measure the phenomenon (Figure 2).

In view of the situation, and in seeking an answer to the phe-

nomenon, the following two questions were specifically posed:

- Where do the sediments discharged by El Partido stream

into the El Rocío marsh originate?

- What steps must be taken to arrest the process?

To answer this, research was designed with the following work

plan:

On one hand, measurement of the progression of El Partido

stream's alluvial fan into the El Rocío marsh and its bordering area

during the 1995-98 period was commenced.The alterations occur-

ring along the stream's channelled segment during the same period

were also measured.These measurements were based on the plani-

metric studies mentioned earlier and bolstered by topographic

field campaigns. To this end, the cone's radials were measured in

July, 1997, this same area was levelled between April and May of

1998, and a map was drawn up of the channelled segment of the

stream in June of 1999.

On the other hand, the Hydrologic Modeling System (H.M.S.)

version 2 (2000), an integrated hydrologic model, was applied to

define the characteristics of El Partido stream's 58 spates occurring

over the 1995-98 period73.

To evaluate sediments carried in suspension by El Partido stream,

coming from the catchment runoff and discharged into the marsh by

way of the 58 spates earlier defined, the Modified Universal Soil Loss

Equation (MUSLE) model was combined with the aforementioned

hydrologic model.This required prior determination of the defining

factors of soil erosion conditions in the catchment area.

What was more complicated was the estimation of the sedi-

ments discharged into the marshes as bed load, meaning as a conse-

quence of the abrasion of the streambed by the current. To start

with, there were no clear criteria for the selection of a specific equa-

YEARS ESTIMATION OF THE ALLUVIAL FAN RECEIVED OBSERVATIONS

AREA MEAN THICKNESS VOLUME SEDIMENTS

(m2) (m) (m3) (m3)

1982 147,220

1985 290,593

1993 1,038,802 0.365 379,163 600,654 Spates 1995-96

1996 2,041,283 0.480 979,816 903,718 Spates 1996-97

1997 3,176,280 0.593 1,883,534 1,116,466 Spates 1997-98

1998 3,815,055 0.786 3,000,000

TABLE 1 Evolution of the surface areas and volumes occupied by El Partido stream new alluvial fan in the El Rocio marsh and its surroundings, downstream from Cañada Real.

161

metre section upstream from the channelled segment.

The volume of sediment originating from excavation

processes on El Partido's channelled segment and discharged

into the marsh was evaluated at 1,685,814.30 m3 regarding

spate events occurring between 1995 and 1998 and at

344,050 m3 regarding spates occurring during the 1987-88 and

FIGURE 2

The expansion of El Partido stream's newalluvial fan into the El Rocio Marsh and surrounding area between 1982 and 1998.

1989-90 hydrological years. Finally, the yield from the retro-

gressive erosion of El Partido streambed, upstream from the

channelled segment, was evaluated at 785,362.5 m3 after

analysing the effects detected on the aerial photos, from field

verification and then carrying out an estimation. Thus, the

total yield of erosion was estimated at of 2,820,226.8 m3.This

is a deviation of less than 6% with respect to the 3,000,000 m3

that were established after the levelling carried out between

April and May of 1998 as the deposition of El Partido stream's

new alluvial cone.

Based on this, I conclude with some considerations and rec-

ommendations on solving the problem of El Partido stream's

discharge of sediments into the El Rocío marsh, especially in

relation to bed load.

a) It has been verified that both under the circumstances prior

to the channelling of the lower segment of El Partido stream

in 1981, and under the present circumstances, the stream

generates the same physical processes in the section where

the formation of its alluvial fan commences. This primarily

consists of the dissemination of its discharge flow to dissipate

the energy during spate events, a process known as channel

shifting. The difference lies in that prior to 1981 this section

was near the Casa de la Matanza Bridge (section 2 of Figure

1), while it is presently located in the vicinity of the Ajolí

bridge (section 4 of Figure 1).

b) Clearly, any attempt to channel El Partido stream spate

events, thus impeding the stream's original tendency to dis-

perse, would disturb the fragile balance capable of maintain-

ing the stability of a watercourse of these characteristics

View of the sands deposited by El Partido stream next to the Ajolí bridge.Photograph by J.A. Mintegui Aguirre.

162

downstream from it,with the purpose of allowing the waters

to cover a large part of the stream's former floodplain. To

achieve this it will be necessary to remove the left wall of the

present channelled segment of the stream, situated down-

stream from where the barrage would be, so that the cur-

rent can overflow the banks and deposit the sands it trans-

ports before the spate flow debouches into the marsh.

Implementing these actions is both advisable and necessary;

but could nonetheless prove to be insufficient.The issue of the

stability of the new alluvial fan forming downstream from the

checkdam is as yet to be resolved.To achieve this stability, the

gradient that the floodplain must adopt downstream from the

barrage and upstream from the marsh must be designed and

planned. Shaping this compensation or equilibrium slope may

require some complementary hydraulic works which would

eventually be covered with soil and vegetation so the final visual

and environmental impact would be virtually null.

Lastly, once the final segment of El Partido stream is correct-

ed, it would be necessary to restore its catchment in order to

consolidate the applied measures and ensure its future stability76.

when confronted with torrential flow spikes. The shear stress

of the current is increased and, because of the poor resist-

ance of the materials that make up the floor and sides of the

channelled segments, the material is eroded and dragged

along by the action of the current. Furthermore, the ongoing

process of abrasion of the streambed by the current during

spate events has caused a serious problem of retrogressive

erosion on the bed of El Partido stream itself.

c) The solution to the problem leads to contemplating two

main actions:

- The building of a checkdam at a section of El Partido

stream near the Casa de la Matanza bridge, to control the

retrogressive erosion processes occurring upstream from it.

- Allow the current to expand out during spates, from the

section where the aforementioned barrage is situated and

Image obtained from the Digital Surface Model (DSM) developed for theDoñana marshes, showing of the alluvial fan.Source: Ayesa.

Detail of the erosion on the right side of the stream, close to the Matanza bridge (road to Hinojos). Photograph by J.A. Mintegui Aguirre.

Aerial view of El Partidostream alluvial fan. In 1981seven kilometres of the lowerreach of El Partido streamwere channelised. It substan-tially modified the way inwhich the streamflow circula-ted during peak flows,concentrating the flow insuch a way that when itfinally debouched into theMarshes it generated a newalluvial fan. Photo: CENEAM.

163

world. This analysis has arisen from re-reading the analyses of

the organisation and regional planning of Doñana and its sur-

rounding area, taking water as the starting point, which has led

me to present the following hypotheses about the different per-

ception of the waters in recent centuries, and on the manage-

ment model that each perception has developed around them:

A.During the General Franco regime (1939-1975), a time of low

production and voluntary isolation of the lands of Doñana -too

poor for agriculture, but rich in range, timber and game, a time

of a social order established by Lords and Councils, of aristo-

cratic and council by-laws, pacts and litigation over the jurisdic-

Man and waterin the history of Doñanadifferent approaches to water management

JUAN FCO. OJEDA RIVERA *

163

When we talk about the world of Doñana, one should

bear in mind that this is a complex,dynamic and con-

flictive space.These features are sustained by the very nature of

the areas as a "hybrid territory", where a range of physical, eco-

nomic, social and cultural elements combine, creating an area of

frontiers and encounters between ecosystems, economies, soci-

eties and cultures. It reminds of a colonial territory that is still

unfinished from the point of view of both its physical layout

(advancing dunes, senescent marshes) and its economic and

social perception (major change in values in recent decades,

when resource limitations became new resources), and even in

its administrative organisation (confrontation of administrative

and management bodies).

In this world that is being created -"terra in fieri", as the

Romans would say, or "Argolida", in Caballero Bonald's words -

surface and groundwater, the sands, the streams and many other

inputs, reach the National Park. Park settings, at the end of a

river mouth, mean that in a sense it plays the role of a collector,

as opposed to nature conservation.Thus, Doñana National Park

becomes a challenge, a melting pot of the economic system that

allowed itself the "useful luxury" of declaring it as such in pre-

democratic times.

While the General Franco dictatorship was showing the

world how it was opening up by declaring Doñana a National

Park (1969), in France there was a democratic debate as to

whether to do the same with the Camargue.This Mediterranean

delta was less complex than the Atlantic estuary of Doñana, but

even so the French Government reached the conclusion that it

was preferable not to set up a National Park in a river mouth

area, and declared it a Regional Nature Park, despite its power-

ful symbolic and representative potential.The maximum degree

of protection for areas where man has maintained a permanent

presence for centuries, is usually granted to islands, or to high-

land and mountain areas.

The analysis addressed herein, of the different views of water

in Doñana in the course of recent history, intends to bear wit-

ness to these contradictions that are inherent to this complex

* Pablo de Olavide University. Seville. Spain.

Until well into the 20th century, the vision of Doñana came into constantconflict with its image as a marginal territory and a feudal manor. Later,with a view to solving this marginal status, new, enlightened ideas of pro-duction appeared and part of its lands were occupied by the hands of theautocracy's philosophy launched by the General Franco regime after theSpanish Civil War (1936-39).Photograph: Doñana Biological Station Archives.

164

tion and use of territorial resources. A time of little develop-

ment of the means and the forces of production -low popula-

tion, unhealthy conditions and lack of technology to exploit

sandy or clay soils. Nature dominated in this world of Doñana,

and one of the most conspicuous elements was water, which

was sometimes anxiously awaited and sometimes feared.

Regional and productive planning attempted to adapt to the

changing and unforeseeable circumstances of dry years, followed

by wet years, summer followed by winter, drought, flood, salt

water, fresh water, etc. seeking micro and macro scale strategies.

In short, the key phrases that could describe this early tradition-

al stage of the configuration of Doñana, were the following:

Marginalised territory and feudal rule, Predominance of nature,

Adaptive water management.

B.These approaches can be seen in Doñana since the late 18th

and early 19th centuries, pointing to the need to convert these

wild lands into productive lands, with development projects and

programmes -province of Sanlúcar de Barrameda, agricultural

and forestry settlements, draining of the Marshes- that always

contemplated controlling the water. The romantic paradigm -

spread from the mid 19th century until the mid 20th century -dis-

covered the naturalist, scenic and scientific values of Doñana, and

this paradigm was the pioneer in considering the need for pro-

tecting nature.At the same time, during the first half of the 20th

century, interventions were focused on dunes, and later on

marshes that founded their initial justification in environmental

arguments and, after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939),on auto-

cratic national reasons. The key concepts of this second stage

were: Enlightened promotion of production, as opposed to a

pioneering and romantic protection of nature; Transformation

of marshes, draining ponds, fixing dunes; Controlling water man-

agement.

C.The developmental period of the 1960s and 70s in Doñana is

characterised by its public discovery as a space for new produc-

tions: intensive farming on sands, sun, sea and sand tourism, vis-

itable nature. The search for groundwater undertaken by the

FAO from the late 50s was rounded off with the success of hav-

ing found a large resource (Aquifer 27) that, according to the

forecasts made at the time, could change the face of this margin-

al district and may lay the foundations of a brilliant future: thou-

sands of hectares of irrigated farmland on traditionally barren

sands.The Atlantic beaches of Doñana,with their white sands,on

the other hand, were to be the scenarios for the Huelva coast

Tourist Development Plan. El Rocio and Doñana National Park

itself were to act as tourist attractors. Surface and underground

waters, at this time became a factor of conflict - as a resource

shared among farming, recreational and tourist settlements, and

natural spaces. Key concepts of the development stage:

Discovery of the aquifer and the beach; Intensification of uses:

Irrigation/Nature/Tourism; Dominating; Squandering and con-

flictive water management.

D. In the present democratic stage, starting with the Doñana Act

(December 1978),we have moved on from a stage characterised

by compensating the surrounding towns for having given Doñana

to the world, to a second period in which the aim is to integrate

Doñana in a peripheral and subsidised European district to attain

a paradigmatic "sustainable development".The contradictions of

this situation are highlighted in many ways, but here, we should

mention the projected infrastructures for importing water to

the areas in order to make possible to supply the economic

emergency (agricultural, tourist demand) and the ecological

emergency (park needs) of this space.Awareness of the squan-

dering of the previous phase has not led to an advanced sustain-

able management, but to plans to import water from neighbour-

ing districts to make irrigation and mass tourism compatible

with nature and conservation. Compensations, integration, "sus-

tainability" and a management philosophy that imports and

restores water are, therefore, the key words of the present

moment.

The most recent scenario, starting with the 1978 Doñana Act, has beencharacterised by an initial phase in which the ideology of compensating thetowns in the surrounding area for having granted the legacy of Doñana tothe world predominated, and a second phase in which the emphasis isplaced on integrating Doñana in a peripheral and subsidised Europeandistrict to attain a paradigmatic "sustainable development".Photograph: Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.

mechanical equipment for processing agricultural produce, etc., as

well as the industrialisation, distribution and marketing of all these

products and their derivatives.This means that we are dealing with

what is known as an Agro-Food Industrial System, which includes

both the pre and the post agricultural phases in a seamless interac-

tion.That is, the weight of “traditional agriculture" is reduced in this

new context, but the whole system experiences a strong expan-

sion.

The system now includes all operations concerning the manu-

facture and distribution of the means of production for farming, the

harvest operations in agricultural facilities and the storage and dis-

165

A Doñana with cleanand transparent waters for lifeThe agricultural commitment

JOSÉ GONZÁLEZ DELGADO *

165

In a broad sense Agriculture encompasses what is known as

the agricultural or primary sector, which is made up of the

sub-sectors of agriculture, in the strict sense, livestock and forestry.

This definition also includes the food sector and modern fish farm-

ing.

For several decades, the "agri-business" has been understood as

a concept that, on top of farming, includes the production of inputs

for the sector like the manufacture of fertilisers, pesticides, herbi-

cides, irrigation equipment, different agricultural machinery,

* Professor of the Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences.University of Seville.

Building a solid alliance between sustainable agriculture and the waters of Doñana is one of the top priorities in the immediate future. This way, all the watersof the area, that drain into the Marshes will do so without the alterations caused by soil erosion, transport and deposit of sediments, surplus of nutrients andorganic matter, pesticides, weed killers, waste waters from the towns and from the agro-food industry. View of the Marshes when flooded.Photograph by Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.

166

tribution of all products. In any event, farming is the central pillar of

the system.

This is why the industry cannot always provide solutions to the

problems of the sector. We need a more in-depth analysis of its

interrelations with the system prior to production, and in the phas-

es that follow the harvest, as they are so important in this system.

INCOME GROWTH AND INTENSIVE FARMING

This shift in the interpreation of the functions of farming is the

consequence of how the economy has evolved in all the developed

countries, with a steady increase of income for consumers.

Increases in income trigger a demand for more processed and

diversified products, with better quality and better presentation

that would be very difficult for traditional agriculture to provide.

Agricultural holdings are unable of meeting the demands of a

growing population with greater purchasing power; holdings have

to resort to loosing their leading role in the process, sharing it with

some other, closely related entities, to supply them with agricultur-

al inputs and to process and distribute the final produce.

Traditional farming has also provided its own farming machin-

ery, its beasts of burden, auxiliary equipment, manure, organic fer-

tilisers based on burying beans or lupins, seeds for the crops, stud

animals and other means of production.The farmes manufactured

their food and clothing, and directly marketed the family consump-

tion surplus. However, the industry has now transferred all these

functions and has become highly dependent on others for buying

all its inputs and selling its products, all of which are outside the

sector.These outside agents are the first links in a long process of

industrialisation and distribution that is outside the scope of tradi-

tional agricultural sector.

Intensive agricultural production, such as the farming in the

Doñana area, on the one hand, has made a large supply of food

available and, on the other hand, has triggered problems like soil

erosion, environmental pollution, some reduction in biological

diversity and the drop of water tables, among others.

For all the above reasons, the challenge to be met is how to

continue increasing food production, while maintaining quality lev-

els and prices, without undermining the conservation of natural

resources.

FARMING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

One thing that must be made clear is that agriculture per se is

not the enemy of the environment; on the contrary, properly

organised, agriculture can improve natural resources such as soil

and water. The interaction between agriculture and the environ-

ment is currently well known.As a consequence of industrial devel-

opment, farming activity is severely affected by the "greenhouse

effect" of carbon dioxide, as well as by acid rain, industrial and urban

waste. Furthermore, intensive agricultural production without ade-

quate management can cause pollution from fertilisers, pesticides,

weed killers, salinisation of the soil, over exploitation of groundwa-

ter, exhaustion of resources, over grazing, inadequate handling of

the land, leaving soil unprotected, etc. Doñana and the surrounding

area have obviously not been left unaffected by these processes; in

fact some of them continue to have a significant impact on Doñana

today.

This very process of intensifying farming by using more fertilis-

ers and pesticides in general than are strictly necessary together

with an inadequate use and handling of mechanical equipment, non-

conservative growing systems, and the fact that farmers no longer

add well fermented manure to the land from time to time, as this

is now relatively scarce, distances agriculture from the natural eco-

logical process.

AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

This model of intensive farming is not considered sustainable,

as it cannot possibly meet current economic needs without endan-

gering the capacity of future generations to meet their needs.

Hence, a new alternative system of agricultural production

appeared, completely opposed to the production oriented model,

known as biological, ecological or organic farming, based on not

using chemical inputs.This method has expanded fast and its prod-

ucts are winning the corresponding "niche" in the market.

The Doñana 21 Label is a brand created by the Doñana 21 Foundation tohighlight the companies of Doñana District and their products. Companiesexhibiting Doñana 21 Label show responsible attitudes, respect for accept-ed standards of quality and environmental protection in the everydaymanagement. Certificated brands belong to some agricultural companies,making this one of the means of opening up new links between the agricul-tural sector and the environment,working together in returning Doñanawaters to their former healthy state.The Marshes seen from José Antonio Valverde Visitor Centre.CENEAM files.

167

However, refusing to benefit from technological progress, this new

school of farming involves higher costs, since an increase in the area

used for farming means a rise in prices for the consumer.

In consequence, the most reasonable option appears to be an

intermediate model, one that can harness the advances of technol-

ogy to apply them to a balanced agriculture, eliminating any

processes that are harmful to the environment and to conserving

natural resources, in order to guarantee quality of life for today and

for the future.

This sustainable agriculture model must be possible in real from

an ecological, financial and social point of view as the European

Common Agricultural Policy has confirmed in each of its successive

reforms. Hence, it is essential to accept the concept of integral

agrarian management for the entire industrial-agro-food sector, in

each and every one of its stages of production, which can ensure

sustainable agriculture in the long term with a balanced use of

inputs.

This includes the following actions that have a special impact on

the future of Doñana:

- The crops to be grown should place the minimum possible

demand on water and additional nutrients, they should be

resistant to plagues and disease and they should have deep and

well developed roots to retain particles of soil in the face of

erosion.

- The growing system should require minimum cultural tasks and

it should follow the contours of the land in strips or bands,

interrupting the run off.Top priority should be given to main-

taining some vegetation cover in all stages of production.

- The farm implements should only act at a shallow depth and

without turning the soil over, and compact the terrain as little

as possible.

- Irrigation has to be applied efficiently, to attain minimum con-

sumption, depending on the needs of each crop, its pheonolog-

ical state and evaporation-transpiration.

The land should be fertilised in a similar way, to provide the

plants with what they strictly need at any one time:

- Pesticides and weed killer should be kept to the minimum dose,

and applied at the best time, using products that do not remain

in the soil for long, which degrade into non toxic metabolites

as soon as possible, in order to prevent a persistent pollution

of soil or water.

- Manure shall be well fermented and swill waste and

unprocessed organic matter eliminated.

- Industrial and domestic waste should be treated prior to being

released to the environment.

DOÑANA AND THE WATERS RECEIVED

FROM THE SURROUNDING COUNTRYSIDE

The Doñana area, especially sensitive, demands a sustainable

agriculture, so that all the water, draining into the Marshes arrives

with minimal disturbances caused by soil erosion, transport and

deposit of sediments, surplus nutrients and organic matter, pesti-

cides, weed killers or waste waters from towns, the agro-food

industry and livestock farms.

The "Doñana 2005" Project is implementing a series of far-

reaching actions to return the area to the state it was in formr

times.With a programme of sustainable agrarian activity in the sur-

rounding area, clean waters will flow into Doñana to support its

rich biodiversity.

The mine tailings spill into the River Guadiamarin April 1988 acted as awake up call for all decision makers and authorities and detailed monitor-ing of pollution levels in several water courses, including the Guadiamar,started at this time. Available data showed a presence of sources of con-taminations other than the mine residues. The main sources of these con-taminants are to be found in intensive farming, the agro-food industry ofthe area (brines and swill), urban effluents and heavy metals loads fromthe small industries of the area. The photograph shows part of the layer oftoxic sludge after the Aznalcollar accident.Photograph by Jose MAntonio Sabater.

168

We should not forget that "Doñana is water" and water is life.

Defending the quality of Doñana's waters must be understood as

defending the rights that all living creatures in Doñana have to sur-

vive,thus sustaining a rich biodiversity. These are also the rights of

the people that live from its crops and livestock.

Sustainable agriculture in this area should be understood by

farmers, first of all using the pertinent training and counselling. It

also must be understood by the Local and Regional Authorities who

can render it economically and socially viable with grants, guidelines and

regulations, in order to produce the optimum quantities that are com-

patible with conserving nature and a rational and efficient use of

resources.

We must not forget that "Doñana is water" and water is life. The defence of its waters must be understood as the defence of the right of all living creatures in"Doñana" to survive in optimum conditions, sustaining the rich biodiversity of the area. This also includes the people who live from growing crops and raisinglivestock.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

situation of the sheet of water, colour level of information, etc.

By establishing comparisons among the results, we can draw

some conclusions on perception and representation like those

given as examples below.

Images 1 and 3 have represented two Doñana ecosystems;

marsh and pond, respectively.These pictures share their princi-

ple elements: sheet of water, well structured scrubland of cork

trees and marsh vegetation. In both of them, the water covers a

similar space, it is the same colour and it is open on the right

side of the picture.The size of the tree mass is similar, as is the

marsh vegetation. Only certain structural and formal aspects

have been accentuated or varied. In the picture of the marsh, a

distant, linear horizon has been chosen, one that enlarges the

surface area to give the sensation of an unmanageable space with

distant boundaries. In the pond, we come closer to the horizon

and its elements can be made out as individual and personalised

features, seeking to encircle and close the perimeter to give the

feeling of a secluded environment. Marsh vegetation is laid out in

a different way in each picture. In the marsh, the picture concen-

trates on the area to the left, leaving the sheet of water free,

while, in the lagoon, it is also situated in the area to the right,

delimiting and attempting to bound the water, but without doing

so physically.

169

Marshes and ponds the graphic expression of water

REGLA ALONSO MIURA *

169

The pleasure that we experience in the presence of water

in a landscape has a deep, almost genetic origin.The sen-

sual characteristics and the symbolic aspects with an intense

emotional content, make them into the conveyor and generator

of aesthetic values. Spaces associated with water and which form

a frontier with that water, usually possess an enormous treasure

trove of flora and fauna. In Doñana, we have addressed marshes

and ponds, two units with a horizontal surface that is free of all

visual obstacles and other specific individual features.They both

share the element that defines them; water, but they forge differ-

ent landscapes.The areas of contact (eco-tone) with the ecosys-

tem around them possess a major morphological and biological

richness, but they have different physiognomies.They also behave

differently throughout the year and have divergent influences on

their surroundings.

In a study conducted between 1982-85 dealing with the

graphic expression of these Doñana landscapes, the structural,

formal, chromatic elements, etc. that define and make them indi-

vidually distinct have been analysed. To do this, large sets of

images were taken, introducing certain elements like: location,

size and density of the different elements, height of the horizon,

depth of field, point of view, proportions of the format, size and

PICTURE 1Marshes and “Vera”. End of Winter. DoñanaBiological Reserve.Author: Regla Alonso Miura.

* Professor of Anatomy. University of Seville, Spain.

170

The changes in the colour of these waters are due to

ephemeral factors like the time of day or the weather condi-

tions. But it is surprising that, in the course of the year, and

regardless of the seasons and the position of the sun, they show

an unusual consistency in their colour, which we described as

ultramarine blue with flecks of cobalt.

As has been pointed out, the behaviour of marshes and

ponds is different throughout the year. In the former,one can see

extreme morphological changes, with the amazing process of

seasonal filling and emptying, and with the growth and senes-

cence of the vegetation that fills it.A few succinct brush strokes

with the colours that express this discourse can provide use

with the information that defines the landscape and its moment

in the seasons. In the lagoons, the annual cycle is reflected in the

vegetation that surrounds the water (pictures 2 and 3).

In the whole process of transmitting the morphology of the

landscape into graphic images, we have followed the rule of

economising on means: what can be expressed with one stroke

does not need using two, what can be indicated with three mil-

limetres of line is not to be accentuated with another.There may

be an infinity of possible solutions, but obviously, not all of them

have the same value. Only the images with the best expressive

quality,of the hundreds taken,have the power to convey the sug-

gestion of Doñana landscapes.

PICTURE 2Dulce pond. End of Winter. Doñana Biological Reserve.Author: Regla Alonso Miura.

IMAGEN 3Dulce Pond. Onset of Autumn. Doñana Biological Reserve.Author: Regla Alonso Miura.

171

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2. En 1971 González Bernáldez colabora con Agustín Soler, profesor de Zoología enla Hispalense que iniciaba el estudio de los insectos de la Marisma, los cuales habíansido abordados con anterioridad por Bigot y Marazanof.

3. AMAT,J.A.,MONTES,C.,RAMÍREZ DÍAZ,L., TORRES MARTÍNEZ,A.1977 Mapa Ecológico del Parque Nacional de Doñana. ICONA Madrid

4. GARCÍA NOVO,F., COTA GALÁN, H., POU ROYO, A., 1977. Estudiode las marismas del P.N.Doñana utilizando las imágenes del satéliteERTS-1. Bol.Estación Central Ecología 6:29-41

5. FAO, 1972. Proyecto piloto de utilización de aguas subterráneas para eldesarrollo agrícola de la cuenca del Guadalquivir. Anteproyecto de latransformación en regado de la zona Almonte-Marismas (margen dere-cha). Informe técnico. I-AGL:SF/SPA 16. Madrid. 2 vol 263 p.

6. HEURTEAUX, P., 1970 Influences nefastes de risque d´asurer l’equilibreecologique du Parc National de Doñana l’utilisation voir a de fins agri-coles et touristiques des nappes aquiferes d´Almonte et des marismes.Informe. Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat.CNRS. 32 p.

7. VANNEY, J.R., 1970. L’hidrologie du Bas Guadalquivir. Publicacionesdel Dep. de Geografía Aplicada. CSIC. Madrid.

8. BAONZA DE PRADO, E., PLATA, A., SILGADO, A., 1984. Hidrologíaisotópica de las aguas subterráneas del Parque Nacional de Doñana y suzona de influencia. CEDEX. MOPU. Madrid. 139 p.

9. IGME, 1982. Hidrogeología del Parque Nacional de Doñana y suentorno. Col. Informe. Ministerio de Industria y Energía. Madrid. 120 p.

10. LLAMAS, R., 1990. Geohydrology of the eolian sands of the DoñanaNational Park (Spain). Catena Supplement 18:145-154

11. LÓPEZ, T., MAZUELOS, N., MUÑOZ REINOSO, J.C., 1993. Spatialand temporal variation in the ionic composition of shallow water table inDoñana National Park (SW Spain). Verh. Internat.Verein.Limnol.

12. SUSO, J.M., LLAMAS, M., 1990. El impacto de la extracción de aguassubterráneas en el P.N.Doñana. Estudios Geológicos. 46:317-345

13. CASTELLS, M., CRUZ VILLALON, J., CUSTODIO, E., GARCÍANOVO, F., GAUDEMAR, J. P., GONZÁLEZ VALLVE, J. L., GRANA-DOS, V., MAGRANER, C., ROMAN, M., SMART, M., VAN DERMAAREL, E., 1992. (Comisión internacional de expertos sobre el desar-rollo del entorno de Doñana). Dictamen sobre Estrategias para elDesarrollo Socioeconómico Sostenible del Entorno de Doñana. Sevilla:Consejería de Obras Públicas y Transportes, Junta de Andalucía.

14. GALINDO, D., MAZUELOS, N., MATA,J.A., SERRANO,L., 1994.Microcrustacean and rotifer diversity relating to water temporality in duneponds of Doñana National Park (SW Spain). Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol.25:1350-56.

15. SERRANO, L., 1994. Sources, aboundance and disappearance ofpolyphenolic compounds in temporary ponds of Doñana National Park InM.A. BROCK, P.I., BOON, A., GRANT, Plant and Processes inWetlands. CSIRO. Australia. 1994.

16. SERRANO, L., TOJA, J., 1993. Influencia de las extracciones de aguasobre las lagunas peridunares de Doñana. Quercus, 92: 21-23.

17. SUSO, J.M., LLAMAS, M., 1990. El impacto de la extracción de aguas sub-terráneas en el Parque Nacional de Doñana. Estudios Geológicos 46(3-4):321-323 / Influence of Groundwater Development on the Doñana-National-Park Ecosystems (Spain). J. Hydrology 141(1-4):239-269.

19. ZUNZUNEGUI, M., DIAZ BARRADAS, M.C.,GARCIA NOVO, F.1998. Vegetation fluctuation in Mediterranean dune ponds in relation toraifall variation and water extraction. Applied Vegetation Science 1:151-160.

20. MONTES,C., AMAT J., RAMÍREZ DÍAZ, L., 1982. Ecosistemas acuáti-cos del Bajo Guadalquivir (SW España). Variación estacional de los com-ponentes fisicoquímicos y biológicos de las aguas. Studia Oecologica 3:1259-180

21. OLIAS ALVAREZ, M., CRUZ SANJULIAN, J., BENAVENTE HER-RERA, J., GARCÍA NOVO, F., MUÑOZ REINOSO, J.C., 1991. Newdata about the Almonte-Marismas aquifer from the hydrological monitor-ing (1989-90). Sobreexplotación de Acuíferos.23 Congreso AIH. IslasCanarias: 159-163.

22. IGME, 1982. Hidrogeología del Parque Nacional de Doñana y suentorno. Colección Informe. Madrid 120 p.

23. LLAMAS, M.R., 1990. Geohydrology of the eolian sands of the DoñanaNational Park (Spain). Catena Supplement 18:145-154.

24. GARCÍA NOVO, F., GALINDO, M.D., GARCÍA SANCHEZ, J.A.,GUISANDE C., JAUREGUI, J., 25. LÓPEZ, T., MAZUELOS, N.,MUÑOZ, J.C., SERRANO, L., TOJA, J., 1991. Tipificación de los escosis-temas acuáticos sobre sustrato arenoso del Parque Nacional de Doñana.3er Simposio sobre el Agua de Andalucía. Córdoba :165-177

26. TOJA, J., 1991. Ecología del Río Guadalquivir. Memorias de la Academiade Ciencias de Sevilla.1(1986/89):329-353.

27. TOJA, J., LÓPEZ, T., GUISANDE, C., BRIEVA,C., 1986. Ecología delestuario del rio Guadalquivir. II Simposio del Agua en Andalucía 1:523-532

28. LÓPEZ, T., TOJA, J., GABELLONE, N., 1990. Limnological comparisonof two periduar ponds in the Doñana National Park (SW Spain). Archiv.Hydrobiol. 120(3):357-378

29. SERRANO, L., TOJA, J., 1999. Limnology of temporary ponds in DoñanaNational Park (SW Spain) Limnética.

30. TOJA, J., LÓPEZ, T., GABELLONE, N., 1990. Succesional changes intwo dune ponds in Doñana National Park (SW, Spain). Verh. InternatVerein Limnol. 24

THE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF DOÑANA

31. CARRETERO, M.I., RUÍZ, F., RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ, A.,CÁCERES, L., RODRÍGUEZ-VIDAL, J., GONZÁLEZ-REGALADO,M.L., 2002. The use of clay minerals and microfossils in palaeoenviron-mental reconstructions: The Holocene littoral strand of Las Nuevas(Doñana National Park, SW Spain). Clay Minerals 37: 93-103.

32. LARIO, J., 1996. Último y Presente Interglacial en el área de conexiónAtlántico-Mediterráneo (Sur de España). Variaciones del nivel del mar,paleoclima y paleoambientes. Tesis Doctoral, Universidad Complutensede Madrid, 269 p.

33. MENANTEAU, L., 1979. Les Marismas du Guadalquivir. Exemple detransformation d’un paysage alluvial au cours du Quaternaire récent.Thèse 3è cycle, Univ. Paris-Sorbonne, 154 p.

34. RODRIGUEZ RAMIREZ, A., 1996. Geomorfología continental y subma-rina del Golfo de Cádiz (Guadiana-Guadalquivir) durante el Cuaternarioreciente. Tesis Doctoral, Universidad de Huelva, 378 p.

35. RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ, A., RODRÍGUEZ-VIDAL, J., CÁCERES,L.M., CLEMENTE, L., BELLUOMINI, G., MANFRA, L., IMPROTA, S.,DE ANDRÉS, J.R., 1996. Recent coastal evolution of the DoñanaNational Park (SW Spain). Quaternary Science Reviews, 15: 803-809.

36. RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ,A.,RUÍZ,F., CÁCERES, L.M., RODRÍGUEZ-37. VIDAL, J., PINO, R., MUÑOZ, J.M., 2003. Analysis of the recent storm

record in the southwestern Spanish coast: implications for littoral man-agement. The Science of the Total Environment, 303: 189-201.

38. RODRÍGUEZ VIDAL, J., 1999. Doñana. In: DURÁN, J.J. y NUCHE, R.(Ed.). Patrimonio Geológico de Andalucía: 214-219, ENRESA, Madrid.

39. ZAZO, C., GOY, J.L., SOMOZA, L.; DABRIO, C.J., BELLUOMINI, G.,IMPROTA, S., LARIO, J., BARDAJÍ, T., SILVA, P.G., 1994. Holocenesequence of sea-level fluctuations in relation to climatic trends in theAtlantic-Mediterranean linkage coast. Journal of Coastal Research, 10(4): 933-945.

THE DOÑANA AQUIFER AND ITS RELATIONS WITH THE NATURAL ENVI-RONMENT

40. BAONZA, E., PLATA, A. Y SILGADO, A., 1984. Hidrología isotópica delas aguas subterráneas del Parque Nacional de Doñana y zona de influ-encia. Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Públicas(CEDEX), Madrid, Cuadernos de Investigación C7: 1-139.

41. BORJA, F. Y DÍAZ DEL OLMO, F., 1992. Eastern sector of the cliff at ElAsperillo (Huelva cost, SW Spain): formation and chronology. MBSS,Newsletter, 14: 87-93.

42. BORJA, F. Y DÍAZ DEL OLMO, F., 1994. Geomorfología de el mantoeólico litoral de El Abalario (Huelva). In : J. Arnáez, J.M. Garía Ruíz y A.Gómez, (eds.), Geomorfología de España, Sociedad Española deGeomorfología: 337-338.

43. CMA, 1998. Reconocimiento biofísico de espacios naturales protegidos.Doñana. Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía. Memoria ymapa ecológico de Doñana.

44. COLETO, I., 2003. Funciones hidrológicas y biogeoquímicas de las for-maciones palustres hipogénicas de los mantos eólicos de El Abalario-Doñana (Huelva). Tesis Doctoral, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

45. CUSTODIO, E., 1993. Preliminary outlook of saltwater intrusion condi-tions in the Doñana National Park (Southern Spain). Study and Modellingof Salt Water Intrusion. CIMNE-UPC. Barcelona: 295-315.

46. CUSTODIO, E., 2000. Groundwater-dependent wetlands. Acta GeologicaHungarica, 43(2): 173-202.

47. CUSTODIO, E., 2004. Posibles procesos de contaminación agrícola deaguas subterráneas en el área de Doñana (Huelva). Congreso NacionalAnálisis y Evolución de la Contaminación de las Aguas Subterráneas,Alcalá de Henares.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

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48. CUSTODIO, E., Y PALANCAR, M. 1995. Las aguas subterráneas enDoñana. Revista de Obras Públicas, Madrid, 142 (3340): 31-53.

49. IGLESIAS, M., 1999. Caracterización hidrogeoquímica del flujo del aguasubterránea en El Abalario, Doñana, Huelva. Tesis Doctoral, ETSICCPB,Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona.

50. IGME, 1982. Hidrogeología del Parque Nacional de Doñana y su entorno.Instituto Geológico y Minero de España. Madrid, 120 p.

51. KONIKOV, L.F. Y RODRÍGUEZ-ARÉVALO, J.,1993. Advection and dif-fusion in a variable-salinity confining layer. Water Resources Research,29 (8): 2747-2761.

52. LOZANO, E.; DELGADO, F.; MANZANO, M. Y CUSTODIO, E., 2002.Caracterización hidrogeoquímica de las aguas subterráneas y superfi-ciales de la Vera del Parque Nacional de Doñana (SW de España).Groundwater and Human Development (Bocanegra, Martínez y Massone,eds.). Univ. Mar del Plata, Argentina: 1348-1358 (CD).

53. LOZANO, E., 2004. Las aguas subterráneas en los Cotos de Doñana y surelación con las lagunas. Tesis doctoral, ETSICCPB, UniversidadPolitécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona.

54. MANZANO, M., 1999. Los humedales de Doñana y su relación con elagua subterránea. 1ª Reunión Internacional de Expertos sobre laRegeneración Hídrica de Doñana (Doñana 2005). Huelva, octubre de1999. MMA, Madrid.

55. MANZANO, M., 2001. Clasificación de los humedales de Doñana aten-diendo a su funcionamiento hidrológico. Hidrogeología y RecursosHidráulicos, Madrid, XXIV: 57-75.

56. MANZANO, M.; BORJA, F. Y MONTES, C., 2002. Metodología de tip-ificación hidrológica de los humedales españoles con vistas a su valo-ración funcional y a su gestión: Aplicación a los humedales de Doñana.Boletín Geológico y Minero, 113 (3): 313-330.

57. MANZANO, M. Y CUSTODIO, E., 2004. Groundwater baseline compo-sition of the Doñana aquifer (SW Spain) and geochemical controls. 4ªAsamblea Hispano-Portuguesa de Geodesia y Geofísica, Figueira de Foz,Portugal, Febrero de 2004.

58. MANZANO, M.; CUSTODIO, E.; LOOSLI, H.H.; CABRERA, M.C.;RIERA, X. Y CUSTODIO, J., 2001. Palaeowater in coastal aquifers ofSpain. Palaeowaters in Coastal Europe: Evolution of Groundwater sincethe late Pleistocene. (EDMUNDS, W.M. & MILNE, C.J., eds.).Geological Society London, Sp. Publ. 189: 107-138.

59. MANZANO, M.; CUSTODIO, E.; MEDIAVILLA, C. Y MONTES, C.,2002b. Effects of localised intensive aquifer exploitation on the Doñanawetlands (SW Spain). Simposium on Intensive Use of Groundwater.Challenges and Opportunities, SINEX. Instituto Geológico y Minero deEspaña, Generalitat Valenciana y Fundación Marcelino Botín. Abstracts.

60. MANZANO, M.; CUSTODIO, E.; MEDIAVILLA, C. Y MONTES, C.,2005. Effects of localised intensive aquifer exploitation on the Doñanawetlands (SW Spain). BALKEMA Publishers.

61. MONTES, C.; BORJA, F., MANZANO, M. Y OTROS (2000). Inventarioy tipificación de los humedales del Manto Eólico Litoral de Doñana.Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía.

62. PAH, 2002. Plan Andaluz de Humedales. Consejería de Medio Ambiente,Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla.

63. RODRÍGUEZ-ARÉVALO, F.J., 1988. Origen del movimiento del aguaintersticial en el acuitardo arcilloso de las marismas del Guadalquivir.Tesis Doctoral. FC., Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 300 p.

64. SALVANY, J.M. Y CUSTODIO, E., 1995. Características litológicas delos depósitos pliocuaternarios del Bajo Guadalquivir en el área deDoñana: implicaciones hidrogeológicas. Rev. Soc. Geol. De España 8 (1-2): 21-31.

65. SUSO, J.M. Y LLAMAS, M., 1990. El impacto de la extracción de aguassubterráneas en el Parque Nacional de Doñana. Estudios Geológicos, 46:317-345.

66. SUSO, J.M. Y LLAMAS, M., 1993. Influence of Groundwater develop-ment on the Doñana National Park ecosystems (Spain). Journal ofHydrology, 141: 239-269.

67. TRICK, TH. 1998. Impacto de las extracciones de agua subterránea enDoñana: aplicación de un modelo numérico con consideración de la vari-abilidad de la recarga. Tesis Doctoral. ETSICCPB, UniversidadPolitécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona.

68. TRICK, TH. Y CUSTODIO, E., 2004. Hydrodynamic characteristics ofthe western Doñana Region (area of El Abalario), Huelva, Spain.Hydrogeology Journal, 12: 321-335..

69. ZAZO, C., GOY, J.L., LARIO, J. Y SILVA, P.G., 1996. Littoral zone andrapid climatic changes during the last 20,000 years: the Iberian studycase. Z. Geomorph. N.F.; Berlin-Stuttgart, Suppl. 102: 119-134.

70. ZAZO, C.; DABRIO, C.; GONZÁLEZ, A.; SIERRO, F.; YLL, E.I.; GOY,J.L.; LUQUE, L.; PANTALEÓN-CANO, J.; SOLER, V.; ROURE, J.M.;LARIO, J.; HOYOS, M.; Y BORJA, F., 1999. The record of the last gla-

cial and interglacial periods in the Guadalquivir marshlands (Mari Lópezdrilling, SW Spain). Geogaceta, 26: 119-122.

A NUMERICAL HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL FOR THE MARSHES OFDOÑANA

71. Production of the DTM of the marshes was a joint effort of EstudioCartográfico Gea S.A. and Fotonor As.

72. Development of the numerical model was a joint effort of AYESA andWL/Delft Hydraulics.

EL PARTIDO STREAM

73. Simulating these flash floods made it possible to estimate the volume ofthe run off Q (m3); peak flow qp (m3/s) and peak times tp (hours) for theseflows. All these parameters were determined in section 3 of El Arroyo delPartido (Figure 1), located in the channelled stretch, about 4 km up riverfrom where it flows into the Marshes, where it spills 95% of the area ofthe basin, and fitted with the Guadalquivir Water Board's metre number151. The downpours that caused the aforementioned flash floods used tobe defined from the hourly rainfall data provided by the Almonte HU007weather station that forms part of the Andalusia Regional GovernmentMinistry of Agriculture and Fisheries Alert and Phyto-sanitaryInformation Network.

74. This figure is only a 10% deviation from the average value of the 7 sam-ples of water with sediments taken in the same section, during the courseof seven flash floods in the period 1996-98, which gave a value of 6,244g/l. Despite the small size of the sample, the simulation as such offers agood fit when one considers that thee of solid flows in suspension.

75. It should be pointed out that the winter of 1998-99 was one of extremedrought and without any flash floods in the Doñana area, so the delay inthis alter operation did not alter the morphology of the Arroyo from theprevious year.

76. This research forms part of the Project 174/93; Sedimentary Dynamics ofthe Doñana National Park marshes, future prospects and managementalternatives, funded by the Regional National Parks Board. We would liketo express our gratitude to Doctors Jose Carlos Robredo Sanchez and PabloJ. Sendra Arce for their significant participation in this project.

MEN AND WATER IN THE HISTORY OF DOÑANA

77. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1985. Le Parc National Doñana et son environnement.Revue géographique des Pyrénées et du Sudouest. T.56/2, avril-juin 85. Toulouse:225-242

78. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1987. Organización del territorio en Doñana y suentorno próximo. (Almonte). Siglos XVIIIXX. Ministerio de AgriculturaICONA. (Monografía, 49). Madrid. 456 p.

79. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1990. Doñana paisaje cultural. Doñana culturallandscape. Doñana: La naturaleza en España. Ed. Lunwerg, Barcelona:18-25

80. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1992. Políticas forestales y medio ambiente enDoñana y su entorno. Agricultura y Sociedad, nº 65, Ministerio deAgricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid: 303-357.

81. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1993. Doñana: Esperando a Godot. Instituto deDesarrollo Regional, Sevilla. Cuaderno, nº 31. 84 p.

82. GRANADOS, M. y OJEDA, J.F., 1994. Doñana. Paisaje y poblamiento.Edificaciones en el Parque Nacional. Consejería de Obras Públicas yTransportes. Dirección General de Arquitectura y Vivienda, Junta deAndalucía, Sevilla. 142 p.

83. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1999. Una aproximación interpretativa a lacatástrofe del Guadiamar. Cuchará y paso atrá, nº 7. Colectivo deEstudios Marxistas, Sevilla: 49-56.

84. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., GONZALEZ FARACO, J.C. y VILLA DÍAZ, J.2000. El paisaje como mito romántico. Su génesis y pervivencia enDoñana, en MARTÍNEZ DE PISÓN, E.(Coord.) Estudios sobre el paisaje.Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid y Fundación Duques de Soria.Colección de Estudios, nº67: 343-357.

MARSHES AND LAGOONS

85. ALONSO MIURA, R., 1987. Flora y Paisaje en Doñana. Ministerio de ObrasPúblicas. Madrid.

86. ALONSO MIURA, R., 1988. Doñana. Vegetación y paisaje. Percepción morfoló-gica y análisis plástico. MOPU/Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla. 250 p.

87. ALONSO MIURA, R., 1992. La emoción de descubrir. UniversidadHispanoamericana. Santa María de la Rábida. 259 p.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

175

ventional, without any physical feature to mark the frontiers.These

Pleistocene hills and Miocene marls have always been farmed and the

settlements between Niebla and Seville form a rim of age-old human

presence in the countryside.The County of Niebla, which remained

independent from Seville during many periods, and the River

Guadiamar have played the political role of border with Aljarafe,

Seville. The boundaries of the southernmost municipalities, like

Rociana,Almonte, Hinojos,Aznalcazar,Villamanrique, Puebla del Río,

Coria and the recently created Isla Mayor, form belts running down

to the shore, marshes or estuary. To the east, the Guadalquivir

Estuary and its islands offered a continuity with the marshes. The

inhabitants of Trebujena and Sanlúcar, in the province of Cádiz, have

always been linked to Doñana and its resources, so these municipal

districts can be considered as the eastern boundaries of the Greater

Doñana area.

Seville and Cádiz are the regional centres, in political and

administrative terms, followed by Niebla, Jerez and Huelva, with

Sanlúcar as the local capital of the old Doñana Estate. The El

The ecological traits of the area that surrounds the former

game reserve called “Coto de Doñana” vary enormously

and have also varied though history. A first approach to studying

the biological heritage found in this area is through looking back for

remnants of history and the first descriptions of its resources: how

they were used and how they were considered, including the

accounts of the first scientific explorers of these lands.These are

points of reference that should be addressed in the search for a

better understanding of the Doñana of today.

The first characteristic of the wider area of Doñana is a grand

rolling sandy plain of old dunes,dotted with ponds in the depressions

that border the edge that runs down to the shores of the Gulf of

Cádiz. Historically, this area has been considered a desert uninhabit-

ed land.

To the west, the area borders on the Huelva and Tinto estuaries,

forming escarpments in the sandstone that give way to tidal marsh-

es.The Río Tinto marshes border this northwestern part of the ter-

ritory as far as Niebla,while the northern boundaries are more con-

The performance of nature and the worlds of biodiversity within Doñana

To get an idea of the enormous wealth of this area, one only has to realise that 400 species of birds have been sighted in Doñana. There are also 33 species ofmammals, 19 reptiles, 12 amphibians and 7 fish species, plus a further 60 species in the Guadalquivir Estuary. These figures, while high for Spain, are excep-tional for the European continent. In the photograph, a backlit view of a "pajarera" (open aviary), cork oaks renowned for the enormous quantity of birds thatnest in them in La Vera, facing the Doñana Marshes.Photgraph of José María Pérez de Ayala.

176

Rocío chapel has always acted as the spiritual centre for the

region with the pilgrimages of religious hermandades (brother-

hoods) from these municipalities during Whitsuntide.

Shipping has been one of the keys to this area for thousands of

years. Merchandise was shipped out down the rivers from Niebla

with its active port, and from Palos, Moguer, Sanlúcar, Coria, San

Juan and Seville.The Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) was naviga-

ble by boat down to the River Guadiamar, where it ran back into

the main Branch of the River Guadalquivir. The Eastern Branch

(Brazo del Este) was also open to river traffic. Even the cattle trails

to Puntal de Doñana and Moguer used barges to carry the cattle

down to Sanlúcar or Huelva.The livestock crossed to the islands

on the edges of the different branches of the rivers, and they were

recovered with barges from the "vetas" or islands of the Doñana

Marshes (Las Marismas) during the floods. The bridge over the

River Tinto was in Niebla, the Guadalquivir bridge was a ferry

crossing at Seville, and it is on record that the River Guadiamar

used to have a Roman bridge at Aznalcázar, although the river was

crossed at the fords.To a certain extent, the Doñana Marshes had

the appearance of an archipelago, in which the vetas on which peo-

ple built huts and settlements were the islands.The inhabitants trav-

elled with livestock and belongings from one to another on horse-

back through the shallow waters or, if the water was deep, in

"cajones" - flat bottomed punts that they pushed along with a pole.

A description of the resources historically available and how

they were harnessed gives us another view of Doñana and its dis-

tricts at different times in history.Along the coastline and the estu-

aries,man has fished with nets and traps for thousands of years and

collected shellfish along the shores. Two types of fishing became

important in the area: the tuna fishing traps (almadrabas), particu-

larly the traps at Torre Carboneros, and the stone fish pens in

Sanlúcar. Fish, shellfish, fresh and pickled oysters, and sun-dried fish

were distributed throughout the region from here.With time, the

tuna from the fish traps and the "sollos" or sturgeons from the

Guadalquivir Estuary were produced industrially and gained an

excellent reputation.

The fish that became trapped in the marshes and temporary

lagoons, like the mullet, carp (known locally as "panarras"), eels and

lampreys,were fished in large numbers.According to Juan Francisco

Ojeda, the place name of Canaliega, next to El Rocío, is named after

an ancient structure based on canals to allow fishermen to catch

the eels coming out of Las Marismas on their way up La Rocina

stream (Arroyo de La Rocina). Other resources from the wetlands

that were collected were the leeches for medical purposes, the

eggs and chicks of waterfowl, the bulrushes for weaving seats, rush-

es for weaving bags and baskets, canes for training plants in allot-

ments or for making sun shades, linen for weaving and saltwort

plants for making soap. Salt flats were built all along the

Guadalquivir Estuary, a strategic activity dating back to ancient

times throughout the Mediterranean that boomed thanks to trade

with the Americas because of the demand for salted meat and fish.

Some salt flats still survive on the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and

the crystalisation pools and flats from old salt works are still con-

served on the edges of the National Park.The San Isidro and San

Rafael salt works are examples.

Further inland, farming was developed on rich soils: cereals

(including buckwheat), olive trees (often grafted on to wild olive

trees), fruit trees (orange and figs), and allotments on the edges

of the villages, using the fertile plains of the streams. In Sanlúcar,

Hinojos and perhaps elsewhere, there used to be "navazos" or

"lavazos", excavations made in sandy soil down to the damp

With the means now available, scientists are convinced that they know theDoñana of today relatively well. But, when its evolution and future projec-tion are discussed, major questions arise. What was Doñana like centuriesago, with marshes that were still tidal to a certain extent? Or a thousandyears ago, with a sea gulf and large marsh islands between the branches ofthe Estuary inhabited by immense flocks of birds? What was Doñana likebeforehand, with bears eating the juniper berries, attacking the flocks ofbirds and fishing in the shallow pools, at a time when the sandy islands ofthe estuary mouth were inhabited by colonies of monk seals and the seaturtles came ashore on the beaches to lay their eggs. In the picture, thebank of a pool.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

This picture of a tin of caviar processed in the area gives an idea of theabundance of sturgeon. They were finally wiped out in a few years afterthe adults were caught in mass, having been retained by the constructionof the Alcala dam on the Guadalquivir River.

underlying sand, as

an alternative to

irrigation.Vines for

producing young

wines thrived in

the loose soil. In

order to meet the

demands of the

American market

in the 16th century,

the wines were

laced with alcohol

so they would

keep better during

the journey. The

18th century saw a

boom in wine

growing for mak-

ing dry and man-

zanilla sherry, lead-

ing to the creation

of great wineries

in Sanlúcar and

great expansion in

land devoted to

vines once and for

all. Later, from 1920 onwards, the local agriculture was trans-

formed when rice paddies were established in the Marshes, or

they were drained for irrigation-based crops. From 1970, the

sandy soils with groundwater were reclaimed for irrigation farm-

ing, many as green houses.

The predominantly sandy soils of the southern sector and close

to the shoreline were not appropriate for farming, so the forests

were conserved until felling gradually eliminated them. Forestry

covered the needs for firewood, furniture and tools, building, and

one particular market, shipbuilding, was an important industry in

Moguer and Palos and along the Estuary as far as Sanlúcar. Local

forest products included forest resin, pitch for caulking, charcoal,

coal dust for making gun powder, cork for floats, bark for tanning,

juniper resin, willow branches for basketwork, juniper forks for

supporting the bunches of grapes on the vines.There was trading

in pine nuts, pinecones, acorns and carob beans. Re-planting

umbrella pine trees on the coastal dunes started in 1938 followed

in 1941 by eucalyptus, and later pine trees further inland.

Sheep, goats, pigs, cows and horses were the main livestock in

the countryside of this district. Flocks and herds grazed in the

forests and brush in the winter, and the marshes and lagoons in

summer when water levels were low, in a local nomadic cycle, in

other words, with relatively short moves from one place to anoth-

er.We should not forget the beekeepers, who produced important

resources like honey and wax, in the area.There were also grazing

lands and tree-studded range land, with long-term crop rotation of

about fifteen years, and evergreen oaks, cork trees, gall oaks, wild

olive trees, carob trees and hackberries in open forests,which were

used for pig herds to forage on their fallen fruits and berries.The

scrubland on poor soils had controlled burns every twelve years.

Small game hunting for partridge, rabbit and hare was common,

and hares could be hunted in the dry marshes in summer. Ducks

and geese were hunted in great quantities in the ponds, marshes

and on the shores of the estuary. Big game hunting was centred on

boar and deer but later increased with the introduction of fallow

deer. According to records, to promote these activities on the

177

Small game hunting for partridge, rabbit and harewas common. Ducks and geese were hunted ingreat quantities in the ponds, marshes and on theshores of the estuary. Big game hunting was cen-tred on boar and deer but later increased with theintroduction of fallow deer. This spread to hunt-ing lynx, wild cats, foxes, eagles and other birdsof prey, all of which were considered pest at thetime of the hunting estates.Documental Centre of the Doñana Biological Station.

The Ebro Deltaand Doñanaattract thelargest concen-trations of littleterns on theIberianPeninsula.This speciesprefers to settleon sandy coastsand on theshores of pondsor marshes.Photograph by: AntonioSabater

178

country estates, there were organised hunts aimed at driving out

wolves. This spread to hunting lynx, wild cats, foxes, eagles and

other birds of prey, all of which were considered pests.

The better land has always been farmed and has never been

part of the hunting estates, as these were to be found on sandy

soils or marshes, with forest or scrub vegetation. Hunting was a

right that was jealously guarded by the landowners and defended

against the local settlers who, apart from poaching game, also tried

to let their livestock into the hunting grounds to graze, or to gath-

er the forestry resources. The excellent state of conservation in

the area that we have inherited is due, to a large extent, to the fact

that these were not arable lands and the fact that there was malar-

ia in the wetlands.

Two grand hunting estates still survive: one, in the south, was

known as Las Rocinas Forest (Bosque de Las Rocinas) or the Coto

de Doñana, belonging to the House of Medina Sidonia; and the

other, in the north, was called Lomo del Grullo or Coto del Rey,

owned by the Monarchy. Both included woods and scrub, they had

ponds and streams and bordered the Doñana Marshes.The Coto

de Doñana included the juniper woods and the dunes of the shore-

line down to the beach, and was surrounded by a large uninhabit-

ed area. Lomo del Grullo, on the other hand, was surrounded by

settlements and it was on the livestock route to the marshe, so it

has understandably been subject to greater pressure from humans.

Breaking up the ownership of the historic hunting estates in the

19th century did not bring about a radical change in the use of these

lands.The new owners continued to hunt and raise their livestock,

and in a later phase they re-planted forests.

The original vegetation of the sandy area of Doñana, from the

stabilised dune mantles to calcarenites, can still be deduced from

the surviving remnants. These include forests of junipers on the

sandy coastal mantles and cork trees in the damper sandy parts,

with ash, black and white poplars and tamarisks in areas with a ten-

dency to flood, depending on the salinity of waters. Wild olives

were found on higher ground and in stronger soils, and evergreen

oaks on well-drained soils and calcarenites. There were probably

juniper and prickly juniper further inland, on poor substrates, and

maples (Acer granatense) on better soils. Shrubs like strawberry

trees, buckthorn or glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus ssp. baetica),

and kermes oak, with maquis scrub, would create dense thickets

that would be difficult to penetrate. In the rest of the area, there

was scrub, heather and pasture.The spread of the dunes and forest

fires would have helped this scrub to survive for long periods of

time (20-40 years) after each episode.

Old descriptions and studies in historical ecology agree on

this point.We have the reference of Ojeda's transcription of the

parish priest of Almonte's reply to Tomas Lopez' questionnaire in

1785: "most of the district is populated with undergrowth, with a

variety of branchless trees like cork trees and wild olive and an

undergrowth of rock rose, greenweed, mastic trees and strawber-

ry trees. It has several ranges of cork trees and evergreen oaks

and a large part in pine forest"1.

Some of these species must have first appeared thousands of

years ago, possibly in the Neolithic Period, like the carob tree that

came from the eastern Mediterranean. The presence of umbrella

pine trees has been the subject of much scientific debate as it

grows easily in distressed areas, affected by the spreading dunes,

instability of the substrate, or fires. Umbrella pine nuts have been

consumed in the Mediterranean basin since the Stone Age, as they

are easy to carry and store.The pinecones and wood have been

used as fuel, as building material, for making tools and for shipbuild-

ing.The resin too has been used as a preservative for sealing con-

tainers and tar to caulk ships' hulls.This valuable tree, closely asso-

ciated with human presence, is also easy to grow from seed.This

An outline of the historic ecology of Doñana can be gleaned from olddescriptions. 18th century descriptions indicated the presence of oak treesand wild olive, rock rose, greenweed, mastic tree and strawberry treescrub. They also indicate the presence of evergreen oak and extensive pineforests. In the picture, undergrowth of cork trees lit up by the sun set.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

179

would make migration of pine trees along with human groups plau-

sible, at least in the Neolithic Period, forming part of its first, pre-

agricultural phase that Fernando González Bernáldez labeled

"fruitalisation of the Mediterranean forest". These arguments do

not exclude the spontaneous incidence favoured during the intense

Pleistocene disturbances that repeatedly offered open areas to be

colonised by pine forests during changes in climate and major

eustatic movements.The maturity of the luxuriant forest, with its

dense undergrowth, however, would end up excluding the pine

from reproducing in a few centuries, creating pine-free woodlands

but maintaining patches of pine woods in disturbed or unstable

areas.The inverse correlation between the abundance of Pinus and

Quercus pollen is well established in the pollen diagrams of the

Acebrón-Las Madres-Acebuche area.

There are no records of umbrella pine trees in the Doñana

Estate until 1624 or in the demarcation of its boundaries, or in the

Coto del Rey, where they are first mentioned in 1636.There are

records of sowing their seeds in 1737 in El Puntal, from where the

species spread rapidly. In 1751, Gutierrez de Ruvalcava, a naval

inspector, recorded 18,000 cork trees, 1,119 poplars and 222,200

pines on the estate, though probably including other adjacent areas.

Pines were only sown in the dune valleys after 1805, and Ojeda

indicates that there were 895 "fanegas" (about 450 ha) of pine

forests in the Doñana Estate in 1852.There are also records of his-

toric pine forests in Moguer,Almonte, Sanlúcar and other towns, in

addition to the cork tree woodlands1.

Neither is there any conclusive evidence on the origin of

other species. There is a stand of some twenty specimens of

Tetraclinis articulata that appears to be a 19th century plantation.

The possibility of hackberry and mastic tree being introduced

into the region centuries ago cannot be ruled out.There has been

intensive trade in the latter bush species throughout the

Mediterranean, for medicinal purposes and for fresh consumption

since 1000 B.C.The Greek island of Khios was one of the best-

known centres of its production and distribution.To benefit the

resin, the so-called "mastic" for medicinal purposes, the evergreen

pistaches were pruned to give them a crown and a trunk, in the

form of an evergreen oak. These were the nursery trees that

were tapped for resin. Up until the 1980s, there were two speci-

mens at the entrance to the El Rocío Trail, in Coto del Rey, very

close to Puente del Ajolí.

Eucalyptus was introduced into the area in ancient times, and

those that can now be seen in Coto del Rey or in the Palacio de

Doñana are old specimens, forming an integral part of the landscape

in La Vera, and occasionally providing support for the nest of a pair

of imperial eagles. Breeding colonies of storks have settled in the

rows of eucalyptus that link the Palacio del Rey with the marshes.

The first three decades of the 20th century saw a Dutch

company carry out planting trials with fast growing tree species

on the sandy soils of the coastal plain of Huelva, and species

from the Eucalyptus family gave promising results for these pur-

poses.After the Spanish Civil War, in the early forties, Gaspar de

la Lama continued with this initiative in the National Forestry

Trust, created in 1941, experimenting with new species and

planting an interesting arboretum in the Doñana region. After

fifty years of growth, those trials now look like an antipodean

forest from Australia or New Zealand3.

This selection of species identified Eucalyptus rostrata (= E.

camaldulensis) and E. globulus as suitable species for the region,

starting a wave of planting that covered 33,280 ha by the end of

1950, mostly in the province of Huelva, with about 20,000 ha of

umbrella pine and pinaster and another 11,800 ha of eucalyptus.

Fortunately, the guayule (Parthenium argentatum) introduced for

producing rubber was only planted on a few hundred hectares. and

soon abandoned. Eucalyptus planting in the Doñana Estate started

in 1946.Mauricio González Gordon remembers, in his contribution

to this book, the efforts made to curb this planting, triggering a

series of events that culminated in the creation of the National

Park.

The eucalyptus spread at the expense of the semi-natural veg-

etation: the original scrub, the pyrophytic scrub, the pastures and

wetlands.The diverse mosaic of communities generated by water

in ponds, springs and streams was overwhelmed by these interven-

tions. Moreover, the powerful roots of the eucalyptus drew up

more water than the existing vegetation, causing the water table to

drop and so drying up the rising water sources and their associat-

ed wetlands.The serious ecological impact did, however, have major

social benefits, as it provided employment in a depressed region for

Unlike the Spanish imperial eagle, other resident birds of prey in Doñanahave a brighter future. This is the case of the short toed eagle, kestrels, theMontagu and marsh harriers, the Bonelli's eagle (in the picture), the redkite, the buzzard and the peregrine falcon. Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

180

about twenty years and created new settlements where the work-

ers lived with their families.Towns like Los Cabezudos, Bodegones,

El Abalario and El Acebuche owe their foundations to the eucalyp-

tus plantations.The main aim at this time was to reduce wetlands

in in order to clear land for new human activities.This effort was

helped by the introduction of the gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki),

a small fish that managed to reduce the mosquito population,

which, along with new medical treatments, made it possible to

eradicate malaria.

The initial replanting of eucalyptus in the hinterland, in the

1940s, linked up with the umbrella pine trees, stabilising the coastal

dunes that had developed since the beginning of the century and

gradually spread when the Forestry Trust bought new properties in

the coastal sector between the River Guadiana and the River

Guadalquivir. Private land owners followed this official policy and

also planted eucalyptus and pines.This forestry practice continued

in the sixties for producing fibreboard in a factory in San Juan del

Puerto, and a maximum of about 200,000 ha of eucalyptus planta-

tions was reached in the province of Huelva alone. After three

felling periods, production started to fall sharply and stumping

became expensive, meaning that replanting with eucalyptus was no

longer commercially viable.

It is interesting to note, in the new conservationist phase, that

from the mid-eighties, eucalyptus plantations were cleared in the

National Park and, later on, in the Nature Park. Recent replanting

in the nineties and the replanting work carried out this century

have been done for restoration purposes, planting the original veg-

etation species: juniper, cork, ash, poplar and the various woodland

scrub.

The list of species gives us little clue about the landscape, as the

same flora can produce a dense forest or open scrubland with the

odd tree, a large vertebrate community, or one made up of just a

few specimens. There are relicts of mature forest vegetation and

large ferns like the royal fern (Osmunda regalis) in the area of

Encinillas Altas in the Biological Reserve, along the banks of La

Rocina stream around the Ribetehilos Lagoon, crossing the Coto

del Rey (Matasgordas), and on the edges of the Llanos de Velasquez

touching El Puntal.The cork trees of Encinillas reached a diameter

of 23 m at the crown.We can only imagine the landscape of the

past, based on these remains and other evidence that has survived

in the western Mediterranean. El Dehesón, the remains of a forest

that has been conserved on sandy mantles emerging from the Tagus

River Valley in the municipal district of Navalcan (Toledo, central

Spain), has a vegetation of very large cork trees, scrub and lianas

that might give us an idea of what Doñana was like in the 13th cen-

tury,when it was preserved as a Royal game reserve named Bosque

de Las Rocinas (Las Rocinas Forest).

The difficulty of reconstructing the ecological past, even if only

in our imagination, has always been a constant challenge, not only

for the imagination but for science too.What was Doñana like cen-

turies ago, with a dense forest still inhabited by wolves, and arshes

that were still tidal to a certain extent with swans in the lagoons

and an overwhelming presence of birds? Or a thousand years ago,

with a sea gulf and the coastline to the hinterland, with large marsh

islands between the branches of the Estuary inhabited by immense

flocks of birds? Or before that even? What was Doñana like before-

hand, with bears eating the juniper berries, the acorns and the

strawberry tree berries, attacking the flocks of birds and fishing in

the shallow ponds, at a time when the sandy islands of the estuary

mouth were inhabited by colonies of monk seals and the sea tur-

tles came ashore on the beaches to lay their eggs?

THE WEALTH OF DOÑANA TODAY

A few brief lines will give us an initial approach to the excep-

tional heritage that Doñana and the surrounding area still safe-

guard. The MaB Report on the Doñana National Park (Table 1)

reveals the wealth of a great mosaic of environments that it encom-

passes, identifying twenty kinds of terrestrial ecosystems and eight

aquatic ones, classifying six of them as of world importance, anoth-

er ten as of European importance and five more as important for

the Iberian Peninsula.The predominant land ecosystems are scrub

(16.7% of the area), followed by woodland (15.8%),which are main-

The hydrological features strongly determine Doñana's vegetation. Onlands not so prone to flooding, the vegetation is dominated by maquisscrub forming large islands of mastic tree (5 - 10 m wide by 3 - 6 m high)associated with umbrella pine trees and wild olives. The presence of corktrees and other scrub species varies depending on substrate and topogra-phy. The picture shows a close up of the branch of a female mastic tree(Pistacia lentiscus). Black berries are fertile, while sterile ones are red.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

181

ly umbrella pine, with remains of juniper, prickly juniper, cork and

ash woodlands. Grazing meadows account for a further 5.5% and

the shifting dunes and beaches, another 10.1%. Finally, the Marshes,

with 52%, cover just over half the area, with 13.5% of them form-

ing shallow ponds and lagoons and channels that flood in winter.

Such a variety of ecosystems obviously provides shelter for a large

number of species.

The vertebrate fauna has been studied in detail.To get an idea

of the enormous wealth of this area, one only has to realise that

400 species of birds have been sighted in Doñana.There are also 33

species of mammals, 19 reptiles, 12 amphibians and 7 fish species,

plus a further 60 species in the Guadalquivir Estuary.These figures,

while high for Spain, are exceptional for the European continent.

The magnificent vertebrate fauna includes species that are high-

ly endangered in Spain, like the spur-thighed tortoise, the Iberian

lynx, the ichneumon and especially birds: the squacco heron, slen-

der-billed gull, spoonbill, rednecked nightjar, little bittern, gallinule,

crested coot, marbled teal, ferruginous duck, white headed duck,

black shouldered kite and the magnificent Iberian imperial eagle.

Other bird species of great interest from a conservationist point of

view are the short-toed eagle, Bonelli's eagle, the peregrine falcon,

the glossy ibis, the bittern and the redshank.

Doñana also plays an extraordinary role in the migration of

birds, constituting a major staging post on the Western Europe

migratory route that runs along the Atlantic shoreline.The water-

fowl that winter in the Park's marshes can number almost a million

individuals in a good year, with a predominance of ducks: wigeon,

shoveler, pintail, pochard, mallard, gadwall, crested coot and greylag

goose. Another outstanding population is the community of over

35,000 pink flamingos.The vertebrate fauna of the Mediterranean

forest is also in a satisfactory state of conservation, because the

protected area is well conserved and the exchange of specimens

within the surrourrounding areas is maintained. In the sandy scrub-

land, a large number of deer, fallow deer and boar can be found.

For all the above, both the Doñana National Park and the

Nature Park must be understood to play an exceptional role in

preserving the European vertebrate fauna, as well as the intrinsic

value of their well preserved ecosystems.

There are very few endemic species in the park. Only 6 taxa of

vascular plants (of the 896 species described) are considered

endemic, although they are probably also to be found in other areas

close by, as bio-geographic barriers are almost non-existent. The

residual populations of endangered species, expelled from their for-

mer wider ranges by transformations to their territories, are of

more interest than the endemic species. This biological legacy of

In the picture, a young little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), always a difficultbird to spot that stretches its neck and beak upwards when it is in danger.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

TABLE 1Ecosystems of DoñanaThe important thing in Doñana is the animal populations and the ecosystems and landscapes as a whole. This table summarises this features, referring solelyto the Doñana National Park. (MaB 1994). Upper/lower case indicates greater/lesser importance.

TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM OUTSTANDING FEATURES

Castañuela Marsh VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU WOAlmajos Marsh VE AN ST EC LA IB EU

Shallow ponds (lucios) ve AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU WOStreams VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU

Permanent lagoons VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU WOTemporal lagoons VE AN EC LA IB EU

Vera grasslands VE AN BR ST EC LA IB EU WOMonte noble VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU

Monte blanco VE AN ST EC LA IB EUMonte negro, heathlands VE AN ST EC LA IB

Cork-oak groves VE AN ST EC laJuniper groves VE an ST EC LA IB EU

Prickly juniper groves VE an ST EC LA IBPine woodlands VE an ST EC la

Mobile dunes VE an ST EC LA IB EU WO

VE/ve vegetation

AN/an animals, fauna

BR/br breeding areas

MI/mi breeding areas of migratory birds

ST/st structuration of space

EC/ec important ecological processes for the Park

LA/la singular landscape

IB important ecosystem within the Iberian Peninsula

EU ecosystem of European importance

WO ecosystem of world importance

182

the Doñana countryside acting as a sanctuary is of tremendous

conservationist interest. Such is the case of the Iberian lynx (Lynx

pardinus), which survives here in larger numbers than the few

other remaining populations of the Iberian Peninsula,or the Spanish

imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti).This species used to be

abundant in the Iberian Peninsula and in the region

around Doñana, but its range has now been reduced

and the few breeding pairs of the Parks are essential

for the survival of the species.These two sym-

bolic species have also been great accomplish-

ments in conservation in Doñana so far. In

the case of the eagle, its protection dates

back to the mid 20th century and this work

continues tirelessly in the park.An exam-

ple of the work done is that the census-

es of Doñana's imperial eagle population

are now the longest series

of data monitoring for a

bird of prey in the world4.

The other side of the

coin is the number of

species that have been

driven to extinction. One

the earliest of the vertebrate

extinctions was the brown

bear, most probably prior to

the 13th century.The extinc-

tion of the wolf - populations

that used to breed in Doñana -

occurred in the 19th century, although

the last animal, from Sierra de

Huelva, was shot in 1954. It is difficult

to verify the disappearance of bird species

because there is a lack of old data and the

very dense data of today identify wandering

birds of distant origins. Cranes are worthy of

mention as birds that used to be abundant, but which no longer

nest in Doñana (since 1900), as are the swans that used to breed

here regularly before the 20th century. Fish species that have

become extinct in the estuary include the shad and the stickle-

back. Shad must have been abundant as the old Roman coins made

at the local mint at Coria, on the western banks of the

Guadalquivir River, bear a shad on one side.The sturgeon has suf-

fered the same fate, with the last conserved specimen dating back

to 1973 and a later catch, in 1983, has also been recorded,

although the Guadalquivir population of the Atlantic species

(Acipenser sturio) is now extinct.

THE IMPACT OF WATER ON

THE ECOSYSTEMS OF DOÑANA

Each year, with the arrival of the first heavy rains, the process

of recharging the water table begins and the drainage network

comes into operation in the basin. After successive episodes of

rainfall, the phreatic level rises close to the surface. The flow of

water into Doñana during such heavy precipitation becomes flash

floods that run along the drainage

courses. When they get to the

Doñana Marshes, these flash floods

provoke spectacular waves of flood-

ing that can reach a width of several

hundred metres.As winter advances,

the marsh basin fills up and a transi-

tional world between areas above

and below water is identified. In the area around the

Marshes, the hydrological network is more evident.

Channels and watercourses are well defined despite the flood-

ing, but in wet winters, this entire area is dotted with ponds and

seasonal pools. So this would be the normal scenario that, put

simply, defines the impact of water on the layout of the different

ecosystems of the marsh environment.

These hydrological features thus determine Doñana's veg-

etation. On the dune hills which are always free of flooding, there

are patches of pine forest with an undergrowth of halimium

(Halimium halimifolium), thorny legumes (Ulex australis,

Stauracanthus genistoides, Genista hirsuta), rock rose

(Cistus salviifolius and Cistus monspeliensis), and berry species

like butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus), with red berries set on

shoots shaped like a pointed leaf, and spurge flax (Daphne gnidi-

um).

On lands not so prone to flooding, the vegetation is dominated

by maquis scrub forming large islands of mastic trees (5 - 10 m wide

by 3 - 6 m high) associated with pine trees and wild olives.The pres-

ence of cork trees and other scrub species varies depending on the

substrate and the topography, which determine the level of flood-

ing. In the area, there are specimen of Phillyrea angustifolia, buck-

thorn (Rhamnus lycioides), and hawthorn (Crataegus monogy-

na), and in the less floodable areas Kermes oak (Quercus coc-

cifera), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), wild pear (Pyrus

bourgeana) that was sometimes planted on small plots to support

rabbit breeding, and dwarf fan palm (Chamaerops humilis) that

takes on the appearance of a small palm tree, two to three metres

in height if there are no great disturbances. In areas where the

water table is accessible in summer, there are ferns, heather (Erica

scoparia and Calluna vulgaris), and myrtle (Myrtus communis), the

famous plant that appeared with the gods of Greek mythology,

In areas where the water table is acces-sible to plant roots in summer, thereare ferns, heather (Erica scoparia andCalluna vulgaris), and myrtle (Myrtuscommunis), the famous plant thatappeared with the gods of Greekmythology. In the picture, a watercolour of Calluna painted in Doñana byRegla Alonso Miura.

183

which delays its aromatic blooming until summer time.

From late spring until mid autumn, shrubs and trees offer a

sequence of edible fruits and berries for mammals and birds.The

wild olives, blackcurrants, dwarf palm dates, acorns and other fruits

and berries from the vegetation listed above provide food

resources.Where there are pines and junipers, pine nuts and cones

complete the list of edible plant resources.

Competing to attract consumers, these fruits and berries are

usually brightly coloured,offering aromatic and nutritious pulp in an

attempt to get eaten and, thus, to spread the genes contained in

their seeds.The great terrestrial ecologist, Carlos Herrera Maliani,

has studied in depth the symbiosis between birds and the

Mediterranean fruit producing scrub in Cazorla Nature Park. Pedro

Jordano has extended the studies to Doñana. Both areas have

become one of the benchmark systems that enable scientists to

analyse these forms of symbiosis.

These bushes have lianas like the blackberry (Rubus idaeus, R.

ulmifolius), the field speedwell, (Lonicera implexa, L. etrusca), the

prickly ivy (Smilax aspera), and others like Sherardia arvensis and

Bryonia dioica.The lush fruit-bearing native scrub and maquis scrub

vegetation is very similar to the original mature form of the

Mediterranean forests of cork trees, evergreen oaks, wild olive and

dense undergrowth. This vegetation has a stable structure and is

typically highly productive with a large biomass and an appreciable

diversity of woody plants. For vertebrates, it provides seasonal food

resources and it always offers shelter from intense summer heat,

strong winds or winter frosts.Along with the birds of the scrub and

those that nest in the crown or in holes in the trunks, this vegeta-

tion also acts as a refuge, nursery and resting place for mammals

like deer, boar, lynx, genet, wild cat, fox and badger, and it used to

provide shelter for wolves and perhaps bears, although there is no

documentation to confirm the latter.

Along the banks, there are ash trees, poplars, and willows, inter-

twined by "parreños", climbing wild vines that are associated with

this gallery type of vegetation.The small grapes of the parreño vine

Setting out from the Doñana shoreline, the inland areas bordering the Marshes are old stabilised dune trains. In this environment, there are juniper groves asmature vegetation on the higher ground, known locally as "naves". In the picture, a grove of juniper in Las Naves, with “monte blanco”scrub in the foreground.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

From late spring until autumn, the shrubs and trees offer a sequence of edi-ble fruits and berries for mammals and birds.Along with the birds of thescrub and those that nest in the crown or in holes in the trunks, this vegeta-tion also acts as a refuge, nursery and resting place for mammals like deer,boar, lynx, genet, wild cat, fox and badger, and it used to provide shelterfor wolves and perhaps bears, although there is no documentation to con-firm the latter. Photograph by Jose María Pérez de Ayala.

184

are still used to produce an acid condiment in the province of

Cádiz, outside of the protected areas of Doñana.This is used like

vinegar and could be the origin of our ancestral procedure of

preparing wine.The plaited vines were also used for making rough

ropes. In 1985, while studying the pollen register of La Laguna de la

Madres near Mazagón, Stevenson found a level formed almost

exclusively of vine pollen, which he interpreted as a 4000-year-old

vineyard (carbon 14 dating).Yet, the practice that has survived into

modern times is pruning the parreños and clearing the scrub to

promote their production of fruit, so the Laguna de Las Madres

sample could well represent the oldest example of harnessing

these natural resources4.

Near the water, we find roundhead bulrush (Scirpus

holoschoenus) and reeds as well, if the flooding is permanent.

Different vegetation sequences can be seen, depending on how

long the floodwaters last: the pine forest and the wild olive grove

will survive a short temporary flooding whereas the cork trees will

survive longer periods. Flooding can be almost permanent in the

case of the ash, willow, Lombardy poplar and the tamarisk, which,

in this order, indicate an increase in the mineralisation of the water.

The sequence of reeds (Phragmites australis ssp. australis and ssp.

altissima) and tamarisks (Tamarix africana, T. gallica and T.

canariensis) also indicate a growing mineralisation and the substitu-

tion of one species by another.Among the thickets of woody veg-

etation on damp silty soils that are rich in nutrients, one finds an

herbaceous nitrophilic vegetation that can reach exceptional

heights: Trifolium repens or T. resupinatum that can grow to a

height of 60 cm, Scolymus hispanicus, Lithrum salicaria, Picris hiera-

cioides, Sonchus oleraceus can grow to two metres in height.

An exceptional situation among Doñana's ecosystems,occurs at

the "Vera" or edge of the Marshes.The proximity of the topograph-

ic surface, and the up-welling of phreatic waters at some points,

characterises this strip of sands that ring the Marshes to the south

and west.The excessive consumption of well water and overgrazing

of the pastures is putting this particular feature of Doñana in seri-

ous danger. During the late summer, the marsh area presents the

very special feature of still being able to provide water, which rises

up around the sandy edges, supporting productive vegetation. Here,

the vegetation is bushy and typical of watercourses, hedges and

riverbank forests, with ash, willow, poplars, Lombardy poplars and

tamarisks.

IMPORTANCE OF THE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

The aquatic ecosystems of the Doñana Marshes encompass

shallow masses of water, with abundant macrophyte vegetation and

a major seasonal development of benthos and plankton.The avail-

ability of seeds, leaves, stems and rhizomes on the one hand, and of

algae on the other, promotes secondary productivity and an abun-

dance of water insects and crustaceans, supporting trophic systems

that provide a food base for small predators, filterers and other

species that live of the detritus. Fish larvae and fingerlings grow

quickly in the deeper and longer lasting lucios (shallow lakes) which

sometimes connect in autumn and winter with the Guadalquivir

Estuary or with the Guadiamar, allowing eels, mullet, carp, barbels

and other fish to enter as well. Fish rarely reach the sandy lagoons

and shallow ponds with softer, less mineralised waters, so they are

ideal for large colonies of amphibian larvae and adults (toads, frogs

and newts), certain reptiles like the common and the stripe necked

turtle, and the water snake.

The concentration of birds that use the temporary flooded

marsh and pond environments is overwhelming.There are major

fluctuations between one year and another, depending on rainfall,

as the rainfall determines the abundance of water and, therefore,

the configuration of aquatic environments and availability of food

resources. For this reason, the data on bird numbers present are

always only illustrative and refer to the more favourable periods.

The largest populations are of greylag goose (Anser anser) with

75,000 individuals, and ducks like the teal (Anas crecca) at 50,000,

gadwall (Anas strepera) at 40,000, mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) at

20,000, shoveler (Anas clypeata) at 25,000, pintail (Anas acuta) at

11,000, and tufted duck (Aythya fuligula) at 11,000.There are also

other interesting species of waterfowl like the flamingo

(Phoenicopterus ruber) that maintain a regional population ranging

between 30,000 and 60,000 over Odiel, Doñana, the Ebro Delta

and the Camargue, breeding mainly in La Laguna de Fuente Piedra

Reeds are found in permanently flooded environments. The sequence ofreeds (Phragmites australis) and tamarisks (Tamarix africana, T. gallica and T.canariensis) also indicate a growing mineralisation and the substitution ofone species by another. Photograph: CENEAM files.

185

in Málaga, where up to 15,000 chicks may hatch in a good year.

The herons are a constant feature of the aquatic environments,

like the small cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), the little egret (Egretta

garzetta) and the Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides). But the grey

heron (Ardea cinerea), the purple heron (A. purpurea) and the

night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) are the rarest of these birds.

The populations of these three heron species are the main popu-

lations in Spain.The mixing of colonies of storks, herons and cranes

is one of the features of Doñana, perched in the cork trees and

poplars of La Vera within the Biological Reserve.This is known as

the Doñana "open aviaries".The most important species that nests

in this area is the spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia).

Other species of waterfowl to be found in the marshes and

ponds include the marbled teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris), seen

occasionally, the red crested pochard (Netta rufina) and the coot

(Fulica atra). The crested coot (F. cristata) has become scarcer,

while the gallinule (Porphyrio porphyrio), which takes refuge in the

dense fringe of water plants, has become a very frequent sight in

recent years. Some wandering specimens of the glossy ibis (Plegadis

falcinellus), unseen since the 1960s, started to reappear in the

1990s and soon began to nest, beating the record in 2004 with a

breeding population estimated to be at least 1,100 pairs over six

colonies (one in the managed site of Cerrado Garrido and the rest

in the Doñana Marshes).

A complex mixture of events and environments, in which the

water is always the point of reference, makes Doñana an explosion

of life and the largest wintering grounds of Western Europe. Each

stage of flooding creates different scenarios, which will also vary

depending on the specific area.

After the winter, a large part of the Marshes start to dry out,

turning it into an ochre plain, dotted with occasional patches of

water.The different species segregate in accordance with the habi-

tat and the kind of resources they need. In breeding colonies, the

availability of shallow water among the vegetation, including bran-

ches and scrub on the edges of the marsh, will determine their bre-

eding success.The presence of such large colonies of waterfowl has

an impact on the vegetation, as the rushes and reeds are used by

ducks for building their nests, and the seeds and shoots are food for

many of these birds. In recent years, they have become more preva-

lent in the lagoons and, to a lesser extent, in the scrub. Geese have

strong beaks endowed with a slight protuberance or nail that they

use to dig up the cherry sized chestnut rhizomes from the soils of

the marsh. Such soils can store large food reserves producing up to

5 kg/m2. Moving and digging in the marshes mobilises nutrients, an

"The 'pajareras' are, without doubt, the crown jewels of Iberian wildlife. Many European nations would like to have something of the kind on their soil, willing to con-serve and protect them with all the force of the law. The scientific interest of these colonies is enormous as they are ideal for studying animal biology and psychologyand for practising ringing on a large scale. But contemplating them in ecstasy arouses even more emotion and beauty. They are real national monuments - livinginstead of dead - that should also be given every consideration by the Spanish state." (Text by F. Bernis and J. A. Valverde, 1952).Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM files.

186

effect enhanced by the excretions of the birds. Peak production

always comes in spring as the water plants are constrained by low

temperatures until mid winter, after which the shoots start to emer-

ge from the water.

By late spring, the Doñana Marshes have practically dried out,

drastically reducing the area of open water throughout the area. If

the water levels fall rapidly and nests are left high and dry, some of

the chicks and fledglings will never fly.

As summer approaches, the surviving small and highly eutro-

phied bodies of water show high primary production and often

develop a layer of cyanobacteria over the bottom.The high temper-

atures and fluctuations in oxygen and pH levels during the daily

cycle, due to photosynthesis, reduce the presence of zooplankton

and, hence, insects give way to crustaceans as the predominant

group of aquatic invertebrates. The fish that have proliferated

thanks to the productivity of the plankton often become trapped

in isolated bodies of water, where they die when the pools dry out,

providing food for the herons, kites, gulls and other birds that

exploit this fleeting resource.

The beds of the ponds and riverbeds crossing the marsh, and

the small sandy elevations, known as vetas, maintain areas of aqua-

tic vegetation during these periods.The damp beds of the ponds

and channels are quickly colonised by annual herbaceous plants

that are resistant to the salinity to various degrees; while it is the

halophyte species that proliferate in the "pastures" as these are hig-

her than the floodwaters. In the northern part of the Doñana

Marshes, and on the higher levees, where the permanent

macrophyte vegetation is replaced by salt wort, the common name

given to the arid, salt-resistant plants of the Arthrocnemum,

Salicornia and Sarcocornia genera that are resistant to the salt in

the water and soil to varying degrees.They are usually accompanied

by a cohort of herbaceous plants that will germinate when the

water dries out to reveal the soil - forming a short-lived mantle of

Parapholis, Lolium and Hordeum.

Other interesting forms of vegetation associated with the aqui-

fer discharge occur in the abovementioned contact zone with the

sandy formations of Vera-Retuerta and the so-called "eyes". During

the dry seasons, areas of standing water from the sand formations

seep into the marsh, creating a moist strip that supports vegetation,

maintaining the remains of wetlands in cycles of drought that can

turn into streams running along surface channels. González

Bernaldez coined these vegetated strips "crypto-wetlands". El

The magnificent vertebrate fauna includes species that are highly endan-gered in Spain, including birds like the the Squacco heron, slender-billedgull, spoonbill, rednecked nightjar, little bittern, gallinule, crested coot,marbled teal, ferruginous duck, white headed duck, black shouldered kiteand the magnificent Spanish imperial eagle. In the picture, a gallinule(Porphyrio porphyrio), a species that has become a very frequent sight inrecent years. An identification ring can be observed on its right leg.Photograph: CENEAM files.

187

Hondón and El Sopetón, for instance, are large spring-fed ponds

situated on the sandy rim. But this phenomenon can also be detec-

ted, though on a smaller scale, on the edge of the Marshes. In these

strips, a varied vegetation thrives that can iºnclude remains of

woods with ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), poplar (Populus nigra, P.

alba) and willow (Salix spp.), along with scrub species and heath

land of Calluna vulgaris, Erica scoparia, E. umbellata,Ulex minor and

a rim of brambles (Rubus ulmifolius) almost always accompanied by

ferns (Pteridium aquilinum).

The "ojos" (eyes), areas of less than 1000 m2 of open water,

connect the aquifer that is confined by the Marshes with the surfa-

ce, crossing the thick layer of silty marsh sediments, using sand and

silt chimneys as conduits for the spring water to flow along. The

ojos are filled with a thin water-saturated sediment.

The dried out Marshes enable larger vertebrates to roam

through them. Fallow deer are common around the edge touching

the sands. Deer, hares and foxes venture further into the interior

of the Marshes. Boars come into this area when the water level is

low, eating the fish trapped in the pools and sometimes destroying

the breeding colonies of flamingos and other birds. In summer time,

in the middle of this drying out process when the aquatic species

leave, steppe birds start to appear, like the pratincole (Glareola pra-

tincola). Records show that flocks of wintering cranes (Grus grus)

could be seen in the Marshes during the mid 20th century and it was

not uncommon to see great bustard (Otis tarda), which can still be

seen further east, in the cereal fields of Jerez.

The interface between the Doñana Marshes and the Estuary is

marked by the presence of other species.There has been an incre-

ase in fish species in this area, and other groups of deeper water

birds have appeared, including the great crested grebe (Podiceps

cristatus), the red breasted merganser (Mergus serrator), cormo-

rants (Phalacrocorax carbo, P. aristotelis), and sea birds like the

gannet (Sula bassana). Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) is often

seen flying over the Marshes, as is the marsh harrier (C. aerugino-

sus) on the edges, a species linked to the flooding. Moving into the

muddy flats of the estuary at low tide, you can see wading birds in

abundance.

There are large flocks of gulls on the coastal strip of Doñana

and oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus) and you can often see

the sandpipers and plovers on the beach, running back and forth

with the waves.The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) nests

on the actual beach. Pods of whales and dolphins often come in

close to the shore and, more occasionally, marine turtles too.

The presence of the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is also worth

mentioning. It is a regular visitor to the Guadalquivir Estuary and

inlets. It migrates south from northern Europe to Africa, following

the Atlantic coastline.

THE WORLD OF SANDS

Sand formations in Doñana surround the Marshes to the west,

offering highly structured ecosystems of scrub and forest.Although

primary productivity is lower in this area than in the marshes, the

resources that it offers are available for a longer time. Here we can

see the Mediterranean woodland in its different modalities, offering

an ideal habitat for many vertebrates, particularly birds and mam-

mals.

The scrub vegetation of the sands occupies what was the ori-

ginal forest.The old forests of prickly juniper, juniper and cork trees

The glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), unseen since the 1960s, started to reap-pear in the 1990s and soon began to nest, beating the record in 2004 with abreeding population estimated to be at least 1,100 pairs over six colonies(one in the managed enclave of Cerrado Garrido and the rest in theDoñana Marshes).Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

In the skies of Doñana, there are flocks of flamingos, spoonbills, herons,storks, magpies, geese, shoveler ducks; small birds like the partridge,robin, lapwing; waterfowl like great crested grebe, kingfisher and the littlegrebe; owls, kites, falcons, short toed eagle and majestic imperial eaglesthat find an inexhaustible source of food among so many species. In thepicture, a young kingfisher.Photograph: CENEAM files.

188

have been replaced by individual specimens of these species and a

few groups, forming groves where there are more favourable con-

ditions.The original forest was followed by maquis scrub and some

original scrub with large strawberry trees, mastic trees, myrtle,

mock privet (Phillyrea angustifolia) and Italian buckthorn (Rhamnus

alaternus).This scrub has been radically reduced by controlled bur-

ning regimes and replaced by the predominant contemporary vege-

tation, pyrophyte heather scrub in the moister parts, with Calluna

vulgaris, Erica scoparia, E. umbellata, Ulex minor, and intermediate

cover where these species are accompanied by halimium

(Halimium halimifolium), white rock rose (Cistus salvifolius),

Stauracanthus genistoides or Genista species. On dryer surfaces,

you see thyme, lavender, rosemary and species of Dianthus, Arabis,

Malcolmia, Cistus, Halimium and Leucojum.

This scrubland offers an interesting case of symbiotic interac-

tion between three of its inhabitants: the small Plebejus argus but-

terfly, the Lasius niger ant and the halimium (Halimium halimifo-

lium), the pyrophyte bush that grows on sandy soils.This descrip-

tion was developed by Fernández Haguer in his contribution on the

butterflies of Doñana. It reminds us that the greatest attraction of

Doñana, as regards conserving our natural legacies, is to maintain

the diversity of both species and populations, with their subtle

arrangements that make possible the survival of the whole, as in

this case described.

The most outstanding wildlife in this environment, which have

been mentioned on several occasions, are the Iberian lynx and the

imperial eagle.The diet of these species, and other predators like

the badger, mongoose and fox, was largely dependent on the rab-

bit.The reduction in the numbers of rabbits due to a series of dise-

ases, from myxomatosis to rabbit haemorrhaging viral pneumonia

(NVHc), has placed a severe limitation on the populations of these

predators, of which the lynx seems to have been the worst affec-

ted.The shortage of rabbits redirected pressure onto reptiles, large

snakes like the false smooth snake or the Montpellier snake, or

onto the eyed lizard,which suffered reductions in their populations.

On the other hand, pressure increased on rodents, like the field

mouse and the water rat, which started to compete for prey with

their own predators, like the short-toed eagle, grey owl, long-eared

owl, and others. The collapse of the rabbit population has had a

major impact on the populations of many species of predator in

Doñana,modifying the delicate balance typical of ecosystems of this

kind, as described by Valverde in 1962.

There is a series of ponds in this kingdom of sands that are dis-

tributed over both the National Park and the Nature Park.These

An interesting ecosystem associated with the water table discharge occur in the contact zone with the sandy formations of Vera-Retuerta. In dry seasons, waterfrom the sandy formations seeps into the marshes, creating a moist strip that supports vegetation, maintaining patches of wetland and feeding surface canals.This allows for the growth of a varied vegetation that may include remains of the typical river bank forest trees and scrub, with heath land and a border ofbrambles. In the picture, contact between the shifting dunes and the Doñana Marshes in La Retuerta. This marshy border is a singular ecotone that representsone of the major assets of Doñana's diversity. Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

189

lagoons are interesting for a number of reasons. On the one hand,

they constitute hundreds of bodies of water, usually small ones. For

example, the largest of them, the Santa Olalla-Dulce pond complex

in the National Park,only reaches an area of 1 km2 at times of maxi-

mum flooding. The hydro-geological conditions vary enough to

allow for different behaviour arising from their specific connections

with the water table. For this reason, the number of zooplankton

species is high for this environment as a whole (68), although it is

rare to find more than 30 species at a time in a single pond.The

lack of an impermeable layer on the bottom of these ponds means

that the water mass filters down towards the water table, or that

the water table feeds the lagoons in periods of discharge.The result

is a complex pattern in the nutrient balance, especially in the case

of phosphorus.

Another interesting process concerns the role of the scrub

vegetation surrounding the lagoons.When there is heavy precipita-

tion, polyphenols are dissolved from leaves and branches of the

scrub, creating a run off of richly coloured waters, carrying large

quantities of tannin into the ponds. This dark material interferes

with the penetration of light and the circulation of nutrients until it

disappears when ponds dry out in summer.

Moving on from the wetlands, we come to another curious

area in the world of sands: the system of shifting dunes. One of the

most striking aspects is the intense dynamic of the system, with

fronts that can advance several metres a year. The distinctive

"corrales" or inter-dune valleys are created in the middle of dune

fields. The scrub vegetation here reproduces all those described

above in the sands.The highest sandy crests bear no vegetation, in

contrast with the inter-dune valleys where grasslands with gorse

and heather grow, and temporary bodies of water may accumula-

te.The natural tree vegetation consists of prickly juniper (Juniperus

oxycedrus ssp. macrocarpa), which is currently scarce.

The umbrella pine trees have predominated in the corrales

since they were introduced in 1805. But it is interesting to note

how this introduced species has become subspontaneous, provi-

ding shelter for doves, pigeons, magpies, azure-winged magpies and

other species.With the sand dunes advancing by up to 5 m/year, the

pine forests have to be able to colonise the sands at a similar speed

to avoid their disappearance, an important factor for primary forest

succession. It would appear that the vector for the pines in this fast

and continuous colonisation are the magpies and azure-winged

magpies that take pine nuts from cones and bury them in small poc-

kets, or they lose them in transit over the dunes.

These are just a few sketches of the rich ecosystems to be

found in Doñana. Our knowledge of them is gradually unfolding

thanks to the work of many researchers in getting to the bottom

of some of their mechanisms, and offering fascinating examples of

natural interactions in this space, where for centuries natural pro-

cesses have been inundated with intervention after intervention.

BIODIVERSITY IN DOÑANA:INTRODUCED, ENDEMIC AND EXTINCT SPECIES

It is worth remembering at this point that biodiversity reflects

the distribution of the forms of life that exist in the biosphere, and

should not be confused with simply the number of species.

Biological diversity is established at three main levels of the organi-

sation of life: ecosystems, species and genes. Up till now, we have

taken a brief look at the different ecosystems in Doñana, illustra-

ting this with many of the emblematic species that inhabit them.

Taking a closer look at the concept of wealth being measured

by the number of species, it has been calculated that almost 1.9

million species have been described in the biosphere to date and

most of these are insects. Biodiversity estimations for the planet

suggest that the number of species is at least ten times that. In this

biological universe, extrapolations show that most of the unknown

species are insects and, at the other end of the scale, there are very

few bird species remaining to be discovered. Excluding micro-orga-

nisms and fungi, but including algae, the number of reported species

in the Doñana Parks is over 4,000, of an estimated potential of

10,000.This is, therefore, an appreciable number in the context of

a living planet that is only just starting to be discovered.

Descriptions of the biodiversity of Doñana usually highlight the

The umbrella pine trees have predominated in the corrales since they wereintroduced in 1805. With the sand dunes advancing by up to 5 m/year, thepine forests have to be able to colonise the sands at a similar speed. It wouldappear that the vector for the pines in this fast and successive colonisationare the magpies and azure-winged magpies that take pine nuts from conesand bury them in small reserves, or they lose them in transit over the dunes. In the picture, dune front invading Corral Largo.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

190

large number of species that can be found in both the National

Park and in the surrounding protected areas.This paradise contains

an extraordinary mammal fauna, with 22 species, and a long list of

birds, which the area is most known for, including 400 species sigh-

ted up to January 2004.There is also a large number of reptiles and

amphibians that are being added to the list. Marine turtles coming

ashore on the beaches add a further five species and the estuary

fish that sometimes swim up the channels represent over 70 spe-

cies. In the appendix, there is a list of 2,300 species covering a wide

range of biological groups.

Whenever the abundance of species and the biodiversity of

Doñana are described, there are certainly always surprises when

any given group is studied in depth.The vertebrates, with 530 spe-

cies, are the best-known taxonomic group.Animals are followed by

crustaceans and other zooplankton groups, with some 360 identi-

fied species.Of the marine coastal organisms, in-depth studies from

Portugal to the Mediterranean coasts have been done on the stri-

kingly coloured and shaped opistobranchia molluscs.The 154 spe-

cies found by Carlos Garcia Gomez, from the University of Seville,

highlight the contact between the Mediterranean groups and the

Portuguese and Mauritanian groups to provide a highly diversified

set. 59 species have been reported in the sector between Cabo

Roche and the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Doñana.Nine of these

species have been described in the last twenty years, two of which

are exclusive to this stretch of coastline (Cuthona thompsoni and

Trapania sanctipretensis). Another two (Trapania orteai and

Lomanotus barlettai) have a geographic range that extends as far as

Gibraltar. Pisenotecus gaditanus and Cuthona willani have a range

that reaches as far as Portugal. Aeolidiella glauca, Eubranchus linen-

sis and the lovely Flabellina baetica, found on both sides of Doñana,

are probably also found in the Doñana Coastal Sea Protection

Zone7.

Obviously, the number of insects is much higher than those repor-

ted,but this is a group that is not very well known in Doñana.Only the

rhopalocera, diurnal (daytime) butterflies, have been studied in any

depth,with total of 56 species found.

Studies of the different families of coleoptera,hymenoptera,orthop-

tera and other groups of invertebrates like the continental, aquatic and

The slender mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), in the picture, is one of theoutstanding vertebrates of Doñana. It is a type of mongoose of African ori-gin and it is currently causing problems as it competes with the lynx andthe imperial eagle for its basic prey: the rabbit.Photography by Antonio Sabater.

The dried out marshes enable larger vertebrates to roam through them. Fallow deer are common around the edge touching the sands. Deer, hares and foxesventure further into the interior of the marshes. In the picture, male fallow deer in the pastures of La Vera. Their growing horns are covered in skin at this time.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

shoreline molluscs are relatively advanced. Our knowledge of the

remaining invertebrates is quite incomplete.

Finally, among the flora there are 896 vascular species described

(cryptogams and phanerogams),330 plankton and epibenthic species of

algae and some 20 lichens.Little is known,on the other hand,about the

fungi and micro-organisms, although in-depth studies are sure to bring

about surprises.

INTRODUCED SPECIES

In a recent article, Ferrer and Donázar have suggested that

Doñana's zoological gems, the lynx and the imperial eagle, must

have reached the Iberian Peninsular from Asia about a million years

ago, at the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, and have survived

thanks to the abundance of rabbits, their prey of choice. This

example shows that species evolve, their populations spread or

they are fragmented and become extinct. The ecosystems they

form part of change over time and, finally, our distinction between

native and introduced species, surviving and extinct species,

merely reflects the information we have on their distribution in

the last few centuries.

The Mediterranean has been a basin of unceasing exchanges

and trials, and Doñana is an example of this. In the National Park

itself, you can find Canary Island date palms (Phoenix canariensis)

and ombu (Phytolacca dioica).Castor oil plants (Ricinus communis)

and tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) are to be found in the Nature

Park and the surrounding area, introduced species that have beco-

me subspontaneous. In the areas around the nearby towns and

villages, we can find a wide variety of introduced fruit trees and

ornamental plants, including the agaves and prickly pears brought

from Mexico in the 16th century to be used as hedges.

191

When addressing the issue of introduced species, one should

not forget that Doñana has always been on one of the most impor-

tant cultural and trading crossroads of history, so the transit of spe-

cies should be analysed in both directions. 1492, with Columbus'

first voyage taking on supplies at Palos, marked the beginning of a

grand bio-geographic exchange that took livestock, rabbits, chic-

kens, fruit trees, wheat and other cereals to the New World.These

were accompanied by rats, diseases and by accidental wild vegeta-

tion. Seed and forage was taken to feed cows and horses during the

voyage, which proliferated in the first crops, transferring the high

levels of biodiversity found in the pastures and fallow lands of

Doñana, western Andalusia and Extremadura to the Americas.

Once they germinated in the new continent, the Iberian species of

Bromus, Lolium, Hordeum, Agrostis, Taeniatherum, Medicago,

Melilotus, Ornithopus, Crepis and many others, displaced the nati-

ve herbaceous plants, with the help of livestock. And their fruits,

endowed with ridges or thorns to hook onto the hide of the ani-

mals, spread with the herds and flocks throughout the continent,

recreating the pasture lands of their origin. This is a process of

change in the biodiversity of the Americas that is still able to con-

tinue today.The novelties from the Indies were landed in the port

of Sanlúcar, and that is where the Acclimatisation Garden was esta-

blished for American flora. From this spot opposite Doñana, corn

and potato started to colonise Europe.The first description of the

pineapple was made here.Throughout this period, the introduction

of American animals also covered a broad range, from excellent

contributions like the turkey, to persistent plagues like the species

of American cockroaches.

Certain introductions are of particular interest because of their

origin.The European silk industry suffered epidemics since the 16th

Studies of the newts Triturus pigmaeus and T. boscai in the DoñanaBiological Reserve over the course of many years have highlighted theimportance of maintaining the temporary pools, which are also importantfor other aquatic life forms. Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

In the picture, members of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee anddirectors of the National Park on a visit made during the project. In thebackground, a view of the Doñana Marshes flooded in spring. From left toright, Carlos Fernández Delgado, Cipriano Marín, Carlos Urdiales, JesúsCasas and Fernando Hiraldo.Photograph by Maria Ángeles Fernández

192

century that affected the silk worm (Bombix mori). In the search

for silk producing substitutes, a moth of Chinese origin was tried,

the Samia cynthia.The enormous caterpillar of this silk moth, very

similar to our large emperor (Saturnia pyri), measures some 10 cm

and weaves a large cocoon with a thick silk thread, called “tusa” in

the East.The trial was not suitable for industry, but the plant the

caterpillars fed of, the tree of heaven (Ailanthus glandulosa), grew

wild and has survived as a wild shrub in the area around Doñana,

where the caterpillar can still be found.Another substitute that was

tested was an asclepiadaceae, the narrow leaf cotton bush

(Gomphocarpus fruticosus), whose fruits are filled with long, silky

hairs.Once abandoned as a crop, this species also survived as a wild

plant and is found in wet meadows, especially around temporary

ponds, in the National Park.This is the first plant species that was

targeted by a programme to eliminate exotic species in the protec-

ted area. Eradication of species that were introduced in earlier

times is practically impossible.We can also find common brassbut-

ton (Cotula coronopifolia) on hundreds of hectares of floodable

areas, and the prickly poppy (Argemone mexicana), which thrives

on sandy soils.

The aggressive water fern, Azolla filiculoides, was first reported

close to the Portuguese border, on the banks of the Guadiana. It

has gradually spread through Extremadura and Andalusia, with the

support of irrigated crops, until it finally reached Doñana, where it

grows as a floating species on the surface of ponds and canals. A

programme was implemented in the National Park to eradicate this

species also. It has been operating since 1990 and has destroyed up

to 1200 kg of the plant each year. But unfortunately, in the damp

winter of 2003-2004, the rise in water levels created connections

between water masses, accelerating its spread once again.This fern

may have become a permanent part of Doñana's flora.

Introduced species can colonise empty environments, where

there are no native equivalents. Spartina densiflora grows on the

tidal mud flats of American tropical and sub-tropical coasts. It rea-

ched Europe, possibly in some shipment, and colonised the mars-

hes of the south of England around the 18th century, and later rea-

ched the Huelva Estuary, from where it spread along the Gulf of

Cádiz, thanks to coastal drift. In the Guadalquivir Estuary, it has

colonised the recent mud flats that do not have their own stable

plant communities: in wet cycles, the reeds and rushes are able to

put down roots and grow in the mud but the salinity of the water

kills them off in dryer years. S. densiflora easily tolerates both con-

ditions, forming a dense band, 75-200 m wide and almost one

metre high, throughout the inter-tidal areas of the Guadalquivir

River and the Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre), including some of

the channels that cross La Montaña del Rio.

The globalisation of trade and transport will progressively

increase the presence of new species, and this introduced diversity

will even be the dominant aspect of some environments. One

example of this can be seen in the River Guadalquivir itself, up-stre-

am from the Alcalá del Río dam that closes off the Estuary, where

there are nine species of fish, six of which are introduced species

(crucian carp, carp, black bass, sun fish and gambusia) and three are

native (eel, bogue and barbel).As a consequence, these six introdu-

ced fish are listed among the animal species in the National Park.

Another two aquatic species should also be highlighted because of

the effect they have on the environment: the red-eared slider

(Trachemys scripta elegans), an American sub-tropical turtle from

Florida, and the Louisiana crayfish (Procambarus clarkii).The red-

eared sliders inhabit ponds and channels, namely Laguna del

Acebuche and, in much smaller numbers, some parts of La Rocina.

They can grow to a much larger size than the European pond tur-

tle (Emys orbicularis) and the Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica),

both of which are native species. It has been shown that the red-

eared slider turtles have appeared because they have been released

by people who originally bought them as pets.Their owners, having

tired of their pets, have gotten rid of them by releasing them in

what they considered an "ideal" place. Through ignorance, they

believe that they are simply "releasing them back into the wild"

when what they are really doing is creating a problem of survival

for the native turtles.

The introduction of the Louisiana crayfish to the Doñana

Marshes in 1973 has caused a considerable impact on the amphi-

bians of both the protected areas of Park and its surroundings.This

The Doñana Marshes offer refuge and food for the white headed duck(Oxyura leucocephala), one of the most endangered species of water fowl. Inthe 1950s, the ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) was introduced fromAmerica and it has since bred with the local duck, the white headed duck,which it has displaced. In recent years, a programme for protectingOxyura leucocephala and for eradicating Oxyura jamaicensis has been suc-cessfully implemented..Photograph by José Luis Perea (CENEAM, Autonomous National Park Authority).

The herons are a con-stant feature of theDoñana Marshes, likethe night heron(Nycticorax nycticorax),the small cattle egret(Bubulcus ibis), the littleegret (Egretta garzetta)the Squacco heron(Ardeola ralloides), thegrey heron (Ardeacinerea) and the purpleheron (A. purpurea). Inthe picture, Squaccoheron, a highly endan-gered species that can besighted in Doñana.Photograph: CENEAM files.

194

decapod has colonised practically the entire marshes, the edges of

the shallow ponds and channels, the riverbeds of rivers even if they

are not continuous, the ponds of the sands, and the rice paddies.

Highly aggressive, it hunts amphibians and the larvae of macro-

invertebrates and also scavenges the carrion of birds and fish. It

churns over the deposits on the beds of the ponds and digs alco-

ves, where it seeks refuge.The effect on the amphibian population

has been significant, as perhaps has the effect on the invertebrates

and the bottoms of lakes also.The spread of this freshwater cray-

fish is due to the fact that it can move easily out of water, and to

human distribution too, since it has become a valuable commercial

product. One collateral effect that has amplified the overall negati-

ve impact of this species is the fact that it is caught in traps, which

cause often-reiterated management problems:The fishermen place

their traps in the Nature Park's canals and ponds, disturbing the

terrestrial fauna and trapping aquatic life other than the freshwater

crayfish, like eels, turtles, black necked grebes, coots and even

ducks. On the positive side, otters, the white stork and herons

eagerly catch the crayfish. In fact, the increase, in the 1990s, in the

colonies of white storks in La Dehesa de Abajo, in Coria, close to

the Parks, has been essentially due to the abundant food resources

of these crayfish.

The larvae of other decapods, and even adults, can travel in

ballast waters of ships sailing the Guadalquivir River to the Seville

port. José Antonio Cuesta, of the CSIC Institute of Marine Sciences

in Cádiz, has found Palaemon macrodactylus in the estuary, an

oriental species to add to the native species of prawns (Palaemon

longirostris, P. adspersus, P. serratus, P. elegans). Other, more

recent introduced species have also been found, such as

Rhithropanopeus harrisii, Synidotea laticauda, Eriocheir sinensis9.

Some of the terrestrial animal introductions date back many

centuries, like the genet (Genetta genetta), probably introduced by

the Arabs, or the slender mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), of

African origin.The chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleo) too, rare in

the protected areas of Doñana but frequent in the coastal dunes of

Huelva and Cádiz, was introduced from Africa. The azure-winged

magpie (Cyanopica cyanus), originally from the Far East, is cited in

many reports as a species introduced as the result of Portuguese

sailors roaming these coasts in the 16th century. But the recent dis-

covery of remains of this bird at a Neanderthal site in two caves

very close to Gibraltar would appear to invalidate the hypothesis

in favour thus far12. The Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca ibera) is a

case of an ancient introduction that experienced a sharp fall in

population numbers, but then became established again on several

occasions in the 20th century by means of successive re-introduc-

tions of specimens from Morocco.

Other species have arrived thanks to the unintentional help of

humankind.The sands, silts and trees of Doñana are a hostile envi-

ronment for species that need substrates of stone, walls or cracks.

Yet, houses offer excellent eaves for swallows, swifts and martins,

and cracks for species of bats, and holes and stones for lichen.The

mortar of walls is a lime substrate for hedge mustard.Wellheads,

with their damp stones, are ideal for the fine leaves of maiden hair

(Adiantum capillus-veneris), only found in these enclaves.Another

curious case is the rock rose (Cistus ladanifer),with large white flo-

wers, abundant in the western Iberian Peninsula but infrequent in

Doñana and practically non existent on its dune cover. However, in

the 1970s, an access road had to be built in the Reserve of the

National Park to gain access to the Doñana Palace, using gravel and

silt from outside of the area in its construction. The rock rose

immediately colonised the favourable substrate, spreading in lines

along the ditches on either side, although it has been unable to

penetrate any further into these sandy soils.

Voluntary introductions include, first of all, the fallow deer

(Dama dama), introduced on several occasions, either as semi-

domestic livestock with herders, or for hunting. In 1829, the

Marquis of Villafranca brought camels from the Canary Islands to

Cádiz for farm work, but the bad tempered animals proved difficult

to handle. Giving up his attempts, he released them into the

Marshes, where the herd survived, despite periods of flooding and

the pressure from neighbouring villagers who hunted them.

There are large flocks of oystercatchers and gulls (yellow-legged gull, lesserblack-backed gull, and Audouin’s gull) on the coastal strip of Doñana, andyou can often see the sandpipers and plovers on the beach, running backand forth with the waves. The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus)nests on the actual beach. In the picture, a group of oystercatchers.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

195

Chapman came across them in the flooded Marshes in 1883, devo-

ting long accounts to them in Wild Spain (1893) and Unexplored

Spain (1910) that describe his failed attempts to catch up with

them on horseback. His testimony was initially received with incre-

dulity among European zoologists, but their existence was soon

confirmed.Phillip,Duke of Orleans, read the description and,on the

17th of June 1893, he sent Chapman a letter with the details of his

efforts to protect the camels from the "terrible poachers" that

crossed the Guadalquivir from Trebujena village and sold their meat

as venison. He enclosed some photographs taken in the spring of

that year, with a pole device to catch a camel from horseback by

passing a lasso over its head.William Garvey is also mentioned, for

having easily caught up with three camels in the Marshes in 1907,

having chased them by car! The last individuals survived until the

60s.

The extensive area of grazing offered by the Marshes supports

large flocks and herds in spring and summer, in a productive but

hostile environment that has produced some interesting local bre-

eds, like the Lebrija sheep, the retinto or stray cow and the marsh

horse. The legend of the oxen of Gerion, the mythical King of

Tartessus in the Tasks of Hercules, could be a reference to the

ancient livestock of the Doñana Marshes. The introduction of

marsh cattle to the Americas is well documented, as the Indies

Fleets sailed from Seville, loading freight all along the Guadalquivir

Estuary with heavy cargos and animals in Sanlúcar.The herds of long

horn and mustang horses that transformed the resources of

America have this distant link with Doñana. The connection has

survived among the fishermen of Sanlúcar in the legend of the

Piedra de Salmedina, a reef close to the mouth of the Guadalquivir.

The legend says that the cows of Doñana jumped into the ocean in

a desperate attempt to find the animals taken to America, and that

the sea returned their bodies on the Piedra de Salmedina. In the

end, there may be an element of truth to the legend, as when the

Guadalquivir suffered violent flash flooding, barges, huts, trees and

many dead cattle were swept away to the beach of Bajo de Guia. It

is feasible that some cattle carcasses may have been swept up onto

the Piedra de Salmedina during these events.

There has also been speculation about land animals crossing

the Atlantic by their own means. In the 20th century, the cattle egret

(Bubulcus ibis), so abundant in Doñana and the surrounding area,

The legend says that the cows of Doñana jumped into the ocean in a desperate attempt to find the cattle taken to America, and that the sea returned their bod-ies on the Piedra de Salmedina. The herds of long horn cows and mustang horses that transformed the resources of America have this distant link with Doñana.In the picture, a bull of mostrenco breed in the pastures of Doñana showing its "beach" horns.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

196

colonised wetlands and pastures in the Americas.The first disco-

very was apparently in Guyana in 1930, and from there it spread

through South America. It had reached Florida by 1948, spreading

quickly through the United States in the 1950s, with occasional

sightings in Canada. In the other direction, the ruddy duck (Oxyura

jamaicensis) was introduced from North America in the 1950s,bre-

eding with the local white-headed duck (O. leucocephala) and dis-

placing it. In recent years, a programme has been successfully imple-

mented to protect the native duck in the National Park.

The Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex humilis), from its country of

origin via the shipping ports, has colonised the middle latitudes. It

has very recently displaced native species in certain areas, without

any possibility of control. With introduced species, there are the

two sides to the coin. In some cases, a species has arrived, to be

followed later by a predator. For example, the potato beetle

(Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was introduced in Spain much later

than the potato, its food plant, although it eats other species too.

The processes that led the Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexip-

pus) to settle in Doñana remain to be seen.This is a large American

danaid butterfly that makes migrations lasting several generations

between Mexico and Canada. It seems to have reached Europe

from America, but the Doñana specimens may have come from

migrations seen on the Costa del Sol and originating in the Canary

Islands. Their presence has been confirmed in the National Park,

where a large breeding colony of Gomphocarpus was found in

Marismillas, in 2004. Introduced asclepiadaceae, its food plant, are

to be found here in the form of Asclepias curassavica and

Gomphocarpus fruticosus.

It is also worth mentioning that, in very recent times, 30-cm-long

specimens of serrasalmidae, cousins of the piranha, and the red-bellied

pacu (Piaractus brachypomus) have been caught by the Guadalquivir

Docks in Seville, between 2002 and 2004.They are becoming one of

the latest threats to the area from exotic species.

A fleeting glimpse at tracking species introduction gives us a

general idea of what Doñana is today and, basically, if we wish to

conserve certain environments and ecosystems, then the control

of exotic species is an essential task in the management of pro-

tected areas. Introductions are a "biodiversity time-bomb" that

could explode at any moment, colonising Doñana with non-nati-

ve species.

THE SPECTACLE OF MOTHER NATURE

AND THE LONG ROAD TO HER SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

The attraction of a natural space lies in the diversity and

uniqueness of its various manifestations: the landscapes, expres-

sions of its flora and fauna, the forms of the terrain, its geological

constitution. It also lies in the possibility of seeing species that are

rare or nonexistent in other places, the chance to see them sur-

vive, flourish, nest, hunt and defend themselves, or the chance to

admire large numbers of a single species.Among all the intense, yet

ephemeral and dynamic processes, the ones that exert the greatest

attraction in the end, are those that manage to convey the living

elements of how nature actually works..

It is a kaleidoscope of images that triggers our memories of

Doñana: the vibrant "open aviaries" in the cork trees of La Vera; the

flocks of flamingos forming a pink brow over wet surfaces, which

they light up with their reflection when they take flight; the flocks of

geese flying to Cerro del Trigo at dawn to eat sand; the terns nose-

diving into the water for fish; the columns of white storks and black

kites flying in spirals over the dry marshes when they prepare to

migrate; the hundreds of dying carp in pools fast drying out, lying

prey to the kites; the bellowing of the deer on autumn nights; the

advance of shifting dunes with sheets of sand that creep forward as

silent wraps to bury the vegetation; the furious flash flooding of

Arroyo del Partido that has its delta overflowing and the marshes

filling with turbulent and milky waters; the storm that reaches the

foot of the El Asperillo cliffs, with parts of them collapsing; the first

great storm of autumn that floods the parched and cracked marsh-

es, releasing the aromas trapped by the summer drought to take

command of the air and trigger a storm of smells...

For nature lovers, the spectacle of Mother Nature spurs them

to curiosity: the need to know what, when, how, how big, etc.

Thanks to the high degree of conservation of its ecosystems and

Herons are a constant feature of the aquatic ecosystems of Doñana. Thegrey heron (Ardea cinerea) is the most emblematic species, with its slow,elegant flight and its unmoving posture in the mudflats. The colonyobserved by Benis and Valverde in Doñana in 1961 had over 200 occupiednests and, thanks to the protection afforded to the species in the NationalPark, its presence has spread to other areas, further north. Photograph: CENEAM files.

Santa Olalla pond in AutumnAuthor: Regla Alonso Miura

198

the fact that the territory is relatively unchanged, Doñana has

always offered excellent potential for answering these questions.

This seems to be reason enough to see the attraction the National

Park of Doñana holds for leading scientists to come and carry out

research here.Thus, it is an important focus for scientific investiga-

tion. The symbiosis between researchers and the protected area

has grown and continues to be reinforced day after day. But,

beneath all of this, there is an experience that dates back to ancient

times, because Doñana is and always has been a difficult and almost

incomprehensible space, though always open to knowledge. The

ongoing discovery of Doñana appears to have unfolded in a series

of initiatives isolated in time and space, but nothing could be fur-

ther from the truth.

In Chapter 2, Fernando Hiraldo, Director of the Doñana

Biological Station, provides basic detail of the research done in one

of the most important natural areas of the world, especially in

incorporating the wetlands with their surroundings. But to have

gotten this far, one has to admit that we have come a long way:The

knowledge, that now enables us to analyse Doñana from so many

angles and in so many fields, is founded in a chain of inherited, and

often little known, efforts. Following this path will also enable us

to fairly assess the biological treasures that have been discovered

to date.

The first steps in the scientific discovery of Doñana

We start our journey at the beginning of the 16th century.Soon

after trans-Atlantic voyages began, the Casa de Contratación

(Trading Company) was founded in Seville in 1503.This became the

city's leading scientific and technical centre.The Pilot in Chief was

responsible for their education and navigation, and the professors

of cosmography were responsible for cartography and making

instruments. Leading international figures were chosen, often

changing Court in the process. The list of these leading names is

impressive, including Amerigo Vespucci, Juan Díaz de Solís and

Sebastian Cabot.

The inclusion of American plants was soon begun and, in 1574

Monardes, from Seville, added descriptions of the sassafras and

tobacco plants, detail of dissemination of maize and peanuts from

Seville, and reports on the pineapple.This excellent beginning ran

aground economically in the 17th century and, unfortunately, cultur-

ally and scientifically too, despite the immense potential of relations

with the Americas for driving knowledge and discovery.Three quar-

ters of the science books published in the 17th century were includ-

ed in the index of the officers of the Inquisition, like Fernando

Valdés (1612) and Antonio Zapata (1632). The writer Miguel

Delibes recreates the suffocating atmosphere for new ideas during

the reign of King Phillip IV in El Hereje. In this context, the institu-

tions fell into decline and the Hispalense University of Seville,

founded in 1505, followed suit.

The recovery of science and the appearance of the natural sci-

ences occurred through the Enlightenment, which advanced

through Europe and was consolidated in Spain when the House of

Bourbon replaced the House of Austria in 1701. In Seville, a group

of doctors, chemists, priests and "enlightened scholars" maintained

the Medical-Chemical Tertulia Hispalense. In 1700, King Charles II

approved the statutes of this group as the Royal Medical Society,

which were endorsed by King Phillip V a year later.This society was

founded at approximately the same time as the Cimento Academy

of Florence and the London Royal Society.This was the age of sci-

entific revolution;perhaps the most important change in direction in

the history of science.

The Tertulia Hispalense discussion group became ever more

active in its natural fields, especially in medicine which included

medicinal plants. It employed a botanist,Antonio Ramos, from 1776

to 1780, to collect plants from the region and develop the Botanical

Gardens, which would have as many as 300 species. From 1786 to

1800, the Gardens were directed by Pedro Abad, who managed to

create a herbarium of 2000 sheets, 1709 of which have been con-

served in Seville University. The Society became the Seville

Academy of Medicine and Surgery and they ran the Gardens until

the 19th century, when they took over the San Telmo Palace, later

surrendered to the Montpensier family and practically lost when

alterations were carried out in 1913.

In 1804,Godoy sent oil-producing Argania spinosa seeds to the

Sanlúcar Economic Society for Acclimatisation.This was the nucle-

us of the La Paz Experimental and Acclimatisation Gardens

designed by Esteban Boutelou in 1806. The Gardens were

The dryer areas of the sands of Doñana are the home to thyme, lavender(Lavandula stoechas in the picture), rosemary and several species ofDianthus, Cistus, Arabis, Malcolmia, Leucojum.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

199

destroyed in 1808 when Godoy fell into disgrace. Esteban returned

to Aranjuez and, together with his brother, Claudio Boutelou, he

worked with the Chair of Applied Botany of the Royal Botanical

Gardens of Madrid. But Claudio was expelled from the Botanical

Gardens in the political purges of 1813, and was hired in Seville in

1819 by the Guadalquivir Company "to take charge of all the

Agriculture works, plough and plant the lands granted to the

Company with all kinds of trees". He started a nursery in 1826.

Hence, Claudio Boutelou designed the abovementioned

Acclimatisation Gardens in Seville in 1832, in the grounds of the San

Telmo Palace.The gardens were endowed with a Chair of Botany,

and Boutelou was appointed professor, a post he maintained until

his death in 1842. He was appointed in 1833 to run the Alcazar

Gardens, which included the Palacio del Rey in Coto del Lomo de

Grullo as an annex, which explains his repeated botanical trips to

the area of Doñana, visiting the islands, the marshes and also taking

samples from Sanlúcar on the left hand riverbank.This means that

the Doñana area had a professional botanist in the mid 19th centu-

ry. Claudio Boutelou's grand herbarium (7,000 sheets) includes the

plants of Doñana and Seville, specimens from the Royal Botanical

Gardens of Madrid, from his brother Esteban Boutelou and from

other botanists. Willkomm, author of Prodromus Florae

Hispanicae, visited Seville in 1844, to study the plant collection, of

which he described 10 new species and one variety. He also

appointed Iberis bouteloui and Tetragonolobus bouteloui to this

family of scientific accomplishments.

As far as we can see, this did not go unnoticed by the scientif-

ic community of the early 19th century. Mariano Lagasca, a favourite

pupil of the great botanist Cavanilles, explored the right bank of the

Guadalquivir in the summer of 1823, from Coria to Coto del Rey,

studying the vegetation of Lomo del Grullo. On this first expedi-

tion, he found three new species for science that he described:

Loeflingia baetica, with the diagnosis that "its corolla is longer than

the calyx and it has five stamens", and Malva anodaeformis and

Ononis subspicata in the same area. Of the Malva, he adds "I have

seen it in flower from mid May until the 7th of June and I surmise

that it will flower until July. I picked it in Coria del Rio, in damp

grounds, on my way to the area called Coto del Rey". He indicates

two forms: the A, with a single stalk, and the B with a branched

stalk. Each of these forms is now considered a different species.A

is Malva althaeoides, described by Cavanilles a few years earlier in

1793, and B is Linneaus' Malva hispanica.About Ononis, he points

out that "it grows in great abundance in sandy areas of the men-

tioned Coto del Rey and especially next to the track. It blooms in

The marine coastal organisms have been studied in-depth from Portugal to the Mediterranean coasts, all along the Andalusia coast. The 154 species of opisto-branchia molluscs found highlight the contact between the Mediterranean groups and the Portuguese and Mauritanian groups to provide a highly diversifiedset. 59 species have been reported in the sector between Cabo Roche and the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Doñana. The knobbed triton (Charonia lampas lam-pas), in the picture, is a prosobranch mollusc, and one of the endangered species of this coastline that is now protected.

200

May and June and it appears to me to be an annual plant. I have seen

it eaten frequently by the cattle, but I do not know what kind of

livestock grazes it". Ononis subspicata is now considered as the

baetica variety of Ononis baetica, described by Clemente in 1807.

There is another variety of O. baetica, described by Devesa (1986),

the donanensis variety that is typical of the Doñana dunes.

The exploration of Lagasca provided the first scientific invento-

ry of Doñana.The list of 22 species of vascular plants, three new

ones for science that the author had found in Coto del Rey togeth-

er with the species he describes, is reproduced in Table 2.

The Hispalense University played a fundamental role in this long

process. In 1857, the Moyano Plan created the Faculties of Exact,

Physical, and Natural Sciences, with a Department of Natural

History. Miguel Colmeiro, Professor of Botany from 1847 to 1857,

was responsible for the repeated collection expeditions to Doñana

and the Guadalquivir. After he was transferred, Antonio Machado

Nuñez (1845-83) was appointed Professor of Mineralogy and

Zoology, and he too organised scientific expeditions to Doñana, the

Marshes and the Guadalquivir. At this time, the Hispalense

University planted a Botanical Garden, with greenhouses, for con-

ducting trials with crops and other plants. In 1864, Machado was

sent some eucalyptus seeds from the Ministry of Agriculture, for a

trial in the Garden. It is ironic that this early scientific presentation

of the eucalyptus led to its domination of vast areas of Doñana in

less than a century.

Antonio Machado Nuñez, grandfather of poets Antonio and

Manuel Machado, promoted the Natural Sciences and the

University of Seville in general. In fact, he was Chancellor of the

University. He introduced the ideas of evolution, translating and

annotating Darwin and other authors. His research work included

vertebrate collections, which incorporated the data of Antonio

Cabrera, Canon of Cádiz (1763-1827), who had studied the marine

flora and birds of the Gulf of Cádiz and published works on the fish

in 1817. In 1854, Machado published a Catalogue of the birds of

Seville, including parts of Huelva and Cádiz. Unfortunately, he did

not tackle Doñana, arguing that "in the Marshes of the left bank of

the Guadalquivir, not far from Lebrija and Trebujena ... there is a

diversity of waders and web-footed birds that I have found most

striking; the right bank of the river is also very abundant in the same

TABLE 2Inventory of plant species in Coto del Rey drawn up by Mariano Lagascain 1823. This is the earliest scientific inventory of the Doñana region.

The water crowfoot isone of the mostshowy element of thefresh water vegeta-tion. It is a sub-merged or partiallyfloating plant wide-spread all over themarshes, includingthe relatively brackishareas of Marismillasand Las NuevasPhotograph: CENEAM. files.

1. Loeflingia baetica

2. Malva anodaeformis (=M. hispanica)

3. Ononis subspicata (=O. baetica)

4. Malva hispanica

5. Thapsia foetida (=Elaeoselinum foetidum)

6. Seseli ammoides (=Ammoides pusilla)

7. Cachrys sicula

8. Cistus albidus

9. Cistus crispus

10. Cistus thymifolius (=Fumana thymifolia)

11. Lavandula stoechas

12. Scorpiurus vermiculata

13. Nigella hispanica (=N. papillosa)

14. Herniaria annua?

15. Polycarpon tetraphyllum

16. Oenanthe peucedanifolia

17. Oenanthe globulosa

18. Satureja capitata (=Thymbra capitata)

19. Ornithopus compressus

20. Ornithopus nudiflorus?

21. Corrigiola littoralis

22. Festuca alopecuros (=Vulpia alopecuros)

The species name within brackets is the name currently in use, if it has changed. Two ofthe species are doubtfully identified. Lagasca mentions this list of species as accompany-ing plants to Malva anodaeformis, but C.littoralis, F. alopecurus and Leoflingia baetica, whichaccompanied Ononis subspicata.

201

orders, particularly in El Rocío and Almonte, and the Coto de

Doñana, but, as I have not been able to study them sufficiently, I will

leave it for another occasion to provide a list of these...". It is a pity

that his wish never came true.

In 1856, he published Fish of the Guadalquivir and the Gulf of

Cádiz, in 1859, a list of amphibians and reptiles, and in 1869, a valu-

able study of the mammals of western Andalusia that includes an

anthropological essay. Hence, Machado completed the first wildlife

review of the vertebrates of Seville and the surrounding area,

including the Guadalquivir and the Gulf of Cádiz. The area of

Doñana now appeared in the scientific literature. The author

pointed out in his catalogue of fish that "there is a need for teach-

ers to gradually disseminate the creatures of each province", fore-

shadowing by many years what we now understand as environ-

mental education.

The catalogue of fish includes some errors, attributable to the

level of ichthyology of the times, such as classing eels and elvers as

different species.He offers a list of species for the Guadalquivir and

the other rivers and, for the River Guadaira, for example, he lists

the killifish Aphanius baeticus (which used to be considered as the

fartet, Aphanius iberus), the most recently described species of

vertebrate in Andalusia (2002). He mentions the sturgeon, pointing

out that it swims up the Guadalquivir as far as Cordoba, although,

sadly, this species was only to survive about another century after

this mention. He also talks about the Beluga sturgeon (Huso

huso), a sturgeon of the eastern Mediterranean that is

unlikely to be found in the Guadalquivir. Curiously

enough, he also mentions the presence of carp "in

the water tanks of the Seville aqueduct". Carp

and tench were bred in El Alcázar and in the

pools of La Buhaira Estate, in Seville, both

of which are served by the aqueducts

known as Los Caños de Carmona.

When Machado left, González

Fragoso took over his post at the

Hispalense University, conducting the

first studies of cryptogam plants. In

1881, he published a list of medicinal

plants; in 1883, the cryptogams of

Seville; and in 1886, the marine

algae of the Gulf of Cádiz.

Salvador Calderón Arana took

over from him in 1884,organis-

ing the University of Seville's

excellent collection of min-

erals and fossils and the

collection of natu-

ralised animals that came to be known as "The Cabinet". In 1913,

Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany were brought together under one

faculty chair, held by Francisco Barras Aragón, who organised the

University Herbarium and completed it with new collection expe-

ditions that also included Doñana and the banks of the

Guadalquivir. Manuel de Paul and Manuel

Molina Ramos worked with Calderón on

the Cabinet, organising new collection

expeditions and re-arranging herbaria,

re-labelling the sheets and suppressing the

original identifications, which has prevent-

ed us from discovering the origin of many of these

plants, including some of the plants collected in

Doñana. The remains of the insect collection that

was in the Cabinet in 1970 may be the work of

Molina, as he had worked with the great entomologist,

Ignacio Bolivar, in the Central University of Madrid.

In the 20th century, the Hispalense University created its

Faculty of Sciences and started to set up research centres for

the CSIC (Spanish Higher Scientific Research Council). In sup-

port of conservation biology and molecular biology, the Bachelor

of Science Degree in Biology, created in 1965, attracted an excel-

lent teaching staff and promoted the integration of research in

Ecology, Zoology and Conservation. Botany took the lead over

Zoology in spreading the word about Doñana. Moreover, the

Boars enter the Marshes when the water level is low, eating the fishtrapped in pools and sometimes destroying the breeding colonies offlamingos and other birds. Picture of boar hunting with a lance, taken inthe 1940s in La Vera.Photograph: Files of the Doñana Biological Station.

The hobby (Falco subbuteo) is a small summer hawk that nestslate in the abandoned nests of other birds of prey. It is notespecially abundant in Doñana, where it hunts in the openecosystems of the marsh and dune scrub, catching smallbirds and insects on the wing.Photograph: CENEAM. files.

ing the journeys of Hemilco, Pliny and Strabon. He offers the first

data on granulometric classifications and apparent density (2.23

g/cm3), along with the mineralogy of the sands, which were domi-

nated by 81% quartz, and he described the deposits of ilmenite and

goethite interspersed in the formation. His experiments on the

absorption of air moisture by the sands, increasing its weight by

12%, were the first to be published on the field capacity of Doñana

sands. His explanation of how the infiltrating water is retained in

the sandy profile is correct. However, the mechanism he proposes

for the advance of the dune front, with the sand crossing the inter-

dune flats with the help of the wind, is incorrect.

In the 1930s,Gavala studied the geology and geomorphology of

the coastal sector of Cádiz, the dunes and aeolian mantles, and the

erosive morphology of the Doñana surfaces, in the reports of his

Geological Map.The quality of his field work is striking, as his map-

ping is very accurate in the extension and location of the rocky

outcrops, bearing in mind that he did not have the help of aerial

photography in the region until the mid forties. Gavala was a pho-

tography enthusiast and he set up his own laboratory. Because of

this, the extensive archive that helped him to illustrate the reports

of the map has been preserved. His greatest contribution is the

description of the sheets of Geological Map 1:50,000 of El

Asperillo, El Rocío, and Palacio de Doñana, printed between 1936

and 1956, offering high quality geological mapping.The cartograph-

202

material that was identified was added to the herbariums to finally

form the Historic Herbarium of the University of Seville,where this

great scientific legacy is conserved and studied in depth by

Salgueiro González.

Table 3 lists a few of the hundreds of specimens collected in

Doñana during the first series of scientific campaigns, including

some collected by Pedro Abat, who had also explored the region

of Doñana in search of plants. Some of the plants that he collected

are also conserved as part of the Historic Herbarium. E. Boutelou

explored the left bank of the Guadalquivir, collecting samples from

Sanlúcar and indicating the community he was exploring for some

of them: the Guadalquivir riverbank, the beaches and the La Algaida

dune. Other collection expeditions are labelled: the Islands of the

Estuary (Isla Mayor, Isla Menor), the Doñana Marshes, and many

others, "banks of the Guadalquivir", without any further details, so

we do not know if they are from the Doñana stretch of the Estuary

or from collections made further upstream.The area around the

Palacio and El Coto de Doñana, that borders the Marshes to the

south, was explored in detail by C. Boutelou, who collected plants

in this area systematically. Colmeiro conducted another expedition

both to this area and to Almonte in May 1885, reaching the dunes,

where he collected samples of juniper and prickly juniper in the

Coto, and characteristic species of the low areas between dunes,

including many species of heather.

In the field of Geology, Francisco Lujan published in 1851 a

structural description of Western Spain from Toledo to Huelva,

where he inserts a description of Doñana and the evolution of the

Guadalquivir Estuary. Marcelino San Miguel de la Camara (1913)

described the dunes of the province of Huelva in an historic essay

on their evolution, based on old geographic documentation, includ-

To a certain extent, the Doñana Marshes had the appearance of an archi-pelago, in which the risen vetas on which people built huts and settle-ments were the islands. The inhabitants travelled with livestock andbelongings from one to another on horseback through the shallow watersor, if the water was deep, in "cajones" - flat bottomed punts that theypushed along with a pole. In the picture, Veta Luenga cut off in the flood-ed marsh.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

TABLE 3Examples of pressed plant specimens from historic collectionexpeditions in each sector.

EXPLORED AREA DATE AUTHOR SOME OF THE SPECIESCOLLECTED

Coto del Rey 1823 M. Lagasca Loefflingia baeticaOnonis baeticaMalva hispanica

Coto del Rey E. Boutelou Limonium ferulaceum

Almonte May Colmeiro Juniperus sabina

1858 Erica inflata

Almonte P. Abat Calluna vulgaris

Sanlúcar E. Boutelou Atriplex halimus

Sanlúcar coast Barras Althea officinalis

Lithrum acutangulum

Eucalyptus

Cakile maritima

Sanlúcar before P. Abat

1800

Sanlucar Algaida 1858 Colmeiro Myrtus communis

Marshes and islands E. Boutelou

Islands C. Boutelou Frankenia maritima

203

ic interpretation of Avieno's Sea Itinerary is an outstanding person-

al effort of will that has not won any critical praise.The evolution

that he proposes for the old Lacus Ligustinus up-dates the descrip-

tion of San Miguel de la Camara and has been quoted repeatedly in

the literature. However, it is not accurate, as it incorporates a com-

plex process that includes advances and retreats of the coastline

and major climate changes in a single episode of erosion fill.

Moreover, some of the present forms have been inherited from

preceding glacial cycles and prior eustatic changes as Cary Zazo,

Joaquin Rodriguez Vidal and other coastal geomorphologists have

shown.These are summarised in one of the contributions to this

book.

The first monographs on Doñana

As can be inferred from the scientific historiography described

above,Doñana does not appear with its own profile in the research

conducted in the region until the early 20th century.Abel Chapman,

in Unexplored Spain published in 1910, devotes several chapters to

certain species present in Doñana, like flamingos,providing interest-

ing details on their populations. He found a "mystery" in the flamin-

go that he was unable to solve: its reproduction. He spent years

searching the Doñana Marshes for the breeding colonies until he

found them. Yet, he found that clutches of eggs failed to hatch

because of the weather and chicks only hatched every four years,

which he considered incompatible with maintaining population lev-

els. It was to take almost half a century for the mystery to be solved

- by Valverde who discovered that the main breeding ground was

Laguna de Fuentepiedra, in Malaga, and that the parents raised their

chicks by bringing the food they needed from Doñana and else-

where.The flamingos of Western Mediterranean behave as a single

large population that is currently growing thanks to the protection

afforded to these enclaves and to the fact that they have established

new breeding colonies, like the one in the Ebro Delta, in 2004.

The Hispalense University botany publications and campaigns,

Machado's study of the fish of the Guadalquivir, Gavala's geological

works, and the forestry study on the dune mantles and their re-

forestation, all these did not focus on El Coto de Doñana. It was

only after 1953 that a series of important scientific publications

appeared that were to lay the foundations of the future of Doñana,

based on research. Francisco Bernis had the honour of starting this

series.Working with Valverde, he ringed birds in the pajareras, the

nesting colonies, in 1952, providing the first censuses and descrip-

tions of colonies, along with an outline of the vegetation, ecosys-

tems and landscapes.

Francisco Bernis Madrazo was a superb naturalist with training

in botany and a great interest in birds. In fact, early on he published

articles on them, aimed at determining a list of species to be found

in Spain and to establish common names to make their study easi-

er. He also launched an ambitious attempt to take a national cen-

sus of the white stork, by correspondence. But, Bernis had heard of

Doñana and decided to make a visit. He obtained financial support

for the campaign from a doctor in Lugo and he invited a bird enthu-

siast student of his, José Antonio Valverde, to accompany him. In the

González Byass Company wineries in Jerez, he asked the family for

their permission to visit the Coto de Doñana, of which they were

co-owners. In June 1952, the three leading figures in the zoological

re-founding of Doñana came together: Paco Bernis, José Antonio

Valverde and Mauricio González, who were to work together for

half a century, changing the course of history of nature conserva-

tion in Spain.

In 1952, Bernis and Valverde published a description of the

pajareras (nesting colonies) of Doñana, cork oaks famous for the

enormous quantity of birds that nest in them that they describe as

the crown jewels of the Iberian wildlife. In the following, and most

expressive paragraph, they reflect: "As we write these lines, the

threat of colonisation and industrialisation hang over the famous

hunting grounds of the Guadalquivir.Will it not be possible to leave

even one small corner of this natural wilderness intact forever?"

This important text clearly highlights the urgency of conserving

Doñana and planted the seed that was to bear fruit seventeen

years later with the creation of the National Park.

General Franco, Head of Spanish Government, visited Doñana

in 1952 to monitor the success of the eucalyptus plantations that

the State had imposed on the area. He asked about the impact that

replanting had on hunting.The González Family thought it worth

writing to Franco to explain that if the government continued to

plant eucalyptus, it would put an end to all big game hunting.

Red crested pochard (Netta rufina). The Doñana Marshes shelter most ofthe Andalusia population, with an average of almost 2000 specimens win-tering there.Photography: CENEAM files.

204

Although they agreed, the other owners did not have the courage

to sign the letter. Mauricio González, with the co-operation of

Francisco (Paco) Bernis, gave shape to the idea, suggesting that a

protected area be created, offering: "…as long as we remain the

owner of the Estate, we undertake to conserve it, should your

Excellency so desire, as a reserve worthy of Spain, as we consider

that this unique estate deserves the privileges that national parks

and reserves enjoy". González personally explained the situation

and delivered the report to General Franco who made no com-

ment, but he did read it the very same day. He did not support the

idea of creating a Park, but he suspended the order to repopulate

Doñana with eucalyptus, saving the area from the death sentence

hanging over it. Through this little known part of the history of

Doñana, Mauricio González and his father created conditions to its

future conservation.

At last, and thanks again to the González family, Doñana was

presented to the international scientific community in the

"Doñana Expeditions" of 1952, 1956 and 1957. Guy Mountfort,

one of the participants, has described them in a magnificent book

that we would like to pay tribute to here: Portrait of a Wilderness.

As the author explains so well in his dedication, Mauricio Gordon

and his wife Milagro were the heart and soul of the Expeditions,

enabling their interest in birds to overcome the Customs prob-

lems that arose with the logistics and communication equipment

in that small ornithological Babel.

Mauricio, a chemist by trade, had shown an interest in

ornithology since his youth. Attracted by the descriptions of

Doñana in Chapman's book, Wild Spain, many naturalists and

ornithologists had attempted to reach this nature sanctuary.The

González family kindly met their requests and, in Mauricio, they

came across an expert in the local fauna. In 1952, Professor

François Bourlière and a group of French ornithologists planned a

trip to the south of Spain, inviting Guy Mountfort and Dr. Roger

Peterson to join them in a small expedition in April of that year.

After exploring La Janda Lagoon, the River Guadalete and other

wetlands, they reached Jerez, where Mauricio helped them to plan

a visit to the Doñana Marshes.Roger Peterson and Guy Mountfort

crossed the estuary and rode with Antonio Chico, Head Warden,

to the Palace, making the First Expedition, lasting a week.The great

diversity of birds and resources convinced them to organise a seri-

ous major scientific expedition, inviting specialists in mammals, veg-

etation and other biological groups and, thus, they managed to put

together a outstanding team in 1956, including Mauricio González,

Roger Peterson and Guy Mountfort, together with Eric Hosking

and a group of six experts in scientific photography and nature

documentaries that were starting to become popular at the time.

Lord Alanbrooke, a leading field marshal of the British Army, and

his wife formed part of the expedition as documentalists.The sci-

entific results of the Second Expedition were excellent, identifying

171 species of birds, one of which, the masked shrike (Lanius nubi-

cus), was reported for the first time in Spain.

The Third Expedition, the most ambitious of all, set out on the

28th of April 1957, when the advance party reached Jerez. It was

made up mainly of members of the earlier expeditions, together

with Nobel Laureate, Sir Julian Huxley and his wife, Max

Nicholson, Director of Nature Conservancy in Great Britain, José

Antonio Valverde, Mauricio González and his wife Milagro, or

"Doña Milagro" as Guy Mountfort called her.The scientific and cin-

ematographic results of the Third Expedition were also of great

importance, identifying 168 birds in Coto Doñana and 204 in all,

22 of which had not been found in 1956, and making the first doc-

umentaries of the imperial eagle with chicks in the nest. Lynx, rep-

tiles, insects (some 300 species collected by Guy Mountfort) and

the vegetation (240 species collected by Julian Huxley), were also

studied.

In 1956 and 1957,Valverde published new contributions in which

he mentions the herons of Doñana and an important article on the

lynx, also in 1957. In 1958, he published An ecological sketch of the

Coto Donana, inspired by the recently published work by Nicholson

on the Camargue and Doñana.His description,with profiles and bar

charts by Valverde himself and photographs by Eric Hosking, is a

milestone for the area. In the references, he mentions Portrait of a

Wilderness by Mountfort, the first monograph on Doñana, which

was also published in 19589.

For nature lovers, the spectacle of Mother Nature spurs them to curiosity:the need to know what, when, how, how big, etc. Thanks to the highdegree of conservation of its creatures and the fact that the territory is rel-atively unchanged, Doñana has always offered excellent potential foranswering these questions. El Acebuche pond in the Doñana NationalPark.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

205

The Portrait text follows the tradition of 19th century British

travel books, but it completes the information about the route

with precise scientific detail of species, and excellent sketches and

photographs by Eric Hosking.The accounts of the Coto Doñana

Expedition convey an adventurous image of a team of scientists

overcoming difficulties in the remote south of Spain, filled with pic-

turesque characters like Pepe Menegildo, travelling barefoot, and

uneducated folk attached to their ancestral traditions and inca-

pable of understanding the efforts of science.The text considers

Valverde an excellent zoologist, an absolute expert in vertebrate

wildlife, and it reproduces his diagram of relations for the lynx, and

his ecological profiles. But, in line with the cliché of romantic trav-

ellers in Andalusia, he is presented as a fun loving and entertaining

figure, unafraid of animals or of the perils involved in catching them

by hand, as he often did with snakes and vipers, taking lizards or

amphibians out of his pockets at lunch or explaining how he

caught a lynx by hand by covering its head with a jacket.According

to the book, the scientists, mostly British, were exploring unchart-

ed territory, about which little was known,offering the contents of

Portrait to science.The works of Valverde and Bernis on Doñana

appear in the references to Spanish authors, together with the

classic works by Cabrera on mammals, the works of Baca on the

birds of Spain the works of the Duke of Almazán on hunting, and

little else. This is something that is in sharp contrast, as we have

seen here, with the fact that the flora and fauna had already been

studied for over a century, with surveys of the fish, reptiles, mam-

mals and birds, and the fact that there were already descriptions

and maps of the geology. Corema album, mentioned as a novelty,

had already been collected by Clemente around 1880 in Cádiz and

trials had been done with it as a species for anchoring the dunes

at the turn of the century.

The principal merit of Portrait was that it validated for zoolo-

gy the presence of a long list of birds, the existence of colonies,

the "pajareras" of great size living in a preserved natural environ-

ment, and the existence of an exceptional world of dunes, marsh-

es, forest and scrub. It also offered excellent pictures of species

that had hardly been seen before, like the imperial eagle on its nest

with chicks. Doñana as a valuable nature sanctuary was consecrat-

ed as such.

On re-reading the book, one can find interesting information

about the unique situation of the estuary, marshes, ponds, and

"pajareras", an enormous wolf shot by rangers, the huts of the stur-

geon fishermen on the banks of the Guadalquivir that they visited

in 1953, and the last individuals of the camel herds as described by

Chapman, the descendents of the camels brought in by the Marquis

of Villafranca in 1829.They are testimonies to a former world that

had survived but which was already feeling the impact of new

forces that would lead to its disappearance.To the north, the trans-

formation of the marshes into rice paddies and the projects for irri-

In 1913 MarcelinoSan Miguel de laCamara made a firstgeomorphologicaldescription of thedunes of theprovince of Huelvain an historic essayon their evolution.In the picture, anumbrella pine tree(Pinus pinea) on afixed dune stickingout from wanderingdunes of Doñana.

Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Since 1969 J.A. Valverde has promoted the study of the most emblematicspecies of Doñana in the Biological Station. The pioneering group ofresearchers conducted highly advanced studies, receiving internationalacclaim. In the picture, view of the Marshes from El Bolín Laboratory, locat-ed in the Doñana Biological Reserve.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

206

gation in the sands.To the west, extensive plantation of pines and

eucalyptus.To the south, the pressure from the tourist industry to

develop the shoreline. The Guadalquivir, the whimsical god that

invaded the marshes at his will, was losing his power as the dams

starved him of his waters.

Two scientific monographs by Valverde were published between

the first and second editions of Portrait. The first dealt with The

Vertebrates of the Guadalquivir marshes, published by the Almería

Institute of Acclimatisation in 1960, offering an excellent descrip-

tion of the vertebrate communities, using the food chain as the

common thread. It analyses the diets and habitats, the use of the

area, and reproduction of these vertebrates, becoming the first

ecological description of the wildlife of Doñana and their ecosys-

tems.The second monograph, published in 1962, entitled Structure

of a community of terrestrial vertebrates, was undoubtedly a land-

mark that rounds off the previous works and makes an in-depth

analysis of the structure of the community, proposing ecological

and evolutionary mechanisms that explain its functional structure.

Neither the foreign scientists, nor Valverde or Bernis, both

from Castile, had contacted the Hispalense University or the

Cabinet of Natural Sciences and its collections, nor were they

familiar with publications on the area dating back more than a cen-

tury. In 1963, Emilio Fernández Galiano was appointed as

Professor of Botany in the recently created Biology Section of the

University of Seville. His experience in the Chair of Botany at the

Complutense University and his time directing the Royal Botanic

Gardens of Madrid meant that he realised the importance of a ref-

erence herbarium for the south of Spain and he located the old

items and organised the return of the material that had been

deposited with the Royal Botanic Gardens of Madrid. He prepared

the Floras of Seville and Cádiz, published the floral novelties and

preserved classic herbaria. Finally, he completed his great contri-

bution to science: The Vascular Flora of Western Andalusia

(1987), magnificently illustrated and published in collaboration

with two of his former students, Benito Valdés and Salvador

Talavera, now appointed to the Chairs of Botany t the University

of Seville.

Fernández Galiano, who had been familiar with Doñana since

the seventies, began the studies of its vegetation.As full Professor

of Botany, he was to play a decisive role in creating the Biological

Reserve as a member of The Marshes Biological Station Board.

Later on, as Chairman of the UNESCO Spanish MaB Committee,

he pushed for the declaration of the National Park as a Biosphere

Reserve, implementing the first environmental education pro-

grammes in the Park (1981-82). Doñana's contribution to the MaB

programme has certainly been an important one throughout this

time, compelling the Spanish Committee Report authored by F.

García Novo, to be published in 1993. UNESCO was to later

include the National Park to its World Heritage List in 1994.

ICONIC SPECIES AND THE BUZZ OF THE MARSHES

Valverde had successfully tried to protect the imperial eagle

and the lynx in the 1950s, seeking support from the owners of the

estates to prevent hunting and the collection of eggs from nests.As

the director of the Reserve and Park, he promoted a sophisticated

study of these species in 1969 that won recognition from the inter-

national scientific community for its authors and collaborators:

Miguel Delibes, Fernando Hiraldo and Miguel Ferrer.

Malcomia lacera, a member of the Brassicaceae family, grows on sandysoils, sometimes so poor in nutrients that the plant only reaches a heightof an inch. The result is a carpet of flowers covering the desolate area ofsands with colour.Photograph: CENEAM files.

207

The two felines that used to live in Doñana, the lynx and the

wild cat, have suffered declines that has placed them on the edge of

extinction, although with very different perceptions towards them.

The lynx has been studied in depth and major efforts and extraor-

dinary resources have been devoted to conserving it.The wild cat

has been lost in a tide of indifference from zoologists and conser-

vationists.

The collapse of the lynx population, starting in the second half

of the 20th century,was so intense that skeletons of dead specimens

could still be found in some areas.There were many reasons for

this: hunting, poisoned bait, transformation of its habitat for farm-

ing, the construction of roads and the increase in traffic. Sometimes

a single intervention, like filling in a reservoir, fragmented the area,

triggering a local catastro-

phe. In Doñana, the threats

to them were the draining

of the marshes, the traffic

on the road to

Matalascañas, clearing fields

for crops, surrounding the

fields with wire fencing, and

the large wells where they

drowned. The conclusions

of the research work done

at the time were devastat-

ing: their almost continu-

ous range that used to

cover the Iberian Peninsula

from north to south, was

being fragmented into a

series of small, discontinu-

ous areas where many sur-

viving populations were

condemned to extinction.

The species was only left

significant areas in the

southwest of Spain. Reality has, in the end, been even bleaker than

the forecasts, and twenty years on, the lynx only survives in two

small areas of its former range: Doñana and Sierra Morena.

The dangers hanging over the lynx and interest in the results

drove new research programmes with a permanent monitoring of

individuals fitted with radio collars. The results revealed that the

lynxes of the Biological Reserve ranged far and wide, making con-

tact with the lynxes of the rest of the National Park and the Nature

Park, and sometimes going much further afield, crossing roads and

farmland.Their food resources suffered from the decline in rabbit

populations, leading them to seek other prey and this was often

impossible for young animals. In this context, successive "lynx

plans" were launched after 1988 with actions such as creating

crossings for lynxes on the roads from Matalascañas to Mazagón

and El Rocío, the release of vaccinated rabbits in the National Park,

the creation of rabbit warrens and treatment of areas to foster rab-

bit population growth, and breeding lynxes in captivity. But, unfor-

tunately, the lynx continued to decline and there are probably no

more than 200 specimens left. Dead animals keep appearing, killed

by hunters, run over by cars, poisoned or caught in traps.

A broad sector of society is committed to defending the lynx:

another sector considers that it is responsible for its own extinc-

tion and they are opposed to traffic speed limits or to building

crossings.This is the tragedy of conservation. Politicians sometimes

make enthusiastic com-

mitments; other times

their pathetic analysis

explains why certain

attitudes can accelerate

its disappearance. And

one example of this is

from a presentation by

the Ministry of the

Environment before the

Senate in 2003:

"It is true, the sur-

vival of the lynx is com-

plicated, and I think that

you will agree with me

on this. It can also be a

problem of space,

because we are limiting

its territory.That is why

I say that I hope it will

be intelligent enough to

adapt to the new cir-

cumstances, because

these things happen in life... Luckily, man is more intelligent and can

adapt to it. The lynx seems to be quite a lot less smart than we

thought. It may have good eyesight, but then, in its behaviour, it is an

animal that runs very fast, and when running very fast, it sometimes

fails to see; it does not stop to see where it is going and so goes

over instead of under... I believe there must be a factor of adapting

to the environment, as others have had to, to survive, unless there

are other causes that we are trying to mitigate... I hope we will

shortly be able to say, because there aren't many left, that our lynx-

es are adapting to the circumstances, while, of course, helping them

in everything they need because the Ministry is open to sugges-

In Doñana, the threats to the Iberian lynx were the draining of the Marshes, the traffic on the roadto Matalascañas, clearing fields for crops, surrounding the fields with wire fencing, and the largewells/reservoirs where they drowned, as well as the decline of rabbit population, its main prey.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

208

tions, and I hope we will be able to find them in Extremadura,

because they are to be found in the south of Portugal, and even a

bit further up, if possible, although the environment does not seem

as appropriate".

As regards the imperial eagle, its breeding habits were closely

monitored, and individuals marked to study their mating habits

(they are usually faithful to their mate), the chicks that hatched each

year and what happened to them.After many close observations of

their nests, which were started in the Coto Donana Expeditions of

1956 and 1957, detailed information was obtained on the catch of

prey, and the rhythm, selection and size of the prey caught.Along

with the data already known about the presence of rabbits and

some reptiles, the importance of coots and other waterfowl in the

diet of the imperial eagle in Doñana was striking.

The dispersion of the chicks was crucial for understanding how

the territory was used and to establish conservationist strategies.

It was important to increase observations in the surrounding areas

in an increasing radius. Furthermore, by improving the monitoring

in other regions, like Los Montes de Toledo, El Monte de El Pardo

and the Spanish Central Mountain Range, and exchanging records

between areas, a picture started to emerge about the status of the

population and their problems, of which Doñana was just a sample.

The young birds, after leaving the nest, disperse and spend between

one and two years in any available territory, where they perfect

their hunting techniques as, in fact, they learn to hunt rabbits.The

fledglings return to their original area to mate and try to establish

a range there or, at least on the periphery of their home range.This

homing effect has a positive result in that it guarantees that dense

breeding areas are maintained in favourable environments like

Doñana, although there have not been more than six chicks a year

of all those counted during the period 1998-2004. The negative

effect of this homing instinct is that these birds are forced to occu-

py marginal areas when the central area becomes saturated.And in

Doñana, the protected core is surrounded by built up areas and

farms, with fewer resources and greater risks.The use of radio col-

lars on some individuals led to a quantum leap in our knowledge of

the movements of the young birds that could be monitored con-

tinually around the region. In some cases, it also meant that their

remains could be recovered, to discover the cause of death: impact

with power lines, poisoned bait or poaching.

These eagles are animals with good longevity, 20-22 years, but

their breeding success for Doñana is modest (0.75

chicks/pair/year). Pre-adult mortality is high: 80-87% per year, falling

to lower figures among adults: 4.8-7.3% per year. Genetic studies

have now been carried out on the populations and genealogy stud-

ies have been pursued on many individuals and offsprings. Their

pathology has been studied, and their diet is well known, as is how

to supplement it during critical periods. Nests are monitored from

the early phase of occupation or construction and measures are

taken to prevent activities or car traffic in the area that could com-

promise incubation or the raising of chicks.The key is not so much

to increase productivity, but to reduce juvenile mortality. One sin-

gle factor, power lines, represents a disaster for population num-

bers and merely correcting them would enhance the expectations

for the species.This would be a worthwhile step because the impe-

Black vultures build their nests as platforms in the top of large trees. Theyused to be common in the north of Doñana, in Coto del Rey, the ranges, andeven in the olive groves. They now nest in the foothills of the Sierra Morenafar apart. Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

33 species of mammals have been counted in Doñana, including fallowdeer, deer, mongoose, otter, genet and rabbit. In the picture, a genet with itsyoung in Doñana. Photograph: CENEAM files.

209

rial eagle currently faces a bleak future. It is not enough to keep a

tiny network of spaces where the eagles can mate in order to

maintain the population, while allowing favourable areas to disap-

pear in the rest of the territory and the risks to multiply.

On the other hand, other resident species of birds of prey in

Doñana face a brighter future: Bonelli's eagle, the kestrel, buzzard

and the peregrine falcon, although the last of these is scarce due to

the absence of crags or cliffs for nesting.The honey buzzard and,

above all, the black kite gather in large numbers during migrations.

In his memoirs,Valverde records the impression that the concen-

tration of kites had on him in 1952: "they formed large colonies in

the pine forests on both banks of the estuary".The same cannot be

said for the short-toed eagle, with a small nesting population in

Doñana (around 2-3 pairs), or the serious decline in the population

of the red kite (5-6 pairs), made worse by the fact that they are the

only birds of this species in western Andalusia.

Finally, the Gibraltar Straits see the passage of hundreds of

thousands of birds, from storks to swallows and swifts. For many

waterfowl and scrub birds,Doñana is an important staging post and

it has been calculated that some 6.5 million birds pass through the

park each year. These include the osprey, a determined aquatic

predator capable of catching its prey down to a depth of two

metres with its spectacular dives. At the end of the summer, it

leaves its territories in the north of Europe and follows the Atlantic

seaboard down to the Doñana Marshes, where it spends a few

weeks fishing in the canals before continuing its journey south over

the straits.There is a growing shortage of perches in the Marshes

and sometimes rows of ospreys can be seen using the telegraph

posts of power lines to perch on. It does not currently breed in

mainland Spain, although one individual was seen in 2002, trying to

build a nest in Doñana, in the restored Algaida Marsh, in Sanlúcar.

Miguel Ferrer, heading up a team from the Biological Station, has

done "transplant" trials, transferring osprey chicks to artificial nests,

built on the banks of reservoirs rich in Andalusian fish, to accustom

them to their new environment and re-introduce the species.Their

efforts have been met with success.

Other characteristic species to be found in Doñana are the

Egyptian vulture, which winters here, and the honey buzzard that

only migrates through. They migrate along the route through

Doñana and the coastal mountain ranges to Tarifa and, once they

have crossed the Gibraltar strait, they set out on a spectacular

journey, crossing the Sahara to reach their wintering grounds.

Black vultures build their nests as platforms in the top of large

trees.They used to be common in the north of Doñana, in Coto

del Rey, the ranges, and even in the olive groves.They now nest in

the foothills of the Sierra Morena, almost 100 Km to the North.

The griffon vultures, somewhat smaller in size and much more gre-

garious, nest on crags, forming colonies that they sometimes share

with Egyptian vultures and other birds of prey.The protection that

they have been afforded in the second half of the 20th century has

increased their numbers throughout Spain.They come to Doñana

on sunny days from the vulture colonies of Sierra de Aracena, Picos

de Aroche and Sierra Pelada, sometimes flying in long rows of up to

one hundred birds, in search of dead deer, fallow deer, boar or cat-

tle to feed off. The pecking order for eating the carrion is estab-

lished according to the hierarchical status of each bird in the flock.

If there are birds of different species together, the black vultures

will take preference over the griffon vultures and these will take

preference over other birds like Egyptian vultures, kites, rooks,

magpies and azure-winged magpies that will also take turns to feed

off the carrion.The small wagtails will feed off the insects that are

attracted by the corpse, including the fresh generation of maggots

that emerge from the carrion after a few days.

González Bernaldez remembered a visit he made in the winter

of 1972 to the lower stretch of the Guadiamar, accompanied by

Caballero, Professor of Plant Physiology, and Ramon Margalef, the

famous limnologist. Some sheep caught in the mud were surround-

ed by griffon vultures that gradually set siege to them.The natural-

ists tried to free the sheep from the mud, but if the animals were

exhausted or they had injured themselves in their attempts to get

free, the vultures would return for the kill. In the 1970s, after rainy

years or floods, this was a regular occurrence and there was an

abundance of carrion for vultures in the Doñana Marshes and

watercourses.When the pools dry out, the small ducks, carp and

other trapped fish, still attract vultures and black kites. Herons and

The ferruginous duck is a species that is almost extinct in the DoñanaMarshes; the one in the picture is a captive, maimed bird. The ruddy shel-duck has suffered the same fate, as it has disappeared as a nesting species inDoñana for over a century and only accidental specimens or specimens thathave escaped from captivity have been observed.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

210

the white headed duck and the glossy ibis that has recently estab-

lished stable colonies, recovering a population that had become

extinct in Doñana years ago.The black stork, a shy elusive bird in

comparison with the white stork, can also be seen in the Doñana

Marshes, although in small numbers.And the most spectacular, dis-

tinct and iconic sightings of marsh bird life are the flocks of flamin-

gos, the colonies of spoonbills and the abovementioned "pajareras"

over the cork trees and scrub of La Vera. Gulls (the common less-

er black-backed, and the black-headed), common terns, little terns,

black terns, and oystercatchers, which are keen bi-valve feeders

(especially of wedge clams in Doñana),dominate the beaches. In the

sea off Doñana, there are common scoters and marine ducks and,

occasionally, gannet, razorbills, Balearic shearwater, skuas and

petrels. And to round off the continual spectacle on the beach,

foxes, black kites and even boar occasionally in their wanderings

make it down to the beach.The sandpipers and plovers run around

in search of water fleas and other crustaceans, or they approach

the embryonic dune vegetation in search of insects and seeds.

Chapter 7 offers a list of bird species to be found in the Doñana

Marshes, including the most emblematic species. But as observers

and recordings have increased, more outstanding birds are added.

Chapman and Buck have reported tundra swan and pelican; and

Marabou stork, also sighted, could either be from zoos or wander-

ing specimens. There are exceptional reports of birds sighted far

from their normal range, like Allen's gallinule (Porphyrula alleni) and

storks eat the eyes of the fish, along with eels and other small fish.

Excrement-feeding insects and their larvae near the water are also

eaten by geese.The cycle of life and death is characteristic of the

marshes, inseparable from its fluctuating wetland character of flood

and drought.

After the autumn floods, bird life flocks to the Doñana

Marshes, occupying the different environments according to the

depth of the water or, later on, depending on the growth of the

aquatic vegetation. They come from regional wetlands, or they

have started their migrations from more distant regions, seeking

their wintering grounds in Doñana. In the ponds and somewhat

deeper waters, we find coot, known locally as gallaretas, common

mallards, shovelers and gadwalls, pintails, wigeon, shelduck, teals,

garaganey, marbled teal, red-crested pochard, pochard and grebes.

In very shallow bodies of water, we find waders. Near the banks,

there are herons, storks, moorhens, water rail and the striking

gallinules.The terns feed in pools, canals, lagoons and the estuary.

Grebes and cormorants leave the Marshes as the water levels

drop, but they can still be seen in the estuary, in the pools and

ponds of Isla Mayor.

The geese form flocks on the open waters, approaching the

banks to feed off the rhizomes, particularly the round castañuela.

One of the unforgettable sights of Doñana is the image of the geese

when they gather at dawn on Cerro del Trigo to eat sand.

The ornithological rarities of Doñana include the crested coot,

In Unexplored Spain Abel Chapman and Walter Buck found a "mystery" inthe flamingo that they were unable to solve: its reproduction. They spentyears searching the Doñana Marshes for the breeding colonies until theyfound them. Yet, they found that clutches of eggs failed to hatch becauseof the weather and chicks only hatched every four years, which wasincompatible with maintaining population levels. It was to take almosthalf a century for the mystery to be solved by Valverde who discoveredthat the main breeding ground was Laguna de Fuentepiedra, in Malaga.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

211

the red-necked phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus). Others, previously

abundant, have become rare, like the Hubara bustard, cranes, little

bustards and the buttonquail.

The presence of large concentrations of individuals of the same

species,which often happens in the Marshes,makes it more difficult

to identify other, similar species that accompany them. For exam-

ple, there may be 80,000 geese flying around in flocks of several

hundred specimens, forming larger groups of thousands, most of

which are greylag geese. But there are sometimes specimens of

greater white-fronted goose, bar-headed goose and snow goose,

and more occasionally, specimens of lesser white-fronted goose,

bean goose or pink-footed goose. These groups sometimes also

include barnacle geese, including the Canadian barnacle goose, well

established in Europe, the white-faced barnacle goose, the black-

faced barnacle goose and, very rarely, the red-necked barnacle

goose.

Testimonies from the 1950s recall the presence of overwhelm-

ing numbers of waterfowl in the Doñana Marshes, the immensity of

the "pajareras", and the clouds of mosquitoes that rose like smoke

at dusk.Yet, they also mention the abundance of reptiles, the con-

centrations of amphibians and the massive migrations of ribbed

newts and spade foot toads leaving the marshes for the ponds of

the sands, accompanied by an amazing number of water snakes. In

a pool, next to the track leading to Palacio de Doñana, you were

able to find newts and after spawning, the water used to bubble

with the activity of tadpoles that slid their way with difficulty

through the flooded grass. In the mid 1960s, anyone walking

through the scrub of the sands in late spring would constantly see

scaly and red-tailed lizards, and often ladder snakes, false smooth

snakes and horse shoe whip snakes, too.They would also witness

the challenge of the eyed lizard or feel the ill humour and snorts of

the Montpellier snake. In the water, the water snake hunted among

the turtles.

It is easy to spot traces of lizards among the bushes, but they

do not venture far from the cover of the vegetation. In the shifting

dunes, it is surprising to find snakes, vipers and slow moving tor-

toises, which move from one corral (inter-dune basin) to another,

covering hundreds of metres of dune front and leaving an unmis-

takeable trail.As with the rabbits, reptiles and amphibians play and

have played an important ecological role as energy transmitters in

the food chain, although they are not part of the group of iconic

species of Doñana. Depending on their size, the amphibians eat fil-

amentous and epiphyte algae, submerged macrophytes, crustaceans

and other aquatic invertebrates, insects and their larvae, and they

fall prey to fish, grebes, herons and storks.And, in larger concentra-

tions, they attract other waterfowl, foxes, boars and other preda-

tors. Reptiles basically eat insects, and they are the prey of other

reptiles, birds of prey, hunting birds like shrikes, opportunists like

kites, blackbirds, magpies, azure-winged magpies and some mam-

mals.

We could continue, in this way, down the flow chart of species

and their functions. That is why the same conclusion is reached

every time we embark on describing the iconic species of Doñana:

that there is nothing unnecessary here and maintaining the area

involves being aware of the intricate network of inter-dependencies

created by all the different forms of life.

Grebes and cormorants leave the Marshes as water levels drop, but they canstill be seen in the estuary, in the pools and ponds of Isla Mayor and occa-sionally in lagoons. In the picture, a great crested grebe.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

The two felines that used to live in Doñana, the lynx and the wild cat, havesuffered declines that has placed them on the edge of extinction, althoughwith very different perceptions towards them. The lynx has been studied indepth and major efforts and extraordinary resources have been devoted toconserving it. The wild cat has been lost in a tide of indifference fromzoologists and conservationists. The greatest threat to this specie in Doñanais inter-breeding with domestic cats, leaving very few pure-bloodedspecimens.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

their hydrology and chemical composition29,42, their hydrology and

substrate18 or their hydro-chemistry and littoral vegetation45. The

larger size of Santa Olalla and Dulce ponds made them suitable for

many limnological studies37,64,50,57,65,41 compared to the rest of ponds17,

39, 54. Additionally, the relevance of sediment in the functioning of

these shallow aquatic systems has been brought forward in numer-

ous publications32,33,40,21,15,61. The interaction with their surrounding

terrestrial ecosystems has also been studied under different per-

spectives, such as vegetation-groundwater interactions30, 67, climate

change63 and landscape management47. Research into the processes

that determine the environmental quality of the Doñana aquatic

systems should be the basis for conservation and management

strategies.This approach requires a huge spatial scale and the sup-

port of long-term studies because the chemical composition of its

waters is influenced by multiple processes: rainfall, evaporative con-

centration, groundwater discharge, biogeochemical reactions at the

sediment-water interface, and the interaction with soils and vege-

tation of the terrestrial systems within their watersheds.

213

The aquatic systems of Doñana

JULIA TOJA SANTILLANA *LAURA SERRANO MARTÍN *

213

The Doñana region includes an extraordinary variety of

aquatic systems, from salt pans to peatbogs. They are

broadly classified according to their location on either eolian sands

or marshland as their hydrology largely depends on the geomor-

phology of their basins.The permeability of each geomorphologic

unit is very different: the eolian sands correspond to an unconfined

aquifer (with a shallow water table and several flow systems) while

groundwater is confined below the silty-clay deposits of the

Marshes floodplain. Both units composed an aquifer system of

about 3400 km2 bottomed by impermeable marine marls known as

the Almonte-Marismas aquifer36. Groundwater recharge is pro-

duced by rainfall infiltration in the unconfined aquifer66 at an esti-

mated annual rate of 200 mm while it flows at 0.1-1cm in the con-

fined aquifer35.

The contemporary Marshes occupy a vast floodplain of about

23,000 ha, while hundreds of small ponds are scattered over the

aeolian sands during floods.A total of 568 temporary wetlands on

sandy soils have been recorded in the area by the local administra-

tion34. Additionally, salt pans operate on the left bank of the

Guadalquivir River, numerous artificial wetlands (about 3000 ha)

are devoted to extensive fish cultures in the estuary islands (Veta

La Palma, on Isla Mayor), and tidal marshes are reduced to a nar-

row fringe along the banks of Guadalquivir River28. Most running

waters are intermittent streams. Major hydrologic projects have

reshaped the flow of the main rivers, Guadalquivir and Guadiamar

that used to drain and flood over the Marshes. Small streams are

fed by rainfall and groundwater seepage; some of them drain to the

Marshes and others to the sea, across the cliffs formed by ancient

dune fields (Medano del Asperillo), providing shelter to some

hygrophyte species that hold vestiges of Atlantic peatbogs20.

Outside its protected areas, Doñana watersheds are severely

altered by human activities, featuring a wide variety of pressures

regarding the use and assignment of water resources. Despite its

significance for wildfowl, research into the limnological processes of

the Doñana aquatic systems started merely two decades ago.The

first ecological studies (aimed at relating biological populations to

environmental variables) were published in the early 80's24,44. The

water composition of the Doñana marshland and the quality of the

surface waters entering the Marshes were thoroughly studied dur-

ing the 80's16. Later, the Doñana ponds were typified according to

* University of Seville, Spain.

Studies of the ecological processes of the floodable areas of Doñana haveonly recently started to play the role they deserve. The Landsat 7 satelliteimage (2000) shows in false colour, the lower area of the Marshes duringthe floods, rimmed by dune formations and the course of the RiverGuadalquivir. The Marshes used to be isolated from the course of the riverby a natural levee, which has now been replaced by what is known as LaMontaña del Río.Photograph: Landsat 7 (2000). NASA.

214

THE MARSHES

The Doñana Marshes are basically fed by direct rainfall on its

floodplain and by several watersheds:Guadiamar River (1,180 km2),

El Partido stream (300 km2) and La Rocina stream (1,000 km2)

which are included in the lower sector of the Guadalquivir River

watershed (57,500 km2).The land is basically occupied by agricul-

ture and range.

The flatness of the vast extension occupied by the Doñana

Marshes (about 23,000 ha) is altered at a topographic scale of a few

dm creating shallow pans (locally known as lucios) and old levee

remnants (paciles) which have the appearance of emerged islands

(vetas) during floods. Quantitavely less important, but ecologically

relevant, is the ground water seepage along the ecotone border (La

Vera) that provides soil moisture to grass meadows and hygrophyte

vegetation, feeds small creeks (sotos) and maintains permanent

sub-surface springs (ojos).The tidal influence from the estuary of

the Guadalquivir River on the Marshes is currently impeded due to

the construction of a levee (Montaña del Río) that isolates the

marshland from the estuary. Several outlets along this levee are

provided with floodgates to maintain the confinement of the water

outflow during winter and spring though, occasionally, the levee is

overflowed at heavy floods. On the north-western area, surface

water is supplied by rainfall and the over flood of small streams (La

Rocina, El Partido, Caño Marín and Cañada Mayor) which drain

southwards into the Park feeding a large riverbed, the Madre de las

Marismas del Rocío channel. On the north-eastern end the

Guadiamar River used to drain southwards into the Marshes

through numerous small channels (caños). Nowadays, the lower

stretch of the Guadiamar River runs between two earthen dikes

(Entremuros) finally draining to a dead arm of the river (Brazo de

la Torre) so most of its water-flow and the drainage of the nearby

paddy-fields are presently deviated to the estuary of the

Guadalquivir River. Only a minor flow reaches the Marshes

(Guadiamar channel) passing through both pipes and a complex

canal network.The marked seasonality of flooding periods followed

by summer drought, and the isolation of the Marshes from the

estuary has imposed an endorreic character to the historical

marshes. Freshwater is accumulated in the depressions causing the

solubilization of salts from the top sediment.As the confined water

evaporates, their salts and particulates become increasingly con-

centrated.The resulting ionic composition of the lucio pans is then

dominated by Cl- and Na+, the concentration of salts being depend-

ent on the frequency and duration of flooding in each area19.

Carophytes are particular abundant in the submersed vegeta-

tion of the Doñana marshland as only five carophyte species

account for 98.4% of total biomass22.The following environmental

units, with their local names, can be distinguished in the Marshes,

according to flooding duration,water composition and vegetation23:

1) Lucios in depressions with long flooding periods and no emer-

gent macrophytes (helophytes) though some carophytes may

develop (Nytella hyalina and Chara canescens).

2) Pajas in depressions with long flooding periods where helo-

phytes grow on both caños and margins of lucios. Scirpus mar-

itimus and Scirpus litoralis are the dominant annual emergent

species in either monoespecific or mixed populations. Submersed

macrophytes such as Nytella hyalina and Chara connivens are also

found.

3) Candilejar in areas with an intermediate flooding period.

Vegetation composed of Juncus subulatus and Arthrocnemum

macrostachyum. Submersed vegetation including Chara gallioides,

Chara canescens, Callitriche truncata occidentalis and Zanichellia

obtusifolia.

4) Almajar in upper areas with no flooding or very shortly.

Vegetation dominated by Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, annual

grasses and no helophytes.

5) Estero in upper tidal areas along the coast line of the

Guadalquivir River and its dead arm-river (Brazo de la Torre).

Brackish waters with dense Spartina densiflora stands.

6) Salao in elevated dry areas (former levees). Vegetation of

Limoniastrum monopetalum.

7) Tidal areas where vegetation community composition follows

the frequency and duration of tidal flow, from Spartina densiflora

and Salicornia europaea (lower areas), Sarcocornia fruticosa and

Sarcocornia perennis (intermediate) to Artrocnemum

macrostachyum (upper areas). Submersed vegetation is rich

(Ruppia drepanensis,Chara canescens,Callitriche truncata occiden-

talis, Zanichellia obtusifolia and Rannunculus peltatus fucoides), and

with some rare species (Tolypella glomerata, Tolypella hispanica,

The Marshes can be divided into eight environmental units, based on theflood regime and the characteristics of the water, each of which is associat-ed with a certain kind of vegetation. In the picture, view of the Marshesfrom the Doñana Palace.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

215

Riella helicophylla and Riella notarisi).

8) Carrizal in particular sites, such as the upper stretch of Torre

branch, intersection of Guadiamar channel with Madre de las

Marismas del Rocío, below-surface springs (ojos) and other sites

with a semi-permanent flooding. Emergent vegetation dominated

by Phragmites australis and Scirpus litoralis; submersed vegetation

by Nytella hyalina and Chara connivens.

THE PONDS ON THE SANDS

The Holocene eolian sand mantle is composed of several dune

generations originally deposited on the beach by marine action.A

system of moving dunes with several dune fronts run parallel to the

coast-line with a NW-SE direction, both within the National Park

limits (max. altitude: 30 m) and along the Asperillo dune system

(max. altitude: 100 m).Within the Doñana Biological Reserve, the

sand mantle is mostly covered by Mediterranean scrub (stabilized

dunes) with a species composition closely following water availabil-

Doñana is famous for its wealth of biodiversity of organisms to be seen, especially the birds, but the wealth of species of organisms that cannot be seen, like the algae and micro-invertebrates, is even greater. This high level of biodiversity can be explained by the vast ecological wealth of the temporary aquatic systems. Some of these species are endemic tothe area, or they have been described for the first time in specimens collected in Doñana, like Daphnia hispanica and Daphnia mediterranea. In the photograph, from left to right, viewof: D. hispanica male, D. mediterranea female, D. mediterranea ephippial female, D. similis ephippial female and D. similis male.Photograph by Adam Petrusek, Charles University, Prague.

FIGURE 1Sketch showing the hydrological feeding of sandy substrate ponds.

FIGURE 2

Changes in some physical, chemicaland biological variables over 4hydrological years in the sandy sub-strate ponds of Santa Olalla andDulce. The vertical dotted lines sep-arate the different hydrologicalyears. The continuous vertical lineindicates the beginning of a periodof heavy rains, with surface run off.(according to Toja et al., 1991).

216

ity which, in turn, depends on groundwater flow systems of differ-

ent spatial scales47. In this undulating landscape, hundreds of small

ponds appear when the water table rises above the topographical

surface during heavy rains.These ponds are fed by freshwater (rain-

fall, runoff and groundwater discharge), and have no surface or

groundwater connection to the sea so they cannot be properly

called lagoons (in English) though they receive salts of marine ori-

gin through airborne deposition.Their groundwater feeding is rela-

tively complex due to changes in recharge and topographic bound-

aries that modify their connection to different aquifer flow systems

through time50.They range widely in size (from rain puddles to shal-

low lakes) and in flooding duration (from days to decades), but they

all have been reported to dry out eventually. Hence, they all are

temporary water bodies that exhibit wide fluctuations of water

level. Those ponds located at the boundary between the moving

dunes and the stabilised sand mantle are called peridune ponds.

Ponds also appear amid the interdune valleys of the moving dune

system, creating a wet-slack formation. Many attempts have been

made to classify ponds into different categories (permanent, semi

permanent, seasonal, ephemeral), but a short number of observa-

tions have produced contradictory results.As a whole, the Doñana

ponds form a system of temporary water bodies of remarkable sin-

gularity in Europe due to their abundance, diversity and high pro-

tection status.The density of ponds in the Biological Reserve was

estimated during winter floods in six ponds per 100 ha (holding

water for 1-6 months) and one pond in 100 ha (holding water for

more than 6 months)30. A few artificial wetlands are maintained by

groundwater pumping; another common practice in the area is to

dig water-holes near ponds (zacallones) for wildlife during dry peri-

ods.The only permanent non-artificial aquatic system over sands is

the lagoon of Tarelo, located on the left bank of the Guadalquivir

River, fringing the pine woodland of La Algaida of Sanlúcar. Its basin

was excavated for sand and gravel extraction, became flooded in

1989 by rainfall and groundwater seepage from the estuary of the

Guadalquivir River, and was later declared a protected site of the

Doñana Nature Park for its importance to the white-headed

duck62.

The chemical composition of the unconfined aquifer is domi-

nated by Ca (HCO3)2 and with a salinity usually lower than 0.5

mg/l.The high proportion of NaCl in rainwater due to marine influ-

ence affects the composition of shallow groundwater.The succes-

sive cycles of flooding and evaporation in the discharge areas have

enriched in NaCl the shallow free groundwater (or phreatic) below

the pond basins39.Ca2+ dominates over Na+ only in small depression

PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY EPHEMERAL PONDS

PERIDUNE PONDS ECOTONE LAS ROCINAS Aquifer discharge Aquifer rechargeAND

LITTORAL ZONE Eutrophic Non eutrophic Eutrophic Non eutrophic

Santa Olalla Hondón Charco del Acebrón Caño Martinazo Acebuche Encinillas Bajas Corral largo 1Dulce Lucio del Faro Algaida de los Naranjos Alcornoque de las Monjas de las Palomas El Moral Corral largo 2Taraje Navazo largo Algaida 1 Corral close Navazo del Toro Caño de la Raya La MogeaZahillo Llano de Velázquez to Charco del Toro Ojillo El RicoCharco del Toro Bajada de Martín Pavón Rodrigo Pérez El PinoComplejo de las Pajas El Caballo Los Pájaros Caño Tio Antoñito

Berraco Tojal del Lobo Las BaquetasEl Brezo AlcornoqueAlcornoque EscobarLa Jabata

TABLE 1List of some ponds on a sandy substrate in the Doñana Parks29.

FIGURE 3Depth distribution and daily cycle (June 1991) of temperature, pH, dis-solved oxygen and chlorophyll concentration, in the Las Verdes andSanta Olalla ponds (according to Serrano et al., 1994). The high concentra-tion of polyphenol compounds in Las Verdes and the protection from thewinds afforded by the surrounding vegetation cause the pond to behavein a polymictic manner, stratified during the day and mixing at night.Santa Olalla is open to the wind, so it does not stratify, but its hypertro-phy leads to pronounced variations in Oxygen and pH, depending on thepredominance of photosynthesis or respiration at any given moment.

217

within the dune tail where recharge dominates over discharge flow

and water is temporary deposited. The chemical composition of

water filling the ponds results from an interaction of both surface

(rainfall and runoff) and groundwater sources during discharge, but

general trends are difficult to predict (Figure 1). Firstly because

water budgets have not yet been elucidated with sufficient resolu-

tion and, secondly because of the impact of sparse local events on

these shallow systems. For example, heavy rainstorms (>80 mm)

that only represented 1.4% of total observations in a 7-year

record58 disrupted the pond development and reverted it to earli-

er succession stages64. A general hydrologic budget for Santa Olalla

and Dulce ponds estimated that rainfall (and runoff) accounted for

48% and 100% of the water input during the rainy season

(October-March) of very dry (<250mm) and extremely wet cycles

(>1000 mm), respectively.The rest of the water input was due to

groundwater discharge (from both the shallow and deep water-

tables)49.

A review of studies on the ionic composition in the Doñana

aquatic systems reveals the influence of the different scales of

observation in each study.The hydroperiod (or duration of water

on the surface) and the water origin are relevant hydrologic fea-

tures that influence the ionic composition of water, but their

assessment is greatly affected by the duration of the study period.

The first extensive survey (47 ponds) of water chemical composi-

tion was performed during the heavy floods of winter 199029.Again,

Na+ and Cl- were the dominant ions in all pond waters. The

Ca2+/Na+ ratio was not a good predictor compared to the Mg2+/Na+

ratio, probably due to the local effect of micro topography and veg-

etation on CaCO3 precipitation. A Mg2+ /Na+ ratio higher than 0.25

(in meq/l) corresponded to discharge areas, and a lower ratio indi-

cated recharge areas where water runoff could be temporary

deposited due to the presence of a high concentration of organic

matter or clay in the sediment.They segregated the ponds in three

discharge groups according to their location, mineralization and

trophic state (Table 1): 1) ponds in Las Naves, 2) those along the

boundary between the moving dunes and the stabilized sands

(peridune pond system), and 3) those between the stabilized sands

and the Marshes (La Vera). Later, this classification was enlarged to

5 groups by including the wet-slack formation of the moving dunes,

and dividing the peridune ponds in two other groups according to

pond size45.Water pH is usually alkaline in the discharge areas due

to the dominance of Na+ over Ca2+, but acidic water (pH 4-5) has

been occasionally reported when rainfall is temporary deposited

on rich organic soils. The combination of alkaline waters over

siliceous sand basins makes these water bodies rather singular

compared to other European wetlands54.

Hydro-chemical classifications of ponds based on absolute lim-

its have, so far, proved evasive as the ionic composition of the

Doñana ponds change widely in time.The change in water conduc-

tivity (at 20ºC) recorded in some of the most visited ponds during

the last two decades (Taraje, Dulce and Santa Olalla) ranges from

0.1 to 8.5 mS/cm during wet years, and from 1.0 to 28.4 mS/cm

during dry years. Low maximum conductivity values corresponded

to wet cycles while high minimum values to dry years in all ponds,

but the relationship between conductivity and rainfall was not lin-

ear because conductivity also reflected the past conditions of pre-

vious dry cycles: the minimum conductivity values were not

attained in 1995/96 despite it was the wettest cycle in the record

as it had been preceded by several dry years. The conductivity

range was widest in the larger pond of Santa Olalla (0.3 to 28.4

mS/cm). Its larger watershed ensures a higher contribution of rain-

fall and the flooding of a considerable extension of soil and vegeta-

tion which accounts for the solubilization and leaching of salts

which progressively concentrate in the water as evaporation pro-

ceeds. The higher mineralization of Santa Olalla pond was also

achieved by the down gradient movement of solutes through seep-

age from its neighbouring ponds (Dulce and Las Pajas) due to its

larger evaporative discharge and lower altitude49. During extreme-

Doñana's reputation depends to a large extent on the fact that it receiveshundreds of thousands of birds every year. The food for these birds comesfrom the aquatic macrophytes, as in most of the refuges that these birdsuse. The nutrients they deposit in the environment are also re-cycled bythe macrophytes, which also organise different habitats, thus contributingto maintain the high level of biodiversity.Photograph: CENEAM files.

218

ly wet periods, this pond complex (Santa Olalla-Dulce-Las Pajas)

behaves as a flow-through floodplain of about 100 ha that evacu-

ates water and solutes to the nearby Marshes through intermittent

discharges on wide river beds29.

Ponds as fluctuating environments

Wetlands are generally fluctuating environments.The variability

of the Doñana ponds is particularly high, both within and between

years (Figure 2). Daily variations are also drastic in those ponds

sheltered from the prevailing winds (Figure 3). Dulce pond illus-

trates an average limnological cycle37. At the beginning of a moder-

ate flooding period, submersed macrophytes and associated algae

start growing on the pond basin. The primary production of the

pond is, then, basically benthonic. The biomass of these primary

producers reaches a maximum in mid-spring, coincident with a

clear-water phase. Submersed macrophytes eventually die and

leach nutrients that enhance phytoplankton growth. As water

evaporates, the concentration of both dissolved nutrients and

plankton cells increases, and phytoplankton reaches very large den-

sities throughout summer and mid-autumn. If the pond finally dries

up, the organic matter deposited on the dry sediment is photo-oxi-

dized and its nutrients mineralized. Smaller ponds will hold water

for a shorter time.Therefore, they go through the different stages

quicker and annual plants tend to colonise the dry bed more easi-

ly.This general functioning is not applied to the larger pond of Santa

Olalla because it rarely dries up so phytoplankton prevails and

hypertrophic conditions are usual. During heavy rainfall, all ponds

change dramatically which led some authors13 to state that they had

distrophic phases during floods: their water colour was dark and,

their conductivity and primary production were very low.

Interaction with terrestrial ecosystems

As any other aquatic system, the Doñana ponds are not iso-

lated from their surrounding watershed. Despite rainfall infiltrates

very quickly in sandy soils, surface runoff develops during heavy

floods for sufficient time to produce a significant contribution of

nutrients and organic matter to the ponds.The concentration of

phosphate is usually higher in surface runoff water than in

groundwater discharge, but these differences are brief and can be

detected only during heavy rainfall54.A careful study of the P-frac-

tional sediment composition showed that the incoming phos-

phate was efficiently adsorbed by the sediment during the first

weeks of their filling period21.The Doñana ponds received a sig-

nificant concentration of phosphate from the leaching of soils,

organic matter and vegetation within its watershed during heavy

rainstorms after drought58 (Figure 4). In Dulce pond, phosphate

concentration was 100 times higher in the littoral than in the

open-water area (Figure 5). Soil samples from the sandy uplands

and the floodplain meadow, fresh xerophytic scrub, and cattle

manure leached phosphate concentrations higher than 0.9 mg/g

dw in distilled-water under laboratory conditions, suggesting that

this material was a source of P to runoff water draining to the

pond.The slow decomposition rate of litter in arid sandy soils of

Doñana can explain the accumulation of nutrients in the upland

areas of the pond watersheds where leaching of soluble com-

pounds from litter can last up to 4 moths after deposition27.The

FIGURE 4Concentrations of soluble phosphorous and organic matter that can be liberated by the rain from different components of the terrestrial ecosystems adjacent tothe lagoons, which are flushed out and transported laterally into the lagoons (According to Serrano et al., 1999). Units: mg/kg dry matter weight.

VEGETATIONhygrophytic scrub

SOILhygrophytic scrub SEDIMENTpastures sand

EXCREMENTSpastures cow horse deerxerophytic scrub

xerophytic scrub

1250.0

>2mm 2-0.1 mm <0.01 mm

83.7 5.7 25651.0 950.0 1500.4

78.6 10.7331.7 630.0

46.8 2.4756.4 1354.7

46.4 20.2440.2 1097.4

0.5961.0

>2mm 2-0.1 mm >2mm 2-0.1 mm >2mm 2-0.1 mm2-0.1 mm

455.7 205.1 954.8 409.2 976.5

219

accumulation of organic matter, in turn, accounts for the domi-

nance of organic P-fractions in the pond sediment61.The contribu-

tion of terrigenous lipids to the sedimentary composition32 and

the detection of organic P-compounds derived from vegetation in

the sediment, such as phytate59, proved the strong influence of the

watershed on these aquatic systems.

Rainfall itself accounted for the leaching from fresh vegetation

of soluble polyphenols such as tannins51. During floods, dissolved

organic matter is washed from the fringing vegetation and carried

by runoff to the ponds where the concentration of DOC can

reach up to 120 mg/l, turning the water into a dark brown

colour52.Although the input of DOC by rainfall and runoff water

is a common process in all aquatic systems, the singularity of this

process in Doñana lies on the unpredictability of flooding events

under Mediterranean climate. Consequently, the Doñana ponds

can exhibit very contrasting conditions in different years with

variable rainfall intensity. Flooding itself produces the dilution of

solutes and particulates, bringing about a drastic reduction of the

phytoplankton populations and disrupting their previous succes-

sion development64. No direct effect of polyphenols on the pri-

mary production has been proved in the ponds56, despite these

compounds are able to chelate micronutrients53.Vertical attenua-

tion coefficients of light in the water of a pond rich in dissolved

polyphenols were similar to those of the hypereutrophic Santa

Olalla pond where chlorophyll a concentrations57 reached up to

2 mg/l. Flooding is, therefore, the cause of both the polyphenolic

enrichment and the phytoplankton decrease (due to flushing or

dilution).The perturbation caused by flooding in the ponds is so

extreme that it resembles the flood pulse of tropical floodplains,

in which heavy floods can clean water bodies and rearrange the

communities to earlier succession stages.The drainage and vege-

tation pattern in the watershed determines the extent and vari-

ability of the runoff input to each pond during floods30. Xerophytic

scrub dominated by Halimium halimifolium, growing in the upland

areas of the pond watershed leached a higher amount of polyphe-

nols than bulrushes (Juncus spp. and Scirpus spp.) from the flood-

plain under artificial rainfall experiments51. The fate of the dis-

solved polyphenols was also different in each pond till they disap-

peared on the dry sediment52. Dissolved polyphenols are easily

degraded by sunlight so photo-oxidation can account for their

disappearance in the water.The depth of the water column limits

the amount of sunlight that can penetrate in each pond and thus

the extent of the photo-degradation of polyphenols in each

pond60.

The expected development of the Doñana ponds during a

moderate hydrologic cycle would be a low concentration of

polyphenols in the water which, in combination with a moderate

water depth, would allow the growth of extensive macrophyte

beds. Biomass of submersed vegetation have been reported to

reach up to 450 g dw/m2 in Dulce pond37.As the ponds dry out,

organic matter is partially mineralised on the dry sediment51.

Hence, the concentration of sediment organic matter is inversely

correlated to the duration of flooding33. During dry periods, the

vegetation pattern surrounding the ponds changes rapidly: hygro-

phyte species showed regression while xerophytic species

advanced to lower areas67. A flooding period following a long

drought, therefore, will produce a larger impact of the watershed

on the pond water composition regarding nutrient and dissolved

organic matter concentrations.The variability of the hydro-mete-

orological conditions in the area ensures the unpredictability of

this terrestrial-aquatic interaction. Furthermore, vegetation

changes induced by anthropic disturbance in relation to ground-

water abstraction, add more uncertainty to this interaction46.The

study of both ecological and historical records showed that the

vegetation of Doñana has been deeply affected by management

practices since the first quarter of the 17th century31. Deep sedi-

ment cores from Dulce and Santa Olalla ponds showed that total

P concentrations had increased exponentially since 1960's sug-

gesting that recent changes in land management have contributed

to their eutrophication38.

THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE AQUATIC SYSTEMS

Doñana wetlands are famous worldwide for their great impor-

tance to water birds, but the diversity of microscopic and inverte-

brate organisms is also remarkable.The heterogeneity of tempo-

rary aquatic environments is usually the cause for high species rich-

Despite the importance of Doñana as a biodiversity sanctuary, the ecologi-cal processes of the marshy areas are only now starting to be discovered.A detailed knowledge of the bio-geo-chemical cycles of the nutrients andtheir relations with organic matter is essential, as these factors determinethe characteristically high biodiversity of these ecosystems.Photograph: CENEAM files.

220

ness.The richness of temporary waters is not particularly high at a

momentary scale though it can be very large when wide fluctua-

tions are taken into account.A list of planktonic species recorded

in Doñana is presented in Chapter 7. Despite these lists accumu-

late a large number of species (438 for phytoplankton and 205 for

microinvertebrates), they are not exhaustive, as they collect the

results of only a few studies.The more samples accumulate from

the same site or from new sites, the more species are identified.

During a monthly sampling (1985-87) of Santa Olalla and Dulce

ponds, 120 phytoplankton species were identified (14 cyanobacte-

ria, 1 pyrrophyte, 12 euglenophytes, 3 cryptophytes, 1 heteroconte,

44 diatoms and 45 chlorophytes)37. Fifty-four taxa of ciliates were

identified in merely 50 ml of water from the littoral of Santa Olalla

pond48. The number of zooplankton taxa (micro crustaceans and

rotifers) coexisting at a given time in the same pond tend to range

widely, from 3 to 27 species, but the number of species inhabiting a

site over several successive cycles is always larger.Resting eggs pro-

vide the mechanisms for organisms to withstand dehydration and,

at the same time, create a long-time pool of species that will even-

tually develop as the environment changes. Some rotifer species,

unrecorded over 3 successive years, hatched from the pond sedi-

ment incubated in the laboratory55.

Extensive surveys in numerous ponds also accumulate a large

richness: 34 rotifer taxa and 41 micro crustacean species were

recorded in a total of 33 ponds43.The study of 7 ponds over 3 suc-

cessive cycles yielded 71 zooplankton taxa (40 rotifers and 31

micro crustaceans)25. A new rotifer species, Lecane donyananesis,

was described in small pond of merely 30 cm of depth26. Other

endemic species recorded in Doñana include the copepod

Dussartius baeticus, while specimens collected in Doñana have

been used to describe endemisms of the Iberian-Balearic region14.

The collective richness of zooplankton from both ponds and marsh

is likely to be greater as salinity is a major factor affecting the com-

position of micro crustacean assemblages (Figure 6).

FIGURE 5Concentration of phosphorous in samples of water taken from Dulcepond, in the National Park, from the edge to the centre, immediately aftera large storm (108.5 mm) on December 15th, 1995 (according to Serrano etal., 1999).

FIGURE 6Distribution of some species of micro-crustaceans over the course of a flood cycle in 3 sandy substrate ponds and in 3 shallow pools of the Marshes(according to Furest and Toja, 1981).

(Xerophytic sites), on crests of ancient dunes where soil water

table in Summer was deeper than 4 m, and always lies over 3 m

below the soil surface.The community is dominated by Juniperus

phoenicea, Halimium commutatum, Halimium halimifolium,

Rosmarinus officinalis and Cistus libanotis. Standing crop is 500

g/m2 dry weight (SD 250 g/m2). "Monte Negro" (Hygrophytic sites)

located at depressions, where water table in summer rarely lies 1

m below soil surface and temporary flooding of the ground occurs

in winter. Plant community is dominated by Erica scoparia, Erica

ciliaris, Calluna vulgaris, Ulex minor, Myrtus communis and Cistus

salvifolius. Standing crop is 2200 g/m2 (SD 500 g/m2). "Monte

Intermedio" is located on the slopes of the dune ridges with water

table depth in transition and no surface flooding. Community is

dominated by Halimium halimifolium and Ulex australis and stand-

ing crop attains 1300 g/m2 (SD 350 g/m2)71,72 (Figure 1)

The sandy soils of Doñana exhibit a low field capacity (13%

w/w)76.This implies that plants from the elevated areas have almost

no water available during the summer period, while plants from

depressions can reach water from the water table the whole year.

We were interested to find out how the scrub species stand the

summer drought conditions under a brilliant sun and a quartz sand

that reflects as much as 30% of incoming radiation.The seasonal

variation of some physiological variables in permanent plants of

the dominant species of xerophytic and hygrophytic communities

has been monitored seasonality79. Leaf water potential, as a meas-

ure of the water status of the plant, and maximum photochemical

efficiency, an indirect measure of photosynthesis and a global phys-

The ecology of Doñana scrub MARI CRUZ DÍAZ ANTUNES BARRADAS *

MARÍA ZUNZUNEGUI GONZÁLEZ *

Doñana National Park is composed of two geological for-

mations: continental detritic deposits of Pliocene age

covered by Holocene aeolian mantels and recent estuarine

deposits of Guadalquivir river.Based on this geological origin three

main ecological domains are found in the Park: the floodable plain

filled with silt deposits, the mobile dunes and the stabilized sands.

The Mediterranean type climate bears with some oceanic

influence, resulting in milder temperatures (average16.7ºC), higher

air moisture and rainfall (540 mm) than further inland. Under this

climate, the mature vegetation of sandy substrate is the

Mediterranean woodland, giving way to scrublands and grasslands

if some kind of disturbance or limitative process occurs.

The history of Doñana well documented since the XIII centu-

ry, recorded the sandy areas covered by woodlands dominated by

Quercus suber, with Arbutus unedo, Myrtus communis and

Pistacia lentiscus and several species of vines on the humid areas,

Juniperus phoenicea on the dry elevated ground, and Juniperus

oxycedrus closer to the littoral.

The destruction of natural vegetation by falling and overgraz-

ing helped setting in motion the sand mantles largely destroying

the natural vegetation and even the deeper layers of the organic

soil profile.Ancient woodlands gave way to scrublands that follow

the topography and only remains as isolated spots generally

around a discharge area of the underground aquifer, survived to

the present day.

Three main types of scrub communities are now found on the

stabilized sands depending on water table depth: "Monte Blanco"

* University of Seville. Spain.

Seasonal variation ofgroundwater tabledepth and approximatelocation of main speciesof the xerophytic andhygrophytic communi-ties in the studied area.

FIGURE 1

221

222

iological index of the plant, were selected as the significant physi-

ological variables. Leaf water potential presents always negative

values, and maximum photochemical efficiency shows an optimal

range between 0.8-0.85.

On dune crests where summer conditions are harsher, some

species as Cistus libanotis, Rosmarinus officinalis and Juniperus

phoenicea suffered a severe water stress (leaf water potential

lower than -10 MPa that is a sign of a conspicuous water stress).

Other species exhibited a moderate decrease of leaf water poten-

tial, with values not lower than -3 MPa as Halimium halimifolium,

but the legume species Stauracanthus genistoides did not show

signs of water stress at the end of summer (-1.7 MPa). On the

depressions almost all the species did not present signs of water

stress, except for the small shrub Cistus salvifolius that suffered

the lowest values of leaf water potential (-8.9 MPa) and a signifi-

cant leaf shedding (Table 1). H. halimifolium plants present optimal

values of their photochemical efficiency the whole year, due the

leaf pubescence that increases leaf reflectance, the control of leaf

angle and some others physiological mechanisms79. In summer the

maximum photochemical efficiency for other species is correlated

with the leaf water status of the species, but in winter although all

plants present an optimal water status some woodland species,

from the depressed areas, showed signs of photoinhibition (pho-

tochemical efficiency decrease) (Figure 2). Myrtus communis, a

sclerophyll species from the lower areas, presented very low val-

ues of maximum photochemical efficiency (35% from the opti-

mum) even though water supply to roots was plentiful this is

probably due to cold stress as winter air temperatures in scrub

may approach freezing point for several days79. In clear winter days

light irradiation in Doñana may be high (1500 μmoles·m-2·s-1 in

clear days), but temperatures were too low for the photosynthet-

ic apparatus and thus plant activity decreases. If these conditions

continue for a long time leaves turn red and they can even be shed

of.

From the evolutionary point of view sclerophyll species belong

to taxa evolved in the Tertiary (pre-Pliocene), under a tropical type

TABLE 1Leaf water potential of the main scrub species in the xerophytic and hygrophytic areas during the study period.

COMMUNITY SPECIES NOV-98 FEB-99 MAY-99 SEP-99 NOV-99

Rosmarinus officinalis -2.0 -1.8 -1.8 -11.3 -1.8

Juniperus phoenicea -1.8 -1.7 -1.9 -10.6 -1.9

Cistus libanotis -2.0 -2.0 -1.8 -14.6 -1.9

XEROPHYTIC Lavandula stoechas -1.5 -1.4 -1.7 -3.7 -1.4

Halimium commutatum -1.8 -1.9 -2.2 -4.3 -1.7

Halimium halimifolium -1.6 -1.7 -1.7 -4.0 -1.8

Stauracanthus genistoides -1.4 -1.2 -1.3 -1.7 -1.5

Ulex australis -1.4 -1.1 -1.4 -2.7 -1.5

Halimium halimifolium -1.5 -1.1 -1.6 -3.7 -1.5

HYGROPHYTIC Cistus salvifolius -3.0 -2 -2.4 -9.0 -1.7

Myrtus communis -1.8 -1.3 -1.8 -2.5 -2.0

Pistacia lentiscus -1.8 -1 -2.0 -4.7 -1.8

Erica scoparia -1.9 -1.6 -2.3 -4 -1.9

Seasonal variations of maximal photochemicalefficiency (Fv/Fm) for all the study species in thexerophytic area and the hygrophytic area. Summer time represents the stress period for thexerophytic vegetation underlined by a drop inphotochemical efficiency.

FIGURE 2

223

climate before the quaternary glaciations and thus they are more

sensitive to cold winter days.

An attribute x species matrix was analysed by a cluster analy-

sis to sort out groups related to each one of these strategies.The

results are plot in Figure 3. On the xerophytic community the

main plant strategy (74% of relative importance) is formed by

species that withstand harsh summer conditions, without active

control mechanisms (sufferers), showing unusual values for their

physiological variables (summer leaf water potential of -11 MPa

for Rosmarinus officinalis and -13 MPa for Cistus libanotis), but

they recover very fast after the first autumn rains. On the hygro-

phytic community the main plant strategy (73% of relative impor-

tance) is formed by species that maintain moderate values (con-

trollers) of their physiological variables (being Erica scoparia the

most representative species).

Wild fires are a common disturbance in Mediterranean

ecosystems. Scrub species from Doñana sands regenerate after

fire either by seed germination (seeders) or by resprouting from

below ground organs (resprouters). These strategies are closely

tied with physiological and morphological attributes77. Lamiaceae

and Cistaceae from the xerophytic areas are obligate seeders and

they experience the lowest leaf water potentials in summer, and

their leaf tissues are less sensitive to water stress, while Erica and

woodland species from the depressions are deep-rooted or pos-

sess underground organs and they are resprouters.

In the case of Doñana the destruction of the former organic

soils has transformed the succession after fire in a process of

autosuccession74, because most of the species are present since

the first stages and the successional process does nor occur as a

species substitution.

Halimium halimifolium, a species of the Cistaceae family, is the

dominant species of the scrub of the Monte Intermedio areas on

the stabilized sands, it does not resprout after fire, being an obli-

gate seeder. Its seedlings germinate very well with the autumn or

winter rains after fire on the whole topographic gradient on the

stabilized sands. Martin Vicente75 has studied the succession after

fire on Doñana sands and has shown that in the first year after fire

the relative importance of this species is around 90% in both ele-

vated and depressed areas. It remained with an average figure of

50% on the slopes of Monte Intermedio, but decreases to 10% in

the previous areas after several years post-fire.

H. halimifolium also spreads easily on the surface of dry ponds

during drought periods, but as this species does not tolerate

flooding all individuals will die during a new wet period. This

process originates lateral movements of plant communities, as a

result of fluctuation in the phreatic level.Although changes in the

water regime may originate irreversible changes of plant commu-

Relative importance of the plant strategies described in the xerophytic andhygrophytic areas.

FIGURE 3

HYGROPHYTIC SITE

XEROPHYTIC SITE

Pistacia lentiscus Cistus salvifolius

Myrtus communis Stauracanthus genistoides

Controllers 72.4%

Legumes 15.3%

Sufferers 6.7%

Cold stress 5.6%

Sufferers 74.1%

Controllers 21.8%

Legumes 4.1%

Ulex australis Cistus libanotis

Halimium halimifolium

224

nities towards a more xerophytic community, like it has been

described in the Brezo pond closed to the pumping area of

Matalascañas tourist resort78.

H. halimifolium also withstands a moderate browsing from

cattle and deers mainly in the more humid areas as the border of

ponds and the ecotone between the sands and the Marsh.

Browsing stimulate lateral growth through axyllary meristems.

This species was subjected to stimulated and natural browsing in

the stabilized sands. In a drier area without herbivores, plants were

subjected to different intensities of clipping and were compared

with control plants. In a more humid area with high herbivore

pressure, control plants were isolated using cages.The experiment

showed that biomass removal caused by herbivores has an

enhancing effect on shoot growth.

On the mobile dune system, especially in the inland fronts and

as isolated plants on the top of the stabilized sands an endemic

species of the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula is found.

Corema album is a dioecious shrub up to 1 m, densely branched

from the base, with persistent ericoid leaves.

Fruits are white or pink-white berries (5-8 mm diameter).

Flowering and fruiting occur from February to August, but fruits

can be found until November or December. Fruit production is

high ranging from 4.000 to 13.000 fruits/m2 of plant cover. They

contained 75% of water from dry weight 77% was composed by

non structural sugars and 8% by lipids and proteins73.The fruits are

consumed by a number of vertebrates during the summer (rab-

bits, foxes,wild boars, seagulls) and probably contribute to animals'

water balance during the dry season.

Field observations and laboratory experiments have shown

that animals´ consumption favours seed germination68.

Germination occurs after the autumn rains although 99.9% of the

seedlings die during the next summer.

Detailed studies on the ecology of Doñana Mediterranean

scrubs reveals a surprising diversity of physiological mechanisms

to stand adverse conditions taking advantage of favourable peri-

ods. Each environmental tesela tends to reward the presence of

some plant characters while punishing others, thus selecting the

local composition of plant communities.

As short and long-term interactions overlap, what is left is a

most diverse occurrence of shrub species, which will change end-

lessly in response to climate change, wildfires and human interac-

tions.

Fruits and leaves, nectar and pollen, roots and plant debris all

contribute to consumers and decomposes thus maintaining the

trophic network that supports the extraordinary biodiversity of

Doñana.

Corema album is an endemic shrub of de coastal dunes of Portugal and Atlantic Spain, in Galicia and Western Andalusia. In the picture, a female plant showingthe large number of fleshy round fruits, like pearls, sharply contrasting with the deep green colour of leaves. The twisted stem, sticking from the ground, recalls along history of the plant alternatively engulfed by wandering sands and eroded by strong winds.Photograph by Leonor Alvarez in Asperillo cliffs, Doñana Nature Park.

In recent years, the Doñana Biological Reserve, on the

right hand bank of the Guadalquivir River, next to the sea,

has attracted the converging interest of naturalists and has

become a paradigm for other, equally endangered wetlands

(the Ebro Delta, for example). Until recently, high mountains

and marshlands were the only systems that had not suffered

direct and intense human pressure and we now cling to the

illusion that can conserve something of their disappearing

primitive nature.The dangers overshadowing these ecosystems

are many and varied, but they can be summed up in the word

"development". Tourists from countries that have obtained a

certain level of local protection, in their countries, can be par-

ticularly destructive.

Fluctuations in the environment are characteristic of

marshy areas. Unpredictability is essential for the life of marsh-

es, which suffer in their essence if we try to regulate them.

Their most characteristic organisms are opportunists, defend-

ed by the same irregularity of the living conditions, with little

water some years and too much water in others.These varia-

tions prevent ecosystems from either becoming too complicat-

ed or from stagnating. Marshes are maintained in a dynamic

state, or, if you prefer, they are stabilised on a fluctuating

regime, by the very mechanism of fluctuation and exploitation,

governed fundamentally by the physical environment.

Temporary accumulations of biomass mean that much of the

transfer of energy at the upper end of the food chain is

attained in the form of detritus, with the intervention of bac-

teria, with little of this energy being harnessed, or it is based on

the mobility and activity of animals, like birds, that can exploit

large areas.These systems are relatively easy to conserve and

even to reconstruct; they do not require so many years for this

as the more complex, more internalised systems, which can be

described as more mature. Regulating water flows is a serious

threat and all drainage works or works that lead to a variation

in salinity can affect the Marshes.

The characteristics of the waters of Doñana include a lack

of stability and the continual fluctuations that explain, in part,

their high productivity. This is the same principle that the

monks of the Middle Ages learned when they first started

breeding carp in pools and they would leave these ponds dry

from time to time.At this time, we do not have any exact data

on production values, which are indirectly recognised as high.

The interest of the ponds as dynamic temporary residences or

the habitats for creatures at the end of one stage in life should

also be pointed out.They have been highly effective for distrib-

uting a large number of aquatic animals, especially diaptomids

and ostracods.The aquatic vegetation of flowering plants is also

interesting, although here, I will only mention the presence of

Wolffia (Punta Umbría).

In a series of visits to Doñana, made by different people

from the Department of Ecology of the University of

Barcelona (Marta Estrada, María Rosa Miracle, the team

charged with studying Spanish reservoirs, and myself), a certain

number of samples of water and aquatic organisms have been

collected. These samples were not collected systematically;

they were collected randomly from wherever the researchers

happened to be. Having said that, without spending too much

effort on searching for rarities, an examination of the material

has easily produced a list of some 300 species that form the

substance of these pages.

225225

* This chapter has been included as a tribute to its author, Spain's leading ecologist,

who died in 2004. The work reproduced here was published in Oecologia Aquatica, 2:

72-93, in November 1976. The authors of this publication are grateful for having been

authorised for reproducing this article.

Chlorophyceae of genus Spirogyra with their characteristic ribbon-likechloroplast rolled into a spiral.

Freshwater algae of Doñana

RAMÓN MARGALEF *

226

Many of these species are common species to be found

almost anywhere, but many of them had still not been report-

ed on Mainland Spain, which is not saying very much as very lit-

tle research has been done in this field in the past. The local

diversification of communities is of certain interest.The ponds

behind a row of dunes contain plankton with an abundance of

organisms that are siderophile to a varying

degree, such as Trachelomonas, and

other euglenal algae or xantho-

phyceae. A more banal flora is to be

found in the flood waters, with a good

number of diatoms and filamentous

algae that develop in pulses.The plank-

ton in all these waters, in general, is

characteristically formed of very small

elements (nano-plankton) that indi-

cates, at the very least, an extreme reac-

tivity of the populations, which are capa-

ble of rapidly increasing in a mere few

days.

Taken as a whole, when all these

species and communities are compared

with those described from other

regions of Spain, based on the many

tables published, often with the name of

an association or a higher education

centre, in accordance with the customs

of plant sociologists, they fall into the

category of communities grouped under

the name of Tribonemion

(Tribonemetum siderophilum in stag-

nant waters, Eunotieto-Fragilarietum in

flowing waters) with a series of highly

characteristic components. These include

species of Tribonema and other xantho-

phyceae, Oedogonium, Bulbochaete,

Eunotia pectinalis, Apiocystis, a variety of

euglenal algae, etc. The influence of the

salinity is less pronounced than we

expected, it can only be seen in the distri-

bution of Nodularia, Cylindrotheca and

other diatoms of the genera Nitzschia, Chaetoceros,

Campylodiscus, etc.

Unfortunately, no further information was gathered on the

characteristics of the waters sampled in the visit of January

1973, and the information gathered was only partial. These

waters are very rich in silica, which remains in solution thanks

to the high alkalinity of the waters. Paradoxically, they are also

very rich in phosphorous and metals, despite the high oxygen

concentration and pH. The nitrogen/phosphorous relation is

extremely low, which can be associated with the periodic

development of cyanophyceae, including some very interesting

ones (Anabaenopsis). In the sediment of ponds there is an

abundance of silica remains of organisms, such as fresh water

sponge spicules, chrysophyceae cysts

(so-called chrysostomataceae) and

diatom valves. Moreover, in other

ponds, there have been observations

of recent deposits of silica on

Tribonema filaments and dead

diatom valves, obliterating their

structure. The presence of iron and

manganese is evident from the abun-

dance of organisms that precipitate

these elements in shells

(Trachelomonas), membranes

(Oedogonium, Closterium,

Tribonema) and sheaths (mainly bac-

teria).

Non quantitative samples of algae

were available, collected in small tubes

and preserved in formol, and some

water samples fixed with lugol. These

latter samples have been used for the

counts presented in table 2, which give

an idea of the plankton (nano-plankton)

to be found in the ponds. Analyses of

the other samples have made it possible

to prepare lists of communities, with an

estimate of the relative abundance,

expressed by means of a notation applied

with personal criteria, from 1 (scarce) to

5 (very abundant). Different lists from the

same place and date have been merged,

and similar communities have been

grouped together in tables, which can be

considered representatives of these kinds

of communities (tables 3 to 6). In order to

keep the lists manageable, the rarest species, or those with a

very limited presence, have been left out.Table 3 includes the

most permanent ponds, containing richer life forms; table 4

includes the more stable and the poorer ponds; table 5

includes flowing waters and table 6 the flood waters, shallow

pools and marshes.

227

TORO TARAJE ZAHILLO GRANDE SANTA OLALLA

Temperature, ºC 10.7 9.7-9.8 9.4 9.05-9.22

Oxygen, ml O2/l 8.0 7.80-8.41 8.04-8.79 7.70 7.80-8.54

pH 8.7-9.3 8.6-9.2 8.0-9.3 7.8 8.4-9.4

Alcalinity, meq./l 2.48 2.10-2.17 0.91-0.93 1.65 3.65 , 3.67 , 3.75

SiO4 μg-at Si/l 92.33-95.09 106.12-121.85 304.50 345.44 , 363.44 , 388.81

NO3 μg-at N/l 0.32-0.60 0.22-0.52 1.89 1.08 , 1.74 , 1.84

NO2 μg-at N/l 0.03-0.05 0.02-0.03 0.61 0.49 , 0.55 , 0.58

PO4 μg-at P/l 2.15-2.28 2.31-2.49 9.93 9.89 , 10.64 , 10.78

Chlorophyll, mg/m3 1.29 2.55 1.34 127.80 82.75 , 92.30 , 112.39

Pigment diversity index D430/D665 2.23 2.42 2.15 2.24 2.43-2.50

TABLE 1Some characteristics of the waters of several Doñana ponds, according to samples taken on January 28th 1973. One or more samples from each pond.

Laguna del Toro, 30-XII-1968

Trachelomonas oblonga 27,600Actinastrum hantzschii" 23,320Chlorella sp." 6,220Aphanocapsa elachista 5,125Trachelomonas volvocina 3,040Scenedesmus opoliensis 1,545Scenedesmus falcatus 1,466Ankistrodesmus falcatus 667Trachelomonas intermedia 614Fragilaria capucina 614Phacus pusillus 480Euglena sp. 240Phacus psudonordstedtii 160Fragilaria construens 107Scenedesmus denticulatus 107Cryptomonas erosa 95Cylindrotheca gracilis 50Diploneis elliptica 27Anomoeoneis sphaerophora 27Amphora ovalis 27Nitzschia sp. 27

Other sspecies: Merismopedia tenuissima, Chroococcus limneticus,Scenedesmus quadricauda, Tetraedron caudatum, Anabaenopsis tan-ganykae, Chlamydomonas, Navicula cuspidata ambigua, Euglena sp.,Synedra unita.

Laguna del Toro, 28-I-1973(Bacteria, 500,000-800,000/ml)Microcystis aeruginosa 73,600Selenastrum minutum 40,500Ankistrodesmus falcatus 22,900Scenedesmus quadricauda 19,600Chlorella sp. 12,900Scenedesmus falcatus 6,450Chroococcus dispersus 5,160Sc. quadricauda maximus 2,310Cylindrotheca gracilis 1,680Tetraedron trigonum 1,550Trachelomonas volvocina 1,162Scenedesmus opoliensis 1,033Flagelados pequeños 1,033Navicula sp. (cf. protracta) 905Tetraedron caudatum 905Nitzschia sp. 905Chlamydmonas sp. 516Pediastrum boryanum 516Trachelomonas oblonga 387Fragilaria construens 254Trachelomonas intermédia 254Phacus pusillus 129Gymnodinium sp. 129Navicula sp. 129Chryptomonas sp. 129Eunotia pectinalis 129Synedra ulna 129Lyngbya limnetica 539 mmSpirulina labyrinthiformis 3 mmPinnularia microstauron 129Amphora sp. 129

TABLE 2Composition of phytoplankton in some of the Doñana ponds. The figures represent the number of cells per ml; in some cases (cyanophyceae and bacteria)the length of the filaments per ml; they may also indicate the number of colonies per ml. The category "other species" lists the species present in densities ofless than 10 cells/ml.

Laguna del Taraje, 30-XII-1968

Cymbella sp. 258Navicula sp. 129Nitzschia sp 129

Other sspecies: Navicula cuspidata ambigua, Gyrosigma sp., iron oxidebacteria.

Laguna de Santa Olalla, 30-XII-1968

Anabaenopsis tanganykae(12,750 colonies) 140,300A. tang. Recta 12,300Microcystis aeruginosa 21,360Bacterias filamentosas 1,152 mmAphanotece clathrata (241 colonies) 15,400Pediastrum boryanum 640Pediastrum duplex 240Scenedesmus acutus (+falcatus) 187Scenedesmus quadricauda 107Merismopedia punctata 107Pediastrum tetras 107Navicula cuspidata ambigua 80Legerheimia wratislaviensis 53Oocystis sp. 53Glenodinium sp 53Elakotothrix gelatinosa 27Cyclotella sp. 27Nitzschia sp. 27Surirella ovata 27

228

Laguna Dulce, 30-XII-1968

Scenedesmus quadricauda 534Pediastrum boryanum 426Navicula sp. 267Trachelomonas volvocina 187Cyclotella sp. 160Thalassiosira fluviatilis 133Scenedesmus opoliensis 107Anabaenopsis tanganykae (80 colonies) 880Nitzschia sp. Cyclotella sp. 80Ankistrodesmus falcatus 53Phacus raciborskii 27Lepocinclis ovum 27Cryptomonas erosa 27Saelenastrum capricornutum 27Synedra acus 27Navicula cuspidata 27Cosmarium laeve 27Eunotia pectinalis 27Melosira varians 27Amphora ovalis pediculus 27Pinnularia sp. 27Acromatium oxaliferum (bacteria) 27

Other sspecies: Tribonema angustissimum, Rhopalodia gibba, Synedraulna, Navicula cryptocephala, Pediastrum clathratum, Phacus pyrum.

El Chorrito, 31-XII-1968

Synedra rumpens 1,001Chlorella sp. 213Trachelomonas volvocina 93Nitzschia sp. 93Eunotia pectinalis 93Closterium kuetzingii 80Synedra acus 53Gomphonema sp. 53Cyclotella sp. 27Closterium moniliferum 27Synedra ulna 27Lyngbya maior 8 mm

Other sspecies: Trachelomonas orenburgica, Trachelomonas verrucosa,Cryptomonas reflexa, Rhodomonas sp., Gonyostomum sp., Staurastrum pedun-culatum, Euglena sp., Navicula radiosa, Pinnularia sp., Zygnema sp., Mougeotiasp., Spirogyra sp., Nitzschia tryblionella, Ankistrodesmus falcatus, Closterium sp.

Trachelomonas volvocina Trachelomonas hispida Trachelomonas oblonga Trachelomonas intermedia Trachelomonas orenburgica Trachelomonas scabra Trachelomonas stokesiana Trachelomonas sp.Lepocinclis ovumPhacus pl. sp.Ankistrodesmus falcatus Navicula sp. pl. Oedogonium sp. pl.Cymbella sp. Eunotia pectinalisPinnularia viridisAmphora ovalisSynedra rumpensNitzschia sp. pl.Nitzschia clausiNavicula cuspidata ambiguaEunotia lunarisTribonema minus (+ elegans)Tribonema aequaleTribonema virideGomphonema gracilisNavicula cryptocephala exilisCyclotella meneghinianaPediastrum boryanumAchnanthes minutissimaScenedesmus quadricauda Scenedesmus quadricauda var. maximus Scenedesmus falcatus S. quadrispina

2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1+ 2 1 1 2

2 1 1 2 11 1 1

1 1 1 1 11 1

11 1

1 1 2 11 1 2 1 1 12 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 23 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2

3 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 11 2 2 1 1 1 1

1 2 1 1 3 2 2 21 1 1 2 1 2 2 1

2 1 1 1 1 1 21 1 3 3 2 3 33 2 2 1 1 2

1 2 2 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 2 1 1 2 11 1 2 2 2 2

1 2 21

1 2 2 1 13 3 2 1 31 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 2

1 1 1 2 1 21 2 3 2 2

1 2 2 1 12 1 1 1 12 2 1 1 2

TABLE 3Communities of algae rich in species, with siderophile organisms, typical of longer lasting stagnant waters.

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

XII-

68

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

I-73

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,I -

73

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,I-7

3

Lagu

na D

ulce

,XII-

68

Lagu

na D

ulce

,I-7

3

Lagu

na G

rand

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,I

-73

El C

horr

ito,X

II - 6

8

Ace

buch

e M

atal

asca

ñas,

XII

- 68

Scenedesmus abundans Scenedesmus opoliensis Scenedesmus ecornis Thread bacteria Fe oxideMougeotia sp.Caloneis siliciculaCocconeis placentulaAmphora venetaStauroneis phoenicenteronLyngbya limneticaMicrocystis aeruginosaApiocystis braunianaPinnularia microstauronOphiocytium majusNavicula dicephalaAmphora ovalis pediculusNitzschia hungaricaFragilaria construensNitzschia amphibiaStauroneis ancepsSelenastrum minutumPinnularia majorSpirogyra sp. pl. Bulbochaete sp.Cosmarium laeveColacium vesiculosumNitzschia subtilisSynedra ulnaMonallantus sp.Diploneis ellipticaTetraedron minimum scrobiculatumEpithemia zebra saxonicaAnomoeneis sphaerophoraFragilaria capucina

1 1 11 1 1

1 13 2 2 3 2

1 1 1 21 1 1 2

2 1 1 11 3 1 1

1 1 1 13 1 4 4 32 1 2 2 4

2 1 1 1 21 2 2 1 2

1 1 1 1 11 1 1

3 1 11 1 11 3 1 1

1 3 1 12 1 1 2

2 2 2 21 1 1 1

1 2 41 1 1 1

1 1 11 1 4

1 1 12 1 1

1 1 11 1 1

1 1 1 11 1

1 13 1 1

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

XII-

68

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

I-73

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,I -

73

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,I-7

3

Lagu

na D

ulce

,XII-

68

Lagu

na D

ulce

,I-7

3

Lagu

na G

rand

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,I

-73

El C

horr

ito,X

II - 6

8

Ace

buch

e M

atal

asca

ñas,

XII

- 68

229

Staurodesmus dejectusSurirella ovataEpithemia sorexSynedra acus radiansMerismopedia punctataDinobryon sertulariaOocystis solitariaCylindrospermum stagnaleChrysostomataceaeCladophora fractaNavicula hungaricaAnabaenopsis tanganykaeZygnema sphaericumAnisonema acinumGomphonema abbreviatum?Cosmarium humilePleurotaenium ehrenbergi

1 1 11 1

1 11 1 2

1 1 11 2 1

1 1 11 2

1 25

1 35 1

5 12 1

2 21 21 2

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

XII-

68

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

I-73

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,I -

73

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,I-7

3

Lagu

na D

ulce

,XII-

68

Lagu

na D

ulce

,I-7

3

Lagu

na G

rand

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,I

-73

El C

horr

ito,X

II - 6

8

Ace

buch

e M

atal

asca

ñas,

XII

- 68

Spirogyra perforansTetraspora gelatinosaCymbella affinisPinnularia brauniPhormidium fragileMelosira granulataEpithemia turgidaDiploneis ovalisPhormidium tenueNitzschia spectabilisClosterium aciculareCystodinium cornifaxTetradesmus wisconsinensisNitzschia sigmoideaGlenodinium dybowskiClosterium moniliferumClosterium leiblenii

1 25 1

1 21 11 21 11 1

1 11 1

1 11 11 1

1 11 1

1 11

1

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

XII-

68

Cha

rco

del T

oro,

I-73

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el Z

ahill

o,I -

73

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

el T

araj

e,I-7

3

Lagu

na D

ulce

,XII-

68

Lagu

na D

ulce

,I-7

3

Lagu

na G

rand

e,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,X

II-68

Lagu

na d

e Sa

nta

Ola

lla,I

-73

El C

horr

ito,X

II - 6

8

Ace

buch

e M

atal

asca

ñas,

XII

- 68

Crisostomatáceas, restos cistesEunotia pectinalisPinnularia viridisSynedra rumpensNitzschia sp.Synedra ulnaNavicula sp.Gomphonema gracileGomphonema parvulumMougeotia sp.Oedogonium sp.Scenedesmus falcatusNitzschia clausiLyngbya limneticaMicrocystis aeruginosaSpirogyra sp. pl.Microcoleus steentrupiEunotia lunarisTribonema minusNavicula populaPinnularia brauni amphicephalaZygnema sp.Spirogyra communisTribonema aequaleColacium vesciculosumPinnularia gibbaScenedesmus quadricauda + var. maximusCylindrospermum stagnaleLyngbya aeurugineocoeruleaStauroneis phoenicenteronOscillatoria formosaPhormidium foveolarum

1 1 2 3 22 1 1 21 1 1 12 1 1 31 1 1+ 1 12 1 41 1 23 1 12 11 31 12 1

4 35 1

2 23

1 21 2

1 14

332

22

222

1 122

L..B

rezo

,I-7

1

Det

rás

Dun

a,V-

71

L.D

una V

-71

Nav

azo

Toro

,XII-

68

Ojil

lo,X

II,68

TABLE 4Communities of algae poor in species, inunstable stagnant waters. Elevated persist-ence of silica remains.

Eunotia pectinalisMelosira variansTribonema elegansTribonema vulgareTribonema virideOedogonium sp. pl. Spirogyra sp. pl. Spirogyra ellipsosporaPinnularia viridisOphiocytium maiusSynedra ulnaBacterias precip. FeNitzschia sp.Synedra acusSynedra acus radiansMougeotia sp.Closterium kuetzingiiApiocystis braunianaBulbochaete sp.Cosmarium laeveSynedra rumpensGomphonema acuminatumNitzschia spectabilisDiploneis ellipticaStauroneis phoenicenteronGomphonema gracileAnkistrodesmus falcatusCyclotella meneghinianaMicrocoleus, 2 sp.Gomphonema constrictum cap.Cosmarium vexatum

3 2 23 24 23 34 23 2 32 1 531 11 1 14 35 31 11 11 22 11 22 11 11 12 21 1

11

221 11 1321

Rocí

o.V-

71

Rocí

o.V-

71L.

Dun

a V-7

1

Cañ

o A

ulag

a,X

I - 6

8

Cylindrospermum stagnaleNavicula sp. pl.Oedogonium sp. plSpirogyra sp. pl.Anabaena scheremetieviNavicula cuspidata ambiguaNavicula lanceolataLyngbya limneticaNitzschia sp. pl.Rhopalodia gibbaGyrosigma acuminatumMitzschia spectabilisSurirella ovataAnomoeoneis sphaerophoraNavicula cryptocephala exilisNitzschia hungaricaEpithemia sorexAmphora ovalisCymbella sp.Crisostomatáceas, cistesAmphora venetaZygnema sp.Botrycoccus brauniiUlothrix sp.Nitzschia obtusaEunotia pectinalisNostoc sphaericumApiocystis braunianaStauroneis ancepsTetraspora gelatinosaNitzschia tryblionellaNitzschia lorenzianaColacium vesiculosum Epithemia turgidaCladophora fractaLyngbya maiorGomphosphaerialacustrisCosmarium botrytisHantzschia amphioxis

1 1 2 1 21 3 3 1 11 2 1 2

1 4 5 11 1 11 1 1 11 1 1 11 3 1 13 2 1 23 22 1 1

1 1 11 1 11 12 2 21 1 11 11 1 11 1 1

1 1 21 1 1

1 5 22

23 12 1

1 21 1

1 15

22

32

2

2

Luci

o de

l Pal

acio

,XII-

68

Luci

o de

l Pal

acio

,III-

71

Gua

dalq

uivi

r M

arsh

es,X

II-68

Clo

se t

o Le

o Bi

aggi

labo

rato

ry,I

II-71

HIn

ojos

Mar

sh,I

II-71

Gua

diam

ar,I

II-71

TABLE 6Communities relatively poor in species in unsta-ble waters (Marshes).

TABLE 5Communities of algae with siderophilespecies in flowing waters.

Mallard (Anas platyrhynhos) in Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

only ceasing to be so as I write (in 1973),with the enactment of the

Doñana National Park Use and Management Master Plan...

It is a shame that no documental data remains - as far as we

know - on what hunting in the marshes was like for the ordinary

people. The towns that have lived in close association with the

marshes were those of the eastern bank (Los Palacios, Lebrija,

Trebujena) and those overlooking the river, particularly Coria, La

Puebla and Sanlúcar de Barrameda.The kinds of hunting that took

place must be based on what we know happened last century, and

which is probably also true for the last four centuries.

The most important use of the marshes must undoubtedly

have been the collection of eggs in spring and of coot and duck

chicks in the early summer.The people of the marshes even had to

invent a special kind of boat for this, the "cajon", a flat bottomed,

very narrow, very sharp, doubled ended type of punt designed to

open the way through bulrush patches in shallow water. Leaning on

two poles, used for propulsion, collectors could move as fast as a

game-keeper on horseback, who could not catch him when the

waters were up to its hocks. Moreover, a "cajon" could be hidden

almost anywhere if necessary.

Hundreds of thousands of eggs were collected every year in the

early 20th century, by two teams that supplied the Sanlúcar market.

Each team was made up of half a dozen men, each with a "cajon"

punt, hunting for eggs beyond Las Nuevas, where they set up their

headquarters.All kinds of eggs were collected, but mainly the eggs

of the coot (Fulica atra),whose floating nests, half covered by a roof

of sheep's fescue bent into the nest, held an average of 6-8 eggs.But

although these were the most sought after eggs, they also took

eggs from other birds, like the pochard (Aythia ferina), black necked

grebe (Podiceps nigricollis), moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) and

black tern (Chlidonias hybridus). On the islets, next to the clutch-

es of several species of ducks (mallard, marbled teal, pin tails, etc.),

they could often find the excellent eggs of the avocet

(Recurvirostra avosetta), black winged stilt (Himantopus himanto-

pus) and lapwing (Vanellus vanellus).The two great colonies of gull-

billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) were systematically plundered

year after year.

For a month, people from Sanlúcar, Lebrija,Trebujena and Los

Palacios went out collecting eggs, filling their punts with a confus-

ing mixture of brown,white, red and green eggs that they later sold

in the shops.There are still many people who consider coot eggs

231

Birds and Hunting JOSÉ ANTONIOVALVERDE *

231

There are a few places in the world, all situated in the

mouths of large rivers in the temperate zone, that have

always attracted vast flocks of birds that move between the polar

regions and the tropics.The banks of some of these deltas saw the

birth of fabulous nations: the civilisations of the Tigris and the

Euphrates, the Nile delta, the Guadalquivir and the Tartessos.These

deltas have also been magnets attracting men, in search of the

excitement of hunting and relaxation inspired by an open horizon.

The great open plains of the Guadalquivir Marshes, where the river

broadens to a width of several miles, is one of these privileged

places.

As far as hunting is concerned, the lower Guadalquivir has been

a kind of paradise for as long as the records go back.As soon as it

was taken back from the Moors,Alphonse X settled his huntsmen

in the Marisma (marsh), who bought lands in what is now Hato

Ratón, then called Mures (which means mice, or "ratones" in

Spanish).The Lomo de Grullo Royal Hunting Grounds, or "Coto"

was established in the same area,which was mentioned in the times

of the Catholic Monarchs together with Las Rocinas. The bar

between the river and the sea and the north western area of the

Marshes have been a hunting grounds for aristocrats ever since,

* This chapter has been included as a tribute to its author, a leading conservationist,researcher and driving force behind Doñana. The text was published in 1973 in the bookentitled "El Río. El Bajo Guadalquivir", published by Grupo 28. The authors of this pub-lication would like to thank Grupo 28 for being so kind as to authorise the transcription ofthis chapter from their work.

Bronze plaque, the work of Jose Manuel Diaz Cerpa, as a tribute to JoseAntonio Valverde. Valverde was a basic reference for Doñana, as he is con-sidered the father of most of the initiatives that led to the conservation ofthis space. He was the founder of the Doñana Biological Station, he pub-lished books and articles helping lay the foundations for its conservation,as well as creating the National Park, of which he was the first CuratorDirector.

232

to be far tastier than chicken eggs, and they would buy them with-

out a second thought if they came onto the market. They were

right too, because they really do have an excellent taste and, as

most birds can lay a second clutch, reaping the enormous harvest

of eggs from the marshes should not have caused any great harm.

These egg collectors could also distinguish incubated eggs from the

fresh ones at a glance - incubated eggs start to show a shine that is

brought out by the contact with the brooding mother as the incu-

bation progresses, and,when necessary, they test them on the spot.

To do this, they cup the egg in the palm of their hand and gently

submerge it in the water: if the egg remains horizontal, it is fresh, if

it turns fat end up, it is starting to

incubate. A well incubated egg

almost stands on its pointed end,

and can even float.

A month after the second egg

harvest finishes, they started hunt-

ing coots and ducks. Now the

punts were only used for carrying

the cargo, an incredible cargo col-

lected by the hunters.

Men and their horses set out

from every village each day for the

marshes to hunt ducks; this was a

unique and exciting hunt. There

were several forms of hunting, but

the most important ones were "la

bulla" and "el rastro" (tracks).

The "bulla" method was used

when there was no wind and the

movement of the birds, transmit-

ted to the waving stems of the

rushes, easily gave away their posi-

tion.A family of coots surprised by

a hunter approaching on horseback or on foot, would fan out in

their flight and after a short "race" over the water. "Ahí va la bulla"

shouts the hunter: they would dive under the water and hold on

with their long toes.There they would be found, where the noise

stopped, rolled in a ball with the silver colour of the air around

their grey feathers.

The men went out hunting in groups, with their animals fitted

with large panniers in which the "gallaretos" (large coot chicks) and

"mancon", or crippled ducks (i.e. they could not fly as their wing

feathers were changing) were thrown, tied together in pairs. The

teams were often accompanied by poodles, almost always with an

eye missing from the evilly aimed pecks of older coots.They were

expert hunters that almost doubled the take of a man.

You could hunt with the "bulla" method almost every day, at

least you could during the time of calm you find at mid morning and

in the afternoon when the wind is going to change direction - from

an off-shore to an on-shore breeze -, cooling the marshes. But

when the wind made this method impossible, and especially when

the water level was low and the panicky swimming of the birds left

a wake of bubbles and sediment from the bottom, or when the

pollen from the plants covered the water with billions of yellow

spots, marking the tracks of the birds like a map, then the coots

were hunted using what is still called "el rastro", the tracking

method.

For another month, caravans

of men and beasts entered the

marshes from every side, hunting

young coots that, mixed with the

fresh eggs of the second clutch,

make an excellent omelette. The

young coot chicks do not suffer

from the problem of the tough-

ened leg tendons, as rigid as

bones, that make coot legs so dif-

ficult as a meal. Boiled, boned and

served with scrambled eggs, they

are delicious.Taken live to the vil-

lages and sold in pairs, they soon

found buyers.

How many coot chicks were

produced by the marshes in a

good year? It is impossible to cal-

culate. Probably between 250,000

and 500,000.There is an incredi-

ble density of coots' nests in the

marshes. I finally came to really

understand this when erudite

men of science with years of experience told me that they had

found that this was the most productive biotope known to man in

shallow fresh waters.The coots,which transformed the grass of the

bottom into a rich protein, harnessed this wealth directly before

being passed on to the towns of the marshes, for which the

Marshes had always been the main supplier of meat. Used rational-

ly, the Marshes, with their coots and ducks, would have remained

the most profitable per hectare meat producing zone ever in

Andalusia. But it was destroyed by a few short sighted and selfish

men.

The hot summer that dried the pools, saw the arrival of the

hares from the banks of the marshes. Driven out by the winter

floods, the hares returned when the waters dropped, first of all to

In the early 20th century, hundreds of thousands of eggs were collected eachyear by teams that supplied the Sanlúcar market. Each team was made up ofhalf a dozen men, with a punt each, which set out to collect eggs beyond LasNuevas, where they set up their headquarters. On the islets, together withthe clutches of several duck species (mallard, marbled teal, pin tails, etc),they could find the excellent eggs of the avocet, black-winged stilt and lap-wing. In the photograph, a black-winged stilt in the Doñana Marshes.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

233

the meadows, and later, when the water only remained in channels

and shallow pools, spreading out everywhere.Good food and a lack

of enemies guaranteed good breeding and hence the marshes, or at

least the higher ground to the north, were full of hares.When they

started to be exterminated at night, using lamps, the Guardia Civil,

a rural police for the countryside, stopped the car of a hunter with

as many as forty hares. It is true that there were lots of them, and

there would be again if they were left alone.

I think that hunting hares cross country with a motorbike,

enjoyed so much by the people of the eastern margins of the

marshes, should be made legal and regulated.After all, it would only

be a modernisation of a tradition that is probably as old as man's

encounter with the marshes. I am referring to hunting hares on

horseback and with a club, a tradition among the villages of the

marshes, and which started when the first waters packed the ani-

mals together among the islets. I do not think that any local tradi-

tion should be killed off by general and uniform laws, and I do not

see why greyhounds can hunt, but boys cannot.

With the arrival of the autumn came hundreds of thousands of

ducks and geese from the north. The Spanish poet Juan Ramón

Jiménez pointed them out to his donkey Platero in his famous

book.With the ducks, the duck hunters: these were incredible, soli-

tary men,who rode out of the villages on horseback,with a gun and

a blanket, when the October rains started to accumulate the birds

on the "beaches" of the marshes.They used punt guns, "big guns" as

they call them.They made their own powder with a consecrated

formula that is reminiscent of the original musketeers: so many

measure of saltpetre, so many of sulphur and so many of charcoal.

They ground this powder in large stone mortars, pounding it with

a thick wild olive stick to avoid sparks.They carried the powder in

their bags, slung their gun over their shoulder and off they went

hunting.

They could spend days before they managed to get enough

ducks together for a good shot, and enough to make it worth going

back to the village to sell their bag. It could rain during the day, with

the rain falling on their large rubber treated ponchos, and it could

rain at night, when they sometimes had to sleep under their horse,

with the saddle for a pillow. This is what the legend says and,

undoubtedly, it was the truth. "I swum across Torre Branch (Brazo

de la Torre) with the horse to speak to the duck hunter that was

on the other side",one told me, relating the story of a day on which

the loneliness and the Marshes got the better of him.

But there were great days too.When clouds of geese and ducks

had arrived from the north, and when the heavy rains had come

With the autumn came hundreds of thousands of ducks and geese from the north, and with the ducks, came the duck hunters: incredible, solitary men who setout from their villages on horseback, with a gun and a blanket when the October rains started to amass the birds on the "beaches" of the Marshes. In the photo-graph, a flock of geese flying over Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

234

from the south west to flood all the lower part of the marshes,

there were sunny days on which there were crowds of ducks and

duck hunters. Up to three hunters could shoot at the same time

from behind a single horse, one at the hind quarters, another at the

shoulder and a third at the head.Three large bore shotguns as black

as Judas' soul that vomited half a pound of lead among a cloud of

sulphur, leaving the countryside covered with writhing bodies.They

also remember the lucky shots, which are best forgotten now.

Much of the merit of these shots was owed to the training given

to the horse.The horse had to move forward pretending that it was

grazing, with its head down, hiding the man walking behind it in soft

shoes through the freezing water.The horse had to be trained in

summer, getting used to the salvos of gun powder, starting off with

just a few grams of powder in the gun, and then increasing the load,

to prepare them for the deafening boom that would explode

around their ears on the day of the hunt.

Then they had to carry dozens of the victims, carried in a pan-

nier that, in turn, they transported to market in Seville or to the

local markets of the towns and villages.

The people of the Marshes even had to invent a special kind of boat forcollecting eggs: the "cajon", a punt that was specially designed to open theway through patches of bulrushes, in the shallow waters. This boat is alsocalled a "sornajo" and it could be tied to the tail of a horse that acted as themeans of propulsion. They were also used for transporting people andbelongings, and sometimes a rough mast and sail were added to cross thewetland during the floods. The photograph shows a curious adaptation ofa "cajon" in the early 20th century, which has been fitted with a propeller.Photograph: Archves of Doñana Biological Station.

The duck hunters had their own strange form of accounting that was undoubtedly learned from experience. All ducks were counted in pairs, but a pair did notnecessarily mean two. It was two if they were mallards or pin tails, but three if they were wigeons or shovelers, and four if they were any kind of teal. In thephotograph, a specimen of shoveler duck (Anas clypeata).Photograph: CENEAM Files.

235

These duck hunters had their own, strange form of accounting

that they had obviously learned by experience. All ducks were

counted in pairs, but a pair did not necessarily mean two: a pair was

two if they were mallards or pintails, but three if they were wigeons

or shoveler, and four if they were any kind of teal. This yardstick

evened out the shots, because it was not the same thing to wipe out

half a hectare of teals with a shot as it was to bring down a few mal-

lards, or just a few geese.

But it is also true that the large bore duck gun was totally indis-

criminate.The family was back at home awaiting the results, and any

kind of kill, as long as it went into the bag, was counted as a good

shot.When the storks arrived in mid winter, they could get a load

of pink meat by skinning the bodies and cutting off the necks and

legs that would betray them.Everything goes into the pot in the vil-

lages of the Marshes, and I would go as far as to bet that there were

recipes for stork and flamingo too.

This is how it was in the immense Marshes for centuries, the

cradle of recurring fevers, but also the source of birds and fish

throughout the year.This was the homeland of a few men who lived

there almost from the cradle to the grave. No less than 1,674

square kilometres of fishing grounds and bird colonies that bred

ducks, hares, coots and snails. Because collecting snails, an ancestral

rite for man, was of tremendous importance.There were millions

of snails, (Theba pisana), of different colours on each islet, collect-

ed by women and children among the reeds up until July or August,

when the white worm starts to kill them.

How much does each bunch of reeds produce in snails? And

the Marshes as a whole? Has anyone worked it out? How much do

As far as hunting is concerned, the lower Guadalquivir has always been a kind of paradise, as long as there have been records. They were scarcely re-conqueredfrom the Moors, when Alphonse X settled his huntsmen in what is now Hato Raton, known as Mures at the time (which means mice, "ratones" in Spanish). Inthe same area, the Royal Hunting Grounds of El Lomo del Grullo were established. Centuries later, interest in hunting was replaced by an interest in observingnature. The Marshes had started to win an international reputation as an area of extraordinary ornithological interest since 1856, when Saunders wrote abouthis travels in Spain in The Field.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

we spend on importing snails from Morocco now?

The platonic contemplation of nature is a recent phenomenon

in Europe. It probably emerged as a consequence of the Second

World War, which left mankind sick to the stomach of horror and

with a new desire for peace of the spirit that could only be found

in nature. Moreover, there were several other circumstances:

colour photography had been discovered, and the grand illustrated

magazines could offer their pages to the photographers that

opened the grand book of wildlife and its environment. Moreover,

the world had become a much smaller place with the impressive

advances in aviation and the off-road vehicle. Legions of photogra-

phers and film makers set out in search of what the western world

demanded, and many of them turned their gaze to the mighty River

Guadalquivir, its marshes and the famous Coto de Doñana that

forms the upper lip of the mouth of the river.

The Marshes had started to gain an international reputation as

an area of extraordinary ornithological interest since 1856, when

Saunders wrote the stories of his travels in Spain in The Field. In

the following years, the yachts of kings and nobles dropped anchor

in the Guadalquivir, while their owners practised what could be

called scientific hunting, although it was more hunting than science.

Thus, the illustrious list of visitors included Prince Rudolph of

Austria, the Duke of Orleans, Lord Lilford - an excellent ornithol-

ogist - and after them, a swarm of egg collectors that discovered

and laid waste to the Marshes in the last century and at the begin-

ning of this one (the author is referring to the 19th and 20th cen-

turies).

So, with an international reputation, it is hardly surprising that

236

the waters had barely recovered their calm after the world war,

when ornithologists started to visit the Marshes, coming in through

the main gate of Doñana, which Mauricio Gonzalez opened for

them.The first expedition, French, arrived in 1952, a few days ahead

of another, Spanish expedition that started an uninterrupted

ornithological work.The first film was made in 1957.

A phenomenon then started for the Marshes that would later

spread to many other places.Through a process of feedback, pho-

tographers provided people what they were asking for, and the

growing interest of these people led to the appearance of zoolog-

ical tourism - fundamentally ornithological - that with the help of

How many coot chicks could the marshes produce in a good year? It isimpossible to calculate. Probably between 250,000 and 500,000. The densi-ty of coot nests in the Marshes is truly amazing. In the photograph, a coot.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

Many people consider the Doñana Marshes as an obligatory visit, the same as a visit to the Prado Museum would be, but the truth is that they are much betterknown than the museum.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

useful Field Guides was undertaken be a wide circle of Europeans.

This enthusiasm for Nature snow balled and the Marshes, the first

place in Europe that decided to approach conservation with a joint

effort, immediately became a Mecca for Nature Tour Operators.

They came from as far away as the United States from the 60s

onwards, in regular expeditions organised by the Audubon Society.

The Spanish government helped to develop the Marshes for

tourism and for research.

But the most important aspect of the Marshes, even though

both hunting and tourism were important, has been the multiplier

effect. People have come from all over Spain, and from many places

beyond, to photograph the wildlife - an excellent school was creat-

ed here - and to plan scientific and conservationist activities.

Many people now believe that Doñana and its Marshes are an

obligatory visit, as you would visit the Prado Museum, but the truth

is that they are better known than the museum.There is an index

that clearly illustrates the vitality of this issue: the number of hours

that Spanish State Television devotes to it. In this aspect, between

the Marshes and the Prado - with an apology for art lovers -, there

is just no comparison.

What really happens is that going out on a Sunday in pursuit of

light and peace in the countryside, or let both of these stream in

through the little screen, is now a pressing need for society, and this

oasis of calm waters, with a green sea of waving grasses and a sky

in which the only clouds are the birds flying across it, make the

Marshes - and Doñana - something that we all need at one time or

another.This is the release that we need; to escape, if only for a few

hours, from the cities that overwhelm use with their overcrowding,

stress and pollution.

between highly euryhaline estuarine species (which readily adapt to

salinity changes) and freshwater species, some of which are resist-

ant to low degrees of salinity. Each group can be subdivided into

indigenous species, most of which are in decline and some already

extinct, and extraordinarily abundant exotic species. Last of all are

the sporadic species caught in the area and which present no

apparent biological pattern. Most of these species are of marine

origin and enter the Lower Guadalquivir basin, when freshwater

flow rates are low and tidal inflows are higher.

The conservation status of this community varies greatly

(Figure 1). Of the three migratory groups, the anadromous species

present the worst conservation status, with two extinct species,

sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) and shad (Alosa alosa), and two criti-

cally endangered species, sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) and

twaite shad (Alosa fallax). The catadromous and amphidromous

species can be classified as vulnerable.This difference is a clear indi-

cation of the poor conservation status of the riverine habitat. In the

case of the anadromous species, the most complicated stage in

their life cycle - breeding - takes place in the river, whereas the

catadromous and amphidromous species breed in the sea, which is

a less degraded environment and has a greater capacity to recover

from human disturbance.

The conservation status of the sedentary species is also very

poor.The three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus gymnurus) is now

extinct, whereas the chub (Squalius pyrenaicus) and the killifish

(Aphanius baeticus), recently described as a new species, are on the

237

Doñana fish speciesthreats affecting a community in decline

CARLOS FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO *

237

The relatively recent origin of the formation, the character-

istics of the climate and the joint effect of winds, tides and

river dynamics have afforded extraordinary environmental hetero-

geneity to the Doñana Ecosystems.The aquatic environment, with

its highly diverse and comprehensive range of permanent and tem-

porary ponds, with or without tidal influence, fresh or hypersaline

waters, isolated or connected, turbid or clear, natural or subject to

intense human activity, is a good example of Doñana's heteroge-

neous nature. Fish have made the most of this heterogeneity and

comprise one of the area's most interesting zoological taxon.Table

I lists the species found in Doñana and its environs, including those

now extinct. Some of these species complete their entire life cycle

in the area, others only certain stages, and yet others use it only as

a migratory path between the river and the sea. Diadromous

(migratory) fish species are the most numerous and are divided

into three representative groups: anadromous (which live in the sea

and spawn in freshwater), catadromous (which live in freshwater

and spawn in the sea), and amphidromous (whose movements are

for trophic and not reproductive purposes). The latter is typical of

juveniles that remain in the estuary during several months to feed

and grow.

Amongst the sedentary fish species, one must distinguish

* Department of Zoology, University of Cordova, Spain.

FIGURE 1Conservation status of speciesfound in the National Park ofDoñana and its surroundings.

Least Concern - Near Threatened (LC-NT) 4

Vulnerables (VU) 30

Endangered (EN) 1

Critically Endangered (CR) 5

Extinct (EX) 3

2%

7%

9%

12%

70%

The Guadalquivir River was dammed in 1930 at the town of Alcalá delRío, with disastrous effects for the shad and sturgeon whose spawningareas were located just upstream from the insurmountable wall. The situa-tion was seriously exacerbated by intensive fishing at the foot of the damduring breeding migration periods. The photograph, taken in 1992, showsone of the last sturgeons fished in the river.Photograph by Carlos Fernández Delgado.

238

DIADROMOUS SPECIESANADROMOUS CATADROMOUS

Sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus Eel, Anguilla anguillaSturgeon, Acipenser sturio Thick-lipped grey mullet, Chelon labrosusShad, Alosa alosa Thin-lipped mullet, Liza ramadaTwaite shad, Alosa fallax Golden grey mullet, Liza aurata

Leaping mullet, Liza saliensFlathead mullet, Mugil cephalus

AMPHIDROMOUS

Sardine, Sardina pilchardus Gilthead bream, Sparus aurataAnchovy, Engraulis encrasicolus Shi drum, Umbrina cirrosaAfrica halfbeak, Hyporhamphus picarti Canary drum, Umbrina canariensisEuropean sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax Meagre, Argyrosomus regiusSpotted sea bass, Dicentrarchus punctatus Transparent goby, Aphia minutaBastard grunt, Pomadasys incisus Wedge sole, Dicologoglossa cuneataSenegal seabream, Diplodus bellottii Senegal Sole, Solea senegalensisWhite seabream, Diplodus sargus Sole, Solea vulgarisCommon two-banded seabream, Diplodus vulgaris Bluefish, Pomatomus saltatorBlue butterfish, Stromateus fiatola Blenny, Lipophrys trigloides

SEDENTARY SPECIESNATIVE SPECIES

Freshwater EstuarineBarbel, Barbus sclateri Big-scale sand smelt, Atherina boyeriChub, Squalius pyrenaicus Black goby, Gobius nigerMoroccan loach, Cobitis paludica Rock goby, Gobius paganellus

Killifish, Aphanius baeticusThree-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus gymnurusBlack-striped pipefish, Syngnathus abasterGreater pipefish, Syngnathus acusCommon goby, Pomatoschistus micropsSand goby, Pomatoschistus minutus

EXOTIC SPECIES

Freshwater EstuarineGoldfish, Carassius auratus Mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitusCarp, Cyprinus carpioEastern mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrookiLargemouth bass, Micropterus salmoidesPumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus

SPORADIC SPECIESNATIVE

FRESHWATER

Iberian Nase, Chondrostoma willkommiiPardilla, Chondrostoma lemmingiiMARINE

European conger, Conger conger Derbio, Trachinotus ovatusSerpenteel, Ophisurus serpens Mojarra, Diplodus annularisLusitanian toadfish, Halobatrachus didactylus Annular seabream, Diplodus puntazzoGarpike, Belone belone Salema, Sarpa salpaSmall sandeel, Ammodytes tobianus Striped red mullet, Mullus surmuletusShort-snouted seahorse, Hippocampus hippocampus False scad, Caranx rhonchusSeahorse, Hippocampus ramulosus , Baillon’s wrasse, Symphodus bailloniBroad-nosed pipefish, Syngnathus typhle Grey wrasse, Symphodus cinereusBlack-striped pipefish, Syngnathus abaster Five-spotted wrasse, Symphodus roissaliStraightnose pipefish, Nerophis ophidion Ocellated wedge sole, Dicologoglossa hexophthalmaTompot blenny, Parablennius gattorugine Two-spotted clingfish, Diplecogaster bimaculataBrown comber, Serranus hepatus Leerfish, Lichia amiaPortuguese sole, Synaptura lusitanica Peacock blenny, Lipophrys pavoEuropean barracuda, Sphyraena sphyraena Shanny, Lipophrys pholisBrill, Scophthalmus rhombus Armless snake eel, Dalophis imberbisEchelus mirus Common torpedo, Torpedo torpedoLesser weever, Echiichtys vipera Greater weever, Trachinus dracoAtlantic horse mackerel, Trachurus trachurus

EXOTIC SPECIES

FreshwaterNorthern pike, Esox lucius Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss

Extinct species in the zone Species found in the National Park

TABLE 1Species found in Doñana National Park and surroundings.

239

verge of extinction. Threatened by the introduction of exotic

species and isolated from a larger population of barbels living in the

Guadalquivir River, the reduced population of barbel (Barbus scla-

teri) found in the Rocina stream must be added to this list as well.

Although somewhat more abundant than the previous species, the

Moroccan loach (Cobitis paludica) is also endangered. The black

goby (Gobius niger), rock goby (Gobius paganellus) and pipefishes

(Syngnathus abaster and Syngnathus acus) are classified as vulnera-

ble, whereas, the big-scale sand smelt (Atherina boyeri) and two

goby species (Pomatoschistus microps and P. minutus) are consid-

ered to be less endangered.

The overall conservation status of Doñana's ichthyofauna and

their environs is very poor, with clear evidence of a declining com-

munity.Three species are extinct and 36 (84%) have been listed in

one of the three main threatened species categories (Figure 1). Of

these 36 species, five are on the verge of extinction - three of which

(barbel, chub and killifish) live within Doñana National Park, and

two (sea lamprey and twaite shad), the only surviving anadromous

species, in neighbouring watercourses.

The community's poor conservation status is the result of

anthropogenic transformations of the area's water environment

over the last century, as well as its downstream location from the

human activities taking place further up the river.

The deterioration of the navigational conditions of the Lower

Guadalquivir gave rise to the implementation of waterworks, that

reduced the navigational distance between Seville and the sea by 50

kilometres.These modifications brought about significant changes

in the river dynamics of this stretch of the Guadalquivir, to the

extent that the tidal flow rate is currently higher than in the past.

Other significant modifications, such as the construction of the

Alfonso XIII Canal (1926) and the canalization of the Guadiamar

River (1944) and the Eastern Branch (1964) reduced flooding in

Seville, and confined agricultural land from the marshes. Currently,

only 27,000 hectares (12% of the original area) are preserved in

their natural state within Doñana National Park.

Transformation of the land brought with it the extensive modi-

fication of the natural drainage system of the Marshes as well. Many

natural channels within

the Marshes (caños)

dried and silted up, while

others were canalized,

deepened and locked

with floodgates. In

Doñana, the natural levee

was raised resulting in the

so-called Montaña del

Río. These interventions

resulted in the confinement of the Marshes and the loss of the inter-

tidal habitat with all of the processes and species associated with it.

Typical estuarine dynamics are currently present only in the

main channel of the Guadalquivir (approximately 2% of the original

area) and the lower reach of the Torre Branch.The fauna and asso-

ciated processes (such as diurnal and tidal migrations) characteris-

tic of this type of ecostystem are therefore limited to this area

resulting in a high diversity zone with over 70 species of fish, 49

species of crustaceans, 22 species of water insects and 8 species of

non-anthropod invertebrates. Given that very few areas, including

terrestrial habitats, in Andalusia present such a high diversity of

species and processes as in the last few kilometres of the Lower

Guadalquivir, the area in itself can be considered one of the major

hotspots of Andalusia's aquatic biodiversity. Furthermore, the area

is of great interest not just from a biological viewpoint but from

that of commercial fishing as well owing to the high market value

of many of the species targetted by the fishing industry in the Bay

The Doñana Marshes, as well as their marine environment, are of greatinterest not just from a biological viewpoint but from that of commercialfishing as well, owing to the high market value of many of the species tar-getted by the fishing industry in the Bay of Cadiz. Moreover, as productsfrom the fishing industry constitute one of the main attractions of theAndalusian coasts, the aquatic communities of the Lower Guadalquivirtake on an important social dimension by indirectly contributing to thelivelihood of thousands of Andalusian families . Photo by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM files.

The fishing of commercial species such aselver and prawns is a serious problemaf-fecting fishes living in the estuary duringtheir juvenile stage.Photograph by Carlos Fernández-Delgado.

240

of Cadiz. Every year many different species of fish, including

anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus), sardine (Sardina pilchardus), sea

spotted bass (Dicentrarchus punctatus), meagre (Argyrosomus

regius), sole (Solea vulgaris and S. senegalensis), and prawn

(Melicertus kerathurus) remain in the Lower Guadalquivir for a

span of several months. It can thus be expected that the survival

rate of the fry of these species and the subsequent abundance of

the same in the fishing grounds will depend on the conservation

status of the area. Moreover, as products from the fishing industry

constitute one of the main attractions of the Andalusian coasts, the

aquatic communities of the Lower Guadalquivir take on an impor-

tant social dimension by indirectly contributing to the livelihood of

thousands of families.

Another important anthropogenic impact is the retention of

approximately 7,000 hm3 of water in reservoirs throughout the

watersheds, affecting the hydrological system of the estuary and

bringing about its gradual salinisation.The reservoirs retain not only

water, but sediments and nutrients as well with the subsequent

threat of lateral erosion (i.e. loss of territory from a decrease in

alluvial deposition) in the estuary and the progressive loss of pro-

ductivity in the area.The loss of productivity may be offset for the

time being by the high nutrient load of the water draining agricul-

tural fields and from untreated urban waste water.

Even the main channel of the Guadalquivir was dammed in

1930 at the towns of Alcalá del Río and Cantillana, with disastrous

effects for the shad and sturgeon whose spawning areas were

located just upstream from the insurmountable walls. The situa-

tion was seriously exacerbated by intensive fishing at the foot of

the dam during breeding migration periods. The eel (Anguilla

anguilla), a migratory species, was also affected with the resulting

loss of the only natural fish predator among the fish species of the

Guadalquivir basin.

Human activity in the sub-catchment areas of the marshlands

is one of the greatest threats not only to the aquatic communi-

ties, but to the whole of Doñana National Park itself. Erosive

processes have become predominant in most of the sub-catch-

ments and wide areas are silting up as in the case of the 300

hectares of marsh filled in by sediments from El Partido stream.

Added to this is the threat arising from very poor water quality

with an excessive nutrient load and toxic substances from

untreated urban waste water, farmlands and industrial activities

such as mining and table olive production. Farming activities also

led to aquifer depletion with a subsequent decrease in the flow

rates of rivers and the lowering of the water table. The most

immediate effect has been the alteration of the natural hydrolog-

ical regime of the Marshes: with shorter hydroperiods and more

severe droughts. This has resulted in the loss of many bodies of

Until recent times it was thought that the distribution of the “fartet”(Aphanius iberus), a small Cyprinodont fish endemic of the Iberianpeninsula, extended along the Mediterranean coast from Catalonia toAndalusia, and included a few small populations of the Atlantic coast ofAndalusia. Nevertheless, a research project financed by the Board ofthe Environment of the Andalusia Government, with the participationof the Universities of Cordova and Murcia and the National Museumof Natural Sciences (CSIC) showed that the Atlantic populations comefrom a different evolutionary line.This difference has been demonstrat-ed through genetic and morphological analyses of specimen from bothareas. The two populations could have diverged about three millionyears ago, after the desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea and its pos-terior isolation during the Late Pliocene. The new species has beennamed Aphanius baeticus, in honour of the River Guadalquivir (theBaetis of ancient Romans), because its largest populations are found inthe Guadalquivir’s basin .Eight populations have been found until this moment.The westernmostone is localised at Laguna del Hondón within the Doñana NationalPark, while the easternmost is found near to Conil de la Frontera(Cadiz).The conservation status of the new species is very poor and,according to UICN’s categories, this species has been catalogued as"Critically Endangered" (CR).An appealing and integrative proposal for its conservation has beendeveloped within the framework of the Doñana 2005 project. Anaction within this project included an advanced water-treatment planfor the villages discharging their wastewater to the Marshes. Takingadvantage of the outflow canal of the El Rocío treatment plant, the onewith the most advanced treatment cycle, the idea was developed tocreate a sanctuary for this species.The treatment process was comple-mented with a network of canals bordered by vegetation and fed bythe outflow canal, where the fish population can be maintained.

A NEW FISH SPECIES

IN THE IBERIAN ICHTHYOFAUNA

FEMALE

MALE

surface water, such as the so-called “ojos” (eyes) of the Marshes,

which are points at which groundwater reaches the surface, and

this in turn has affected the vegetation.

Another major problem for the aquatic community is the com-

pletely unregulated fishing taking place along the last 40 kilometers

of the Guadalquivir's main channel. The fishing of commercial

species such as elver and prawns is a serious problem affecting fish-

es living in the estuary during their juvenile stage. They are con-

fronted at the inlet with several thousand square metres of 1mm

mesh fly net used to catch prawns and elver.

Further complicating the matter are the large number of

allochthonous species. The first to colonise the area were most

likely carp (Cyprinus carpio) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) native

to Eastern Europe and Asia, probably in the 19th century and by nat-

ural means. In 1921 the Eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbroo-

ki) was introduced from the United States to fight malaria. Both

native to North America, the largemouth bass (Micropterus

salmoides) and the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) were

introduced in the 1970s, the first into the Rocina stream and sec-

ond into the Marshes.The red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clar-

ki), which had such a marked impact on Doñana's freshwater

ecosystems, also arrived in the 1970s. During the heavy rain sea-

sons in 1996 and 1997 the pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus)

became the last American species to colonise Doñana.

Exotic species will normally replace the native species through

competition, predation or parasitism, altering the functional dynam-

ics of the system. In this specific case, goldfish,Eastern mosquitofish,

largemouth bass, and pumpkinseed put pressure mainly on fresh-

Typical estuarinedynamics are currentlypresent only in themain channel of theGuadalquivir and thelower reach of the TorreBranch. The fauna andassociated processes(such as diurnal andtidal migrations) char-acteristic of this type ofecostystem are there-fore limited to this area,giving Doñana anextraordinary impor-tance for fish conserva-tion. The image showshypsometry of the out-let of theGuadalquivir’s mainchannel into the TorreBranch.

Image extracted from the DigitalSurface Model of Torre Branch(Brazo de la Torre).

The large number of exotic fish species is one of the bigger problems to befaced in Doñana. The first to colonise the area were most likely carp(Cyprinus carpio) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) native to Eastern Europeand Asia, probably in the 19th century and by natural means. In 1921 theEastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) was introduced from the UnitedStates to fight malaria. The pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) became thelast American species to colonise Doñana . Above, couple of Easternmosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki).

242

water species, whereas the mummichog affects estuarine species.

The carp and goldfish uproot submerged vegetation and stir up the

riverbed, increasing water turbidity and reducing the depth of the

photic layer. The Eastern mosquitofish predominantly attacks the

eggs, larvae and fry of other species.Like the carp, it is highly aggres-

sive and, thanks to an efficient breeding strategy, it becomes the

dominant species shortly after colonizing a habitat. Conversely, the

main effect of the largemouth bass and the pumpkinseed arise from

their direct predation upon the adults and juveniles of other

species.

Other human activities also have a negative influence on the

estuarine environment. The impact of periodic dredging of the

Guadalquivir's main channel and of maritime shipping traffic in the

area has not yet been assessed.The hull and ballast water of large

vessels can be an efficient means of transport for exotic fish

species.The risk stemming from these new species in an environ-

mentally vulnerable area is yet to be evaluated. Species such as the

dangerous Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) have complet-

ed their life cycle in this zone and may well be in the adjustment

phase. River dredging and the subsequent increase in sea traffic are

the new threats on the horizon of a territory already threatened

by other activities.

The intention of the two main restoration projects following

the Aznalcollar mining accident is to mitigate some of the problems

found in the area with a special emphasis on fish communities.

Fostered by Spain's central government, the Doñana 2005 project

aims to regenerate the surface water hydrology of the marshlands,

reconnecting isolated zones and restoring large extensions of

marshland, such as the areas of Caracoles and Marisma Gallega. On

the other hand, the Guadiamar Green Corridor, fostered by the

Regional Government, aims to counteract the effects of the mine

tailings spill on the Guadiamar River, the main tributary flowing into

the Marshes. Nevertheless, the biological integrity of the system

can only be guaranteed if the restoration of the water quality is

dealt with to the same extent as habitat restoration has been

addressed in the aforementioned projects.

The Black Goby (Gobius paganellus) is one of the oddest fish species livingin the estuarine environment of Doñana.Photograph by Carlos Fernández Delgado.

Vertical photograph of the marshes in contact with the estuary of the Guadalquivir River, which is coloured in green. The Montaña de Río, a man-made barrier thatsubstitutes the ancient levee and isolates the Marshes, can be seen close to the river bed, and parallel to it. Higher up, lighter in colour, the inundated “lucios“ (shal-low lakes). The biggest of them, Lucio de los Ánsares, is in the uppest part of the photo. Lower down, the a-shaped Lucio del Membrillo, and, on its right, the con-tiguous Lucios of Sanlúcar and of Seville.

are highly unpredictable since

both are dependant on weather

conditions. However, the charac-

teristic flexibility of the reproduc-

tive cycle of amphibians makes it

possible for them to settle and use

such ponds by adjusting their

aquatic phase to the duration of

such environments. Since larvae

can metamorphose under envi-

ronmental conditions that are

inappropriate for their growth and

development, their metamorphic

period may be shortened or

extended according to the condi-

tions of the environment, resulting

in a highly variable duration of

their embryonic and larval stages.

Eleven species of amphibians

can be found In Doñana in a wide variety of reproductive habitats.

Species that undergo metamorphosis at smaller sizes, such as the

common toad, the natterjack toad and the Portugal painted frog,

The amphibians of Doñana CARMEN DÍAZ PANIAGUA *

Amphibians have a complex aquatic cycle, since most

species lay their eggs in aquatic environments, in which

larvae develop until metamorphosis. Later, their juvenile and adult

stages usually take place in terrestrial environments. Some species

have aquatic habits and are always found in the water or next to

it, but many adult amphibians are fully terrestrial and only venture

to water to breed. The presence of appropriate water environ-

ments for their reproduction is therefore necessary for amphibian

populations to exist.

Not all aquatic environments are appropriate as breeding

grounds. Eggs and larvae of most amphibian species are vulnerable

to predators such as fish, typical residents of permanent water

environments. Only species that have developed defence mecha-

nisms against predation usually breed in this type of environment.

However, temporary water environments are generally optimal

for amphibian breeding. Pools and small ponds of this type abound

in the Doñana area and host the eggs and larvae of a rich and

abundant amphibian fauna.

Temporary ponds are formed in Doñana in autumn after heavy

rainfalls. Both the time when they are formed and their duration

* Doñana Biological Station.

Currently, there is a worldwidedecline in amphibian species.The alteration and loss of habi-tats, climate change, increase inultraviolet radiation, introduc-tion of exotic fauna, pollution,diseases and animal trade aresome of the primary potentialcauses that may explain thisdecline. Photograph by Carmen Díaz Paniagua.

244

only need two or three months to complete their larval stage and

can start their terrestrial phase when they reach the length of 10

mm. The two latter species thus breed in very shallow and

ephemeral ponds that are often inhabited by a single species with

few predators and little competition for food resources.

Natterjack toads lay strings of some three thousand eggs in two

long rows that are easy to detect on the banks of the ponds in

which they breed. The Portugal painted frog takes advantage of

small ephemeral ponds where it can lay its eggs several times a

year, i.e. any time heavy rainfalls flood the ponds. However, since

the eggs of common toads contain toxins to prevent them from

being eaten by fish or other predators, this species is adapted to

more permanent aquatic habitats.The common toad is not a very

abundant species in Doñana but can be found in large permanent

ponds such as the Santa Olalla and Dulce lagoons.

At the other end of the spectrum we find amphibians that

require more stable habitats to complete their larval stage.As the

larvae of Western spadefoot are characterised by their large size,

sometimes similar to that of the adults, the larval stage of this

species is longer.They usually remain in the water from the time

large temporary ponds or even marshes are flooded in autumn

until the ponds are drying up in late spring or early summer.The

same habits are shared by the morphologically different sharp-

ribbed newt, an amphibian of the Urodela group frequently found

in the marshes and other large temporary habitats which allow

larvae to reach large sizes before undergoing metamorphosis.The

larvae of this species prey upon invertebrates and even larvae of

other amphibian species that share their habitat.Another unique

species also found in the marsh area and in the small ponds that

form on its borders is the Iberian parsley frog, which is capable of

Stripeless tree frog singing during courtship. Photograph by A. Portheault.

developing relatively large larvae in less than three months, usual-

ly in the autumn/winter period.The characteristic courtship songs

of the males reveal the presence of this species in the Doñana

marshes.The early breeding period of the species probably spare

the larvae from having to compete for food with other amphibian

species.

The amphibian species most frequently found in the sand

dunes of Doñana are those that breed in the countless tempo-

rary ponds that flood in the autumn, reach their maximum pro-

ductivity in the spring and dry out in the early summer.The ponds

are located in small depressions and are frequently surrounded

by monte negro heathland or situated in cork oak groves.These

ponds are the typical habitat of the stripeless tree frog, the

Bosca's newt and the Southern marbled newt.The stripeless tree

frog is a colourful tree-dwelling amphibian, which is capable of

climbing up vegetation and usually ventures to the ponds to

breed once the coldest days of winter are over. Its continuous

courtship songs are a typical feature of winter and spring nights

in Doñana. Because the tree frogs have a longer egg-laying peri-

od, the arrival of the females to the pond does not take place

massively as it does with toads.The male/female couple scatters

the eggs in small groups that stick to plants. Larvae can complete

their cycle in about three months and, just after completing their

metamorphoses, small frogs can be observed over an extended

period of time before ponds dry up.

Newts arrive immediately after the ponds are formed to com-

mence their charming underwater courtship in which males make

repetitive movements of their tails to attract females that will col-

lect the sperm that has been deposited on the bottom of the

Couple of of Iberian parsley frogs in amplexus. Photograph by A. Portheault.

245

pond. Egg-laying does not take place until winter and lasts a long

time as females must lay their eggs by wrapping them one by one

in the leaves of aquatic plants and thus require one to two months

to complete the process. Likewise, larvae can complete their

metamorphosis in around three months but the extended egg-lay-

ing period results in a wide variation of larva ages and sizes with-

in the pond.We can find larvae undergoing metamorphosis during

several months before and up until the time the ponds dry up.

The Southern marbled newt is more common than Bosca's

newt and both use similar habitats.The adults of both species

are very small and Doñana's newts are the smallest of their dis-

tribution area.An adult Bosca's newt, for example, can breed at

just 0.5 grams weight, and a Southern marbled newt at just 1

gram. Very small size is a characteristic of the newts found in

the Doñana area, as the newts even in nearby locations are

larger. This feature could be attributed to the shorter annual

activity period, to their reaching maturity at an earlier age, or

to the greater longevity of the individuals living in Doñana.

Southern marbled newts in this area also have a characteristic

breeding male pattern which is less conspicuous than that of

other populations.

In general, the majority of Doñana's amphibian species char-

acteristically exhibit a smaller size as compared to other pop-

ulations. Some water environments are not necessarily

permanent but do last well into the summer.

Nevertheless, during this dryer period they display

poorer conditions than during the spring, with

less submerged vegetation, a lower concen-

tration of oxygen, higher

temperatures, and

so forth.This type of medium is used by the Iberian green frog

for breeding.This species lays its eggs later (around April) than

other amphibian species. Its larvae usually do not coexist with

those of other species and thanks to their lungs they can toler-

ate lowoxygen concentrations in water. They are even able to

aestivate and complete their metamorphosis the following

autumn, if ponds did not dry up.Adults have aquatic habits and

are active both day and night and are therefore usually associ-

ated with permanent water environments.

Among the amphibian species found in Doñana

there is one that stands out because of its peculiar

breeding process. This is the Iberian midwife

toad, which is quite rare in the area,

although some individuals have been

found north of the Park. Females lay

20 to 40 large-sized eggs each

which the males collect and

place between their legs

after fecundation.The

A characteristic feature of the Western spadefoot is that its larvae can reach alarge size, sometimes similar to that of adults. Photograph by A. Portheault.

Bosca’s newt larva.Photograph by W. de Vries.

246

males, which have nocturnal terrestrial habits, then carry the eggs

during the embryonic stage until they are close to hatching,when they are

placed and released into the water. The larvae will then remain in the

water until they complete their metamorphosis.

Currently, there is a difficulty to explain worldwide decline in

amphibian species. The alteration and loss of habitats, climate

change, increase in ultraviolet radiation, introduction of exotic

fauna, pollution, diseases and animal trade are some of the primary

potential causes that may explain this decline. But none of them

suffuces to cause the overall amphibian recession. It is the accumu-

lation of small deleterious effects what is driving the whole group

into risk of extinction.There is a public concern among conserva-

tionists that the amphibian collapse was an early warning to the

foreseeable biodiversity crisis of the biosphere.

The amphibian fauna of Doñana include both a large number

of species - among which six endemic Iberian species stand out -

UrodelaTriturus pygmaeus Southern marbled newtTriturus boscai Bosca’s newtPleurodeles waltl Sharp-ribbed newt

AnuraAlytes cisternasii Iberian midwife tod Discoglossus galganoi Portugal painted frog Pelobates cultripes Western spadefootPelodytes ibericus Iberian parsley frog Bufo bufo Common toadBufo calamita Natterjack toadHyla meridionalis Stripeless tree frog Rana perezi Iberian green frog

Endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula.

Scientific and common English names of Doñana's amphibian species

Eggs of Western spadefoot laid in shallow water. Photograph by A. Portheault.

and local populations with unique characteristics, such as their

small size. Although the protection level of the Park guarantees

the preservation of amphibian habitats, the duration of the

hydroperiod must be controlled in order to ensure successful

breeding. Water abstraction in the surrounding areas and the

inter-annual climatic variability, with occasionally long drought

periods, could affect the dynamics of these habitats and of the

amphibians that depend on them.

Among other threats, the introduction of invasive species

could have a considerable impact, especially during dry years. One

of the most significant invasive species is the red swamp crayfish

Procambarus clarkii that was initially introduced into the Marshes

area in 1973, and has since then spread to almost all of the aquat-

ic environments in the Park, including temporary ponds. The

impact on amphibian populations has not as yet been clearly ascer-

tained. However, it has been found that the red swamp crayfish

consume the amphibian eggs adhered to the plants that comprise

the crayfish's main food and can pray on larvae and adults.

Amphibian populations exhibit a large production in spring, pro-

viding predators (fish, birds, some reptiles and mammals) with a

large food resource.Their reduction will be felt along the trophic

chain. In former times the migration of toads and sharp-ribbed

newts across the Vera grasslands on the Marshes border, implied

the movement of hundreds of thousands of animals that almost

covered the ground, forming an appealing wandering carpet.

Nowadays with the regression of these populations also in the

Park grounds, massive migrations ceased, and during drought

intervals surviving populations are confined to some areas.

In order to explain this situation,one must pay attention to the

way in which the butterfly's life history develops. This species is

univoltine, that is to say, butterflies emerge from their chrysalis

once a year, between mid-May and late June. Male butterflies usu-

ally emerge before females (protandry), hence there are many

more males in proportion to the females at the beginning of the

season.The newly emerged females are quickly spotted by males

and after copulation lay their eggs at the base of the foodplants for

247

The uniqueness of marsh butterflies

JUAN FERNÁNDEZ HAEGER *

247

The richness of butterfly species in Doñana National Park

is not surprisingly high: 43 species in a 540 km2 area is not

an exceptional amount. In southern Spain, a much larger number

of species can coexist in other geographical zones of similar

extension, particularly in mountainous areas. This number in

Doñana can be explained based on several characteristics of the

park.The first of these, is that an important part of the park area

is seasonally flooded marshland and butterflies cannot complete

their life cycles in this kind of habitat. Second, the stabilized sand

dunes that make up most of the park are quite monotonous, lack-

ing the heterogeneity of other areas, with a more varied relief, that

offer a greater diversity of resources and microenvironments.

Doñana National Park was obviously not created with the butter-

flies in mind.Hence we have a clear example of how other species,

namely the vertebrates, have acted as an umbrella species that

protect many others coexisting in the same habitat.

Nonetheless, on the butterfly checklist of Doñana, several of

them stand out because their existence in this geographical loca-

tion is unexpected.These species are the satyride Pyronia tithonus

and the lycaenides Cyaniris semiargus and Plebejus argus. These

three species are usually found in habitats that tend to have more

oceanic characteristics. In the southern Iberian Peninsula they are

mainly limited to the mountainous areas with more favourable

conditions for humidity. The vegetation associated with the shal-

low water table in Doñana probably has played a significant role in

the survival of these species, which undoubtedly should have been

more abundant in southern Iberia during colder and damper peri-

ods.

This species is commonly found in Central and Northern

Europe, whereas in the Iberian Peninsula it mainly inhabits moun-

tain areas. The mountain ranges in Granada are the only other

areas in Andalusia where this species has been found, with some

populations living over 2500 metres above sea level. Particularly

remarkable is the fact that this butterfly is the most abundant

found in the Park, to such extent that there are as many butter-

flies of this species as the sum of all the other 42 butterfly species

combined. It is surprising that this species is so abundant in spite

of being located in the southern limit of its continental distribu-

tion, and at sea level.

* Professor of Ecology. Department of Botany, Ecology and Plant Physiology.University of Cordova, Spain.

Several of the Doñana butterfly species stand out because theirexistence inthis geographical location is unexpected. These species are the satyridePyronia tithonus and the lycaenides Cyaniris semiargus and Plebejus argus (inthe picture).Photograph by Miguel G. Muñoz Sariot

248

plants. Butterfly larvae have specific food requirements and there-

fore they cannot feed on a wide range of plants.They will usually

feed on a small number of closely related plant species with a sim-

ilar chemical composition.The biochemical and physiological sys-

tem of the larvae is capable of detoxifying the chemical defence

compounds developed by foodplants, assimilating their nutrients.

This is an evolutionary response to the "chemical war" developed

between plants and herbivores.

In Doñana, the Plebejus argus feeds mainly on Halimium halim-

ifolium, the most common and abundant scrub in the Park. The

abundance of scrublands on which larvae can feed could be the

underlying reason for the abundance of this butterfly species.

However, this butterfly does not inhabit all locations in which

Halimium is plentiful. It is concentrated in specific areas where

another important insect species with which it interacts can be

found, namely the ant Lasius niger. Since the substrate of the

Doñana scrubland is mainly sand, building ant nests in this unsta-

ble medium is not easy. Many ant species therefore use plant roots

as a support structure for their nests. Furthermore, by placing the

nests at the base of the scrub, the ant can create a more

favourable microclimate in terms of temperature and dampness,

particularly during the summer when the surface temperature of

the sand is too high. In addition, ants will not select Halimium

plants situated at locations that are too high above the soil water

table, as they would be too dry, or too close, as they would be

flooded during rainy winters.Thus, ant nests are located in a range

of intermediate heights close to the "monte negro" heathland.

During spring, females lay eggs close to the ground, beneath

the Halimium plants and its leaf litter, selecting plants with ant

nests.The mechanism used by gravid females to detect ants is

yet unknown, however, a combination of visual and chemical

reactions seem to be involved.Ants ignore the eggs as they are

of no interest to them. The mortality rate over the next ten

months until spring,when the larvae hatch from the eggs, is very

high.

After hatching, the ant is attracted to the larvae, and both

species begin to interact henceforth. During their development

stages, or instars, larvae develop several organs that secrete sub-

stances alluring to ants.The button-like organs distributed over

the body, produce chemical compounds similar to the

pheromones used by ants to communicate. Larvae also have a

dorsal nectary organ that develops in the third instar, which

secretes droplets rich in sugars and amino acids upon which the

ants avidly feed. Lastly, the larvae have a pair of reversible tentac-

ular organs that produce substances which excite and alarm the

ants.Thus, there are always several ants around or on top of a

larva feeding on a plant. Indeed, given the mimetic nature of lar-

An interesting case of mutualistic interaction is observed between three spe-cies found in Doñana: the small butterfly Plebejus argus (Lycenid), the antLasius niger and the shrub Halimium halimifolium, very widespread on sandysoils.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

their larvae. Larvae will not hatch until the following spring and

then transform quickly, within a few weeks, into pupae. Other but-

terfly species, denominated multivoltine, can complete this cycle

several times per year. However, the most unique aspect of their

life history is the relationship that develops between the butter-

flies and larval foodplants and, in turn, with the ants living on these

249

vae, the best way to locate them on a plant stem is to search for

ants.

The obvious question is: why do larvae endeavour to attract

ants? Why do they expend so much energy on ensuring that sev-

eral ants are on or around them while they feed on Halimium?

The answer involves a third party or group of protaganists of this

story,which are- tiny,parasitic wasps that complete their life cycle

at the expense of butterfly larvae.These wasps are extremely effi-

cient in locating caterpillars, when they try to deposit their eggs

inside their bodies.The eggs develop very quickly into wasp lar-

vae, feeding on butterfly larva tissues. The wasp larvae emerge

when they have completed their development, consuming the

butterfly larvae which in the end have helped to produce new

wasps instead of butterflies.The ants will effectively protect lar-

vae from parasitoid attacks, in most cases preventing the assault

of wasps. To reduce parasitoid attacks, larvae have the habit of

feeding at night; hence, one must wait several hours after sunset

to find larvae feeding on tender leaves. During the day, larvae

crawl down the scrub stems into the ant nests, where they will

remain protected until night falls. The transformation from larvae

to pupae also takes place in the ant nest. The adult butterfly

emerges from the chrysalis within two weeks, drying and spread-

ing its wings outside, thus initiating a new cycle.

Consequently, one could think that the presence of an ant

nest beneath a Halimium could negatively affect the plant, given

that there is a great probability that oviposition takes place on

these plants. Larvae must complete their cycle on these plants,

feeding on vegetal material (particularly apical leaves) that the

plant itself needs for its own development, especially for its

annual reproductive output (flowers, fruits, seeds). Densities of

larvae vary considerably from plant to plant and more than one

hundred have been counted on a single plant. Such a large num-

ber of larvae will consume a substantial part of the foliar sur-

face. Even if a leaf is not completely eaten by the larvae, it will

dry up and fall. Due to their defoliation or leaf abscission, plants

that have been attacked by larvae can be easily spotted in early

summer.

Summertime is the least favourable season for plants in

Doñana.The sandy soil retains very little water and consequently

plants suffer from severe water stress.A plant's capacity to survive

the dry season is related to the balance between root absorption

of water and leaf transpiration. If absorption is reduced to mini-

mum levels, transpiration must be reduced correspondingly.

Defoliation could paradoxically contribute to the reduction of

water loss. In September, the water stress of plants to which a

known larvae density was applied was lower than the stress of

equivalent control plants without larvae. Those plants also pro-

duced more seed capsules, indicating a higher degree of reproduc-

tive success of this seeder species.

There is definitely a complex interaction across different lev-

els.The position of the plants with regard to the aquifer will deter-

mine the presence of ant nests' and, in turn, these will influence the

presence of larvae, which seek the protection of the ants from

parasitoids.Although in principle the presence of ants, and there-

fore larvae,would seem to entail a negative effect on the plant, our

experience shows that in fact plants were proved to benefit from

this relationship, at least in terms of reduced water stress and

increased reproductive success.

In Doñana, the Plebejus argusfeeds mainly on Halimiumhalimifolium, the most com-mon and abundant scrub inthe Park. There are alwaysseveral ants around or on topof a caterpillar feeding on aplant. Indeed, given themimetic nature of caterpillars,the best way to locate them ona plant stem is to look forants.Photograph by Miguel G. Muñoz Sariot.

Spanish iris (Iris xiphium) in Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

the years after 1970, Pat Rogers was the first to quantify not only

the rabbit populations of the Biological Reserve, but also their spa-

tial distribution and ecological characterisation.At this time, popula-

tions had already been locally decimated in comparison with previ-

ous years, although large areas in which the rabbit was very abun-

dant could still be seen.These areas were close to La Vera and the

pond borders grazing meadows. Other plant communities like the

undergrowth were also within their range, although abundance was

very much lower. Rogers observed the extremely low capacity of

251

The rabbit in Doñanathe tale of two different tales

RAMÓN C. SORIGUER *, ELENA ANGULO **

251

It is undoubtedly the most widespread mammal throughout

the Iberian Peninsula. Its high fertility rate is offset by a high

mortality rate. In Spain alone, almost 40 species of vertebrates that

prey on the rabbit have been reported (Figure 1), apart from man.

They are the basic prey item of two specialist and highly emblem-

atic predators of Doñana: the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the

Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Few species are capable of

attaining such high densities naturally, with such a large number of

predators and bearing in mind that the rabbit accounts for a major

part of their diet.

THE HISTORY OF DOÑANA

RELATED BY ITS RABBIT POPULATIONS

The rabbit and the original Doñana

In Doñana, the history of its numeric dynamics is so well doc-

umented that it reveals to us some really unknown features of the

species.The first records were made in historic times, dating back

over 300 years.These records describe the rabbit as abundant in

the hunting grounds and this has been a constant feature over the

last few centuries. From the early years of the 20th century to the

late 50s, the tales and testimonies of old game keepers of El Coto

de Doñana confirm the abundance of rabbits, although populations

were unevenly distributed, as they were far more frequent in

“cotos” and in the forests of cork trees and wild olives with an

undergrowth of mastic, especially among the ferns and meadows of

La Vera and areas around the ponds.They were also abundant in

areas of sage leaf rockrose, bordering on damper depressions. In

the area of the dunes, there were only abundant populations to be

found temporarily in the meadows of inter-dune valleys. Finally, in

the Marshes, they were very rare, limited to an occasional specimen

on the islets, walls or around buildings.

All this changed in 1959, with the appearance of myxomatosis,

which caused a genuine catastrophe: Valverde (1960) calculated a

mortality rate of over 90%. It was also at this time when the true

value of the rabbit was recognised and the importance of its contri-

bution to the stability and wealth of Mediterranean ecosystems. In

* Department of Applied Biology. Doñana Biological Station. CSIC. Seville. Spain.** Lab. Ecol. System. & Evol. Univ. Paris XI. Department of Applied Biology. Doñana Biological Station. CSIC. Seville.

252

the rabbit to colonise the new pine forests and the thick, closed

bush. He also revealed the importance of ecotonal areas and inter-

faces between different plant communities for rabbit populations

and the important role played by soils and the water table depth in

the stability and viability of rabbit communities. The most striking

result, however, was the detection of a tendency among rabbit pop-

ulations to decline in abundance, although in a less spectacular and

dramatic fashion than the trend shown by Valverde in the previous

decade. As with Valverde, we are once again surprised when the

close association between the distribution and abundance of rabbits

and lynxes is demonstrated.

In the 80s,M.Beatriz Kufner (1986) analysed the impact on rab-

bits of the different predators of Doñana in the different areas and

depending on the time of day and time of year. Beatriz showed how

the generalist predators have a special impact on the rabbits of

Doñana, and that these general predators could come into compe-

tition with the specialist predators. She also showed how rabbits

are most frequently distributed on the edges of moist pastures and

medium cover shrub, although their distribution varies, depending

on the time of year.

A study similar to Rogers', conducted by Rafael Gerschwiz twen-

ty years later (1994), shows us a very different pattern: low abun-

dance figures, more isolated patches of distribution and almost

reaching local extinction in some of the populations identified by

Rogers.

But what has happened in the course of these last twenty years?

These two decades have witnessed two opposing phenomena: on

the one hand, a recovery of populations (although not necessarily in

the same places or to the same levels reported previously) as a con-

sequence of their greater resistance to myxomatosis and, on the

other, a dramatic mortality rate, from the early 90s, due to the

appearance of a new viral infection: rabbit haemorrhaging disease.

So what was the situation as we entered the new millennium?

From 1994 to date (2004), there has been a pronounced change in

the National Park's conservation policy, because of both the imple-

mentation of specific recovery plans for some endangered species

and because of more interventionist environmental policies in gen-

eral. In the course of the last ten years there have been controlled

translocation and re-introduction programmes with rabbits (over

TABLE 1Clearing the scrub in Doñana National Park. Analysis of the effectiveness of rabbit re-populations and other management meas-ures in Doñana National Park. Final report. IREC. Nov 2001. RBD: Doñana Biological Reserve.

YEAR TOTAL AREA (ha) AVERAGE AREA (ha) NUMBER OF PLOTS SHAPE METHOD SITE

1985 3 3 1 CLEARING ACEBUCHE

1986 27 2 17 CLEARING AND BURNING ACEBUCHE

1987 19 2 9 CLEARING, BURNING, HARROWING ACEBUCHE, MARISMILLAS

1988 163 3-10 40 CLARING, BURNING, HARROWING ACEBUCHE, EL LOBO

MARISMILLAS, MOGEA,ALGAIDA

1989 53 2-9 15 CLEARING, BURNING, PERIPHERAL HARROWING MARISMILLAS, EL PUNTAL

1990 38 1.5 51 LOBED CLEARING, BURNING, PERIPHERAL HARROWING ACEBUCHE, DBR

NAJARSA, ACEBUCHE

1991 22.5 0.5 >70 LOBED CLEANING, HARROWING AND SOWING DBR, NAJARSA, EL PUNTAL

1992 25 0.2-0.5 >50 LOBED CLEANING DBR

1993 29 0.5 >80 LOBED CLEANING MARISMILLAS, EL PUNTAL

NAJARSA,ACEBUCHE

1994 21 <0.5 70 LOBED CLEANING PINE WOODS MARISMILLAS

1995 16 0.4 40 LOBED CLEANING EL LOBO

1996 >27 0.3 125 LOBED CLEANING DBR, NAJARSA,ACEBUCHE

1998 >20? 0.5 >100 LOBED CLEANING DBR

FIGURE 1Diversity of rabbit predators (number of species).

253

8000 releases), thousands of hectares of pines planted in the 50s

have been cleared, dozens of plots have been pruned to favour rab-

bit habitats and hundreds of rabbit warrens have been dug (Tables

1 and 2).

The decline in the rabbit was attributed to a series of changes

in the ecosystem; in particular, the abandonment of traditional prac-

tises, like the prescribed fire regime and clearing the brush. In 1985,

interventions started in the form of clearing scrub on plots,

schemes that were honed with the results of research conducted.

In the early years, these plots were large and square, and in patch-

es of the same kind of scrub. In the early 90s, the effectiveness of

this clearing was seen to depend on the quality of the habitat. Since

then, clearing is usually accompanied by either sewing herbaceous

seeds or improving herbaceous plants to enhance the availability of

food for the rabbits, and these operations were carried out in eco-

tone zones, where two different habitats meet. It was also discov-

ered that the rabbits only use the edges of these plots, so the opti-

mum size and shape of the areas to be treated were defined (lobed

plots of no more than 50 metres between any of their sides, ben-

efiting the lynx' predatory strategy; stalking). These clearing oper-

ations and their effectiveness in Doñana were weighed up once

again in 1999, and it was found that there was still a positive effect

(greater abundance) in most of the areas that had been targeted

since 1988, although maximum effectiveness appeared to occur

three years after the intervention.

Stocking with rabbits has been a frequently used strategy in

Doñana National Park, despite the fact that it is not contemplated

in the Park's management plans or in the initial plans for address-

ing the problems of the lynx and the Imperial eagle1.

After the first studies were conducted, 8,000 rabbits were trans-

fered to Doñana between 1993 and 1996 (see Table 2), using main-

ly rabbits from areas a good distance away from Doñana National

Park and at different times and in different areas.There was no seri-

ous and exhaustive monitoring of any of these trans-locations in

the long term. In 1999, rabbit abundance of the re-stocked areas

was compared with other areas close by or with similar habitats,

and it was observed that re-stocking had no long term effects.

The conclusion of these studies was that the recovery of rabbits by

means of trans-locations is characterised by concentrating manage-

ment efforts in a few, and never isolated, plots.The history of rab-

bit re-stocking work, in Doñana and in the rest of Spain, shows us

that it is a tool of limited use; it is controversial and should only be

used in specific situations. Like medicine, it can have unwanted side

effects.

The rabbit in Doñana today

Despite the lack of efficacy of most of the actions carried out,

there has been a slow but continued trend for rabbit populations

to increase in Doñana today.This tendency would probably have

been observed anyway, or may even have been stronger, as in

other rabbit populations nearby, where no trans-locations have

been done.

The difference from previous decades is not the kind of spatial

distribution, but the lower abundance of rabbits on these plots

today.This patchwork system is not a static one; on the contrary,

it is highly dynamic in both time and space, adapting very efficient-

ly to changes in the physical environment (soil and vegetation), abi-

otic factors (climate) and epizootes. The rabbit's extraordinary

capacity to grow and breed, together with the fact that it is so

adaptable, has changed the situation slightly in 2002 (see Figure 2).

A pronounced increase was observed in the area of Las

Marismillas and El Puntal, and isolated populations appeared in

Monteruelos and Los Sotos.The juniper forests remained the habi-

tat in which rabbits abounded, and the re-planted pine trees, Las

1993 1994 1995 1996 REMARKS

DBR 888 1056 593 248

Acebuche 675 65 Re-stocking in cleaned area. Monitoring through faeces counting until 1999.

Marismillas 712 369 307 Construction of artificial warrens. Monitoring through faeces counting in 1998.

El Lobo 248 311 823

La Algaida 160 160 Research Project. Radio-monitoring to prove efficacy.

Najarsa 115 17

El Puntal 158 485

La Rocina 235

La Mogea 243

Yearly total 2275 2266 2256 1075

TABLE 2Re-stocking actions undertaken in Doñana National Park, data modified in accordance with the PML report, 1998. Figures in individuals

254

Naves and El Matorral, once they were cleared, started to show a

gradual increase. On the contrary, El Coto del Rey and

Matasgordas, although they sill maintain remarkable densities, are

showing a decline. The Marshes, most of which is a habitat that

excludes rabbits, is showing the presence of major rabbit warrens,

and although these are restricted to the islet meadows and build-

ings, and although they have not to date been very striking, there

have been more and larger colonies observed in the course of the

last year and they seem to be more active since they have been

protected from trampling by large herbivores.

The spectacular increase in grazing in the Park between 1992

and 2001 (with over 4,000 head of large livestock) is increasingly

considered as an element that disturbs the viability of rabbit pop-

ulations, as they concentrate in higher areas (preferred by rabbits

for building their warrens), collapsing rabbit warrens. Fortunately,

the Livestock Plan of 2001-2002 has rationalised this situation to

a certain extent.

The real causes of the changes in abundance of rabbit popula-

tions remain unknown.Working hypotheses currently being given

consideration include both the local intensity of predation,

changes in the structure and distribution of the habitat, changes in

the water level regimens and the length of the floods as a conse-

quence of modifications made to the marshes drainage system.

FIGURE 2Spatial distribution map of rabbit abundance (faeces/ha) in DoñanaNational Park.Developed by Soringer and Fandos, 2003.

Spectacular scene of a lynx hunting a rabbit in Doñana.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

Ratón, no pairs remained, as the last ones had been killed shortly

before. Nor are there any lynxes in La Juncosilla, or further east of

Hato Ratón, so the population can be calculated as no more than

about fifteen pairs, if there are any pairs on State lands". These fig-

ures are clearly higher than now, but not much.

255

The Iberian lynxrescuing a species for Doñana and for the world

MIGUEL DELIBES DE CASTRO *

255

The Iberian lynx is a highly endangered species and it is

known to breed only in two small areas of Spain: Doñana

and the mountain ranges of Sierra Andujar and Sierra Cardeña.This

makes conservation of this species, now restricted to Spain, a top

priority objective for Doñana.

Many hunting stories mention the killing of lynxes in Doñana in

the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Some skins and

skulls from this time, deposited in different European museums,

seem to bear witness to the fact that the Iberian lynx was an abun-

dant species at the time. But things may not have been quite as

clear as they seem.The authors who have devoted most effort to

this issue are undoubtedly English authors Abel Chapman and

Walter J. Buck,who wrote at least two books in which Doñana was

the main, but not only, scene (Wild Spain, published in 1893, and

Unexplored Spain, in 1910). These enthusiasts of El Coto de

Doñana, which they considered "a fragment of the wild loneliness

of Africa (...) in this corner of Europe", talked of catching live lynx-

es, shooting bullets (successfully or not) or shot at the great cat, a

variety of methods for drawing to the guns, etc. But, although they

say that the lynx is "even common" in the southern provinces of

mainland Spain in their first work, in the second, they claim, with

apparent surprise, that "it is difficult to explain why an animal

whose only enemy is man can be so scarce".

Was the lynx ever abundant in Doñana? Undoubtedly it was

abundant locally, but maybe less so than we are tempted to imag-

ine. After his first visits to the area, in the 1950s, Jose Antonio

Valverde was pessimistic about the survival of the lynx, postulating

that only a few pairs probably remained in the district, so few that

they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. Around 1967,

now working in the Reserve and with rangers and ringers conduct-

ing a detailed register of all observations, he was a little more pos-

itive in his opinion: "In Las Marismillas, only a single pair from

Doñana remained in 1956, and we do not know whether it will sur-

vive.There are probably no more than ten pairs in Doñana, possi-

bly not even half that number.According to the rangers, in Coto del

Rey, there was still one pair in the summer of 1958. Around the

same time, the Head Game Keeper of La Rocina claimed that only

one other pair remained in his estate. In Hato Blanco and Hato

* Doñana Biological Station, CSIC.

Although the Iberian lynx has been able to survive in Doñana for over halfa century with numbers scarcely larger than the current ones, the smallexisting population is extremely vulnerable.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

256

I reached Doñana in late 1972, and soon

became fascinated by the lynx, which I did not

manage to see. For months, I had to limit my

work to collecting its faeces, which I analysed

enthusiastically, and to describing the bodies of

some fawns and young bucks that had been

brought down by the predator.Thus, I managed

to get an idea about which areas of the

Reserve the lynx frequented.My impression, at

the time, was that the protection given to the

district and to the species for the last ten years

had been a success. Inside the National Park

(the boundaries of which had still not been

extended, 35 ha at the time), there seemed to

be lynxes more or less all over the place. A

decade later,however,when we started putting

traps to catch and tag the lynxes with radio

collars, I was deeply disappointed: there only

seemed to be stable pairs in La Vera, near the

edge of La Marisma Marshes, and there were

none, in contrast, in the countryside or near

the dunes and the lagoons. Even though myx-

omatosis had been affecting rabbits since the

seventies and the disease had not yet reached

Doñana, rabbits had become frankly scarce in

these zones between 1970 and the first half of

the eighties.

Between 1984 and 2000, we radio tracked

dozens of lynxes in Doñana and we have even

got to know their habits well.We know that

only the territorial females breed, and that

their territories, which they will not share

with other females, vary in size between 300

and just over 1000 hectares. We also know

that males may overlap the territories of more

than one female, that the cubs are usually born

in mid to late March and that the females usu-

ally give birth to a litter of three cubs.Three

months later, however, only two cubs usually

accompany the mother in her wanderings.At

an age of between one and two, the young

leave their maternal range and disperse.

Between 1984 and 2000, dozens of lynxes have been tracked in Doñana and we have got to know their habits well. Only the territorial females breed, and their ter-ritories, which they will not share with other females, vary in size between 300 and just over 1000 hectares.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

Many hunting stories mention the death oflynxes in Doñana at the end of the 19th centuryand at the beginning of the 20th century.Photograph: Doñana Biological Station Files.

257

Leaving their home range, which represents a great danger for the

young, allows animals born in the National Park to colonise the few

favourable areas outside of the protected terrain (if they manage to

survive the traffic, guns and traps). In recent years, there seems to

be a slight increase in the number of territories in the Nature Park,

in the area of El Abalario.

As we have reported to the Board of the Nature Park, in 2002,

apparent signs of breeding have been detected for at least nine

females, although it has not always been possible to confirm the

posterior survival of the young (i.e. successful breeding). In the case

of six of these females, their litters were either directly observed

or photographed.The largest breeding colony was in Coto del Rey

(within the borders of the National Park), followed by La Vera

colony (Puntal-Reserva-Algaida, inside the National Park). Other

females bred outside the National Park and sometimes, outside of

the Nature Park too (Acebuche, Rocina and Hato Ratón). Lynx

tracks were also observed in Las Marismillas (where no breeding

has been detected), inside the National Park and beyond its bor-

ders, in Torrecuadros, Mazagón, Bonares and several areas of El

Abalario and the upper reaches of La Rocina.The total number of

adult and sub-adult specimens (excluding yearling cubs) has been

estimated at just over

forty.

Even though it has

managed to survive for

over half a century with

population numbers

that are barely higher

than those of today, such

a small population is

extremely vulnerable.

The situation is even

worse if we consider

the fact that it is not a

continuous population.

The breeding specimens

are located in scattered

areas. We call this a

meta-population, which

is merely a "population

of populations" con-

nected by the dispersing

specimens. The most

persistent nuclei of the

meta-population are

located inside the

National Park, while the

peripheral populations of the exterior are easily extinguished and

require re-colonisation every so often.

So, what can we do to prevent the lynxes of Doñana from

becoming extinct and to increase their numbers and, thus, their

chances of survival? We know the solution, but applying it is more

difficult: we need to increase the numbers of lynxes, and they have

to enhance their breeding success, inside the National Park, and at

the same time, the mortality rate outside the Park has to be

reduced. Increasing breeding and survival of the cubs in their first

months of life requires that we enhance the availability of food (rab-

bits or alternative prey items) in the regular breeding grounds.We

even need to resort to artificial feeding points or "exclusive restau-

rants for lynxes", as is now done in the Biological Station, spon-

sored by BP and under the direction of Paco Palomares. On the

other hand, new breeding grounds must be made available outside

the Park and, above all, we have to prevent lynxes from getting run

over by cars, or shot or trapped by hunters. Building traffic calming

measures, like speed bumps to force cars to slow down is undoubt-

edly a good idea, but it is no good if the construction of black top

roads continues in the district at the rate it has over the last twen-

ty five years.

Coming back to the

beginning, a century

ago, two English trav-

ellers, romantic hunters

who had found their

"heaven on Earth" in

Doñana, warned us that

the lynx were inexplica-

bly scarce. We now

know not only that they

are scarcer now than

then, we also know that

if they disappear alto-

gether, they will disap-

pear for ever and from

the entire world. But,

moreover, we now have

the explanations that

they did not, and, there-

fore, we can fight

against the motive for

their scarcity. In the

21st century, that

makes the salvation of

the lynx an inexcusable

mission.

The Iberian lynx is a highly endangered species world wide. In fact it is only known to breed intwo small areas of Spain: Doñana and the mountains of Sierra Andujar and Sierra Cardeña. Thismakes its conservation a top priority objective for Doñana. The penetrating stare of the lynx hasbecome proverbial.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM Files.

258

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58. SERRANO, L., M. D. BURGOS, A. DÍAZ-ESPEJO & J. TOJA. 1999.Phosphorus inputs to wetlands following storm events after drought. Wetlands,19: 318-326.

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64. TOJA, J., T. LÓPEZ & N. GABELLONE. 1991. Succesional changes in twodune ponds (Doñana National Park). Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol., 24: 1556-1559.

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DOÑANA FISH SPECIES

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THE RABBIT IN DOÑANA

89. ANGULO, E., 2003. Factores que afectan a la distribución y abundanciadel conejo en Andalucía. Tesis doctoral. Universidad Complutense deMadrid.

90. ROGERS, P.M., ARTHUR C.P. Y SORIGUER, R.C., 1994. The rabbit inContinental Europe: 22-63. In: The European wild rabbit": the history ofa successful colonizer. Thompson & King. Eds. Oxford Univ. Press. 245p.

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NOTES AND REFERENCES

263

on the survival of this gem, and the final form that it takes. It should

not be forgotten that we are talking about a natural area situated

at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River Basin and, therefore, it is

affected by almost everything that occurs throughout the region.

The same is true of the Doñana Marshes watershed and the

recharge surface of Aquifer 27, the water reservoir beneath

Doñana soils.These are areas in which practically all human activi-

ty is reflected in the water that finally wells up or drains into the

Marshes.

Another important feature is that Doñana is one of the last

major unspoilt coastal territories in Europe, in which temperature

and sunshine conditions and the sandy nature of soils form a foun-

dation and valuable support for intensive farming and for other

economical activities like tourism.These conditions have generated

conflicts of use and a temptation in the past to build on the coast-

line and to continue to do so. In the broad sense of the term,

Before facing the challenges of restoring the hydrology of

Doñana and its catchment areas, it is useful to first recog-

nise the perceptions that have been held about this space from a

number of perspectives.This is a district of 2,700 km2, the heart of

which is the National Park, enveloped within the embrace of pro-

tected areas like the Nature Park and extensive lands that border

settled districts. These areas make up what is known as Greater

Doñana and cover an extensive natural region of 53,958 ha that

crosses ten municipal districts in the provinces of Huelva, Seville

and Cádiz. All of these natural areas are closely interrelated with

the National Park's ecosystems.They are surrounded by a fringe of

land that has been heavily influenced by human intervention, where

there are many activities with direct impact on the natural systems

of Doñana.

Water is the backbone of the relationship between Doñana and

its surroundings. It is a dynamic vector that makes up the dialogue

The context of restorationand the new paradigms of Doñana

Articles and descriptions of Doñana usually start with the tales of the travellers that visited the area out of some sort of scientific interest and who spread the wordabout its wildlife, or they presented it as an out-of-the-way spot full of surprises. In the picture, a lynx attentively follows a prey from the base of a cork oak.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

264

Greater Doñana is a territory characterised by an extreme polar-

ization between natural uses - nearly 60% of this area is made up

of marshes, river banks and forest of great ecological and environ-

mental value - and urban and agricultural uses that make up 36%,

where intensive,highly productive farming (rice fields and strawber-

ries) coexist with more extensive and traditional farming (vineyards

and olive groves)1.

In less than two hundred years, the Doñana region has changed

its appearance and uses surprisingly often. Each time, the changes

have been driven by the prevalent thinking of the time, a process

that has not always been either linear or without conflict.The pro-

tected areas have been successively extended since the conserva-

tionist movement began, while intensive uses of the land were

becoming increasingly widespread and enormous building develop-

ments appeared with the growth of the tourist industry. While the

pressure on groundwater resources increased in some areas, in

others, like El Abalario, restoration work was done on the wet-

lands. Doñana grew into a protected natural area by means of the

transformation of hunting estates into what have become real lab-

oratories for science and for the observation of nature.

During each stage, a specific model or paradigm for Doñana has

arisen, which permeates how it is seen. There was the romantic

view, the "productivist" approach, the speculative and development

views, the nature conservation view and,more recently, the appear-

ance and implementation of ideas on sustainable development.Each

of these perspectives marks a different stage, sometimes over-lap-

ping in time and space.A review of these ideas and the actions they

have upheld enables us to gain a better idea of the multi-faceted

perception of Doñana in the great debate on the best approaches

to its conservation and restoration, especially in the area of water

resources.

In less than two hundred years, the Doñana region has changed its appearance and uses surprisingly often. Each time, the changes have been driven by theprevalent thinking of the time, a process that has not always been either linear or without conflicts. In the photograph, umbrella pine trees on sandy soils in theBiological Reserve.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

The beginning of the 20th century marked the destiny of the land owners inDoñana, consolidating their estates. On the death of José Garvey in 1912,half of the Coto de Doñana passed to his niece Maria Medina Garvey. MariaMedina bought the other half of the Coto from the Count of Niebla. Herhusband, Carlos Fernández de Córdoba, Duke of Tarifa, was a dynamic per-son who built the Marismilla Palace and repaired the Doña Ana Palace, aswell as building houses for the game keepers and installing the metal platesmarking the boundaries. The planting of pine trees, started by Garvey, con-tinued, and magnificent hunts were organized in both Palaces. The King ofSpain Alphonse XIII attended on several occasions up until 1931, usually onthe 25th of January, to shoot deer, birds, and even lancing boar. He evenpresided over the Council of Ministers in Doñana. There are photographs ofthe King moving around the Doñana Estate with the aid of the latest tech-nology of the time, such as the one above showing a half-track “Citroën”vehicle that has been adapted to the sands of Doñana.Photograph: Archives of the Doñana Biological Station.

THE ROMANTIC VIEW:PARADISE IN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Articles and descriptions of Doñana usually start with the

tales of travellers who visited the area, inspired by a particular

scientific interest. They spread the word about the area's

wildlife, or they presented it as an out-of-the-way spot full of

surprises.These tales formed part of a tradition known as the

"Grand Tour" among upper class youth of Great Britain and

northern Europe. Such formative travel involved a romantic

interest in Spain in general and in Andalusia in particular. In

1976,Alderich compiled 124 travel books on Spain just from the

first half of the 19th century, by English authors, some well-

known, like Saunders, George Borrow, Robert Murray and

Richard Ford, who came to Seville and took trips to Sanlúcar. In

a letter dated January 1st, 1831, Ford relates that he had taken

part in a hunt in the Coto del Rey, at the invitation of the

Asistente Arjona, describing Doñana as "magnificent country

for hunting, full of wild cocks", and he reproduced the Coto del

Rey Palace in one of his illustrations2.

In the late 19th century, the Coto de Doñana (Doñana game

reserve) attracted hunters, some with a defined naturalist interest,

who have left us some interesting descriptions. Abel Chapman

(1851-1929), merchant, hunter and traveller to many countries, and

amateur naturalist, published Wild Spain in 1883, which was to be

followed by other books.The recurring references in many of these

publications included the difficult access, the harsh landscapes of

shifting sand dunes and the inhospitable nature of the wild marsh-

es for mankind, made worse by their isolation at the time. In the

spring of 1883, Abel Chapman wrote a frank entry in his diary:

"There are no comforts. Spanish tobacco. No meat. Strong, dry, salt

cod and other repugnant things.All wet, no fire and no hope of get-

ting dry. Nobody speaks English. Nothing to read, drink or sit on!"3

Walter J. Buck (1843-1917) was British Vice Consul in Jerez, the

capital of a rich Sherry producing region of Spain and close to

Doñana. A keen hunter, Walter Buck founded in 1969 the first

Pigeon Shooting Society, setting a precedent that was to become

highly popular in Spain. In 1910, together with his friend Abel

Chapman, he published Unexplored Spain. Along with Alexander

Dingwall Williams and the Marquis of Torresoto de Brivieisca,

Chapman and Buck formed the group of "escriturarios" (scrip-

turals) that leased out the hunting in Coto de Doñana to the suc-

cessive owners between 1872 and 1912. Wild Spain and

Unexplored Spain combine an interest in hunting with a descrip-

tion of nature in a lifestyle that highlights adventure and exotic sit-

uations and which evokes images of incredible shoots with hun-

dreds of ducks brought down by one hunter in a single day's hunt-

ing.These works, written almost thirty years apart, offer the best

data on Doñana to appear in the travel books of the time, includ-

ing geographic descriptions and reports on the local customs that,

however, deal with issues in a way that is, at times, more insulting

than harsh.An example of such is the chapter "The Hurdes and the

wild tribes that inhabit them" found in Unexplored Spain. These

works remained un-translated for years and were little known in

Spain, but in Europe, they became basic reference books for duck

and big game hunters in Doñana and other parts of the Iberian

Peninsula. In the end, they were the stories that wrapped the Coto

Doñana in an aura of myth that helped to drive later initiatives.

For Chapman and Buck, Doñana transcended the hunting

estate to become a legend. Late in life, in his memoirs, Chapman

recalles "For us... it has always seemed like a fragment torn from

some wild African solitude and especially prepared for our person-

al benefit in this remote corner of Europe... Beyond the far edges

of the known world... For us, field naturalists and lovers of the wild,

Doñana represented nothing short of Heaven on Earth"4.This quo-

tation immerses us in the perceptions of Spain that were held by

travellers from Great Britain and central Europe in the late 19th

century, filtered by their romantic ideal, "Le pays de l´imprévu". It

was a time in which the Andalusia of Washington Irving's Tales from

the Alhambra was more believable than the real thing. Doñana

embodied the naturalist version of the romantic ideal, where the

exotic was represented by the prodigious and incredible wildlife,

described as "African" to highlight just how extraordinary it was. It

265

The recovery and restoration of the aquatic ecosystems of Doñana and itssurrounds has become one of the main challenges faced in the frameworkof the new conservation and sustainable development strategy that hasgradually taken hold in the area.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

266

was an extremely difficult place to get to and the wildlife was hid-

den in the immensity of a flat landscape.

The version of Doñana as a "paradise" has lasted almost up to

the present day, and a proportion of its visitors, estimated at 7%,

come here for what is almost a mystic experience.Threats, like the

mining accident of 1998, have been reported by conservationists as

a transcendental assault capable of converting this protected area

into a "Paradise Lost".

But the reality of the Greater Doñana area and the River

Guadalquivir estuary as perceived from its region Andalusia, and

from its capital Seville, was very different at this time. First of all, we

should not forget that, centuries earlier, the discovery and explo-

ration of the Americas and the Philippines meant the arrival of ani-

mals, plants, minerals and other natural objects totally unknown to

Europeans, turning this region into one of the major gateways to

the new worlds. But during the same decades as the romantic view

was being forged, this district was seen as an area for livestock, fish-

ing and forestry, a centuries-old hunting ground, along with other

similar ones, situated in a dynamic region open to world trade.The

paddle steamer Real Fernando had been sailing up Guadalquivir

River in a regular line between Seville and Cádiz with a stopover in

Sanlúcar facing Doñana since 1817, just 10 years after Fulton's boat

sailed up the Mississippi. In the second half of the century, the rail-

road networks spread over the region, connecting Seville with

Jerez, Puerto de Santa Maria and Sanlúcar. Mining in the Sierra

Morena had caused a thick web of railway lines to spread out,

which reached Niebla and the Tinto River, and the largest mineral

wharfs in Europe had been built in the Huelva Estuary, the work of

Eiffel. Seville was an important city, and in it the Court of

Montpensier, a noble family of pretenders to the Throne of Spain,

was to incorporate the latest European cultural and artistic trends.

From a scientific point of view, the Doñana region had been an

object of study by botanists and zoologists from Seville.

THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE DUNES

Some of the motives that prompted the waves of reforestation

of the coastal area were attempts to bring the wasteland into pro-

duction by "exploiting Doñana".This is the case of the battle against

the dunes that began in the 19th century.

The period of climate fluctuation in Modern Age known as the

"Small Ice Age" lasted from 16th to 19th century. From 1830 to 1870,

a period of heavy precipitations did take place with intervals of

severe drought, such as that of 1850-53.The wet period gave way

to a progressively more arid interval during which the wind-borne

layer of sand that had stabilised and been colonised by vegetation

again during the wet phase, once again became instable and start-

ed to shift.At the end of the 19th century, shifting sand dunes invad-

ed farmlands in the Spanish coasts of Galicia to the North and of

Catalonia and Murcia on the Mediterranean coast, and they threat-

ened some settlements.This was a time in which there were sev-

eral active dune fields in the coast of the South of Spain such as in

Huelva and Cádiz provinces; in Barbate, the dune front even

reached the first rows of houses.

The "threat" of the dunes mobilised the public authorities.The

"Without seeing them, it would be hard to believe that the shifting sandsof Sanlúcar were endowed with the fertility they have. It would appearthat, in ancient times, the sea has bathed most of the beaches and sandylands, now used for growing vines. The remains of shells, zoophytes andother marine produce, mixed with the sand, provides evidence of itsancient origin".

Esteban Boutelou 1807. Memoria sobre el Cultivo de la Vid en Sanlyucar de Barrameda y Xerez de laFrontera.Imprenta Villalpando Madrid 160p. Edición Facsimil de la Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca, Juntade Andalucía.Sevilla 2001.Photograph: CENEAM files.

267

Directorate General of Agriculture appointed a commission of

experts in 1887, to stabilize the SW coastal dunes from River

Guadiana to River Guadalquivir mouths.The chairman,Luis Heraso,

presented a study in 1889 and the South-West Dunes Afforestation

Commission was established in 1892. Measures were implemented

in the 20th century: 1902, Isla Cristina; 1905, Puerto de Santa María

and Barbate; 1906, Vejer; 1924, Odiel (Moguer and Palos); 1938,

Almonte.After these stabilizing schemes, the planting of pines and

eucalyptus continued until it reached 30,000 ha by 1948.

In the Revista de Montes in 1900, Luis Heraso published a doc-

umented study of the Almonte dunes6 and their stabilisation, which

was the first scientific description of the Doñana dunes. He

describes the region as an immense 20,000-ha wilderness, dotted

with fouled lagoons and ponds, and with a vegetation of pines,

poplars, oaks and cork oaks, referring to shifting sand dunes with

little vegetation and the remains of pine forests "from 40 years

ago".This must have been the afforestation which started in 1850

on the outer stable dunes of the system.He estimated that the area

covered by the dunes was 8,397 ha, including what is now El

Asperillo and El Abalario in the Nature Park of Doñana to the east.

He describes the morphology as 4 or 5 major dune fronts separat-

ed by "corrales" or small interdune valleys, and in several sectors

he made the first estimates in measuring the dynamics, getting val-

ues for the dune advance of between 1 and 25 m/year, which are in

line with more accurate studies conducted in the 1970s that gave

values of 3-6 m/year with an observed range of1-15 m/year.

In contrast with the current idea of Doñana as a World

Heritage Site, it is worth reproducing here the terrible impression

that the dunes and the sandy areas of Doñana left on Heraso6:

"..the dune band ...stretches down to the sea, and to give it a bleak-

er appearance, it runs into the poor land of flying sands and one

part that covers 80,000 ha. It has unvarying vegetation that forms a

mass of scrub comprising gorse, heather, mastic, rock rose and

liquorice, and only insignificant remains of the magnificent pine

forests that covered it 40 years ago. Furthermore, countless fouled

lagoons and ponds can be observed dotted over about and they fill

the atmosphere with unhealthy marshy emissions.And in another

one next to the sea, the most complete bareness, with only the

pure white surface of sand in continuous movement to be seen,

whirling around on the wind, forming dunes,which advance unceas-

ingly, which invade and sterilise everything, which block up the nat-

ural courses of the water, generating new hubs of infection, and

which present an image of an African desert throughout the length

of this place.To complete the picture, it is suffice to say that this is

a zone in which the only thing usually to be found is the odd herd

of goats guided by sallow-faced goat herders, their faces marked by

fevers that have not left them since childhood, a few groups of wild

animals, or animals turned wild, like deer, lynx, rogue bulls7, stray

asses and water fowl, such as the brightly coloured flamingo and the

geese and ducks; a district wanting in all resources...." p262.

"...the appearance of everything to be seen in the 70 square kilo-

metres that the dunes occupy in these parts is that of a sea of sand,

almost completely devoid of vegetation,with many places giving the

appearance of snow-covered land or of a desert.One would say,on

seeing the monotonous surface of this region, that it had been the

scene of a great catastrophe, as the accidents that show up in this

zone appear before one's eyes to be in complete disorder..." p285.

Heraso also includes two interesting historic details concerning

the Torre La Higuera. He mentions that the ruins of the Tower

(Torre) were situated on the dune, from where it fell into the sea.

This was apparently based on an account from oral history,

although there is a report of 1855 confirming the evidence. Heraso

also mentioned that the Poleosas ponds formed a tributary, a

stream called the Arroyo de la Higuera, at times of high water,

which drained into Arenas Gordas by the Tower, although the

movement of the sands had blocked its course.He records that the

Santa Olalla pond had lost half its basin to the invading dunes

between 1860 and 1890.He then completes his analysis with mete-

orological data on Sanlúcar (1888) and the well water temperature,

as an estimated average temperature of the area. It comes very

close to the values accepted nowadays: Sanlúcar at 17.2º, and the

first known data on the waters of Doñana: 18º to 19º for the Los

Carabineros and Charco del Toro wells.

Water is the backbone of the relationship between Doñana and its sur-roundings. It is a dynamic vector that makes up the dialogue on the sur-vival of this gem, and the final form that it takes. It should not be forgot-ten that this natural area is situated at the mouth of the Guadalquivir and,therefore, it is affected by almost everything that occurs throughout theregion. The photograph shows a view of the mouth of the RiverGuadalquivir with the arrow of dunes, hosting the Marismillas pine for-est, ending at Punta del Malandar.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

268

He also did research into analysing replanting techniques that

would be applicable to the dunes and potential species to be used,

discussing their behaviour in terms of plant physiology, photosyn-

thesis and nutrients, and showing a good scientific background. His

suggested candidates for planting the shifting dunes included

European beach grass (Ammophila arenaria), Leymus arenarius,

broom, gorse, salt cedar and Corema album.Tree species include

the umbrella pine tree and the pinaster pine. As a technique, he

gives a detailed description of the "navazos"8 (orchards excavated

in the sands) of Sanlúcar, pointing out the early use of cat's claw to

stabilize sand walls. All the work was done by hand using animal

power, and it must have been extremely hard for men working on

sandy soils in the summer months.The author calculated that an ox

cart covers an average of 20 km per day with a load of 500 kg and

a man can walk 30 km carrying a 20 kg bundle. In 1900 and 1912,

Castro documented the advances made in replanting the Huelva

and Cádiz dunes and he supplies a long list of species used for sta-

bilising them, including eucalyptus, acacias and pine trees.

THE CHALLENGE OF CONSERVATION

With the help of Mauricio González, Doñana was present-

ed to the international scientific community in 1953. Since

then, a wave of information on the enclave has begun circulat-

ing around Europe and the world.

Famous expeditions to Doñana bore important fruits. In order

to promote the unification of common bird names around Spain,

which Prof. Bernis had published in his handbook called Prontuario

de las aves de España,Mauricio González took on the task of trans-

lating Peterson's "A field guide to the birds of Britain and Europe",

published in 1953, transliterating the song of each species into

Spanish phonetics. Moreover, in 1954, Mauricio González, Pedro

Weickert, Rubio Recio, José Antonio Valverde and Francisco Bernis

together created the Spanish Ornithological Society, which com-

memorated its founders in 2004. The Andalusia Regional

Government awarded its Environmental Award to the first three of

these in 2004.

Valverde's active participation in the Third Expedition (1957)

allowed him to contact leading scientists. Max Nicholson invited

him to visit reserves in Great Britain and this experience proved to

be a catalyst for his efforts to create a Biological Reserve in

Doñana. In 1959, he prepared a summary on the decline of the

Doñana Marshes wildlife for the IUCN and, in 1960, he document-

ed the decline of the Spanish imperial eagle which, in light of agri-

cultural changes, could have been driven to extinction. He saw that

the conservation of this bird, in the end, depended on the owner

of the land and that a change in ownership or a change in land use

could easily wipe out the endangered population. He saw the

answer to conserving the eagles and other threatened species was

to buy a large enough area of land in the heart of the Doñana

Marshes and to create a research centre there.

He agreed to buy in the core part of the Marshes the Estate of

Las Nuevas, from the Marquis del Mérito. To raise the necessary

finance, he set up in London in 1961 an international fund for the

protection of nature, which later became the World Wildlife Fund,

with the collaboration of Max Nicholson, Peter Scott and Guy

The idea of that wild Doñana described by romantics, completely isolatedfrom civilisation, was very different from the truth. In the same decades asthe romantic view was being forged, this district was seen as an area forlivestock, fishing and forestry, a centuries-old hunting ground, along withother similar ones, situated in a dynamic region open to world trade. Thepaddle steamer Real Fernando had been sailing between Seville and Cádizwith a stopover in Sanlúcar, since 1817, just 10 years after Fulton's boatsailed up the Mississippi. In the photograph, the homonimous boat that isnow used to visit Doñana, leaving from Sanlúcar de Barrameda.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

With the help of Mauricio González , Doñana was presented to the interna-tional scientific community in 1953. Since then, a wave of information on theenclave has begun circulating around Europe and the world, always high-lighting the exceptional bird life. In the photograph, a bean goose (Anserfabalis) in the Marshes of Doñana.Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

269

Mountfort, in London in 1961. In Spain, the Board of the Biological

Station of the Marshes was created, which remained in operation

from the 17th of January 1962 to the 22nd of December 1964. In

December of 1963,Valverde, the Secretary of the Board, negotiat-

ed with the González family the purchase of 6,974 hectares bor-

dering the Doñana Marshes,with funds coming from the WWF and

a similar contribution from the Spanish State. The Biological

Reserve was handed over to the Council for Scientific Research on

the 22nd of June 1965 and the Council created the Doñana

Biological Station in Seville the following year.This initial core was

to act as a nucleus for creating the 35,000 ha of National Park that

was declared as such in 1969, in response to the question asked by

Professor Bernis twelve years before as to whether it would be

possible to conserve this natural paradise or not.

The scientific community, government and society now recog-

nised the existence of Doñana, but the new Park was surrounded

by initiatives that could have been its death toll: the Almonte-

Marismas Agricultural Plan, the coastal road and beachfront urban-

isation. In the seventies, Spanish society, during its transition

towards democracy, after General Franco death in 1975, was to

witness a stubborn fight put up by scientists and conservationists

against developers, speculators and "experts" in the service of an

out-of-date administration. In 1979, Doñana National Park was

extended to the south coast and pushed back the irrigated farm-

lands to the north, as well as absorbing large cultivated areas in the

"pre-park" zones, which were given a new protection status within

the Doñana Nature Park in 1982, increasing the protected surface

area to over 1000 km2.The role of research was key to the success

of the conservationists, as the scientists accepted the controversy,

fostered environmental education and communication and used

international scientific forums to great success in their famous

"Save Doñana!" campaign.

THE HOPES AND DREAMS OF TOURISM

Sun, sea and sand tourism burst onto the scene in the 1960s as

the great panacea for the development of the Spanish coastline and,

of course,Doñana was not to be left out of this tide of urbanisation.

The entire coast of Doñana suffered a wide range of attempts to

build tourist rersorts at this time.These were the years when every-

one thought that the magic wand of tourism guaranteed prosperity.

The tourist development point of view was even more powerful, if

that were possible, than the "utopia" of agricultural development

advocated by the Almonte-Marismas Plan. Even today, it is still sur-

prising that the coastal road in pursuit of this goal was never built,

although it was planned, as was the case along most of the virgin

coasts of Spain.

In 1986, on the western corner of the National Park that bor-

ders the coast, Matalascañas resort was declared a Centre of

Doñana was created as a 35,000-ha Park in 1969, under pressure from the north by the intensive farming of the Almonte-Marismas Plan, to the east by processesof change implemented in the Marshes, and to the south by tourist developments, whose driving idea, based on what was known as the Fraga Act of 1963, wasto convert the magnificent beaches of Doñana into an uninterrupted strip of development from Sanlúcar de Barrameda to Matalascañas. In the photograph, anearly view of Matalascañas, a tourist resort set between the sea and the National Park.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

270

National Tourist Interest, an enclave like Mazagón, located on the

same coast and close to Huelva.At the time of the declaration, the

tourist industry was limited to a few summertime vacationers,

mainly from the bourgeoisie of Seville's Bajo Aljarafe who, since the

1920s, had been renting the ranches that farmers and hunters had

built along the coastal strip.The case of Mazagón is somewhat dif-

ferent,being associated with the infrastructure that came out of the

reforestation process of the 1940s.

Matalascañas, however, is now a built up wedge that literally

borders on the National Park, where there are summer peaks of

300,000 visitors and residents. Like most of the major operations

of this kind at the time, so called tourist development did, in fact,

become real estate operations in which construction was the main

aim.Yet, the buildings were for second residences rather than for

the tourist industry. Much of the present effort is focused on

attempts to integrate this development into the surrounding area.

Hence, Doñana was created as a 35,000-ha park in 1969, under

pressure from the north by the intensive farming of the Almonte-

Marismas Plan, to the east by processes of change implemented in

the marshes, and to the south by tourist developments, whose

basic idea, based on what was known as the Fraga Act of 1963, was

to convert the magnificent beaches of Doñana into an uninterrupt-

ed strip of development from Sanlúcar de Barrameda to

Matalascañas, supported by a coastal road.The end of the dictature

of General Franco in 1975 and the new Constitution of 1978 cre-

ated a more favourable climate for integrated conservation in

Doñana and, as a highpoint of the decade, the National Park was

extended to reach the sea in 1979, including a maritime-shoreline

area along its coastal front to the Gulf of Cádiz. It was also extend-

ed north to protect other areas.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND DOÑANA

As was to be expected in a naturally and socially dynamic zone

that was always on the edge of controversy,Doñana was early early

identified as a potential area for sustainable development. Ideas on

sustainable development generated in the eighties, with the

Bruntland Report (1987), led to the creation of an International

Committee of Experts in 1991 with Prof. Manuel Castells as its

Chairman. In 1992, the Committee published a report entitled

"Basis for the Sustainable Development of Doñana and the sur-

rounding area". Based on their estimates, in December 1993, the

first Plan for Sustainable Development was approved by the region-

al Andalusian Government for the Greater Doñana area.

The Plan for the Sustainable Development of Greater Doñana

took the shape of eight action programmes with general objectives

that focussed on resolving the issues of natural heritage conserva-

tion and establishing the foundations for compatible social and eco-

nomic development. In an area of such extremes, this experience

For Chapman, Doñana transcended the hunting estate to become a legend.Late in life, in his memoirs, Chapman writes "For us... it has alwaysseemed like a fragment torn from some wild African solitude and espe-cially prepared for our personal benefit in this remote corner of Europe...Beyond the far edges of the known world... For us, field naturalists andlovers of the wild, Doñana represented nothing short of Heaven onEarth.”Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

271

stant reduction in the quality of the waters and a widespread pollu-

tion that is difficult to assess. Nevertheless, the most notable point

is that the systematic monitoring of water quality conducted after

the accident of 1998 has enabled experts to learn that all catchment

areas draining to the Nature Park now have some disfunctions to

be addressed.

The problem lies in the fact that once a policy is established to

solve a local problem (or because it has been promised by politi-

cians), new amendments are often assayed as new options where

none exist. In order to avoid affecting Doñana aquifer today, the

politicians are discussing transferring water from the Guadiana

catchment basin some 200 km apart. But, at the same time, other

alternatives have arisen within the original scope of the Plan and

have been successful. For example, the Doñana 21 label provides an

ecological quality certification system for farm produce and servic-

es that has been a clear success since it was promoted by the

Doñana 21 Foundation. Innovative developments like the Dune

Park, which has, in fact, acted as a buffer against the urban spread of

the Matalascañas tourist resort, are now a reality. Such is the case of

the long awaited Maritime Museum and the CICEMA, a research

centre of the University of Huelva. The Museum exhibits the sea

mammal collection that José Antonio Valverde campaigned so long

The banks of the Guadalquivir River have been often re-shaped andaltered, being saltworks among the oldest man-made interventions. In theabove photograph, remains of the Levante saltworks, located within theNational Park opposite to Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Although salt exploita-tion has been abandoned, they are preserved for the important ecosystemsthey support.Photograph: Ayesa.

and the intentions of the programme have produced one of the

most exhaustive known exercises in social debate and project

implementation in the area of sustainability, a concept so difficult to

put into practice.The programmes dealt with an the integrated man-

agement of water, farming, environment, tourism, road equipment

and infrastructure, the development of economic activity, education,

cultural heritage, planning and management.

The starting point for the International Committee of Experts

was to raise a model of sustainability for the Greater Doñana

encompassing over 2,700 km2 of area of influence. There are very

few cases of regional planning in which a protected area exercises

direct influence over such an extensive area, and fewer still in which

the natural area is the leading player. Greater Doñana was forty

times the size of the initial area of the Biological Reserve set up by

Valverde and three times the size of the protected areas to date

included in the National Park and Nature Park.This is perhaps the

most important aspect and it has left its mark on the last twenty

years of Doñana's history. It involves the whole territory, even

where it does not contain relevant natural value, and it marks the

turning point in the destruction of the marshes and natural areas

that was proceeding at an average rate of over 500 ha/year.The Plan

for Sustainable Development not only slowed down this process, it

also increased the rate of recovery and restoration over and above

the rate of destruction.What is more, it recognizes water as the key

asset in the new definition of the territory. The initiative was ten

years ahead of its time: this was the central concept of the World

Parks Conference, held in Durban in 2003, "Benefits before

Boundaries".

However, the same cannot be said of the ambitious programmes

that the Plan attempted to implement because, among other rea-

sons, it is still too early. Concerning the integrated management of

water resources, the balance is somewhat poor, with the exception

of the two major initiatives in course, Doñana 2005 and the Green

Corridor of the Guadiamar River, whose driving force was the

Aznalcóllar mine tailings accident of April 1998.Water continues to

be drawn from the Aquifer 27 at the same rate.The number of wells

and the total volume drawn has increased since the ruling was

made.The International Committee of Experts recommended not

irrigating rice with water from this aquifer. But, for example, the

"Hato Blanco" concession has maintained the same rate of water

consumption (around 10 hm3/year), causing a significant drop in the

phreatic levels year after year, mainly in Vera Norte, the northern

boundary of the Marshes of the National Park. El Arroyo de la

Rocina stream has lost some of its original flow because of the wells

that have been dug for the intensive farming that is practised

throughout the headwaters of the catchment basin.The basic meth-

ods of intensive farming have hardly changed, which means a con-

272

for,ever since he began to realize that the boundaries of the Doñana

concept did not stop at the beach.Will this be the new Doñana par-

adigm?

THE RECOVERY OF DOÑANA:BEGINNING A CULTURE OF RESTORATION

The recovery and restoration of the aquatic ecosystems of

Doñana and its surrounds has become one of the main chal-

lenges faced in the framework of the new conservation and

sustainable development strategy that has gradually taken hold

in the area.The first stage, basically aimed at conserving species

and ecosystems, and including new protected areas, especially

the development of the "pre-park" zones. Experts have now

turned to addressing the main challenge: to recover, restore

and rehabilitate outstanding aquatic ecosystems that were in

an advanced state of degradation.This policy received an enor-

mous boost after the Aznalcollar accident, in which, after clear-

ing up the pollutants, two major projects were tackled: Doñana

2005 (restoration and regeneration of all the water drainage

basins) and the Green Corridor of the Guadiamar River (func-

tional and ecological restoration of the watercourse). Apart

from these major projects, however, another two earlier ones

should also be mentioned, as they have allowed scientific

understanding to amass and they act as benchmarks in restor-

ing a range of different ecosystems.These were the El Albalario

Landscape Reconstruction, a large number of ponds and other

wetlands on sandy substrates of an extraordinary interest that

is dealt with in depth in this chapter, and the ecological restora-

tion programme for La Algaida Marsh of Sanlúcar, a clear illus-

tration of the potential opened up by restoring a tidal marsh10.

The banks of the Guadalquivir River Estuary, where La Algaida

is located, have been re-shaped with every flood, leaving visible

remains of former lucios (shallow lakes), cut-off river branches,

tidal marsh channels and levees that have had tracks, walls, chan-

nels, salt flats and erosion defences built on them. Since 1985, four

million cubic metres dredged from the shipping channel have

been dumped in the tidal marsh along an 8 km stretch of the left

bank, most of which belongs to the Nature Park. The dredged

material was dumped in a series of enclosures that measured 250

m wide by up to 500 m long, raising the mounds to 3 m high. For

this reason, the Ministry of the Environment has included in the

Doñana Sustainable Development Plan the restoration of 52 ha of

enclosures from the Martin Ruiz channel.

The first phase consisted of removing the disposed dredged

material (some 600,000 m3) that was to be used to improve farm

holdings in the neighbourhood.The Ecological Restoration Project,

carried out by Francisco García Novo and Juan Bautista Gallego of

the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the Seville

University, was implemented in 2000, and the follow-up pro-

gramme, run by the Ministry, was implemented over the four-year

period 2001-2005.The Andalusian Regional Government has also

funded the monitoring of vertebrates, an important aspect as it

involves the Doñana Nature Park.

A panorama of the area to be restored, including the tidal

marsh of the estuary, was that of vegetation dominated by Spartina

densiflora (a highly aggressive introduced species) and bunches of

Phragmites australis and Scirpus maritimus reeds, with a poorly

diversified vegetation cover.The initiative also faced an added chal-

lenge, as the conditions of this part of the marsh meant that con-

servation had to be compatible with the public use of the area.

Hence, three restoration options were considered: 1. Ecological

restoration to re-establish ecological functions and processes and

the characteristic species and communities of the area, all in a self-

sufficient regime. 2. Rehabilitation to recover elements of the

degraded ecosystem with a view to conserving species and

processes under a regime of artificial regulation. 3.Re-building, con-

structing different habitats from pre-existing ones, designed to

maintain certain species.

The ecological restoration applied was aimed at recovering the

ecosystems associated with tidal marshes, which had been reduced

to a very small area in the Guadalquivir Estuary, with actions being

focused on the basis of four criteria: to increase biodiversity,

After La Algaida marsh was restored, monthly censuses of the birds havebeen carried out by 2000, which show an increase in diversity, reaching 91species in 2004. Given the characteristics of the area that belongs to theNature Park, the potential diversity could be as high as some 200 species.In the photograph, an avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta).Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

273

restore tidal flow, promote the self-organisation of the system and

facilitate public use.Two restoration methods were applied, dividing

the zone into two areas: the north (22 ha), with intensive interven-

tion, and the south (30 ha) with moderate intervention and a high-

er degree of self-organisation (see Figure 1).The use of cement or

metallic sluices was ruled out, in order to maintain a natural

appearance of a dendritic marsh landscape, with undulating chan-

nels and giving rounded shapes to the contours of ponds and

islands.

The intensive intervention on the north area maximised water

renewal and the maintenance of 0.5 m of water or more in 20% of

the surface area.To study this system, a simulation programme was

used with fluctuating tidal levels in the estuary, and trials were done

with different channel lengths and cross sections, and opening two

mouths, each one 13 m wide, to connect to the estuary, and exca-

vating 2,060 m of channels. Removable gravel sluicegates were

installed in the mouths.The material removed (30,000 m3) was used

to build three islands, each of which stood up to 0.5 m above the

surface of the surrounding areas.Two of them have had 0.15 m top-

soils added from areas nearby. In order to import propagules to the

“islands”, submerged deposits of sand and gravel were prepared, in

order to offer an array of substrates to aquatic organisms.

In the southern area, the moderate intervention consisted of

opening small channels and three wide mouths into the estuary.

The tidal flow facilitated the self-organisation of channels, generat-

ing a typical tidal marsh dendritic network that made a diversity of

habitats possible. Access was opened up to the species from ter-

restrial and aquatic environments, enhancing connectivity with the

help of tidal flow, letting species move into the zone.

The result of this is a highly diverse system in terms of the

diversification of habitats.The hydrology was the main factor that

defined the zoning of animal and plant species. This was attained

through introducing variations in the height and the slope of the

surfaces.Along with the tidal cycle, it has determined the extension,

depth and duration of the flood, thus, in turn, facilitating the coloni-

sation of the area by different communities of plants, macro-inver-

tebrates and ground fauna, an essential resource for water fowl,

mainly wading birds.The channels are a suitable habitat for algae,

water plants, fish and decapods, and they also provide food

resources for herons, cormorants, geese, terns and other water-

fowl. On two of the islands, the introduction of seed banks and

propagules from neighbouring sandy pasture lands was opted for.

These came in the sandy soil that was brought in, which already

contained insects and other soil invertebrates. As they are free

from flooding, these islands have allowed fully terrestrial communi-

ties to develop, and have also acted as breeding grounds for some

birds.

After this stage was completed, a monitoring programme was

established, including: a system to regulate the flow of the tide,

measuring of the rate of sedimentation and erosion, and the mon-

itoring of physical, chemical and biological variables in the water, the

plant succession, and the use of the different habitats by wildlife. In

accordance with the model of adaptive management, small modifi-

cations have been when the succession or the regime of floods on

the Guadalquivir River made it necessary.

This follow up has shown that the re-vegetation of the area has

occurred very quickly, with colonisation by typical tidal and non-

tidal marsh species. Most of these are Chenopodiaceae (Salicornia,

Sarcocornia, Atriplex, Salsola, Suaeda, Halimione), apart from other

genera like Spartina, Mesembryanthemum, Spergularia and others.

These species have distributed in varying numbers and cover, with

greater alpha diversity in the higher marshes and lesser diversity in

the lower marshes. On the sandy islands, the pasture is similar to

FIGURE 1La Algaida Marsh Restoration Project.Designed by the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of theUniversity of Seville. 2000.

274

the original small hills with gramineae (Lolium,Pholiurus,Hordeum,

Phalaris) and legumes (Meliloltus, Medicago, Trifolium) and

Arctotheca calendula, an introduced species.Together these form a

diverse community (up to 15 sp/m2) with a good vertical structure

(up to 40-60 cm in height).

In the southern area, the water moss Riella helicophylla made

its appearance in crystal clear waters in 2002 in a very few sites in

Doñana, creating a community that has multiplied in 2003 and

2004, suggesting that the restored marsh acts as a secondary dif-

fusion centre for the species in the estuary. Other rare or critical

species in the Doñana Parks and their surroundings may also find

in the restored zone a base to support their presently endangered

survival.

The area was used by wildlife immediately after the first

flooding, with fish appearing in the channels and birds throughout

the marsh, coming here to find resources and refuge. Rabbits and

moles appeared on islands and pastures, along with the fox, which

immediately learned how to reach the islands. During the process

of monitoring the fish life between February and December 2002,

8,831 specimens of 22 different species were caught - a very high

number bearing in mind that the potential diversity of estuary fish

is 60 species. Fundulus heteroclitus was the most abundant

(75.6%), followed by Liza saliens (11.5%) and Pomatoschistus

microps (7.7%). Monthly censuses of the birds have been carried

out, which show an increase in diversity, reaching 91 species in

2004. Given the characteristics of the area, the potential diversi-

ty could be as high as some 200 species. In the lower and mid

marsh areas, there is a constant abundance of waders like dunlins,

redshanks, greenshanks, ringed plover, little ringed plover, Kentish

plover, grey plovers and godwits. In areas of shallow waters, avo-

cets, black-winged stilts, spoonbills, flamingos, great white egrets,

mallards, red-crested pochard, European pochard and whistling

ducks are in abundance. In the interior channels, there are grey

herons, purple herons, egrets, cormorants and several species of

terns. Marsh harriers, black and red kites fly over the area. But

one of the great surprises that came out of the restoration of La

Algaida has been the presence of several ospreys that stop to fish

the channels for several weeks during their winter migration.

Three years after the restoration, the marshes have been

functionally zoned, according to the frequency of flooding and the

colonisation (that has followed water, aerial and land routes) by

all groups of organisms to be found in the zone.The diversity of

the communities has, in the first instance, been structured with

dominant species or groups, Fundulus heteroclitus in fish, waders

in birds, Salicornia perennis and Spartina densiflora in the vegeta-

tion, diatomaceae and green-blue algae in floodable areas, and so

on.

Restoring unusual environments like permanent tide water

channels, temporary clean water masses with low salinity, or poor

substrates like porous rocks, perches and roosting sites, has pro-

moted the introduction and presence of typical marshland

species that were previously absent in the area, and typical

species of marine water environments, like pitchers, put into in

the gravel of the sluicegates that close the mouths. Vegetation

planting accelerated some of the system characteristics (primary

productivity, accumulation of nutrients in the necromass, struc-

turing), favouring higher trophic levels and the presence of later

species in the succession.The downside is that it initially creates

communities with reduced diversity, because of the colonising

effect.

Taken as a benchmark for the new way of seeing Doñana, this

intervention, along with others, has allowed scientists to gain

experience in the restoration initiatives for the marshes of the

National Park, that are being implemented within the framework

of the Doñana 2005 Plan. In this latest view of Doñana, the chal-

lenge is no longer just to conserve and protect. Science, society

and the administration have now all joined in an alliance to

reverse the process of aggravation that Doñana has been subject-

ed to in the past. In this emblematic Biosphere Reserve, one of

the world's most impressive living laboratories in the recovery of

wetlands has been established.

Talking of Doñana always revives a kaleidoscope of images in our memo-ry: the vibrant pajareras, nesting colonies of herons perched on the corkoaks of La Vera, the flocks of flamingos forming red eyebrows over thewater line of the Marshes and lighting it up with their reflection whenthey take flight; the enormous flocks of geese flying to Cerro del Tigre atdawn to eat sand; the columns of white storks or black kites flying in cir-cles over the dry marshes preparing their migration; the hundreds ofdying carp in a pond as it dries out, food for herons and kites, the bellow-ing of the deer in the autumn nights…Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Forested areasProtected areasBoundary of the Doñana region

between the Condado and the Marshes, of rural settlements

typical of the Andalusian countryside.These towns and villages,

including Aznalcázar, Pilas, Hinojos, Almonte, Moguer,

Villamanrique de la Condesa, and later Isla Mayor and El Rocío,

were the farthest outreaches of human settlement into the

marshes.

THE PRIMARY CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Afforestation

Through the years, Doñana and its surrounding area have been

the target of a variety of afforestation plans, with varying degrees

of intensity, extent and results. The year 1737, for example, can be

considered an emblematic date as this was when the first umbrel-

la pine trees were introduced onto the private estate of

Marismillas, close to the stuary of Guadalquivir River.However, the

afforestation schemes that had the greatest impact on the trans-

formation of Doñana's territory and landscape were the public ini-

tiatives implemented since the early years of the 20th century.

Afforestation was mainly the result of public intervention

motivated by a productivist frenzy and the need to remedy the

275

The agriculturaldevelopment in the surroundings of Doñanaspatial and landscape changes

JOSEFINA CRUZ VILLALÓN *

275

The circumstances of the area surrounding Doñana stand

in contrast to the trend of progressive decline of farming

activities that took place in Europe over the 20th century. While

the area was agriculturally marginal and non-productive at the

beginning of the last century, it later became a target of intense

agricultural transformation, especially during the second half of the

1900s.Today, upon viewing the composition of gross income, agri-

cultural employment and even the influx of immigrant farm work-

ers, Doñana continues to be agricultural territory in both eco-

nomic and social terms.This is truly disconcerting if we consider

that rather than being located in a remote rural area, Doñana is

the centre of the most important population triangle in the south-

western Iberian Peninsula. In addition, the surrounding metropoli-

tan areas -Huelva, Cadiz and, especially, Seville- put a great deal of

pressure on the territory in demands for recreational, tourism and

residential land uses.

THE PRISTINE STATE

If one could speak of a pristine state regarding Doñana's

surrounding areas, this could be considered to have lasted until

well into the 20th century, despite the attempts at transforma-

tion carried out in the second half of the 19th century. Up until

then the landscape of Doñana and its surrounding area was

dominated by the Marsh of the Guadalquivir. The marshlands

extended along both banks of the river downstream of Seville

all the way to the sea and included the large sandy coastal areas

in the western area and the strip of consolidated Tertiary soils

that characterise the countryside in the southern Condado

region.

The soils in the marshlands sustained a wide array of pro-

ductive uses, such as hunting, fishing and pasture for livestock

grazing, in an area that had undergone very little change with

minimal human presence. The wide expanses of sand plains

were considered to be "sterile by nature". In contrast, the

Condado region sustained traditional Mediterranean dry farm-

ing such as cereal, olive groves and vineyards. This was con-

ducive to the establishment, distributed all along the border

* Professor of Human Geography at the University of Sevill,.Spain. Member of the Doñana National Park Board.. Member of the International ExpertsCommitee (Sustainable Development Plan for Doñana)

276

dearth of supply in the Spanish timber industry, and to a lesser

degree, from the need to stabilise the dunes that threatened the

towns along the south-western coast of the peninsula. Between

1904 and 1924 the Seville-Huelva District Forest Brigade carried

out an intensive transformation of nearly 17,000 hectares in the

wilds of Almonte, Hinojos and Aznalcazar. Nonetheless, the most

significant transformation took place after 1940 and was imple-

mented by the National Forest Heritage Authority.

Although they peaked in the 1950s, the activities of the

Heritage Authority lasted well into the 1970s and were not limit-

ed to afforestation, but also involved a resettlement process that

led to the construction of several forestry villages (Bodegones,

Acebuche, Abalario, Cabezudos, etc.), built to host the working

population.This is an excellent indicator of the demographic vac-

uum that existed in the area. However, these population settle-

ments neither endured nor changed the prior settlement system.

They only survive today as testimonies of the aforementioned

afforestation schemes and they might play a complementary role

in the tourist model for Doñana's surrounding areas.

Pursuing rapid growth rates of trees, the area was afforested

with eucalyptus and to a lesser extent with umbrella pines. The

current trend in public policy is to replace eucalyptus with pines

and cork oaks, in programmes aimed at environmental improve-

ment and the regeneration of native vegetation.Whereas the ini-

tial drive behind afforestation was the productive value of forests,

today greater value is placed on the role that forested areas play

in preserving Doñana's ecosystems and as buffer zones that miti-

gate human impact on the Parks and their associated landscapes.

Transformation for agricultural purposes

In following with the trend taking place in other European ter-

ritories of similar characteristics, and in the strictest sense of

"cleaning them up" and "improving" their value, since the 19th cen-

tury there have been several attempts at draining the Guadalquivir

Marshes and turning it into arable land. Nonetheless, due to a lack

of financial or technical resources, all attempts failed and the

marshes thus remained in their semi-natural state until well into

the 20th century.

Rice farming was successfully introduced in the 1920s under

private initiative on what were once the central islands of the

Guadalquivir river. The industry was bolstered by support from

the incoming authorities during the Spanish Civil War (1936-39),

after General Franco's rebel forces took the rice-producing areas

from the control of the Republican government. Currently, the

Guadalquivir rice fields comprise the largest and most productive

rice farming area in Spain, with a total surface area of about 35,000

hectares. With the exception of some that have been pumping

water from the aquifer in direct conflict with preservationist inter-

ests, most rice farmers use surface water from the Guadalquivir

River. As the farmers have increasingly taken up measures to

rationalize herbicide and pesticide use, it can be affirmed that rice

farming not only peacefully coexists with the Parks, but helps to

Agricultural production has been refocused responding to the marketdemands, being the significant expansion of citrus groves and strawberryplantations around El Rocio a good example of it. In the picture, view ofEl Rocío shrine from the Marsh.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. Ceneam files.

277

sustain the population of migratory birds as well. The survival of

rice faming is conditioned by the availability of scarce water

resources, which is in turn determined by the granting of water

rights by the Guadalquivir River Basin Authority, by periodical

droughts, and by the subsidy policies of the European Union

regarding rice crops.

From the perspective of spatial development, the agricultural

colonisation of the central islands of the Guadalquivir estuary

entailed human settlement as well and the construction of farming

villages, whose original names (Alfonso XIII, Queipo de Llano,Villa

Franco del Guadalquivir) are clear indications of the historical

time period in which they were founded, the first half of 20th cen-

tury.The firmly established humanisation of this territory, directly

resulting from rice farming, became patent on an administrative

level when the village of Villa Franco del Guadalquivir, until then

administratively dependent on the town of La Puebla del Río, was

granted independent status as a municipality in 1988.Villa Franco

changed its name to Isla Mayor in 2001, with a population of over

6,000 inhabitants.

The marshes situated on the Guadalquivir's left bank were suc-

cessfully transformed into arable land as a result of a government

intervention project targeting over 70,000 hectares of which

33,000 were marshlands. Starting in 1960, the publicly funded

"Irrigation Area of the Lower Guadalquivir" project entailed the

construction of several colonisation settlements that later became

permanent.The project divided the area into geometric plots and

caused profound spatial and landscape changes. Due both to its

location on the left bank of the river and to the fact that the irri-

gation water comes from reservoirs that are external to the water

resources affecting the Parks, there is an increasing trend to disas-

sociate this area from the so-called "surroundings of Doñana".

However, it must not be forgotten that a large part of this area is

the result of the draining of ancient marshes on the left bank of

the Guadalquivir River.

On the right bank of the Guadalquivir River, and based on FAO

(Food and Agriculture Organization) reports regarding the exis-

tence of a large aquifer in the area, the Spanish government began

transforming the sandy plains of the Doñana surroundings into

irrigated farmland in 1971. The initial project intended to trans-

form a total surface area of 46,000 hectares into irrigated farm-

land, estimating that 160 hm3 could be abstracted from the aquifer.

But from its very inception, the story of the Almonte-Marismas

Irrigation Plan is a story of controversy and redesign.This was evi-

denced as Doñana Park became embattled in formal disputes on

two fronts that were interconnected to each other. The first dis-

pute focuses on water resources: the planned volumes of irriga-

tion water were reduced as knowledge of the true conditions of

the aquifer increased, leading to the conclusion that its capacity

had been initially overestimated. At the same time, the relation-

ship between water abstraction for irrigation and the lowering of

the piezometric levels inside the Parks became better understood.

Dry-farming fieldsRice fieldsAlmonte-Marismas irrigable areaOther irrigated areas

Doñana and its surrounding area have been the target of a variety ofafforestation plans. The year 1737 was when the first pine trees were intro-duced onto the private estate of Marismillas, now within the National Park.However, the afforestation schemes that had the greatest impact on thetransformation of Doñana's territory and landscape were the public initia-tives implemented in the 20th century. In the picture, prearation of a charcoalpit in Doñana. Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM files.

278

The second dispute is related to the evolution of the Park's

boundaries and of the irrigated area: the larger the extension of

the Park, the greater the reduction in irrigated farmland.

Currently some 15,000 hectares are being irrigated with

groundwater, nearly 10,000 of which were transformed for agricul-

tural purposes under the Almonte-Marismas Plan, while somewhat

over 5,000 are located outside the boundaries of this scheme.

These two areas, which together consume between 55 and 60 hm3

of water per year, are in direct contact with the natural protected

areas. Agricultural production has been refocused according to

water availability - with new extensive irrigation crops and, in the

case of Villamanrique, even dry-farming - or responding to the

market demands in recent years, resulting in a significant expan-

sion of citrus groves and strawberry plantations around El Rocio.

Finally, also beginning in the 1970s, the farthest reaches of the

western sector of the National Park have undergone substantial

changes with the development of strawberry farming in areas that

up until then had been unproductive, forested or used for dry-

farming. Strawberry farming was introduced experimentally on a

private farm and owing to its high economic returns and labour

requirements spread in a very fast and uncontrolled manner.The

phenomenon has even involved illegal occupation of public land by

local landless agricultural workers (in Palos, Moguer, Lucena and

Bonares to the west of the National Park) who saw it as the solu-

tion to their depressed economic situation.

The uncontrolled occupation of public land seems to have

slowed down in recent years. For this very reason, now is the time

to undertake a public initiative aimed at reorganizing the territori-

al changes caused by the spontaneous and irregular phenomenon

of anarchic land use.This public initiative could include legal nor-

malization of land property and water abstraction rights, improv-

ing and organising rural trails and, above all, controlling the differ-

ent types of waste and pollutants that are endangering Doñana

and its heritage.

North-east of the National Park the Marshes meet the rice fields and thefarms previously dried to grow cereals. In both photographs it is possibleto see the Finca de Caracoles, included in the National Park in 2004 for itsrestoration. The above aerial photo clearly shows the outline of theTravieso channel after a period of flooding: the Marsh is claiming it back.Photograph: CENEAM files.

279

Currently the Guadalquivir rice fields outside the National Park comprise the largest and most productive rice farming area in Spain with a total surface area ofsome 35,000 hectares. Photograph: CENEAM files.

Since time immemorial domestic livestock has ranged the

Doñana Marshes under an extensive grazing system. At

present, the livestock herd is comprised of three native races: the

Doñana cattle (vaca mostrenca), the Retuertas horse (caballo de

Las Retuertas) and the Andalusian churra sheep (oveja churra lebri-

jana).The bulk of the herd is comprised of cattle and horses, which,

from several perspectives, play an important role in the area.

On the one hand, we find highly significant pre-existing histori-

cal-cultural components.There are strong indications it was from

here that the first horses and cattle were taken to the New World

in the early 16th century. In addition, every year on the 26th of June

a long-held tradition takes place, called the "saca de las yeguas"

(The Mares’ Roundup), which is one of the Spanish largest concen-

trations of equids. The horses that graze in Doñana Marsh are

herded together and then driven to the town of Almonte where

their manes and tails are trimmed and their foals are sold before

they are herded back to the countryside. Another cultural tradi-

tion closely linked to horses is the Rocio pilgrimage, which stems

from the deep devotion of the people of the surrounding towns to

Our Lady of El Rocio, a title of the Virgin Mary.Thousands of devo-

tees journey, mostly on horseback, to the village where the shrine

is located at the very edge of the Marshes.

Because they are Doñana's largest herbivores, cattle and hors-

es play an important role in marshes and dunes by modelling the

vegetation. Their presence has been an overriding factor in

Doñana's vegetation being what it is today. In addition, the way in

which they graze makes certain foodplants available to the small

herbivores (rabbits, small rodents, etc.) that are so very important

to Doñana's ecosystems given that they in turn are preyed upon by

the wide array of raptors and other carnivores.

Still, it is essential that the delicate balance between the grazing

load of the cattle and horses and the vegetation that they consume

be maintained. Care must be taken that their presence does not

endanger their own survival nor that of the other herbivores (rab-

bits, hares, geese, ducks, deer, fallow deer, and so forth) during pro-

longed droughts.The Livestock Plan recently came into force with

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Co-existence of livestockin the Marshes of Doñana

JUÁN CALDERÓN RUBIALES *

281

* Doñana Biological Station

One of the largest concentrations of equids in Spain, a long-held tradition called the “saca de las yeguas” (The Mares' Roundup), takes place every year on the 26th

of June.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

282

the intent of achieving this balance even under the most adverse

conditions.

Another important role played by livestock is that of food for

carrion feeders, among which we find vultures, Egyptian vultures,

foxes, imperial eagles, kites, and others.These animals have an ever

more difficult task of finding places in which large herbivores are

left in the countryside when they die. Doñana is now one of the

few natural feeding grounds for vultures, for whom fallen livestock

is the main source of food.

The particular manner in which livestock exploitation is carried

out in Doñana has created a remarkably close bond between the

inhabitants of the surrounding area and the protected area. In fact,

it has led many nature-loving livestock breeders to become fre-

quent visitors of Doñana, creating an emotional bond with the area

at the same time it affords them financial benefits. Nonetheless,

social benefits constitute the primary value that the National Park

obtains from livestock. Maintaining this, without increasing the

upsetting movement of people carrying out these activities within

the park, is the main challenge of the Livestock Plan, which is the

result of consensus between management and livestock breeders

associations in the surrounding area.

On the other hand, recent analyses are starting to reveal that

Doñana cattle and the Retuertas horse have genetic singularities

worthy of preservation. It would not be surprising to discover that

limited human intervention in selection processes has given rise to

two races that are superbly adapted to the environment with a high

degree of genetic richness. Confirmation of preliminary impres-

sions would afford further biodiversity, in this case to domestic ani-

mals, to Doñana's already privileged domain of biological variety.

Doñana cattle (vaca mostrenca) present genetic singularities worthy of preservation.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

It is essential that the delicate balance between the grazing load ofthe cattle and horses and the vegetation that they consume bemaintained, avoiding possible impacts on the complex marshsystem.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

"...the land is used exclusively for hunting, it is unsuitable for agri-

culture and is permanently and on the most part comprised of dunes

and unhealthy marshes"

Executive Decree, September 3, 1941 (BOE 265 of 22 September)

Until just a few years ago, the landscape of Doñana National

Park stood in stark contrast to the panorama viewed

upon crossing its western boundaries.The idyllic landscape of the

famous protected area gave way to a bleak territory; an immense

space, mostly arid but covered by monotonously endless eucalyp-

tus plantations at its most northerly reaches, and by rickety pine

trees in the areas nearest the coast.The area presented numerous

ponds and dry washes covered over with a tapestry of eucalyptus

leaves, ghost villages and an endless array of paths that led

nowhere.

Although the area targeted for restoration lay within the

Natural Park, for reasons of landscape coherence the team of

botanists conducting the restoration expanded the study area

beyond the limits of the Protected Area26. Specifically, a surface area

of nearly 25,000 hectares (Figure 1) was included, enclosed

between the Rocina stream (northern boundary), Castilla Beach

(southern boundary), the C-445 motorway (eastern boundary) and

the wildlands known as “Montes Propios de Moguer” (western

boundary).

Apart from climate factors and focusing on the physical medi-

um, the area presented two basic features that characterised the

landscape. In the first place, the substrate was very poor, comprised

mostly of sandy sediments of relatively recent origin (from the

Quaternary eolian mantle), a product of the successive appearance

of a number of dune fronts. Secondly, the very low relief of the area,

which is altered only by the presence of the Asperillo sand cliff to

the south, with elevations exceeding 100 metres.

THE LANDSCAPE IN 1993The study zone had undergone little change in recent decades.

Preliminary surveys clearly revealed the difficulties to be overcome

in interpreting the vegetation cover of the landscapes, which had

been so highly modified as a consequence of afforestation activities

that the organisational pattern of autochthonous vegetation could

not be clearly established.

Broadly speaking, the zone's vegetation cover could be divided

into two well-differentiated parts (Figure 2):

- The northern half and the pond complex, where the soils were

moister and the ancient pond basins were occupied by huge

masses of dense eucalyptus groves that in many places had

grown spontaneously from seeds.

- The southern half, which was comprised of the area with the

lowest soil moisture, was populated with often stunted pine

trees which in many places afforded minimal cover.

The native vegetation had been reduced to poor ephemeral

pastures and open and occasionally sparse scrubland, correspon-

ding to the subserial stages of the former native forests.

Additionally, although a few ponds formed following the rainy sea-

son, there was virtually no aquatic vegetation owing to the basins

being occupied by the eucalyptus trees and to the effects of the ter-

penic compounds from their leaves (Figure 2).

Among the difficulties encountered in analysing the vegetation

cover, as there were not sufficient samples of either palustrine or

land vegetation, the team of botanists decided to combine tradition-

al techniques of floristic (plant survey and collection) and vegetation

283

Reconstruction of the Abalario landscapea referent model for environmental restoration in Doñana

PABLO GARCÍA MURILLO *

283

* University of Seville.

FIGURE 1Setting of the study area.

National ParkNature ParkLimits of the study area

284

(transects surveying and analysis of aerial photography and satellite

imagery studies) with techniques more in line with history and

geography disciplines, such as the search for documents offering

information on the area's landscape in the past, testimony from for-

mer inhabitants, studies of land use, toponymy and study of the sur-

face hydrology.

With the information gathered via both channels, the group was

able to sectorise the space according to natural vegetation types.

The different plant communities observed were grouped into vege-

tation units. In most cases the units were related to the most promi-

nent woody communities and usually included various communities

that were identified following phytosociological methods, with the

purpose of facilitating comparisons to other studies.A summary of

the recognised units can be found in Table 1. In addition, bearing in

mind how environmental factors and afforestation had influenced

the vegetation, functional models of the acknowledged vegetation

units were elaborated in relation to different environmental param-

eters. The conclusion was that the most influential factors in the

organisation of the different plant communities of the zone were,

apart from afforestation activities, soil moisture and time.

Data from a diachronic study of aerial photographs (from over-

flights in 1946, 1956 and 1987), as well as satellite images from

Landsat TM (1986 and 1990) and Spot (1989) were then added to

the results obtained in the vegetation study.The maps enabled sur-

face area measurements of the recognised vegetation units and the

afforested zone (Table 2) to be taken, thus enabling the magnitude

of change to be quantified.

Through the analysis of aerial pictures, it was possible to note

important changes in the surface drainage network as well as in the

surface area associated to the wetlands. In the same way, in order to

obtain a better perspective on the changes, diverse historical maps

were used together with current maps to carry out an exhaustive

toponymic study that proved to be highly useful in the landscape

analysis19,29. Once compiled, the data were used to draw up an array

of thematic maps among which we highlight those of vegetation,

afforested areas, surface drainage and the evolution of the surface

areas of the ponds (Figure 3).

HISTORY OF THE LANDSCAPE AND ITS ECOLOGY

Finally, with the information that had been compiled, the

changes that had taken place in the Abalario were reconstructed

from a chronological viewpoint following the evolution of its land-

scape.The result was the identification of three well-defined stages,

each with a vegetation cover clearly distinguishable from the oth-

ers and reflecting the different land uses of the zone: Stage 1 (17th

century?-1930), Stage 2 (1940-1970) and Stage 3 (1993-2005).

Stage 1 (17th century?-1930)

This period was characterised by a landscape with little human

intervention in which the vegetation cover presented maximum

complexity.This was possible owing to the marginal nature of the

lands as its soil was not suitable for agriculture, not good for live-

stock and situated in an area that was seasonally flooded and con-

FIGURE 2Eucalyptus forest plantations in the northernzone

View of the village and surroundings of theAbalario, where the umbrella pine plantationsand the masses of eucalyptus trees can beobserved around the ponds.

Eucalyptus in the Ribatehilos ponds.

LANDSCAPES OF ABALARIO IN 1993

MAP OF LAND USES IN 1987

FIGURE 3

Preliminary surveys clearly revealed the difficulties in interpreting thevegetation cover, which had been so highly modified as a consequence ofafforestation that the patterns of native vegetation could not be clearlyestablished.

285

sidered to be a focus of malaria. Due to this, human settlements in

the zone of study were very few and isolated and roads were

practically non-existent.This stage corresponds to the periods of

communal ownership (18th and 19th centuries) and private owner-

ship (1855-1940).The vegetation landscape during this period was

articulated around three distinct formations:

Sclerophyllous woodlands: situated in the areas with moist soil

and comprised of cork oaks and wild olive trees, with irregular

cover; abundant lianas and a quite diverse and developed array of

woody strips located in the northern half of the territory.

Psammophilous communities: Located on the most sterile sub-

strates, mobile and with a very low degree of moisture in the soil;

cover was minimal and the mature communities were charac-

terised by the presence of Phoenician juniper (Juniperus

phoenicea subsp. turbinata), accompanied by xerophytic scrub

such as Halimium halimifolium and gorse (Stauracanthus genis-

toides). Broadly speaking, their location corresponded to the area

forested with pine groves.

Pond and palustrine formations: undoubtedly the wide scattering

of ponds is one of the most unique features of the Abalario land-

scape.Together with the cork oak groves, the pond and palustrine

formations were the landscapes most damaged by human inter-

vention in the following stage.Among the diverse types of palus-

trine environment that were present in the zone, especially rele-

vant were the peat bogs, that were extremely abundant during this

period but are today restricted to an very reduced surface area

(Figure 4).

Stage 2 (1940-1970)

This stage, coinciding with the period of widespread afforestation,

underwent the most considerable amount of change.As a result of

the dearth of raw materials following the Spanish Civil War (1936-

1939), a new model of intensive environmental exploitation was

tested and put into practice. Immediately following the declaration

of southwest Huelva as a Region of National Interest in 1941, fast-

growth forest plantations were tested and developed by the

Patrimonio Forestal del Estado (National Forest Heritage

Authority) and these marginal "wastelands" were turned into a

model, both in Spain and abroad, for forestry actions.The activities

were overseen by the chief engineer of the Huelva Forest Brigade,

Gaspar de la Lama Gutierrez, whose imposing personality pervad-

ed his colossal task.

De la Lama, who began by following the directives of the 5th

Forest Hydrology Division, radically changed his forestry policies

when he became deeply impressed by the 1930s Coto Cabezudos

(to the north of the territory) operations of the Dutch company

Handelmaastchppij Ibérica, owners of the Forestal de Villarejos

company, and with their fast-growth tree plantation experience in

Indonesia.He saw in the eucalyptus plantations a solution to Spain's

dearth of national products, and as a source of products for which

there was a strong national and international demand (pulp for

paper, essential oil, wood for timber, etc.). He therefore ordered a

massive reforestation of these trees, primarily Eucalyptus globulus

and E. camaldulensis, and built the network of infrastructures

(roads, villages, work shops, tree nurseries, and so forth) required

for their exploitation.

By the late sixties, the forest plantations covered most of the

Department of Forest Resources lands, 24,316 hectares (Table 2);

most of the ponds had been targeted for the task and the

autochthonous woody vegetation had been virtually eliminated.

Stage 3 (1993-2005)

There was a fall in the yield of the plantations after the seventies.

Advanced age, a plague of Phoracantha beetle, low timber prices

and a rise in maintenance costs caused a plunge in the high market

value that had characterised the territory. At the same time, the

rise of environmental ideology led to an increasing trend towards

EVOLUTION OF THE PEAT BOGS (1956-1987)

FIGURE 4The high number of scattered ponds was undoubtedly one of the singularelements of the Abalario landscape.

286

Native vegetation types in 1993

TABLE 1

FIGURE 5The Ribatehilos peat bog is an exceptional example of the successful restoration work conducted at the Abalario ponds.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

UNIT CHARACTERISTIC COMMUNITIES LOCATION

Intertidal zone Cakilion aegyptiacae-Ammophilion australis Sandy coasts.Semi-stable coastal sand-dunes Rubio longifoliae-Coremetum albi Elevated parts of the sand-dunes.Phoenician juniper groves Osirio quadripartitae-Juniperetum turbinatae Base of the coastal dune range.Abalario scrubland Halimio halimifolii-Stauranthetum genistoidis Found between the Phoenician juniper grove,

& Erico scopariae-Ulicetum australis strawberry tree and western scrubland units.Western scrublands Halimio commutati-Cistetum libanotis Western zone.Peat bogs Erico ciliaris-Ulicetum (minoris) lusitanicus Center of the zone,

in places called Ribatehilos and Peladillo.Lowland scrub Erico scopariae-Ulicetum australis & Lonicero hispanicae-Rubetum ulmifoliae North to the zone of study.Atlantic streams Lonicero hispanicae-Rubetum ulmifoliae & Viti viniferae-Salicetum atrocinereae Streams crossing the sandbanks.Strawberry tree (Arbutus) groves Phyllireo angustifoliae-Arbutetum unedonis Bordering the most southern reaches

of the peat bogs.

287

rejection of this type of plantation.

Thus, in a manner more in accord with the environmental signifi-

cance of the territory, its management underwent a change in

course after the Junta de Andalucía's Environmental Agency took

charge of its administration. Under its mandate, work on the

restoration of the Abalario ponds started and was later continued

by the Ministry of the Environment, which presently administers

the zone.

In this context, the most significant work has been the:

- Supresion of eucalyptus plantations

- Remediation of the pine groves

- Restoration of the Ribatehilos peat bog and ponds

- Restoration of the temporary ponds

- Increase in the level of protection of the most sensitive zones:

ponds, peat bogs, the Asperillo Sand Cliff, the Loro Ravine.

The restoration tasks developed with remarkable success

(Figures 5 and 6):The "sea" of eucalyptus trees has been cleared;

the Ribatehilos peat bog has recovered and presents a notable

sheet of water with significant populations of singular plants such

as Erica ciliaris, Potamogeton polygonifolius, Pinguicola lusitanica,

Genista ancystrocarpa and Sphagnum inundatum, all virtually

extinct in the area in 1993; the Phoenician juniper population is

rapidly recovering and the entire zone has become a key area for

such rare and valuable animal species as the water rat and the

Iberian lynx.

DATE PINE TREES EUCALYPTUS TOTAL FOREST

1936 1245.5 1245.51940 1245.5 1245.51941 100 1245.5 1345.51942 508.1 1248.7 1756.81943 968.1 1955.2 2923.31946 968.1 1955.2 2923.31947 7041.1 4567.8 11608.91948 7282.6 6060.3 13342.91950 7301.3 8089.2 15390.51951 7410.3 8127.7 155381952 7643.6 11143.4 187871956 9414.2 8966.6 18380.81966 13672.3 8591.3 22263.61968 65501987 14522.2 4571.8 19094

Evolution of the surface cover of planted groves TABLE 2

FIGURE 6Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) groves onthe south side of Ribatehilos pond.Photograph by P. García Murillo.

remediate the metal pollution, but this was not the final objective.

Advantages can arise from crises, as they drive change and create

opportunities. And that is exactly what was done, going beyond

merely recovering the sludge and abating impacts.An integral man-

agement project was implemented for the entire basin, allowing the

ecosystems that had been destroyed by the mine spill to be

restored, and helping to regain the basin's function as an ecological

corridor between Sierra Morena ranges to the North and the

Doñana coastal plains to the South.This also helped restoring eco-

nomic activaties in the area, improving the quality of life of the

inhabitants of the basin.

The Action Plan known as The Guadiamar Green Corridor

Strategy was designed as a Demonstration Project that could be

applied to other areas of Andalusia and the Mediterranean. The

project highlighted the fact that maintaining the functionality of the

ecosystems of Guadiamar basin, due to its relations with Doñana,

was compatible with meeting the economic demands for attaining

a good living standard for its inhabitants. In the end, the aim was to

break away from the traditional sectorial and water-tight approach-

es to tackling environmental problems, moving towards a new style

289

The Guadiamar Green Corridora research programme, example of science's social responsibility.

CARLOS MONTES *, FRANCISCO BORJA **

289

* Inter-University Department of Ecology. Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain.** Department of History II (Area of Geography) University of Huelva, Spain.

The fact that researchers and managers, and sometimes NGOs like ADENA/WWF, have worked together has been essential for the general success of the GreenCorridor project, both in controlling pollution and in the functional restoration of its ecosystems.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

The greatest ecological catastrophe seen to date in

Andalusia happened in April 1998. Six million cubic metres

of pyrites sludge and acid waters from a mine tailings repository in

the Boliden mines of Aznalcollar spilled into the River Guadiamar.

The mines were located in the middle of Guadiamar River, a tribu-

tary of Guadalquivir River, which fed water to some of Doñana

Marshes.As a consequence of the mine spill that contained a high

concentration of heavy metals, a 62 km stretch of the river, as far

as Doñana National Park, was polluted with mine tailings, covering

a surface of 4,634 ha of the water course, alluvial plain and the

Entremuros Marsh.

The Urgent Measures Plan designed by national and regional

environmental authorities was implemented, basically aimed at

removing the sludge and treating the polluted waters.The Regional

Environment Authority of Andalusia started implementing a project

called the Guadiamar Green Corridor as a long term response to

the Aznalcollar catastrophe. The top priority objective was to

290

of management based on inter-disciplinary scientific knowledge,

education, environmental training and environmental sustainability.

Thus, the project was designed, right from the beginning, as a

test bed to put into practise advanced procedures and strategies

concerning the integral management of ecological-economic sys-

tems. From this viewpoint, and given the complexity of the original

problem, it was understood that the Project should be developed

on the basis of a wide multi-disciplinary scientific knowledge of the

natural and human systems of the Guadiamar basin. Hence, the

Guadiamar Green Corridor Research Programme (PICOVER, its

acronym in Spanish) was created in 1999, and implemented in two

stages: PICOVER-I (1999-2001) and PICOVER-II (2002-2003).

The PICOVER programme, with a budget of almost six million

Euros, was the largest multi-disciplinary research programme that

has ever been set up in Spain to address an environmental prob-

lem. Nearly three hundred scientists from all the universities in

Andalusia and many of the Higher Spanish Scientific Research

Council Centres covering a broad spectrum of fields from natural

sciences, social and health sciences, technology, etc., have been

incorporated. They have provided know-how to develop the differ-

ent lines of action included in the Green Corridor Strategy, reduc-

ing the room for uncertainty and developing Management

approach. Scientific and technological research then became one of

the basic traits highlighting the Green Corridor Project. In this con-

text scientists, government experts and environmental NGO’s

worked together, sharing responsibilities and easing decision mak-

ing with regard to the management of a territory in crisis.

The PICOVER succeeded in avoiding the dialectics that con-

fronts the world of science to the world of management, that has

separated them, each going his own way, when they possess com-

plementary languages that enable us to discover and interpret

nature and its relations with human beings. Science and manage-

ment are are two different worlds that are trying to answer the

same questions, but, unfortunately, the world of science and the

world of management have organised separate living and learning

spaces that have caused us to loose our global view.

With the Green Corridor and its Research Programme, an

attempt has been made to lay the first stone for the foundations of

a genuine scenario of a scientific-technical mix in addressing the

mine spill. A forum for discussion and debate in which managers,

government experts and researchers from a range of professional

fields, languages and expertise have worked together in a search for

integrated knowledge, planning and management models that will

pave the way for the environmental sustainability.A merger, a com-

bination of science and regional management, has been promoted

to generate an idea of the two concepts as expressions of a uni-

quereality, rather than as different realities.

Science with a conscience and committed management have

much to offer and to share,with regard to how to address environ-

mental problems and how to tackle them in a society like today's

society, subject to fast, profound and globalising changes for which

most of society's institutions are not ready. Dialogue on this issue

has to act as a catalyst for creating a new, integral and integrating

environmental discourse like the discourse initiated with the Green

Corridor.The PICOVER programme has attempted to show how

the scientific and management discourses are complementary for

addressing the Aznalcollar catastrophe and to pave the way

towards the best possible sustainability model for the affected area.

It has been essential for researchers and managers to work

together, and sometimes with NGOs like ADENA/WWF too, for

the Green Corridor project to be successful in both controlling

pollution and in attaining the functional restoration of its ecosys-

tems. It is true that dialogue between research and management is

easier at times of crisis and that the acid test for this combination

lies in what relations are like during times of "environmental

peace". Obviously, the aim must be to promote science to avoid,

rather than solve catastrophes.That is, we must promote a preven-

tative, rather than a curative Science, one that is above a science of

environmental crises or disasters.

Several lessons can be learned from the five years that

researchers and managers have been working together, to act as a

foundation for future projects:

Lesson 1. Scientific know-how has to be present from the beginning

and at all stages of the design and development of management

projects and programmes, and not an element to be brought on

board at a later stage, once these programmes have been elaborat-

ed, as happens so often.

One of the greatest ecological disasters to occur in Spain happened inApril 1998: six million cubic metres of pyrite sludge and acid waters fromBoliden mines in Aznalcollar (Seville) spilled into the River Guadiamar,reaching the very boundaries of the National Park.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

291

Lesson 2. Given the complexity involved in solving environmental

problems, they usually have to be addressed from an inter-discipli-

nary point of view, including the areas of natural, social and techno-

logical sciences.

Lesson 3. It is essential to have a conceptual reference for provid-

ing meaning to these projects and to provide a common thread

running through all the actions included in a project. In this sense,

every attempt must be made to avoid projects drawn up as a cat-

alogue or a mere list of more or less independent and insufficient-

ly articulated actions.

Lesson 4. It is essential to translate the results of the research into

specific management proposals, couched in simple and direct lan-

guage.

Lesson 5. It is important to adjust the times of research to those

of the development of technical projects.That is, we must try to

harmonise the co-ordination to avoid the pressures of urgency

generated by management and the knowledge generated by scien-

tific research.

Lesson 6. Given the uncertainty inherent in management pro-

grammes, especially programmes related to Mediterranean ecosys-

tems, it is essential to have the funds to finance long term research.

Once the PICOVER programme finalised in 2003, the Regional

Environmental Authority of Andalusia started a new research pro-

gramme for implementing the Eco-Regional Monitoring Plan for

the Green Corridor (SECOVER, its acronym in Spanish).This new

Plan focuses on evaluating the socio-ecological state and the ten-

dencies to change that have started in the Gudiamar ecological-

economic system as a consequence of the major direct and indi-

rect interventions that have taken place in the course of recent

years, either to their natural or man-made systems, through the

application of the Guadiamar Green Corridor Strategy. One of the

aims of the new Research Programme is to provide continued sup-

port for a dialogue between scientists and managers, creating an

inter-disciplinary space for discussion, opinions and decisions, to

move forward in designing specific future projects that will mobilise

public awareness to promote a scientific culture that will enable us

to understand the social role played by science in general and

demonstration programmes like the Guadiamar Green Corridor, in

particular. In other words, we need a civic Science, rather than a

selfish Science that locks up scientists in their research laborato-

The aim of the Green Corridor of River Guadiamar and its Research Programme (1999-2003) has been to lay the foundations of a mixed scenario of scientific andtechnical approaches. A forum for discussion and debate in which managers, government experts and researchers from different professional areas, languages andexpertise have worked together in the search for integrated knowledge, planning and management models to pave the way towards environmental sustainability forthe area.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

292

ries, totally isolated from the problems and concerns of society.

As a final thought, the PICOVER programme has attempted to

develop a new way of addressing large scale environmental prob-

lems like the Aznalcollar crisis. The new approach has turned its

back on the mechanistic scientific approach that promotes a secto-

rial, compartmentalised and over analytic approach, to move

towards a holistic, mixed, preventative, civic, scientific approach,

aimed at solving environmental problems. A science that accepts

uncertainty, the unpredictable, the undetermined, i.e. nature in all its

complexity. From gauges to clouds, as Karl Popper used to say.

Anyone taking an interest in what has been done in the last five

years, in the conceptual and methodological context of the Green

Corridor Project, will most probably find few definite, complete

and final answers to their initial questions. But, we hope and trust

that, once they have finished examining what has been done, that

they will ask new questions that will stimulate and challenge their

creativity and that will motivate them to participate actively in

developing the current project and apply its best aspects and expe-

riences elsewhere. Should this happen, then the adventure of the

Guadiamar Green Corridor and its Research Programme has been

worth while.The important thing is the journey…

The GuadiamarRiver GreenCorridor project isa creative responseto the Aznalcollarmine spill of 1988.It went beyond theclean up of thesludge from theriver bed to theintegral manage-ment of the basinstrip to restore theecosystemsdestroyed by themine spill and torecover its functionas an ecologicalcorridor betweenSierra Morena andthe coastal plainsof Doñana. The leftpicture shows amosaic of aerialphotographs of theGuadiamar GreenCorridor, taken inApril 1998, August1998 and January1999.The dark shadowof pirite sludge isvery noticeable inthe April picture.After a strenuouseffort, the area wasagain clean byJanuary 1999.Photograph:Junta de Andalucía.

THE WEIGHT OF EIGHT CENTURIES OF HISTORY

Time and time again, many authors have suggested that one of

the keys to the excellent degree of conservation of Doñana was

the fact that so little of the land has been shared out in the last

eight centuries, apart from the unhealthy conditions and the isola-

tion that reigned over Doñana during this long period. The idea has

a certain logic, although it sometimes provides support for the the-

ory of a virgin Doñana, cut off from its surroundings and from the

action of man, which bears little relation to reality. The works of F.

García Novo,V. Granados, J. Casas, J. F. Ojeda and many others have

made it perfectly clear that everything, or almost everything, has

been affected by man in Doñana and that the changes in the lands-

cape until it attained its present appearance, run in parallel with

293

Doñana and its district,on the same path.

ALBERTO RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI *

293

There are few simpler things in Doñana than the region in

terms of municipal districts and the distribution of the

ownership of the land among a handful of proprietors.These cir-

cumstances date back at least to the year 1293, when the Crown,

embodied in the figure of King Sancho IV, know as “the Brave”,

granted these lands, then belonging to the County of Niebla, to

Don Alfonso Perez de Guzman surnamed "El Bueno", the good, a

concession that was truly made effective for his son,Alonso Perez

de Guzman, by King Ferdinand IV in 1309. Most of traditional

Doñana lands have belonged to a very small group of families ever

since, apart from the local authorities of the municipal districts of

Hinojos and Almonte.

* Director of Doñana National Park.

It is practically impossible to guarantee the functional viability of large areas of land if the ownership is fragmented and their management is based on criteriaother than the conservation of their natural assets. In the picture, a flock of avocets flying over the Marshes.Photograph by Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.

294

human intervention in a wide variety of forms. Does this all mean

that nothing is original in Doñana? Does the fact that it has lost its

virginity mean that its ecosystems are worth any less? Or that

there is something wrong with its state of conservation? Not at all.

We must not get into discussions that have very little to do with

the idea of a permanent human presence in Doñana and, moreo-

ver,which do not fit easily into the framework of the analysis of the

Mediterranean ecosystems, which have suffered the intervention of

man throughout their history.

Returning to the idea of the concentration of the ownership of

Doñana over the centuries, there are records that show that, his-

torically, there have been endless episodes of tension among the

inhabitants of the neighbouring towns, as they sought to appropria-

te lands that they felt they had the a right to as they had exploited

them for so long.The aim of this contribution is not to analyse pro-

blems caused by these ambitions, although a general overview

would be appropriate: The municipal ownership of properties of

Almonte in Doñana were based on a one hundred and fifty year

conflict between the Council and the Duchy over the ownership of

the lands in question, while Hinojos would support its claim to

ownership of the Marsh of Hinojos with another court case in

1961, in this case a suit brought against the public administration.

Livestock - and other traditional resources - has been another of

the recurring points of confrontation since at least 1628, with the

latest episode in this long running battle, being the livestock inva-

sion of 1993. In short, isolation of the ownership of the land in

comparison with the social environment in which Doñana is sub-

merged, has historically provoked a long series of tensions and pro-

blems of very different kinds, maintaining a flank or perennial con-

frontation between Doñana and its inhabitants throughout this

time.

A NEW SCENARIO,THE DE-PRIVATISATION OF THE LAND.

The conservationist history of Doñana starts in the year 1964,

when the State bought the lands of the current Biological Reserve

from the Marquis of Merito. Five years later, by 1969, the National

Park was constituted, with just over 35,000 hectares and the

forestry administration that managed the area made perfectly

clear their wish to buy any properties that may come on the mar-

ket.This policy has been maintained and practically all the land in

question has now been de-privatised. In fact the Gonzalez family,

the historic owners and earliest advocates for Doñana conserva-

tion, is currently the only private landowner, holding a few small

properties. The logic behind this de-privatisation was overwhel-

ming, based squarely on the recommendations of the international

The value of the traditional uses of the land is not limited to their quantitative importance, high in itself. It is founded on a deep rooted historic base. For exam-ple, La Saca de las Yeguas (Doñana Mares' Roundup), the leading exponent of horse breeding activity in the region, celebrated its five hundredth anniversary in2004.Photograph: CENEAM Files.

295

conservation doctrine for National Parks. It is practically impossi-

ble to guarantee the functional viability of large areas of land if

ownership is fragmented and management is based on objectives

other than the conservation of their natural assets; even in these

conditions, conservation is a difficult and, above all, costly task.

Doñana is a luxury and, as such, it must be paid for. Imagine what

it would cost if the land was in private hands, or subject to the

principles of profitability!

DOES DOÑANA BELONG TO EVERYBODY?But we run a risk. Doñana is a singularly fragile and accessible

environment - in fact, with a 4 whhel drive vehicle, you can drive

round the National Park twice in a morning -, so any conservation

caution is justified. If the transition of the land from private to

government hands is not done cleanly, the local inhabitants may not

see any difference, generating a risk that the society of the area

around the Park may think that nothing has changed, that, in fact, it

is six of one and half a dozen of the other. This situation would

maintain the deep divide between the Park and the social environ-

ment it is situated in, undoubtedly generating a confrontational

dynamic that would be incompatible with conserving the assets of

this space. This is a hypothetical situation that is not desired by

anyone and to prevent it from happening, the directors of the

National Park have to practise a clear, transparent and participati-

ve management. Now more than ever, it is a question of persuading

and finding allies.The more people and groups that are interested

in the conservation of Doñana, the better. In the district, Doñana

should be considered as a collective mission under the auspices of

sustainable development.Doñana has to be seen as a common inte-

rest of almost all, so that we all have something to gain in the mid

and long term if the area maintains its vital pulse and its privileged

position in the international context.

However, how can we attain a change in attitude of the magni-

tude required in the social environment of Doñana? As we have

said before, in Doñana, we are fighting against a historic view that

has prevailed for the last eight centuries. How can we get the inha-

bitants of the district to appreciate Doñana as a part of their world,

as something to be proud of and a source of welfare for each and

every one of them?

There is no single answer to this question, as no single line of

action can obtain the desired result.The search for the right rela-

tion between Doñana and its District should be a constant in all

policies developed in the National Park.We need to be well aware

that we are not talking about a third party, with nothing to do with

the Park, that requires an enhanced level of communication. This

approach is wrong, despite the fact that it can sometimes lead to

gestures that take us forward along the right path. It is not a ques-

tion of sponsoring sporadic relations or an encounter between

Park and District. First of all, we need to ensure fluid communica-

tions and a degree of participation in the management that will

trace an unequivocal path of mutual trust and the conviction by all

parties concerned that without close co-operation, we will not

make it. As with marriages in the past, a bunch of flowers from time

to time makes life easier and adds beauty to the relationship, but

the evolution of centuries of history in common is something far

deeper, something that should come to the fore in each of the

thousand situations and problems that arise every day.

FINDING THE WAY AS WE GO

Despite the above hindrances, if we want the discourse to

translate into specific results, it is essential to develop well articu-

lated lines of work, taking a mid and a long term view. In this sense,

the National Park, together with the main stake-holders of the

District, headed by the local authorities, is developing a battery of

lines, which, at times, may appear to be heading in different direc-

tions, but at a closer look will show that they are merely different

manners of addressing the same objective. Below is a summary of

the content of these lines of work and how they affect relations

between the Park and the District.

Environmental education is the principle line of work, aimed

mainly at young people, but also dealing with singular groups of

adults. In the case of the former, the objective is that every child of

the District has at least two formal contacts with the National Park

in the course of his formal education, articulated around six diffe-

rent activities under the umbrella of the Doñana-Surroundings

Programme. Such an ambitious objective translates into high annual

Developing different sectorial policies for traditional uses is one of themain planks of the joint work with the District. For example, the totalnumber of livestock breeders in Almonte and Hinojos is over 600, makingthem the largest group with a direct interest in the National Park. By thesame token, collecting coquina shells, a local clam considered as a delicacyin the region, creates jobs for nearly two hundred people, while bee-kee-ping is becoming increasingly profitable. In the picture, traditional handcollection of coquina clams on the beaches of the National Park.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

296

numbers of young people participating in the scheduled tasks:

around 3,500 students per year and over 500 teachers.When these

figures are multiplied for the more than ten years that the

Programme has been running, the magnitude of the work done can

be appreciated. This work is already bearing fruit; young people,

new blood, are the best guarantee for the future of Doñana.

In the case of the adults, there are three different programmes

that bring in two thousand, five hundred people a year to Doñana

National Parks, from the municipal districts in which Doñana is

situated. It is striking to see that this Programme is often providing

people of an advanced age with their first chance to discover

Doñana first hand. In reality, more is said about Doñana than is

known from experience.

The new Use and Management Master Plan goes even further

along this road. The previous document established that the

National Park should have information points in the towns of the

districts covered by the Park. This objective has been attained in

one case, and it is about to be attained in two others. However, the

new planning instrument establishes that the area of Relations with

the District Surrounding the Park should be located physically in

Almonte, the largest settlement ariound the Parks, reinforcing com-

mon lines of work and bringing the reality of the Park to the peo-

ple of the District.

The subsidies offered by the National Park as a contribution to

the sustainable development of the municipal districts involved are

another important tool to work with.At this time, these subsidies

represent an annual budget of 800,000 Euros for Doñana, paid

directly to a selection of projects presented by councils, non-profit

making associations or individuals. If we do not wish to empty the

essence of these subsidies of their meaning and content, we must

not forget that they are designed to help projects that can contri-

bute to the sustainable development of the District, and by no

means as mere compensation for hypothetical loss of earnings.This

second path is difficult to justify - as said losses are real and the

The 1978 National Park Reclassification Act was a pioneer in the field of Conservation. Concepts that are now familiar to us - like peripheral protection zones,Master Plans and Park Boards - first appeared in Spain on this occasion. Moreover, it was the precursor of an essential aspect in the current concept of sustaina-ble development: the need to drive active employment policies to off-set any possible limitations that the area could generate. In the picture, umbrella pine treesbacklit by the sunset.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

297

benefits are not usually quantified - and, in any event, they would

not create any satisfaction in the District, which would rapidly

become accustomed to contributions that would always be consi-

dered insufficient.

Developing the different sectorial policies for traditional uses is

one of the main planks of working together with the District. Some

figures will help to illustrate their importance: the total number of

livestock breeders in Almonte and Hinojos is over six hundred,

making them the largest group with a direct interest in the Park. In

the same way, collecting coquina shells, a local clam considered as

a delicacy in the region, provides work for 170 people, while bee-

keeping is becoming increasingly profitable. One challenge that

remains to be met is to apply the criteria of organic production to

these cottage industries, including the collection of pine nuts.

The importance of traditional farming and gathering industries

is not limited to their quantitative importance, high per se.They are

founded on a long standing historic base; La Saca de las Yeguas, the

Doñana Mares' Roundup, the leading exponent of horse breeding

in the region, which celebrated its five hundredth anniversary in

2004, although it is not always exempt of controversy and long

standing litigation. Moreover, these activities are part of the area's

living culture, understood as the personal experience that many

people still have of ways of life that have never been completely

abandoned.And this is their true importance, forming part of the

common imagery and the common path that has been shared by

the inhabitants of the District for centuries.

The most important economic resource that the National Park

has now, and the one with the best potential for the future, is,

without a doubt, the development of services aimed at the public

that visits Doñana.Doñana,perhaps driven by the fact that the envi-

ronment is so fragile to the presence of man referred to previously,

pioneered the development of forms of guided tours inside the

Park area that,while offering an attractive chance for visitors to dis-

cover the Park, also promoted the creation of local active tourism

companies with the consequent job opportunities.This model pro-

ved to be a success and was exported to other places in Spain.The

new Use and Management Plan significantly reinforces this line of

work, and also covers one deficit that has yet to be addressed:

horse riding tourism, very popular in the District because of the

exceptional conditions for horse riding offered by the Village of El

Rocio, just in the North boundary of the National Park.

The 1978 National Park Reclassification Act was pioneering in

many aspects. Concepts that are now familiar, like Peripheral

Protection Zones, Master Plans and Park Board, were first seen in

Spain at that time. Moreover, the content was the precursor of the

current concept of sustainable development: the need to drive acti-

ve employment policies to off-set the possible limitations that the

area could generate.The idea was a basic one and remains just as

valid today: nobody discusses the convenience and the authority of

the government to actively drive the protection of an area, but this

line cannot generate a space that is empty of all economic activity

and employment, because this would place the conservationist bur-

den directly on the inhabitants.There is a certain tendency in the

District to judge that Doñana has developed this line of work satis-

factorily, both with the consolidation of its own staff and because

of the jobs that are generated by its investments.

Many years ago, the expression "parachute Parks" became

popular, referring to protected areas that were totally closed off

and isolated from the social and natural dynamics of the surroun-

ding area. This could not be further from the reality of Doñana.

There currently exists the conviction that Doñana should extend

its borders in a friendly and cordial way if it intends to guarantee

its conservation.We are not referring to a physical extension of its

administrative boundaries, which cannot be ruled out either, but

rather of attaining a friendly surrounding that is non-aggressive to

the Park.This concept has two aspects: a direct one on the ground,

the leading exponent of which are the works in course to regene-

rate the water cycle of the National Park; and the other refers to

the social environment and is associated with the fundaments and

actions explained in greater detail above. The final objective pur-

sued really, has a name and a form: the materialisation of new sus-

tainable development models for the District that strike a long

sought after social balance, while guaranteeing the future integrity

of one of the most emblematic zones of Europe: the Parks of

Doñana.

How can we get the inhabitants of the District to appreciate Doñana aspart of their world, something to be proud of and as a source of welfarefor each and every one of them? In the picture, an azure winged magpiefeeding its chicks.Photograph : CENEAN Files.

298

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2. ALDERICH, J., 1976. Del Támesis al Guadalquivir. Antología de viaje-ros ingleses en la Sevilla del siglo XIX. Publicaciones de la Universidadde Sevilla Colección de bolsillo. Sevilla 257 p.

3. Tomado de MOUNFORT, G., 1958. Portrait of a Wilderness. The story ofCoto Doñana Expeditions. David & Charles: Newton Abbot. p.67.

4. CHAPMAN, A., 1930. Memories p 169. Tomado de López Ontiveros A.1988. Introducción en CHAPMAN, A,. BUCK, W.J., 1989. La Españainexplorada. Ed. Consejería de Obras Públicas de la Junta de Andalucía yPatronato del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Sevilla.

5. GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1993. A trip to Doñana National Park- to a ParadiseLost?. Sitter-Liver, B., Sitter.Liver, B. (Eds.) Culture within Nature/Culture dans la Nature. Swiss Academy of Humanities and SocialSciences/UNESCO:315-329.

6. HERASO PIZARRO, L., 1890. Estudio sobre la fijación de las dunassituadas en el Término municipal de Almonte en la Provincia de Huelva.Revista de Montes 14 (322).

7. Mufíe, es un término que se aplicó a los musulmanes solitarios huídos delas expulsiones de los moriscos. Según el profesor Angel Martín, proba-blemente se usaba esta voz en Almonte para los animales solitarios expul-sados de la manada, conocidos más tarde como “toros abochornaos”.

8. Los navazos son explotaciones en forma de cubeta que permiten el riegoautónomo por el ascenso capilar del agua del acuífero. El sistema, de ori-gen árabe, tiene un fundamento físico inverso al empleado en el “enarena-do” de Almería, y fue ampliamente generalizado en el siglo XVIII. Suestructura se enmarca en unos bardos de arena laterales dispuestos a modode cortavientos y que se empleaban para el cultivo de hortalizas, con lacapa freática de agua dulce localizada a poca profundidad.

9. Alauda, 1960.10. GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B, GARCÍA NOVO, F. 2002. Restoration

of tidal marshes in Gudalquivir River estuary (SW Spain). Zaldis, E.,Crisman,A., Gerakis,A. (Eds). The restoration of MediterraneanWetlands. Hellenic Ministry of Environment: 213-228.

11. GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B., GARCÍA NOVO, F., 2003. Bases eco-lógicas para la restauración de marismas de régimen mareal en elEstuario del Guadalquivir. Revista de la Sociedad Gaditana de HistoriaNatural 3:243-249

12. GARCÍA NOVO, F., GALLEGO, J.B. 2003. Restaurando las Marismasdel Guadalquivir. Medio Ambiente 43: 52-55. Junta de Andalucía.Sevilla.

13. MUÑOZ PÉREZ, J.J., BORRERO VILLALÓN, A., GOLDARACENAMUÑOZ, J., GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B., GARCÍA NOVO, F.,GÓMEZ PINA, G., 2004. Metodología para el diseño hidráulico de larestauración ecológica de la Marisma de la Algaida (Sanlúcar deBarrameda,Cádiz). Ingeniería Civil 133:27-35.

THE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE SURROUNDINGS OFDOÑANA: SPATIAL AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES.

14. COMISIÓN INTERNACIONAL DE EXPERTOS SOBRE EL DES-ARROLLO DEL ENTORNO DE DOÑANA, 1992. Dictamen sobreestrategias de desarrollo socioeconómico sostenible del entorno deDoñana. Junta de Andalucía / Consejería de Obras Públicas y Transportes.

15. CRUZ VILLALÓN, J., 1988. La intervención del hombre en la Ría yMarismas del Guadalquivir. Eria, 16: p. 109-123.

16. CRUZ VILLALÓN, J., 1995. Conservación y desarrollo en el ParqueNacional y su entorno. Actes de les Jornades sobre aiguamolls litoralsmediterranis. 79-88.

17. MENANTEAU, L., 1984. Evolución histórica y consecuencias morfoló-gicas de la intervención humana en las zonas húmedas: el caso de lasMarismas del Guadalquivir. Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Urbanismo.

18. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1987. Organización del territorio de Doñana y suentorno próximo (Almonte), siglos XVIII-XX. Ministerio de Agricultura,Pesca y Alimentación.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ABALARIO LANDSCAPE:A REFERENT MODEL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION IN DOÑANA.

19. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2000. Los topónimoscomo indicadores de los cambios territoriales y la percepción del Paisaje:el Caso del Abalario (Parque Nacional de Doñana, Huelva). SerieCuadernos de Almonte nº 49. Sevilla. 80 pp. Edita Ayuntamiento deAlmonte.

20. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTIN, A., 1996. Vulpia fontquera-na Melderis & Stace (Gramineae). ¿Endemismo Gaditano-Onubense?.Anales Jard. Bot. Madrid 55: 174-176.

21. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTIN, A., 1999. El Paisaje vegetalde la zona oeste del Parque Natural de Doñana (Huelva). Lagascalia 21:111-132.

22. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTIN, A., 1997. Vegetation chan-ges in Abalario (Natural Park of Entorno de Doñana, SW of Spain.Lagascalia.19: 737-744.

23. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2001. Restauración del Complejo Palustre delAbalario: la reconstrucción del paisaje. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente(Ed.) 1ª Reunión Internacional de Expertos sobre la Regeneración Hídricade Doñana. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente: 117-130.

24. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTÍN, A., FUERTES, E., 1996.Sphagnum inumdatum Russ., nuevo para Andalucía. Anales Jard. Bot.Madrid 53: 245.

25. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2002. Méthodologie pourl’étude des effects du petit age glaciaire dans le Parc Naturel de Doñana(Huelva, Espagne). Essai de reconstitution des formations palustres et dudrainage superficiel. Publications de l’Association International deClimatologie 14: 359-367.

26. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2003. Changes in thewetlands of Andalucía (Doñana Natural Park, SW Spain) at the end of thelittle Ice Age. Climatic Change 58: 193-217.

27. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 1998. Cambios históri-cos en el avenamiento superficial y la vegetación del Parque Natural deDoñana (Sector Abalario), Huelva. Ería 46: 165-182.

28. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 1999. Historical evolu-tion of the Abalario lagoon complex (Doñana, Natural Park, SW Spain).Limnetica 16: 85-98.

29. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2001. Can place namesbe used as indicators of landscape changes? Application to the DoñanaNatural Park (Spain). Landscape Ecology.16. 391-406.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

301

Andalusian Regional Government to prevent the waste waters

from flowing into the National Park. The Doñana Marshes were

saved. Some 4 hm3 of polluted waters flowing through the Aguas

Mínimas canal were held up in Entremuros for several months until

a new treatment plant was built in the marsh and waters were tre-

ated before being discharged into the Guadalquivir Estuary.

The need to save Doñana mobilised all the environmental

authorities, many people and various associations in an unprece-

dented effort to organise a mega-operation that included treating

the waters held in Entremuros, and removing all the contaminated

soils.The collection of sludge and earth contaminated by the slud-

ge started immediately in a joint operation conducted by the

Andalusian Regional Government and the Spanish Ministry of the

Environment through the Guadalquivir Water Board.

The catastrophe of Boliden mine acted as a wake up call for all

the administrative bodies.The confirmation of such a serious risk

anticipated in scientific reports for several years, changed attitudes

with regard to the protection requisites for the protected area and

their effectiveness. Hence, after solving the main problem of the

The Boliden mine tailings in Aznacóllar, to the north of the

Park, burst its banks on the 25th of April 1998, spilling some

6 hm3 of water, with a high content of arsenopyrite, pyrolusite and

other minerals in suspension, into the River Agrio and, from there,

into the Guadiamar River. The sludge ran over forty kilometres

along these water courses, depositing the minerals on an area of

2,600 ha of the Guadiamar river bed spreading to neighbouring

farms. Another 2,300 ha of agricultural lands were contaminated by

mine waters rich in dissolved metals, reaching the Nature Park and

posing a serious threat to the National Park. Immediate interven-

tion by the Conservation Directors of both Parks managed to con-

fine the polluted water to Entremuros, the walled course of the

River Guadiamar, on the very edge of the National Park, spilling the

polluted waters into the Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre), and

from there, into the Guadiamar River estuary.The destructive tide

was eventually stemmed on the 28th, never entering the Doñana

Marshes, due to earth banks that were rapidly built by the

The Doñana 2005 Project

The Doñana National Park contains more than just biological diversity and landscapes. Its edges have forged traditions and uses that reaffirm its identity.But, as with the El Rocío Pilgrimage, its collateral effects have to be monitored; an aspect that is included in the Action Plan of the Doñana 2005 Project.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Basic documentation extracted from the reports of Benigno Bayán. GuadalquivirHydrologic Basin Authority. Project and Work Manager of the “Doñana 2005 Project”.

302

heavy metal pollution of the River Guadiamar water bed and era-

dicating the main threat of the sludge, a new awareness concerning

the hydrological restoration of Doñana began to take shape, based

on the ideas that were already being discussed by managers of pro-

tected areas and the scientific community.The lesson was learned:

global view, minimum human intervention in the area of the

National Park and an ambitious action plan in all the basins and

water courses of the surrounding areas were needed to return to

Doñana the water, the lifeblood that feeds its marshes.

On the 16th of May 1998, the National Park Board adopted a

proposal that included a request for the Ministry of the

Environment to assess the situation and to restore the water cycle

to guarantee sufficient water resources, in terms of both quality

and quantity, to cover the needs of Doñana and its marshes.Thus,

on the 22nd of May, the Council of Ministers adopted a package of

urgent measures to deal with the mining accident, which also inclu-

ded the foundations of an ambitious water cycle regeneration pro-

ject called "Doñana 2005".The scope of this project, the National

Park and its drainage basins, went far beyond the decontamination

area.The Andalusia Regional Government, nevertheless, presented

an "Action Plan" in July 1998, to deal with the effects of the Boliden

mine accident. This also marked a significant step forward as it

included ambitious goals like buying-off the farmland that had been

affected, so that it would no longer be considered as an agricultu-

ral area, and the creation of an ecological corridor on the polluted

banks of the Guadiamar River.This corridor, born out of the catas-

trophe, was to link Doñana Nature Park with Sierra de Aracena

Nature Park to the north. The corridor was re-named the

"Guadiamar Green Corridor" and was declared as a “Protected

Landscape”.

But before coming to the Doñana 2005 Project and the new

philosophy that underpins actions aimed at restoring the water

balance, it is worth turning the attention briefly to some well-mea-

ning, but somewhat unfortunate, background measures that cast

light on how marsh water projects should not be dealt with.The

new ideas and projects designed for Doñana had been based on the

accumulated experience of previous actions aimed at restoring lost

balances, though they did not take a global view of the problem.

View of the Rocina stream before it reaches El Rocío, which can be seen in the background, on the edge of the Doñana Marshes.Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

Instead, they sought to cure the symptoms of a disease that affec-

ted the entire hydrological system of the Park region.

It is now known that it is difficult to restore an ecosystem that

has been altered for centuries, and it can only be attained in part.

In the case of restoring river or marsh ecosystems, a detailed

understanding of their structure and how their physical, chemical

and biological processes work is required.The restoration process

also includes a wide range of actions and measures designed to

allow the Guadiamar River corridor and the Doñana Marshes to

recover their dynamic balance and function and to be self-sustai-

ning in this processes.The first and most critical step in implemen-

ting restoration is to put a halt to the disturbances that have cau-

sed degradation or that prevent the system from recovering1.

These considerations fully apply to areas like Doñana, where

the disappearance of wetlands, the reduction of water bodies and

courses, the encroachment of sands, pollution, and the decline of

aquatic species have been a concern for the managers of the

National Park ever since it was created. From these considerations,

the early "solutions" have ben attempted.We are referring to the

Water Regeneration Plan that was initially implemented in 1984, of

which there is a detailed analysis in Chapter 3.The three solutions

provided by the Plan in retrospect highlighted the difficulties invol-

ved in restoring the Doñana Marshes if the underlying causes of its

degradation were not tackled within a broad holistic overview. In

the Montaña del Río dyke, a 14-km silt levee that separates the

Marshes from the Guadalquivir estuary in order to return water

in the Marshes for a longer period. In this case, the solution has

produced the collateral result of raising the water level in excess,

thus flooding some areas of high ground (grazing pastures and

islets) for much longer than they would be in natural conditions.

They would normally only be flooded for a few days at a time, and

then only if there were exceptionally heavy rains coinciding with

very high tides. Another example is the "Centre-South" solution,

aimed at regenerating the southern area of the southern area of

the Marshes around the Travieso channel (Caño Travieso) by allo-

wing waters from the Guadiamar river to flow down into the

system during floods.This did not work either. One of the reasons

for its failure was the sudden appearance of uncontrolled volumes

of water outside of their natural courses, due to the build up occu-

rring at the Entremuros end,which caused a loss of relief within the

marsh system, and water levels became the same throughout.With

this came a reduction in diversity. Finally, there was the "Centre-

North" solution, designed to transfer waters from the River

Guadiamar, taking it from a bend called Vuelta de La Arena to the

Guadiamar channel, replacing the earlier inputs to this river.But this

solution did not achieve its aims either, as the water put in, which

came from the Aguas Mínimas canal, contained an excessive salt

tenure from the neighbouring farmland.

These results highlight the fact that any intervention must be

able to guarantee the results it seeks to obtain and that the objec-

tive pursued has to be fully defined before action is taken.

ACTIONS OF THE DOÑANA 2005 PROJECT

With all this background, and with a solid foundation of expe-

rience in managing the National Park and its surrounding protec-

ted areas, the Doñana 2005 Project established a set of integrated

actions implemented with a global approach, some of which were

genuine pilot projects that will act as a research resource and labo-

ratory for other interventions in the future.

The proposed restoration actions cover an ample scope in sup-

porting this holistic view.They cover actions such as those aimed

at restoring the characteristic water dynamics of the Doñana

Marshes and providing the necessary water in terms of both quan-

tity and quality; and other actions such as those aimed at regenera-

ting areas that have been altered by crops, experimenting with

natural filters, treating spill waters, recovering the tidal regime of

the channels, and restoring watercourses to curb the input of sedi-

ments.

The new vision for restoration promoted by the Doñana 2005

Project also offers a number of fundamental initiatives.The first of

these is to put in place a permanent system to assess, monitor and

follow all actions and projects, with a view to correcting decisions

before they have an irreversible impact on the well-being of the

marshes.This is followed by an ambitious programme of associated

research (Table 1). The second initiative is to create a Scientific

Committee to validate interventions and anticipate their effects,

and even to advise against interventions if there are reasonable

doubts concerning the processes that they might trigger. It will defi-

303

Sand deposits in the overflow fan of the Mimbrales canal. El Rocío and theMarshes in the background.Photograph: CSIC Follow-up team.

FIGURE 1Localisation of the Doñana 2005 Project actions.

305

ne the range of uncertainty and, above all, forge new alliances bet-

ween science and management. Finally, one of the objectives of the

Project is to provide essential instruments and resources for

enhancing our knowledge of the Doñana hydrological system.

These include, for example, the design of a "Numerical

Hydrodynamic Model for the Doñana Marshes" in the National

Park, based on a precise digital version of a terrain that is highly dif-

ficult to represent because of the lack of variation in heights and

levels.Thus it will require accuracy to within a few centimetres to

model the behaviour of the surface waters correctly.

With the support that comes with forecasting and protection,

the Doñana 2005 Project designated a series of high priority

actions, as listed in Figure 1:

- Action 1 addressed the recovery of the Soto Chico and Soto

Grande streams and the Laguna de los Reyes stream.The inter-

vention included the expropriation of 310 ha of the "Los

Mimbrales" estate to restore their natural functions, the resto-

ration of the courses of the streams and the building of two

naturalised ponds.The objective was to avoid erosion and the

deposit of sandy sediments in El Rocío marsh and to recover

an especially important marsh environment.

- Action 2 consists of attaining a maximum level of treatment for

the wastewater of El Rocío that formerly drained into the

Doñana Marshes, untreated.

- Action 3 addresses the restoration of El Partido stream by con-

trolling the processes of erosion, transport and sedimentation

in the basin, thus curbing the advance of the stream alluvial fan

into the Doñana Marshes.The farmland that is not expropria-

ted is still protected and a full environmental restoration is con-

ducted on a wide zone bordering the Doñana Nature Park and

National Park.

- Action 4 is aimed at restoring the Gallega marsh in the Nature

Park. It consists of restoring the original features of this zone,

eliminating the artificial drainage network and walking trails,

restoring the profile of the Guadiamar channel and re-establis-

hing the hydrological continuity between the marshes of the

View of El Rocío marsh. Two actions of the Doñana 2005 Project focus on its restoration. Photograph: CSIC Follow-up team..

El Partido stream by the Ajolí bridge. The photo shows the state of theeutrophic waters in the summer and the silting up of the water course.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

306

National Park and those of the Nature Park.

- Action 5 is aimed at recovering the Guadiamar channel that

would feed water into the northwest of the Doñana Marshes

from the River Guadiamar. This action consists of recovering

the Marshes' surface water inputs from the Cigüeña, Almirante,

Sajón and Juncosilla streams.

- Action 6 involves restoring the Travieso channel, both morpho-

logically and functionally, from Vuelta de la Arena all the way to

its mouth in the Los Ánsares pond, thus recovering water input

(in quality and quantity) for the Doñana Marshes. This action

also includes restoring the Caracoles estate, a property that has

become part of the National Park and which has been subject

to an integral environmental restoration.

- Action 7 proposes recovering the fluvial and tidal function of

the Torre Branch, as far as Vuelta de la Arena, hence restoring

it to the course where it receives the normal flow of the River

Guadiamar. Its tidal regime will be restored, with implicit gains

in biodiversity to go with it.

- Action 8 is designed to monitor and allow seepage between the

Doñana Marshes and the Guadalquivir River, the Torre Branch

and Entremuros. It was initially designed to prevent contamina-

ted waters or sediments bearing pyrite sludge from the River

Guadiamar from entering the Park.This has been a temporary

measure and the data collected from the monitoring program-

me suggests that pollution has been eliminated from the

Guadiamar River, so the levees built to prevent flooding can

now be removed.This action also includes monitoring the func-

tionality of the Montaña del Río dyke and treating it accordingly.

The most important aspects of these actions to restore

Doñana are described below, highlighting their interconnectivity

and the role they play as milestones in the process of re-building

and conserving this area for future generations.

Working session of the Scientific Committee focussing on restoring the Gallega marshes. The actions are explained by Benigno Bayán, member of theCommittee and representative of the Guadalquivir Water Board.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

View of Cerrado Garrido, an area that forms part of the Jose AntonioValverde Visitors' Centre, on the edge of the Gallega marsh restored area.This is an artificially restored site encompassing three ponds, separatedfrom the rest of the Marshes and regulated by pumping water from a well.Photograph: CENEAM files.

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SOTO CHICO AND SOTO GRANDE

THE DIALYSIS OF THE STREAMS

The construction of a drainage system in the Mimbrales estate

in 1963 completely transformed the natural hydrology of the stre-

ams that drained the area into the final stretch of the Rocina stre-

am, part of the National Park's Protected Zone, causing a serious

alteration to its hydrological regimen.The estate drainage system

intercepted the drainage basins and courses of these streams, drai-

ning waters into the Mimbrales canal, to the detriment of these

streams. In consequence, the hydrological regimen of the streams

that drained into the marshes of the National Park (mainly the Soto

Grande and Soto Chico streams) became highly seasonal, as their

average flows had been significantly lowered.

The ecological problems for Soto Grande and Soto Chico stre-

ams was a decline in their riparian vegetation and the silting-up of

El Rocío marsh with sandy sediments, thus creating a barrier effect

for wildlife and a noticeable impact on the scenery.

To tackle these problems, the artificial drainage network of the

estate was suppressed, including the final drain, and two ponds

were built: Los Mimbrales and Los Guayules, providing room for

flash floods and for their sediments to be deposited, and allowing

for a partial self-depuration of incoming waters. Naturalised water-

courses were built with very shallow sloping levees.The expropria-

ted estate in general, and the riverbanks in particular, were planted

with native species to accelerate the natural process of colonising

the affected area. The entire area in which this intervention has

taken place has now been included in the Doñana National Park,

which, in itself, counts as added value.These actions would be more

effective, however, if the quality of inflowing water were improved.

This would require a change in farming practices and community

agreement to make it possible.

The Laguna de Los Reyes stream, separate from the other stre-

ams and very close to El Rocío,has the problem of depositing sandy

sediments in the Doñana Marshes. For this reason, this action inclu-

ded a connection between the Laguna de Los Reyes and Rocina

streams, filling the artificial channel and re-building the former

course and planting the banks of the final section of the stream

with native vegetation. As a general criterion, the natural topo-

graphy of the entire sector concerned was to be restored, with

special consideration given to the areas of ponds and to the natu-

ral drainage.As a result, in 2002-2003 the waters once again flowed,

with sufficient quality, as they had decades earlier, before the area

was transformed for farming2.

THE WATER OF EL ROCÍO

El Rocío is seated on the very edge of the marshes of the

National Park, causing serious pollution problems because of the

discharge of untreated wastewaters into the marsh until very

recently. Furthermore, El Rocío is the destination of a famous pil-

grimage, one of the most important cultural events in Andalusia,

attracting hundreds of thousands of pilgrims for one week. This

seriously increases wastewater flow and it explains why the capa-

city of the treatment plant had to be adapted to deal with these

sharp peaks in wastewater production with the help of a storage

and pre-treatment reservoir. Moreover, the plant was located three

kilometres from El Rocío, next to the Marin channel, in order to

prevent the water works from having an impact on the scenic

aspects of the marshes.The plant has been operating since 2004.

But a new mentality that upstages the Doñana 2005 Project

means that the objectives had to be far more ambitious. In order

to attain a greater and much needed environmental integration of

this action into its surroundings, bearing in mind the proximity of a

very valuable natural area, the Doñana National Park, wastewaters

from El Rocío had to undergo tertiary treatment with chemicals. to

abate nutrient concentration, especially N and P, in effluents. The

treated out-flow provides excellent quality water, a resource that

has become scarce in Doñana. For this reason, this treated effluent-

will feed a small wetland of low nutrient waters that will act as a

clear water refuge for native species.These include the little Iberian

This image, obtained with the Digital Surface Model, shows the large allu-vial fan of El Partido stream (above). The lower picture shows the sanddeposits caused by the old Mimbrales canal. These are being tackled byAction 1.Image: Doñana 2005 - Ayesa.

308

toothcarp (Aphanius iberus), an endemic fish of Andalusia whose

range extends as far west as Doñana.

Action 2 has eliminated the spill of polluted waters into the

Doñana Marshes, allowing a threatened environment to be resto-

red also helping to maintain populations that are in a critical state.

Future plans include a remodelling of the topography of the

Marin channel that receives the treated effluents, to recover the

original lay out of both its meandering course and its longitudinal

and transversal profiles. This includes the planting and sowing of

appropriate vegetation for the ecological conditions of the site and

characteristic natural species of the area, such as ash, willow and

rushes.All the vegetation to be used to create a green filter will be

subject to genetic control to monitor its origin and to prevent the

invasion from undesired species or the spread of plagues.

The project's characteristics have made it a point of reference

for all actions in the area of water treatment in the Doñana region,

showing us the future path to follow in developing a culture of co-

existence with the Park.

1

3

4

4

5 6

7

2

1 Permeabilisation of the FAO wall.2 Suppression of the drainage network and restoration of the profiles and sections of the original channels.3 "José Antonio Valverde" Visitors’ Centre4 Original Guadiamar river bed (Guadiamar channel)5 Rosalimán channel6 El Lobo pond7 Connection with Action 5, aimed at recovering the former Guadiamar river bed and its connection with the Guadiamar River.

FIGURE 2Action 4 - Restoration of the Gallega marshes.

309

CURBING THE SANDS IN THE DOÑANA MARSHES

El Partido stream is one of the main watercourses that drain

directly into the Doñana Marshes. Its catchment basin encompas-

ses 307.66 km2, 74% of which is farmland, recently turned to inten-

sive farming, with its associated soil losses. Significant erosion and

massive sand deposits, however, only started with the construction

of a new river watercourse in 1986.This was when the formation

of the outwash fan on the marshes started in connection with a

process of erosion much aggravated with the floods of December

1987. Since that time, the watercourse has suffered severe erosion

on its banks and its bed, which has dropped by almost 4-5 m in

some points. The erosion and ensuing transport have created a

sandy outwash fan that is now quite visible, covering some 300 ha.

This is the current situation, but it is worth remembering that,

until recently, the sedimentation area was much wider, spreading

from the Matanza bridge to some 7 Km up river never attaining the

Ajolí bridge, also known as El Rey bridge as it was on the Royal trail

that goes from El Rocío to the Coto del Rey Palace.The drainage

channel, known as Las Garzas, was a narrow channel that connec-

ted El Partido stream with El Rocío marsh, carrying a reduced sus-

pended load. Once in the marshes, the water flowed to reach the

Madre de la Marismas bed, the main watercourse of the Doñana

Marshes that is fed by the Rocinas, Sotos and Partido streams.

Prior to 1981, the course of El Partido stream remained stable

due to the redistribution of sediments that were washed down

during flash floods.The gentle slope on the sedimentation fan made

water flow in braided channels during flash floods, the water flow

exceeding the capacity of the main course and overflowing its

banks to cover the flood plain by means of a network of minor,

inter-connected courses. This network was extensive enough to

slow down the passing water, so that it did not longer carry sus-

pended sandgrains that were deposited. Hence, El Partido stream

flowed on from its washout fan back into Las Garzas river bed as

flowing water, almost free of sands and only carrying some silt and

clay materials. In former times El Partido stream was flowing under

the Ajolí bridge in a narrow and deep trench surrounded by a

dense vegetation.

El Partido stream was included in Sector II of the General

Transformation Plan for the setting up of an ambitious scheme of

irrigated lands. Because of the transformations, the former course,

with its narrow meandering channels and broad flood plain, was

replaced by a straight channel, with no flood plain, as this land was

turned to agricultural land. As such, the water flow from flooding

caused by heavy rains is concentrated in the new channel.Within

it, the turbulence water increases due to the greater speed caused

by the new profile, leading to intense pitting of the bed and a

remarkable increase in the water's capacity to pick up and trans-

port solids that were deposited in the small channels and marshes

of the National Park where the water slows down.

These sand deposits disrupt the Madre de las Marismas river

bed with an appreciable volume of 3 hm3 of sand that covers appro-

ximately 300 ha, most of which extend over El Rocío marsh. For

this reason, the top priority of this action is to prevent soil loss in

the catchment basin and to control the erosion processes in the

final stretch of El Partido stream, with a view to slowing down and

curbing the silting of El Rocío marsh.The current behaviour of this

stream was described in detail in Chapter 3.

Based on studies conducted by Professors Mintegui and

Robredo, the solution to the problem created in El Partido stream

The above Digital Model image clearly shows how the Gallega marsheschange with the progressive elimination of the drainage network and byrestoring the profile of the channels.

The Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee mission to the Everglades in 2003enabled members to compare different approaches to restoring largewetlands on the ground. In the photographs: Carlos Fernandez Delgado,to the left, and the authors of this book, Cipriano Marín (foreground) andFrancisco García Novo, to the right.Photograph: Doñana 2005.

310

has taken the form of action performed globally on the basin, sup-

ported by specific interventions on the course of the stream itself.

Hence, the planned actions are basically aimed at attaining the follo-

wing goals:

- Reduction of the erosion of solids from El Partido course.

- Control of the processes of transport and sedimentation; slo-

wing down the building up of the outwash fan in the marsh to

bring the siytuation back to its former equilibrium.

- Regeneration of the ecosystems of the area that has been

transformed by farming projects and by sand deposits, restoring

the ecological function of the Northern sector of the National

Park.

Reducing the flow of solids transported from the basin can be

achieved by implementing reforestation programmes, especially in

the basins of Calancha and Cárcava, together with initiatives to pro-

mote hydrologically appropriate farming practices (planting by con-

tour lines, planting in strips or terraces). Planting vegetation along

the watercourses and their banks will reduce transfer of solids and

generate a diverse ecosystem that would rise the ecosystem con-

nectivity for wildlife.

To achieve the second goal, the project includes the construc-

tion of two steps, one on the bed of El Partido stream and the

other in the Cañada del Pinar,which will cause the main watercour-

se to deviate some of its flow to the floodable plain in high waters.

This will recover the broad flood plain between the Marin channel

and the Cañada del Pinar stream, where the future sand sedimen-

1 The Caracoles estate, formerly ploughed for crops, hasnow been expropriated and included in the National Park for restoration and to convert it back into marshland.The former bed of the Travieso channel can be distinguished on the estate.This is also being recovered, and now starts working again as a channel.

2. Stretch of the canal known as Entremuros, confiningmuch of the Guadiamar River and part of the Travieso channel.This action also includes demolishing the wallrunning along the boundary of Los Caracoles in order tofully restore the function of this canal

3 The Vuelta de La Arena will recover its connection with the Torre Branch that, once again, will receive the ordinary water flow from the Guadiamar River, as this is one of the ojectives of Action number 7.

4 Torre Branch.

FIGURE 3

This orthophotograph shows the scope of Action 6. The mainareas marked in the image are:

4

2

1

4

3

311

tation will occur.Thus, the natural function of the watercourses will

be completely restored and abandoned farmlands turned over to

conservation.

THE GALLEGA MARSH

NATURALISED MARSHES

The 2,200 hectares of the Gallega marsh are situated to the

north of Doñana National Park, within the Nature Park. Before it

was restored, the Gallega marsh formed part of the Almonte-

Marismas irrigation zone. To prepare this area for farming, a net-

work of drains was opened, dessicating the natural marshland.This

network of primary and secondary drainage channels carried

waters into the original Guadiamar river bed, which was deepened

and its appearance was completely changed. Moreover, several ser-

vice roads were built. Unfortunately, both for nature and for the

economy, the land was never farmed. While this situation remained,

the drainage system artificially dried the soils and started changing

its chemical properties in the Gallega marsh.

Hence,Action 4 was aimed at recovering this area of transfor-

med marshes hydrologically and environmentally, including the

Guadiamar channel section, restoring its original shape and restruc-

turing these lands, that had been altered and drained for almost fifty

years, bringing them back to marshes once again (see Figure 2).

A transversal dyke known as the FAO wall had been built bet-

ween the Gallega marsh of the Nature Park and the National Park,

marking the northern boundary of the National Park for the lives-

tock risers of Hinojos and Almonte villages and for tourist trips to

the "Jose Antonio Valverde" Visitors' Centre. But this dyke also pre-

vented waters from rivers and streams like Cañada Mayor, Molino

and Cerrabarba channels from reaching the Gallega marsh. The

Guadiamar channel connection, via a sluice gate, was too small for

the flow of a sufficient volume of water.

The measures taken to return the Gallega marsh to their ori-

ginal state have consisted of filling the drains using material from

the service roads that have been eliminated and from material that

had accumulated in the marshes from the time that these drains

were opened.There were several natural channels in the Gallega

marsh that had to be recovered.To this end, special care was taken

in areas in which drains crossed these natural channels.The sup-

pression of the FAO dyke was also considered. However, in the

end, an agreement was reached to maintain it as a livestock trail,

but with a battery of pipes crossing underneath to connect the two

sides of the marshland area5.

The over eight-kilometre long main drain in the Guadiamar

channel has been filled in to restore its natural features and lands-

cape. But the original channel and its profile have only been partially

recovered (to a height slightly below that of the adjacent land), in

order to be able to assess and monitor the measures taken and also

to allow small elevations and shallow pools to be created.These will

help facilitate the growth of vegetation and attract ecologically inte-

resting species, and also to preserve some of the new habitats that

have evolved during the long interval (50-years) when the transfor-

med marshland was neglected.

THE ORIGINAL COURSE

RESTORING THE GUADIAMAR RIVER BED

Historically, the water feeding into Doñana National Park from the

different branches of the Guadiamar river during the floods, including

the Guadiamar channel,accounted for over half the total water flowing

into the Doñana Marshes before they were altered. Moreover the

Cigüeña stream drained directly into the Guadiamar channel through

an interconnected system of small ponds.

But, once again, the Almonte-Marismas Transformation Plan

diverted the waters from the River Guadiamar and the Cigüeña

stream into Entremuros, in order to irrigate the cleared lands for

As a consequence of channelling the lower sector of the Guadiamar Riverfor farming in the area, the Torre Branch, a former branch of theGuadalquivir River, has become clogged up and reduced to a trickle ofshallow waters, covered with reeds in its upper reaches.Photograph: CENEAM files.

Members of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee during a visit to theNational Park. From left to right: Benigno Bayán, Félix Manuel PérezMiyares, Eva Mª Alonso, Mariangeles Fernández, Andy Green, FernandoHiraldo and Cipriano Marín. Photograph by Juan Mintegui.

312

crops.With this transformation, the Doñana Marshes lost water

inputs from the channel, although the receiving surface area was

considerably reduced as well. The marsh water deficit problems

are especially pressing in dry years and in a sequence of successi-

ve dry years, when tributaries would only provide about 50% of

their natural debit during the year.This, together with the fact that

these dry years are relatively frequent (around 30% of the hydro-

logical series of the last 55 years), means that the Marshes face

dry periods more frequently and for longer than before. The

result is a significant shortage of water with an appreciable impact

on the marsh ecosystems.

On the other hand, the water quality of Guadiamar River has

fallen significantly and continuously over recent decades as a

consequence of wastewater draining into the river, diffuse pollu-

tion from agriculture and acid waters high in metals from mining.

This process reached an extreme importance with the Boliden

mine accident of 1998. The lower the water flows, the more

obvious the River Guadiamar's water quality problems become.

Contamination was tolerable under average flow of River

Guadiamar, because of dilution effects.

So, the objective of this action was to restore the water input

from the Guadiamar river bed into the Gallega marsh, in terms of

both quality and quantity. These waters come from the River

Guadiamar catchment basin and the Cigüeña stream, an area that

belongs to the Nature Park and has already been environmentally

and morphologically restored as a result of Action 4.

With regard to recovering the water input from the

Guadiamar river bed, it should be pointed out that the aim is not

to raise the flood levels of the Doñana Marshes above the natu-

ral heights.This currently happens in years of above-average flo-

oding due to the Montaña del Río which acts as a dyke, causing

the flooding of higher parts of the marshes (local elevations

usually performing as islands) that would not occur if waters

drained naturally into the river.This problem should be tackled

at the same time as the Montaña del Río dyke extension is remo-

ved (phase II of Action 8).The aim of this action is two-fold. On

the one hand, it is to reduce the frequency and intensity of dry

periods, which have a very negative effect on the ecological func-

tion of the marshes of Doñana National and Nature Parks. On

the other, it is to recover the traditional hydrological function of

the remaining marshes, including the areas that have been resto-

red, or remain to be restored under the Doñana 2005 Project.

This is to promote a gradual circulation of waters through the

Marshes with a predominant north-south flow, and in synchrony

with re-establishing the natural connection with Guadalquivir

River and the Torre Branch.

A secondary objective is to improve the environmental inte-

gration of the area corresponding to Sector III of the Almonte-

Marismas Irrigation Zone.This involves ecological and landscape

restoration actions also capable of creating areas that can be

opened up to the public, or devoted to environmental education.

RESTORING THE TRAVIESO CHANNEL:A GUIDE TO GOOD PRACTICE

The scope of this restoration action also addresses the pro-

blems caused by the Almonte-Marismas Plan draining parts of the

old marshes. One of the greatest impacts at the time was to divert

the Guadiamar River water flow, which was channelled along

Entemuros to allow the former wetlands to be torned to farmland

(Figure 3).

The right hand wall of the Guadiamar channel crosses the natu-

ral bed course of the Travieso channel, so this traditional input of

water into the Doñana Marshes was cut off.The first stretch of the

natural bed of the Travieso channel, 5.5 kilometres long from where

it rises in Vuelta de la Arena, has been channelled in the Entremuros

area. The second stretch of the natural bed, 7.8 kilometres long,

flows through the Caracoles estate, a property surrounded by

earth walls along its perimeter.The third and final part of the natu-

ral river bed of the Travieso channel runs through Doñana National

Park and it is in a good state of conservation, despite the fact that

it had no water flow for several decades.

The objective of the first phase of Action 6 is to recover the

New dykes were built to seal off the Doñana Marshes after theAznalcóllar mine accident of 1998, thus preventing serious impactson the Park and allowing the restoration material to be removed inthe future.Diagram: Ayesa - Guadalquivir Water Board.

1 Doñana National Park2 Only access to sacatierras (excavation pond)3 Pile of organic soil4 Torre channel 5 Protection dyke 6 Sacatierras (excavation pond)7 Stretch of dyke assigned to the excavation pond

313

natural watercourse of the Travieso channel in the Caracoles esta-

te and to restore the entire zone to becoming a natural marshland

once again, as an extension of the Doñana National Park Marshes

around it.This operation is one of the greatest technical and scien-

tific challenges addressed by Doñana conservationists in recent

decades because of the complex and experimental nature of resto-

ring such a large area to its natural state.

The first step towards this objective was to expropriate the

Caracoles estate (in September 2003), which used to grow barley

crops and was used for hunting up until that time.This recovered

an area of 2,680 ha of drained marshes.The estate is roughly squa-

re in shape and had a dyke running around its perimeter to pre-

vent flooding. Inside the estate, there is a drainage network con-

nected to a pumping station that, to date, has pumped surplus

water into the Entremuros area. The project includes plans to

demolish all the auxiliary buildings and facilities on the estate and

to remove the southern and western walls, which will provide a

connection with the surrounding National Park marshes.

The network of main and secondary drains will be filled in, as

with the Gallega marsh, to restore the original landscape of the

area and its natural water flow.The lower part of the drains will be

filled in with earth from the Travieso bed excavation and from the

excavation of new shallow ponds.

At the same time, it will be connected to the Travieso channel

(Entremuros stretch - Figure 3), and this stretch of the channel will

be restored as far as Vuelta de la Arena. It will also be connected

with the Torre Branch and, of course, the right hand wall of

Entremuros will be suppressed7.

THE TORRE BRANCH

THE TIDAL INFLUENCE OF THE MARSHES

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Torre Branch, the wes-

ternmost marshy branch of River Guadalquivir, was an important

waterway for barges because of the tidal influence and large water

flow. But successive regulation of the Guadalquivir,“The Big River”

(from the Arabic: Wadi al-Kabir, the “Guadalquivir”), cutting and

dredging the main shipping channel, together with the loss of water

input from the Guadiamar River, has reduced the importance of the

Torre Branch to the point of converting it into a clogged water-

course at its head waters, and one of shallow waters that are cut

off from the influence of the tides lower down.As a result, the tidal

function of the Doñana Marshes' water system has been lost, inclu-

ding water inputs in summer with the high tides (botamentos), and

water from the Guadiamar river breaking its banks and providing

water along its connection with the Travieso channel in Vuelta de la

Arena.

Hence, the objective of this action is to recover both the fluvial

and tidal hydrological functions of the Torre Branch, bringing brac-

kish water into the Guadiamar marshes.This intervention will be

based on:

- Setting back the left stretch of Entremuros between Vuelta de

la Arena and the holding known as Veta de Alí. This will reco-

ver a significant area of its former flood plain north of the rice

paddies of Cantarita, so that its ordinary flow there (that pre-

sently run along the minimum water canal) and part of the

flood waters from the Guadiamar river will be channelled into

the former course of the Torre Branch.

- Sufficiently dredging the currently silted up riverbed to allow

tidal waters in at this point, which will link with the Marshes via

the Travieso channel.

Once the traditional hydrological function has been restored,

the vegetation, habitats and landscape of the Torre Branch course

will recover. For this reason, hydraulic and tidal studies and rese-

arch are vitally important.The extending of the tide along the Torre

Branch will need to be simulated, based on research, to provide the

best solutions for restoring basic ecological processes like the

recovery of brackish water vegetation and enhancing the biological

diversity with the introduction of fish.

Stretch of the extension of the Montaña del Río dyke where the sacatierras(excavation areas) from the construction work can be seen between theTorre Branch, and the Los Ansares pond.Image: Ayesa.

314

REMOVING THE BARRIERS

Action 8 arose initially in response to 1998 Boliden mine acci-

dent and helped to seal the Doñana Marshes from the acid waters

of the toxic spill.The dykes did their work as the spill was contai-

ned beyond the boundaries of the National Park. Once it has been

confirmed that the sources of the pollution have been almost com-

pletely eliminated from upriver, the dykes and levees will be disman-

tled, allowing the original connection between the Doñana Marshes

and the Guadiamar river considered in Action 6.

However, this process has reignited the debate on whether

the Montaña del Río should be removed or not, and to what extent

it should be permeable, as a continuation of the process of making

the Marshes permeable to both river and tide flows.This barrier to

the Guadalquivir River was built as one of Doñana's defences over

twenty years ago, at the request of the Doñana National Park

Board, as it was alleged that the natural levees that marked the

boundary with the Guadalquivir were being eroded by wave action

due to shipping in the estuary. This is a typical example of the kind

of decision that should be weighed up carefully in the new stages

of restoration.This was the hand of man that intervened, for good

or for bad, depending on the variables used, in an attempt to

correct losses in a natural system but that could have undesirable

effect on the Marshes.

In this new scenario, modelling the water function of the

National Park and other associated research work has provided

guidance for new proposals solidly founded on scientific evidence.

DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY

The series of actions and initiatives that have or which remain

to be implemented, in projects like Doñana 2005 and the

Guadiamar Green Corridor, should be based on the fact that, des-

pite the enormous volume of information, research and qualified

human resources dedicated to Doñana, this area remains an extre-

mely complex system in which there is a high degree of uncertainty

and many points that are still unexplored territory for science.

Experience of restoring the water and ecological systems of these

marshes in previous decades clearly shows this, as we have seen in

the course of this publication.

Yet, there is another, equally important factor. Doñana was, is

and will continue to be an extremely dynamic and changing system.

Both these points of view imply that restorative actions must be

flexible.That means the restoration process must be considered, in

essence, as an experiment providing opportunities to use the feed-

back obtained; an experiment that can enhance our understanding

of processes and one in which further changes will be made,depen-

ding on the responses of the system. For this reason, monitoring

and the associated research plan form an integral part of the hydro-

logical and environmental restoration projects from the very begin-

ning. They are interconnected parts of the same bodye, analysing

how the system as a whole responds to the changes made to

external environmental variables and how the internal processes

evolve.

The new stage of restoration that has commenced in Doñana

basically implies re-connecting fluvial and marsh ecosystems, and

re-building lost natural connections among different habitats.

Therefore, in a case of this kind, it is more productive to seek spa-

tial heterogeneity than homogeneity as an intervention premise,

which will allow for more and better results and reduce the risk of

failure.

There are clear limitations inherent in the different restorative

projects launched. But these limitations can be either ignored, seen

Meeting of the Doñana 2005 Project Scientific Committee chaired by FélixManuel Pérez Miyares.Photograph: Doñana 2005 Technical Office.

After the decontamination of River Guadiamar that started immediatelyafter the Aznalcóllar accident, the watercourse has not only been returnedto its normal state, it will also recover its original function of feeding theDoñana marshes and will act as an ecological corridor to the protectedareas of the northern area, as the river has become a basic objective of the“Doñana 2005” and “Guadiamar Green Corridor” projects.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

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TABLE 1Evaluation and Monitoring Plan of the Doñana 2005 Project

AREA OF MONITORING OBJECTIVE STUDY ZONE

Underground waters Identify the impact of actions 1 and 3 Soto Chico and Soto Grande streamsof the Doñana 2005 Project on the (Action Zone 1)aquifer-streams and aquifer-ponds relations. El Partido stream (Action Zone 3)

Phytoplankton and Physically and chemically characterise Scope of all the actionszooplankton communities of water bodies and assessand the physical and the abundance of phytoplanktonchemical properties and zooplankton speciesof waters. Monitor changes in the physical and chemical variables

of waters over time, and the zooplankton and phytoplankton communities, assessing the results of the action.

Aquatic Flora Analysis of the submerged and emergent Gallega marsh (Action Zone 4)and vegetation. vegetation of streams and water bodies Guadiamar channel (Action Zone 5)

in the study zone. Travieso channel(Action Zone 6)Determine the distribution of Brazo de la Torre - Torre Branch (Action Zone 7)endangered species and invading plant species Entremuros (Action Zone 8)of the study zone.Draw up a theoretical reference framework to explain the dynamics of the vegetationin the study zone in relation to water flow and inundation.

Hydro-geomorphology Analyse changes to the alluvial fan Gallega marsh(Action Zone 4)in El Partido stream. Guadiamar channel (Action Zone 5) Diagnose future trends of the alluvial Travieso channel (Action Zone 6)fan of El Partido stream. Torre Branch (Action Zone 7)Analyse and describe the behaviour of the flow Soto Chico and Soto Grande streamsprovided by the Guadiamar River on entering (Action Zone 1)the Marshes and estimate the area affected.To be extended El Partido stream (Action Zone 3)to analyse the flows of the Cigueña and Pescador streams.Impact on the Marshes of variations in water flow entering the area.Identify the layout and profiles of the original river beds, particularly the former Travieso river through the Caracoles estate.

Changes Draw up an inventory of existing biodiversity in the Soto Chico and Soto Grande streamsin fresh water water courses that are the scene of interventions. (Action Zone 1)macro-invertebrate Monitor changes in the macro-invertebrate El Partido stream (Action Zone 3)communities. communities. Gallega marsh (Action Zone 4)

Using biotic indexes based on the Guadiamar channel (Action Zone 5) abundance of macro-invertebrates, Travieso channel (Action Zone 6)evaluate actions intended to improve the biological quality of El Partido stream waters.Monitor macro-invertebrate communityof Gallega marshand assess the community changes that will occur after connection between the River Guadiamarand the Gallega Marsh.

Changes in estuarine Monitor fish populations Actions involving estuarine and Torre Branch watersmacro-invertebrate in the restored water courses.and fish communities. Analyse macro-invertebrate

communities in restored areas.Study changes in the communities of macro-invertebrates and fish that could be established in different bodies of water within the Marshes as a result of recovering their tidal function.

Monitor the Document modifications that occur in Scope of all actions involving terrestrial vegetation.terrestrial vegetation the vegetation of the area affected by the on restored areas. Doñana 2005 Project.Monitor the effects Map the vegetation in each Action.of Doñana 2005 Project Monitor the areas of restored vegetation.on the vegetation of Create a data base of the spontaneous vegetationNational and Nature Parks. and the vegetation restored in these Actions.

Describe changes in the terrestrial vegetationAssociated with the water regeneration work.Create an observation network for future ·monitoring of the response of the terrestrial vegetation to the modifications in the water regimen of the Doñana area.

316

as a problem or considered as opportunities. In the present situa-

tion, it has been decided to regard these limitations as opportuni-

ties.This is the case of the Caracoles estate, where the limitation

lies in the fact that, from the restoration point of view, the starting

point is a uniform area, flat and homogenous, an area that has been

artificially drained for years and used for growing cereals. If this area

were merely flooded in its current state, it would probably produ-

ce a uniform community of plants, although the specific type would

be difficult to predict. For this reason, this initiative plans to resto-

re a more natural topography, and, therefore, restore more natural

cycles of flooding, all of which will be achieved by restoring the ori-

ginal profile of the Travieso channel, filling in the artificial drainage

canals and restoring the original contours of the marshes also cre-

ating small artificial ponds. In this way, the diversification of habitats

will promote more diverse communities.The strategy could even

be extended to create a series of different topographies within the

Caracoles estate (different types of plots with depressions and ele-

vations), to guarantee a far more heterogeneous marshland as a

result.

Hence, the initiatives taken work within the context of these

uncertainties, which clash with the laudable desire of many sectors of

society and the scientific community to return Doñana to a state of

completely natural systems, as it was in the past. But this is no longer

possible. One has to face the fact that major and irreversible changes

have been wrought, both due to external impacts and to internal pro-

cesses, and Doñana is a highly dynamic system in terms of both geolo-

gical and ecological time scales. It cannot recover its pristine conditions,

but measures can be taken to return it to a state that is close to this

impossible objective, and preserves a rich diversity.

The Marshes cover an area of 26,572 ha in Doñana National Park, plus the2,627 ha of the Caracoles estate that are being restored, the lands of theNature Park to the east of Entremuros as far as the Torre Branch and theGallega marsh restored area. The Digital Terrain Model constructed forthe Doñana Marshes, superimposed over a satellite photograph, clearlyshows the floodable area and the main elevations and depressions thatform the lucios (shallow lakes) and vetas (elevations).Source: Carlos Urdiales.

TABLE 2Research projects associated to ecologic restoration of the marshes of the National Park - Doñana 2005.

RESEARCH PROJECT ENTIDAD INVESTIGADORA AND COORDINATION

ANALYSIS OF GEOMORPHOLOGIC RISKS AND EVALUATION OF EROSION University of Huelva.PROCESSES IN THE PARTIDO STREAM BASIN . Coordinator: Francisco Borja Barrera

MONITORING OF CONTAMINATION AND ITS BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS THROUGH University of Córdoba and University of HuelvaMOLECULAR BIO MARKERS AND CHEMICAL SPECIATION. Coordinator: Juan López Barea. Subproject managers: J.L. Gómez Ariza,

C. Pueyo de la Cuesta, S. Garrido MorenoRESTORATION ECOLOGY OF THE FAUNA AND FLORA IN THE CARACOLES ESTATE, Doñana Biological Station. Spanish Higher Research Council (C.S.I.C.) INTEGRATED IN AND ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK Coordinator:Andy J. Green

FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DOÑANA MARSHES AND THEIR SURROUNDINGS: Doñana Biological Station. Spanish Higher Research Council (C.S.I.C.) RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS AND PROJECTION OF THE EFFECTS OF THE DOÑANA 2005 PROJECT. Coordinators: Miguel Delibes, José M. Paruelo and Néstor Fernández

CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON HEAVY METAL, FERTILIZER, Natural Resources and Agrobiology Institute of Seville AND PESTICIDE CONTAMINATION IN AIR,WATER, SOIL, SEDIMENTS AND ORGANISMS Spanish Higher Research Council (C.S.I.C.)IN THE BASINS FEEDING DOÑANA AND THE GUADALQUIVIR MARSHES. Coordinator: Francisco Cabrera Capitán

LIMNOLOGIC STUDY OF THE LAGOON FORMED IN EL ROCÍO MARSH. University of SevilleCoordinator: Julia Toja Santillana

STUDY OF CURRENT SITUATION AND MONITORING OF THE BASIC PARAMETRES University of Seville OF CONTAMINATION OF THE WATERS FLOWING INTO THE MARSHES OF DOÑANA NATIONAL PARK, Coordinator: José González Delgado, José Manuel González LimónFROM A PERSPECTIVE OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN THE AREA.

STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VEGETATION AND THE ALMONTE-MARISMAS AQUIFER Aquatic Ecology Station (University of Seville - EMASESA)IN THE DOÑANA PARKS. Coordinator: Francisco García Novo

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EL PARTIDO STREAM BASIN

RETURNS TO ITS NATURAL STATE

Action number 3 is being implemented in the lower stretches of

El Partido stream basin, just downstream from the Matanza bridge.The

aim of this action is to prevent the building-up of an alluvial fan in the

Marshes with sediments from the Marin channel, when it receives

waters from El Partido stream.The sandy delta that has quickly formed

covers a valuable marsh ecosystem with a grassland vegetation that is

quickly invaded by tamarisks and which is of little value for conserva-

tion.

The hydraulic solution put forward by Professor Mintegui for the

water system to avoid it silting up, as outlined in detail in Chapter 3,

consists of diverting most of the flood waters from the stream to a

FIGURE 4

Vegetation type and treatment map(2005) of El Partido stream restorationproject.

Ecological restoration map drawn up byDaniel García Sevilla of El Partido streamEcological Restoration Team, as part ofthe Doñana 2005 Project. Aquatic Ecology Station, University of Seville.

broad inter-fluvial plain where they would deposit their sandy load,

before entering the Park free of sands to feed La Madre de las

Marismas channel.

This model requires flooding a large area of 1500 ha in periods of

maximum debt.This has led the authorities to expropriate the affected

area, which was in private hands and used for agricultural crops and

pasture.But,apart from the water system,the lands,most of which are

inside Doñana Nature Park and to the North of the National Park,

need ecological restoration.

The restoration project has been developed in the Aquatic Ecology

Station (Estación de Ecología Acuática), a joint research centre belon-

ging to the University of Seville and to EMASESA, Sevilla Water Supply

Company. A team of scientists from the Universities of Seville and

318

Extremadura, made up of Professors José Carlos Escudero, Ángel

Martín Vicente, María Cruz Díaz Barradas, Juan Bautista Gallego, María

Zunzunegui, Daniel García Sevilla, Mari Paz Esquivias Romero, Raquel

Fernández Lo Faso,Luciana Carotenutto,Adalgisa ALves,Alberto Troca

and Francisco García Novo.

Before addressing the restoration itself, the available data from the

area was analysed.These include old maps, aerial photographs dating

back as far as 1946, ownership maps and documentation on the eco-

logical history of Coto del Rey studied by Professor Ángel Martín

Vicente from the University of Seville. On the other hand, the local

vegetation and its changes during the 20th century have also been stu-

died, to build up successive sets of data and determine the objectives

by means of vegetation types as reference.

Once the restoration model of scrub species to be found in the

area had been defined in 2003, a planting trial was conducted on an

experimental plot of one hectare, located in the National Park, at El

Rocío. Planting trials were conducted with scrub and trees and the

survival and growth rates of the plants and the composition and pro-

duction of semi-natural vegetation were monitored from 2003 to

2005. Rainfall and piezometric levels were recorded once a month.

The data from the experimental plot meant growth rates were

documented and they helped in selecting planting techniques, bearing

in mind the variation of the water table depth, which fluctuates by up

to 4 m between annual cycles.

The soil has been studied (texture and profile) in the area to be

restored and a piezometric network has been installed to monitor the

levels in comparison with El Partido stream.The remains of woody

vegetation in the restoration target area have been described and

mapped.At other points in this intervened area, seeds,berries and soil

samples have been taken in order to study the germination of the seed

bank.Trials have also been conducted in depositing mulch soil covers

for re-planting the new banks built for the water projects.

The use of the area by vertebrates has been analysed in the res-

toration analysis.The results of an in-depth study of the distribution of

rabbits conducted in 2004 by Sacramento Moreno,Sonia Cabezas and

Raquel Moreno, from Doñana Biological Station, have also been taken

on board. The abundance of prey makes this area an ideal hunting

ground for lynx and Spanish imperial eagle.The basic premise for this

initiative is that restoration should foster these functional aspects in

particular. It should favour the movement of larger mammal species in

the northern area of the National Park, preventing them from ente-

ring the areas of intensive farming under the Almonte-Marismas Plan.

Using the semi-natural vegetation that can be recognised in pho-

tographs from the 40s and 50s, and the vegetation series from the

area, an ecological restoration project has been developed. This is

based on the reconstruction and consolidation of existing specimens

and patches of woody vegetation, the regeneration of areas in which

the natural dynamic can restore the original formation (such as the

banks of the watercourses) and planting thickets of woody vegetation

in the rest of the areas, and two patches of woodland in areas that

used to bear them.

Some large trees (umbrella pine trees over 6 m high) will be plan-

ted to cover the scarcity of perchs for birds,along with cork trees with

holes in the trunk,with a view to attracting other groups of vertebra-

tes.The restoration project also eliminates the tracks and rights of

way, high-tension cables and the abandoned irrigation facilities.A new

peripheral path has been built to link up with the paths that lead to

Raya Real, a traditional staging post connecting El Rocío to

Villamanrique village.

This restoration model consolidates the surviving vegetation and

attempts to foster the system dynamics towards greater structuring,

bearing in mind that the irregular climate makes it impossible to fore-

cast possible floods or guarantee the survival of new plantations.

The vegetation thickets follow the morphology of local woody

vegetation, the structure of which is dominated by patches, combining

one or few trees and a dense undergrowth of large shrub:Pistacia len-

tiscus, Phillyrea angustifolia, Myrtus communis, Rhamnus oleoides,

Crataegus monogyna, Pyrus bourgeana, Daphne gnidium, Ruscus acu-

leatus,Quercus coccifera and Chamaerops humilis.The smaller, flowe-

ring shrubs are planted around the edges, consisting of thyme, laven-

False-coloured satellite image of the Marshes of of Doñana during flooding.Image: Landsat 7 (2000).

319

der, rock roses (Cystus spp.), Genista spp. and Halimium halimifiolium.

The structure, diversity and dynamics of these formations have been

studied, as has their relation with the soil characteristics, which have

been reproduced during the restoration.The thickets to be planted,

between 12 and 20 metres in diameter, combine a nucleus of trees, a

rim of other berry producing scrubs and a periphery of flowering

shrubs.The nuts and berries will attract vertebrates,which, in the futu-

re,will help these species to spread to the rest of the area.The flowe-

ring shrubs will attract flying insects and the thicket as a whole will pro-

vide structure, resources, diversity and support for wandering animal

species and will encourage the progressive incorporation of other spe-

cies to the restored area.

The composition of these thickets will vary depending on the

degree of flooding that is foreseen and the soil texture. The sandy

areas, invaded by shifting dunes in the 16th and 17th centuries, will be

planted with open scrub and stands of trees.At lower levels, the com-

position of the patches of vegetation will vary from north to south and

from east to west, progressively denser and with larger species to the

east and south, where patches of pine woodlands have survived, and

where the larger species of wildlife currently seek refuge. At even

lower floodable heights,a thicker vegetation and rivr bank will be plan-

ted, in line with the surviving vegetation to be found in Cañada Mayor.

These actions will be supported by creating an area of mixed forest

(oak, cork, wild olive and umbrella pine trees) with native scrub run-

ning in continuous strips so that it can act as a temporary refuge for

vertebrate fauna.There will also be a broad band of open grazing pas-

tures dotted with small thickets (5 m) with one tall tree as a perch and

a refuge for vertebrates.

In order to create a barrier to prevent species invading the site

from the farmlands to the west of the restoration ground, an area of

unfertile washed sand will be maintained.This is to be followed by ano-

ther area of dense and highly diverse scrub,which completes this diver-

sity "filter", holding back the invasion of species from the areas suffe-

ring from change, and thus protecting the restored area.

Figure 4 shows a map of the ecological restoration work drawn by

Daniel García Sevilla of the restoration team. The different patches

show the different zones of vegetation and the small circles represent

the location of the thickets to be planted, with all their variations (in

size, composition, etc.).The blue lines represent the flow concentra-

tion, along which the water will run at times of flooding, depositing

most of the sand before reaching the road running from El Rocío to

Villamanrique,which will be covered with water and cut off during flo-

ods.The parallel lines to the west represent the diversity barriers.

Two experimental areas are to be established to the west, where

the plant material will be prepared and restoration and regeneration

trials will be conducted.On the other hand, there are no plans for far-

ming or livestock rearing in the area,although part of it will be used by

the parks' tour programmes, once the restoration is complete.

Strictly speaking, this is not an ecological restoration; it merely

moves things in that direction, facilitating the self-organisation of natu-

ral systems and pushing them in the right direction, allowing natural

succession to play its part.

The growth data obtained in the experimental plot have been

used to simulate the behaviour of vegetation in different scenarios,and

the transformation of the landscape,diversity and habitats.A program-

me has been developed to monitor the vegetation, wildlife, water,

landscapes and such, since Action number 3 of the Doñana 2005

Project was implemented.

Raquel Fernández Lo Faso, member of the restoration team, has

developed a landscape mapping system that represents the shift from

artificial and intervened areas (red) to natural and conserved areas

(green) in a sequence of colours. She has used this code to map these

landscapes before these actions were implemented (2002) and after

the lands were expropriated (2005), and she has simulated the next

two stages,as can be seen in Figure 5. The first stage will be taken once

the hydrological intervention and the ecological restoration were

completed (2006) and the second landscape simulation stage will

occur ten years later (2016).As the images clearly show, this sector of

Doñana, once restored, will recover both the landscape and the eco-

logical function that it lost in the 1970s.

Two major ecological restorations of aquatic systems have been

carried out in Doñana over the last ten years: the Abalario wetlands

and the Algaida marsh of Sanlúcar, as described in previous chapters.

A further two are currently on course, and are also focussed on

water:ecosystems and landscapes:the recovery of the Caracoles esta-

te in the Doñana Marshes (Action 6) and the restoration of the basin

of El Partido stream. The remaining actions of the Doñana 2005

Project are working in the same direction. In all of this, Doñana has

undoubtedly become a European benchmark in ecological restoration.

Initial situation oflandscapes (2002) befo-re the restoration of ElPartido stream basin.The natural conditionof the area to be resto-red varies from violet(more artificial) togreen (well preservedarea).

Mapdrawn up by Raquel FernándezLo Faso and Diego García Sevilla.

320

2002

2005

2006

2016

Scenarios showing the landscape evolution with restoration ofEl Partido stream basin. The sequence of colours that indicatethe progression from artificial (violet) and altered (red) landsto natural (yellow) and conserved (green) lands. This criterionhas been used to map the landscapes before these interven-tions (2002) and after they were expropriated (2005), followedby a simulation of the next two stages. The first stage aftercompleting the hydraulic intervention and the restoration(2006) and the second stage, ten years later (2016). Maps drawn up by Raquel Fernández Lo Faso.

FIGURE 5

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THE NUMERICAL HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL OF THE MARSHES

AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE MONTAÑA DEL RÍO CASE*

In the context of the research programme associated with the

Marshes restoration project, the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee

saw the need for a modelling tool to provide greater accuracy to sup-

port scientific theories and for monitoring and evaluating the actions

implemented in this outstanding area of the Parks.

The numerical hydrodynamic model of the Marshes, as explained

in Chapter 3, makes it possible to simulate the flow of water inputs

from the watercourses that drain into the National Park and how

water levels vary over time in the Doñana Marshes.These are also

affected by how the water drains and whether this drainage is artificial

or natural.

The objective was to develop a hydraulic model that would enable

scientists to simulate the present hydrodynamic conditions of the Park,

in order to calculate with greater accuracy the impact of restoration

measures and any other factors that could determine the distribution

and flow of waters.This model was developed by the UTE made up of

WL/Delft Hydraulics and AYESA, using the SOBEK software model as

a base.The model allows a 1D combination of designs for the flows

along channels, and 2D combinations for surface flows.This necessary

combination arises from the fact that 2D analyses are less appropriate

for modelling hydraulic structures and the effect of channels and other

watercourses in the Marshes environment. Hence, the surface flow,

including the obstruction effects of dykes and natural slopes, can be

simulated in 2D with equations (the greater Marshes area), while the

channels and hydraulic structures have been modelled in 1D

(Guadalquivir River, the Torre Branch and the small channels close to

sluice gates).

The 2D surface run-off model, in turn, rests on the foundation of

the Terrain Elevation Model (TEM), which was constructed using data

obtained with LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology for

measuring distances with Laser.Another important aspect for deter-

mining water flows in 2D was to determine the roughness of the

water,which was obtained by digitalising an Ecological Map of Doñana

with some data on vegetation,making it possible to estimate the range

of values of the friction co-efficient with water.

The bathymetric information provided by the Port of Seville

Authority and new surveys carried out within the Doñana 2005

actions, served as a base for the single dimensional flow. Furthermore,

existing structures, such as the sluices of Brenes, La Fuengirola, Los

Rompidos,Montaña del Río,Cherry,Carajola, those of the Guadiamar

channel and the hydraulic infrastructures created after 2000, like the

Molino and Cerrabarba channels, have been incorporated.

The image shows a simplified version of the components used to calibratethe hydraulic model. The pink squares are water inputs. The red trianglesare functional water connections with the 2D grid. The green trianglesrepresent hydraulic structures.Source of the image: AYESA

Evolution of rainfall accumulated in the different agricultural years(September-August) from 1970 to 2003. The simulation generated by appl-ying the Model for wet years, such as the 1995-1996 period, is excellent.The modelling also takes on board other basic values like available evapo-ration-transpiration data, the flow of Guadalquivir River, including waterlevels at the mouth, and data sets of the four main watercourses that draininto the Doñana Marshes.The bottom photograph shows a view of the right bank of theGuadalquivir, in the Doñana National Park, by Punta de los Cepillos,between Brenes and Caño Nuevo, showing an area of maximum erosionof the levee. The photograph was taken during a serious floodingrecorded in January 1996.Image and data source: AYESA

years

mm

322

Water roughness depends mainly on vegetation. The above map high-lights the most common types of vegetation to be found in different areasof Doñana.

Upper zoneA. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum in the higher, central parts of the DoñanaMarshes, between riverbeds.B. Scirpus maritimus in low-lying areas.Central zoneC. Juncus subulatus in the depressions in the higher ground of the Marshes.D. Scirpus litoralis in palaeo-channels of the lowest part of the Marshes.E. Scirpus litoralis in depressions in the lower ground.Low zoneF. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum in the higher part of the central zone of theMarshs, between riverbeds.G. Juncus subulatus in the depressions in the lower-lying ground.H. Depressions with no helophytic vegetation in the lower-lying ground.Source and vegetation map: AYESA

Calibrating the model with the reference year 1999-2000 has been

far from simple.The calibration process highlighted some of the weak

points in the model. In some years, it was in line with events, but in

others, there were noticeable differences. An in-depth analysis has

shown that the fundamental problem lay in the inconsistency of some

of the data sets, highlighting the fact that numerical models are highly

dependent on the protocols and the rigour of data sets entered into

them.Validations that have been done for data sets from the years

2000-2001 and 1995-1996 showed a good fit. Even so, as in any simu-

lation process,the developers of the model will not consider it as a clo-

sed and definitive instrument. It remains permanently open to refine-

ments based on successive approaches.

The scenarios analysed

Once the model had been calibrated, the first operational stage

addressed the task of simulating a range of different scenarios repre-

senting the restoration work conducted in the Doñana Marshes, inclu-

ding the Doñana 2005 project.The scenarios analysed were as follows:

Scenario 0 or baseline:This scenario is the situation in 2003, including

existing waterworks structures.The reference inputs for rainfall and

evaporation are taken from the water cycle of 1995-1996, which sho-

wed a good fit with the model.

Scenario 1. Elimination of the original Montaña del Río and its exten-

sion as protection against the effects of the Boliden mine accident.

Scenario 2. The actions to recover the Travieso riverbed and Torre

Branch are included in the base line case.

Scenario 3.The input from the Cigüeña stream, after restoration, is

added to the above.

Scenario 4. Elimination of the original Montaña del Río while maintai-

ning the extension along the Torre Branch.

Scenario 5.Elimination of the current situation of Montaña del Río and

the extension from the estuary to Entremuros,lowering the rest of the

dyke.

Scenario 6.The same as scenario 5, but this scenario includes the eli-

mination of the south and west walls of the Caracoles estate, the con-

nection with the Travieso riverbed and the Cangrejo Grande pond.

Above: Cherry sluice gate and the dyke with a flood water level of 1.96 m(20/12/2004), close to the natural holding capacity of the Marshes reservoir. Below: Cherry Canal with a flood water level of 1.82 m (12/04/2004), anexceptional level of flooding for this time of year, due to the spring floodsof 2004.

323

Channels with their associa-ted sluice gates in theMontaña del Río dykesystem and its 1999 exten-sion: Carrajola, Cherry or delBuentiro, Las Nuevas, Nuevoor del Lucio de los PatosReales, Brenes, Figuerola andLos Rompidoss.

Image source: Carlos Urdiales

View of the final stretch of the Brenes channel. The NumericalHydrodynamic Model of the Marshes highlights the importance of sup-pressing the Montaña del Río dyke as far as the mouth to the estuary.Photograph by Carlos Urdiales.

Accepting that this action is both feasible and advisable, once La

Montaña del Río is virtually eliminated, other scenarios were introdu-

ced into the model that took into consideration the drainage capacity

of the ponds into the Torre Branch and the Guadalquivir River, assig-

ning different sections for channel types.The final conclusion is that

flood levels and duration are within recommended targets,which ena-

bles us to validate the proposal of suppression.Moreover, it shows that

the tidal influence reaches to the Marshes, which have always been

affected by the tides,without causing any excessive saline intrusions. In

this case, there is an additional benefit, as mentioned in Chapter 3,

because, once the peak of the floods has passed, fish and other aqua-

tic life forms from the estuary shall enter the Marshes following the

former natural and naturalised channels, or by swimming over the

levee at very high tides. Increased connectivity between estuary and

Marshes will be highly valuable for aquatic biodiversity, as the restora-

tion of the Algaida marsh of Sanlúcar has shown.

As a corollary to this strategy of recovering the function of the

edges of the Doñana Marshes,the possibility of naturalising the current

deep channels that lead to the present outlet sluice gates has been

considered.These were built by the Guadalquivir Water Board, based

on old sluices and canals, in different stages between 1983 and 1989.

They followed an agreement adopted by the National Park Board that

was justified on the grounds that the loss of capacity of the Marshes

One of the most striking aspects after applying the model is that

the current levels of the Montaña del Río dyke and its extension (the

baseline situation) are too high for the Marshes to work properly from

a hydraulic point of view, and in accordance with its natural behaviour

prior to the major changes that they have suffered.These levels are dif-

ferent from the ideal levels set by Doñana National Park and the

Biological Station. The recommendations, included in the "Proposed

Management Model for attaining a biologically optimum situation in the

Doñana National Park Marshes", set an objective for floodwater surfa-

ce levels never to exceed 2.2 m at any time, and that the duration of

time that they rise above 1.90 m should only be during flash floods.

The levels reached in 95-96 were considered too high at the time.

The vetas (islets) and paciles (elevated surfaces) remained flooded for

prolonged periods, with water levels higher than previous records. In

the baseline scenario, the water level in the Doñana Marshes reaches

2.5 m and remains above the 2 m mark for some three months, in

comparison with the 2.3 m maximum water level for 95-96.

The results clearly show that the height of the present dykes that

separate the Doñana Marshes from the Torre Branch and the

Guadalquivir river, along with the limited drainage capacity of existing

sluices, make it impossible to meet the recommendations in the case

of flooding.The present system, therefore, has to be made permeable

to avoid that maximum water levels during flooding exceeded target

levels.

Hence, the proposal suggested by the model depends on elimina-

ting the function of the Montaña del Río from the Torre Branch as far

as the Brenes channel, which would make it possible to reduce the

peaks of flooding and the duration of maximum flood water levels in

the Doñana Marshes.This action implies eliminating the channel of low

waters filling it in so that it did not drain the Marshes and, therefore,

preventing unwanted draining of water out of flooded areas. For the

rest of the dyke, south of Casa de Brenes,with little significance in the

modelling of the hydraulic system, it should be made permeable,rather

than eliminated.The reason for this is that, basically, it is important to

maintain this access for management activities in the southern area of

the National Park.

324

was due to the progressive deterioration of the Montaña del Río dyke

because of the erosion of this bank caused by the river. Images, like the

aerial photographs taken by the American flight in 1956,clearly illustra-

te how a canal like La Carrajola (without any sluice gates to regulate it

and directly open to the influence of the tides from the Torre Branch)

had developed a well-established dendritic drainage pattern that is

typical of tidal channels and creeks.To this end, a series of proposed

actions presented by the National Park have been modelled.The base-

line scenario, used for checking the extent differences occur, is scena-

rio number 6, with all the Doñana 2005 actions taken on board.

Proposed Management Model for attaining a biologically optimum

situation in the Doñana National Park marshes

Some of the most important stipulations presented by the National

Park and the Doñana Biological Station as the terms of reference for

the Doñana 2005 actions and for modelling work, are llisted below:

- In conditions of significant flooding, the water level should only exce-

ed the maximum flooding levels of the elevations (1.9 m above sea

level) for short periods of time during the arrival of flash flooding, and

to a maximum level of 2.2 m. Flooding should not exceed the level of

2.2 m above sea level at any point in the Doñana Marshes under any

Land in the east of the National Park marshes with a flood water level 1.90m above sea level. The highest part of the Guadalquivir-Torre Branchnatural levee and the course of the Montaña del Río dyke can be clearlyseen. The excavated canals are shown in dark blue, the locks that regulatethem (all currently operative) are marked with a green circle. The oldnaturalised channel and natural channels are marked in light blue and thesmall 1984 locks, not currently operative, are marked with a red circle.Image and data source: Carlos Urdiales

circumstances, so that dry surfaces remain above floodwaters at all

times.

- The drying out process or sequence for the Doñana Marshes should

adjust to the volume of flooding recorded for that year, and the pat-

tern followed by the receding waters in the flooded areas should be in

line with the natural pattern defined by the topography of the terrain.

- The regimen of flooding in the National Park marshes should be reco-

vered and should tend to bring forward and prolong the period of flo-

oding in comparison with the floods recorded in similar years in recent

decades (since the hydrological alteration of the Marshes), to shorten

the annual dry period,even accounting for the natural fluctuations due

to rainfall.

- A stringent plan should be drawn up for monitoring the quality of

waters entering the Marshes, both in terms of sediment content and

pollutants in general. These checks should be even more rigorous

during flash flooding.

- It is important to recover the hydrological function in the area within

the gully defined by El Lobo and Marilópez ponds and the function

should be as similar as possible to the original situation.

A specific monitoring and early warning protocol should be drawn up

to cover extraordinary summer mortality in the Doñana Marshes and

an action plan to implement the appropriate solutions for each and any

cause that may be identified as the origin of these processes.

- Permanent contact and exchange of waters and aquatic life between

Marshes and estuary is fundamental for the Doñana system to func-

tion correctly.

- To make the system as natural as possible, it is advisable to eliminate

or modify the present deep channels that drain the Marshes and the

sluice gates that regulate them.This is even more important in the light

of any possible modification to the Montaña del Río dyke or the exten-

sion from its current layout.

* The contents of this section have been taken from the works of Carlos Urdiales Alonso,conducted as part of the Doñana 2005 Project.

325

Action number 6 of the Doñana 2005 Project, aimed at

restoring an area of marshes ("marismas") that had been

turned into farmland in the 1960s, and to restore the hydrology

of the Travieso channel (Caño Travieso), is one of the most far-

reaching scientific and experimental challenges that the National

Park currently faces.The Almonte-Marismas Transformation Plan

diverted the waters of the River Guadiamar, channelling them

along the Entremuros canal and, as a result, draining the Caño

Travieso channel and the adjacent flood plains, including the Los

Caracoles estate, for farming.

The estate is on the northern boundary of the National Park,

bordered by the Entremuros canal and the Cangrejo Chico and

Cangrejo Grande "lucios" (shallow, seasonal lakes).To the south,

the estate borders on to the Marilopez "lucio" and the Travieso

Nuevo canal. It also borders with El Lobo "lucio" to the west and

with the FAO wall built in the 1970s to the north. In preparation

for planting cereals, the marshes were drained by installing a

drainage system of permeable pipes one metre below ground all

over the estate. These drained into the network of drainage

canals visible in aerial photographs.

The full restoration of these 27 km2 is one of the largest wet-

land restoration projects in Europe. It is an initiative that will

restore the water cycle based on ecological criteria and, at the

same time, develop restoration models that can serve as tools for

other restorations in coastal and estuarine environments.

The restoration of wetlands of this kind has to meet two

basic requirements: recover the functional, hydrological and eco-

logical functions and to establish spatial distribution patterns for

habitat types and biodiversity. The results of the actions to be

undertaken must ensure that the new spatial structure can opti-

1.38 m 1.50 m 1.70 m

1.80 m 1.90 m 2.00 m

Sequence of rainfall-induced flooding of the marshes in the Caracoles estate, based on the Digital Terrain Model. The depths quoted are the depths at point N28in the Los Ánsares "lucio".Images: Monitoring Team of Natural Processes/R.Díaz-Delgado

Caracolesa new laboratory for science and wetland restoration

* Mediterranean Institute of Advanced Studies (IMEDEA).** Doñana Biological Station.*** Monitoring Team of Natural Processes of the Doñana Biological Station.**** Department of Environmental Biology and Public Health, Faculty of ExperimentalScience, University of Huelva.

LUIS SANTAMARÍA *, ANDY J. GREEN **

RICARDO DÍAZ-DELGADO ***

MIGUEL ÁNGEL BRAVO ***

ELOY M. CASTELLANOS ****

326

to prevent a repetition of the mistakes made in the past, the

underlying philosophy behind this restoration should be that the

restoration per se is a challenge full of uncertainties.These uncer-

tainties encompass how the water behaves in the marshes, the

dynamics of the sediments and the new role that the different

species will play in this restored area.

To strike this balance, both the design of the restoration and

the posterior management of the restored area have to take into

account the basic functional features that characterise marsh

ecosystems. The aquatic ecosystems of the Doñana Marshes

oscillate in an instable fashion between two alternative states of

equilibrium: "turbid waters" (caused by sediment in suspension

and the development of phytoplankton) and "clear waters", when

there is sufficient submerged vegetation to prevent the suspen-

sion of sediments in the waters9.The water cycles modulate the

relative dominance of each of these states in the different marsh

wetlands, as both excessive depth and early desiccation will

encourage the persistence of turbid water states. The spatial

mosaic of wetlands, with varying depths and sizes, guarantees the

large scale resilience of the system from this locally unpredictable

factor by allowing some of the wetlands to remain in a clear

water state at all times. Herbivorous waterfowl are another key

element in the dynamics of these aquatic ecosystems because, by

eating the water plants at the beginning of the spring cycle, they

can destabilise the clear water state10; whereas, by dispersing plant

propagules and aquatic invertebrates, they foster the re-colonisa-

tion of the wetlands when these are in a turbid water state11,12. For

all these reasons, any attempt to identify an "optimal" flood cycle

for these marshes in general is a mistake.

Current knowledge suggests that maintaining a highly diversi-

fied spatial structure and guaranteeing exchange and connection

between the wetlands that make up the marshes is the best way

to optimise the resilience, diversity and ecological function of the

Historic transformation of Caracoles in a series of photographs taken in October 1956 (first American flight), May 1972 (panchromatic images from the CORO-NA satellite) and July 1999. This short history shows the process of clearing the original marshes for farming and the channelling of the Guadiamar River, withthe consequent elimination of the Travieso channel. In the 1972 image, the start of construction work on the perimeter wall around the estate and theEntremuros Canal can be seen. Fifty years later, the waters are starting to return to their original channel.Images kindly supplied by Laboratorio de SIG y Teledetección-EBD/R. Díaz-Delgado.

Photogrammetric reconstruction of vegetation and topography in 1956 byESPN/M.A. Bravo, based on the first American flight.Source: Teledetection as a tool for restoration (Ricardo Díaz-Delgado, 2004).

Vetas (small sandy elevations) Bulrush formationsPaciles (pastures) with saltworts Lucios (shallow ponds)Areas between quebradas and pacil Travieso channel outlineQuebradas (depressions) Channels

0.90 - 0.95 a.s.l.

0.95 - 1.00 a.s.l.

1.00 - 1.05 a.s.l.

1.05 - 1.10 a.s.l.

1.10 - 1.15 a.s.l.

1.15 - 1.20 a.s.l.

1.20 - 1.25 a.s.l.

1.25 - 1.30 a.s.l.

1.30 - 1.35 a.s.l.

1.35 - 1.40 a.s.l.

1.40 - 1.45 a.s.l.

1.45 - 1.50 a.s.l.

1.50 - 1.55 a.s.l.

1.55 - 1.60 a.s.l.

1.60 - 1.65 a.s.l.

1956 1972 1999

mise the ecological function and the biodiversity of the aquatic

ecosystems, while at the same time minimising the need to fur-

ther manipulate the hydrological function in the future. Moreover,

Localisation of the new pools with different shapes and sizes. The imagehas been superimposed on the Digital Terrain Model of the marshes.The topographic variation along the transversal profile is of about 20 cm.Source: Carlos Urdiales. Doñana National Park.

327

aquatic ecosystems of the Doñana marshes.

Bearing in mind this available knowledge, the restoration faces

uncertainties like deciding the best combination of sizes and

depths of the restored wetlands, and the most appropriate spatial

structure to foster the dispersal of propagules by different vec-

tors (birds, water or wind). The range of uncertainties also

includes dimensions that we do not know enough about and that

we cannot control sufficiently, such as the possible effect of fish

entering from the estuary, exotic species, herbivores (waterfowl,

livestock, horses, deer, hares) and flamingos on the stability of

clear water states. Work on a restoration design of this kind

includes aspects that are in their first steps of development, such

as determining ideal wetland profiles (size, depth, bank morphol-

ogy) that will attract waterfowl in order to accentuate their dis-

persal function.

For all these reasons, the research team and scientific institu-

tions responsible for the design of this project recognised the

need to adopt an "adaptive management approach", avoiding iden-

tifying an optimum design a priori and then monitoring the result.

Instead, they opted for a robust and flexible design that seeks to

clarify present uncertainties experimentally and progressively

optimise the restoration work. In practise, this approach trans-

lates into the need for a broad diversity of sizes and shapes of

wetlands, distributed over the spatial gradient of the area being

restored. During the restoration, apart from monitoring the

ecosystem of the restored area, experiments will also be carried

out (for example, manipulating the colonisation rates or exclud-

ing herbivores).These criteria are also applicable to the emerging

vegetation and to the marshes, for instance by creating structures

that make it easier for species to disperse and to settle, or by

manipulating the residual drainage structures.

The hydrological analysis necessary for designing the restora-

tion has been hard work, in which the images provided by remote

satellite sensing over the last fifty years have played an essential

part. To evaluate the flooding regime, a time series of Landsat

satellite images was used (1973-2003) provided by the Doñana

Biological Station Remote Sensing Laboratory, aerial photos from

a 1956 American flight, images from a range of panchromatic cam-

eras installed aboard the CORONA satellite (used by U.S.A. in

the early seventies as a spy satellite, whose picture have recently

been declassified) and all the different images and orthopho-

tographs taken over the last ten years13. This material, together

with a Digital Terrain Model constructed for Doñana with a hor-

izontal spatial resolution of 2 m and a Numeric Hydrodynamic

Model for the Marshes, has made it possible to develop a broad

range of scenarios, providing a solid foundation for designing the

restoration and experimental work.

What was initially an unjustifiable encroachment on the

Marshes has become a vitally important laboratory for the future

of Doñana and similar areas. It should not be forgotten that one

of the objectives of the Caracoles project was to ensure that

whatever actions were taken should provide systematic informa-

tion on the ecology of both the natural and restored wetlands in

the Doñana Marshes, i.e., to learn as much as possible as as to

benefit many future restoration and management actions.

Before connecting the Caracoles area with the rest of the National Park,pools that will provide the foundation for much of its future diversity andwill act as a laboratory to enhance our knowledge of the marshes havebeen built. At the same time, work began on the task of eliminating theeffect of the drainage systems that were installed to prepare the land forfarming..Source: ESPN/Hector Garrido

Flooding as shown by a radar image from the RADARSAT satellite(December 1996). The blue shows the levels of flooding in the Caracolesfarm in this exceptionally wet year, where the original bed of the Traviesochannel is clearly visible. The average maximum flood levels are in greenand the minimum levels in red.Source: LAST/R.Díaz-Delgado and Aurensa.

The newly re-classified area now covered 50,720 hectares. Since

then, the boundaries have not been modified,despite pressure from

many sectors. In fact, there was a wide spread consensus about the

advantages of increasing the area of the National Park to bring in

some of the surrounding land, especially the western triangle.

With the extension implemented in this first stage, some ambi-

tious objectives were met, like solving some of the anomalies of the

boundaries, thus endowing the National Park with a more coher-

ent lay out that was more recognisable and in line with the real sit-

uation; strengthening a framework of stability between the National

Park and its surroundings, and even helping to consolidate the pop-

ulations of some outstanding species.

RECOVERING THE MARSHES AND THE

FUNCTIONALITY OF THE WATER SYSTEM

The actions encompassed by the Doñana 2005 project includ-

ed a series of expropriations that were necessary to be able to take

action on lands that up to that time had been in private hands.Two

329

Extending Doñanaan important step towards regenerating the water system

MARIA ANGELES FERNÁNDEZ *

329

In February 2004, the Council of Ministers agreed to extend

the boundaries of Doñana National Park to cover a further

3,531 hectares, representing a 7% increase in the area of this pro-

tected natural area, rising its total area to 54,251 hectares8.

The Park has been extended thanks to the Doñana 2005 proj-

ect, which expropriated most of the extra land, through the

Guadalquivir Water Board, to guarantee the implementation of the

actions aimed at regenerating the National Park's water system and

resources.

The extension of the National Park has focussed basically on

three neighbouring pieces of land which could be included in the

protected area as the uses they had been zoned for did not include

any that would have prevented their inclusion.All these lands main-

tain a real or potential environmental continuity with the National

Park.They also meet the five requisites laid down by the National

Park Network Master Plan: they help to make the National Park

more representative Park; they imply a territorial readjustment that

could enhance their capacity to sustain ecological processes in the

National Park; they are in a good state of conservation, or can be

restored to said state in a short period of time; the general conti-

nuity of the National Park is maintained physically and environmen-

tally; these areas do not include inhabited centres and, as a result of

the extension, they improve the environmental permeability and

the continuity of ecological processes between the National Park

and its surroundings.

The reasons for extending the Park have focussed on solving

some of the most important problems concerning the regenera-

tion of the water cycle in Doñana and, at the same time, address

one of the most complex and ambitious wetland recovery and

restoration projects undertaken to date.

AN HISTORIC MOMENT

Doñana was declared a National Park in 1969, covering an area

of 35,000 hectares that included most of the original Coto de

Doñana hunting estate and part of the neighbouring Guadalquivir

Marshes. In 1978, it was extended to take in coastal strips of dunes,

sands and pine forests, plus marsh areas and the neighbouring Coto

del Rey hunting estate to the north of the Guadalquivir Marshes.

* Doñana 2005 Project.

The latest extension of Doñana is a major victory in the long civil and sci-entific battle to defend a unique and changing space, a rough diamondwith defects in the process of polishing, that is the legacy for future gener-ations.Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

330

of these estates, "Cortijo de los Mimbrales" (310 hectares) and

"Los Caracoles" (2,665 hectares), have provided the project with

additional interest as, by becoming part of the National Park, they

increase its surface area. Most of the rest of the lands expropriat-

ed under the Doñana 2005 project become the property of the

Ministry of the Environment. Environmental criteria will now be

used in the management of all these lands.

Such is the case of the 310 hectares that were part of the

Cortijo de Los Mimbrales estate, in the western triangle. These

lands were used in part for growing irrigation crops, and partially

for dry-land farming and cork tree plantations.The estate had an

artificial drainage system that collected the surface run-off from the

rainfall and the surplus irrigation water from the farm and from

higher ground.This drainage system transformed the natural hydro-

logical system of the Soto Chico and Soto Grande streams, with

the consequent negative effects on the local native vegetation.The

restoration work undertaken as part of the Doñana 2005 project

eliminated these drainage canals and the eucalyptus plantations

from the estate.The land has been replanted with native vegetation

(cork oak, kermes oaks, ashes, etc.).

The marshland area included in the 2,665 hectares of Los

Caracoles estate had been cut off from its surroundings with

perimeter walls and transformed with a network of artificial

drainage channels to drain the estate to provide new lands for

farming, although it was only used for extensive livestock farming.

The project for recovering the Travieso riverbed (action number 6

of the Doñana 2005 Project) will eliminate the artificial drainage

channels and the crops grown on the farm for years. Restoring this

estate and recovering its former marshes is one of the most ambi-

tious conservation actions in Doñana, representing a real scientific

challenge.

The 142 hectares of flood plain of the El Partido stream includ-

ed in the extension were expropriated by the Guadalquivir Water

Board in order to address restoration work on this stream. The

restoration work is designed to maintain control over the process-

es of erosion, transport and sedimentation in the stream basin, thus

curbing the advance of the overflow fan and situating this on the

flood plain.This action also includes an environmental restoration

of the basin of the stream bringing it back to the ecological func-

tioning of Doñana Parks.

Doñana is embarking on a new journey full of uncertainties, but in the knowledge that it has overcome the main difficulties in the process of recognising itsidentity.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

currently impeded and, later on, a favourable response from the

biological communities.With all this, and apart from the objectives

set, any restoration intervention implies uncertainties that can be

reduced by research and monitoring, but they cannot be eliminat-

ed totally, basically because these natural systems are so complex.

MAIN PROCESSES OF ECOLOGICAL DEGRADATION

AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES

Reduction of the area of wetland

Transforming the lands for farming, forestry, industry, urban

development and the shipping traffic to Seville in the Lower

Guadalquivir River has led to a considerable loss of natural marsh-

land area, which is the main origin and source of the impacts suf-

fered by Doñana for over two centuries.

This loss of area has had a direct and decisive influence on the

loss of habitat, with the natural marshland ecosystem being

reduced from 1780 km2 to some 300 km2, and thus constraining

the abundance and distribution of plant and animal communities25.

331

Monitoring and Evaluationthe key to the Doñana 2005 Restoration Project

JOSÉ JUAN CHANS *

RICARDO DÍAZ-DELGADO **

331

Evaluating the success of the Doñana 2005 hydrological and

ecological restoration project requires an extensive mon-

itoring and follow up programme that, first of all, allows scientists

to identify the state of the system prior to the project, during the

project and, then, to provide information on the response of the

natural system after these interventions.To this end, Doñana 2005

has a monitoring and evaluation programme that will be imple-

mented by different teams of specialists39, who will study aspects

considered important for the natural dynamics of the Doñana

Marshes.

Of the abiotic factors, attention will focus on hydro-geo-mor-

phological changes in the area affected by the project and water

quality. On the other hand, and as part of the biotic factors, both

land and water communities of plankton and plants will also be

studied, together with fresh water and estuarine macro-inverte-

brate communities: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals,

hence including representatives of most of the links in the food

chain of the marshland biocenosis.

At the same time, information will be made available from

other research and monitoring projects in course that may pro-

vide additional information on the dynamics of the surface and

groundwater, pollutants transported in by water flowing into the

Doñana Marshes and changes that may occur to landscapes.

The final success of the restoration project depends on

obtaining favourable results in ecological and biological terms, by

eliminating the main processes of degradation that are identified.

In this regard,Wetlands International establishes spatial reduction,

alteration of the water regimen, reduction of water quality, the

introduction of exotic species, unsustainable use and management

and restoration as the main processes that lead to the deteriora-

tion of wetlands globally, and which also affect the Doñana

Marhses41.

Eliminating the processes of degradation and their associated

stress factors and impacts, which affect natural processes and bio-

logical communities, is the priority objective of the restoration

project, in order to work towards a final scenario offering a dou-

ble result. Initially, the recovery of ecological processes that are

* Vice-director of the Doñana Biological Station. Spain.** Monitoring Team of Natural Processes of Doñana Biological Station. Spain.

The invasion of introduced species is one of the causes for the reductionand extinction of native species. Apart from the carp, an early introduc-tion, and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), the exotic species that are caus-ing the greatest ecological damage in Doñana are the eucalyptus, theLouisiana crayfish, the ruddy duck, the water fern Azolla filiculoides andthe Florida red eared slider (Trachemys scripta) are potential dangers. In thephoto, a specimen of the common pond turtle (Emys orbicularis), which isbeing displaced by the red eared slider.Photograph: CENEAM files.

branches of rivers, Brazo del Noroeste and the two branches that

formed the Guadiamar channel, has gradually been reduced. In the

1950s, the inputs of water that spread out through the northern

part of the current marshlands of the National Park were elimi-

nated, so they now flow basically along the Entremuros canal, built

to drain the waters into the sea as quickly as possible.

Since the National Park was created, different restoration

projects (Table 1) have been undertaken to off-set the negative

effects caused to the area of protected marshland by the transfor-

mation work done on the Lower Guadalquivir.

Until 1973, the main water inputs flowing into the Marshes of

the National Park came from Entremuros, to the south of the

Cangrejo Chico pond, the channelled part of the Guadiamar and

the Gallega marsh, Cañada Mayor, El Partido and La Rocina

streams and the channels flowing from the stabilised sands to the

west of the National Park.

Three wells were dug in 1974 to flood Marilopez and Lobo

ponds, situated in the Guadiamar Reserve, with water from the

aquifer.At first, the wells were used in autumn and late spring to

extend the floods, but they were later used only in autumn.The

large flocks of birds attracted in these years have had a decisive

influence on the area by almost completely eliminating all the veg-

etation from the ponds.

The reconstruction of the Montaña del Río levee in 1984 is

presented as "The Natural Mountain" and described by Bayan and

Delibes17 as "an elevation of the land scarcely one metre high,

that, on the one hand, closed off the Marshes, preventing them

from draining into the Guadalquivir (with the exception of a few

canals) and, on the other, in the opposite direction,made it impos-

sible for the salt waters of the Lower Guadalquivir from penetrat-

ing into the Marshes in any great quantities when the tide came

in".

332

It has also indirectly determined key ecological aspects like the

water regime and quality.

Before restoration started within the Doñana 2005 Project, a

total of 557 ha and 17.5 km of water courses (Sotos 307 ha,

Partido 950 ha, Gallega marsh 1800 ha, Caracoles 2665 ha and

Torre Branch 17.5 km) were cut off from Doñana's natural system,

either fully or in part, thus generally affecting the marsh ecosys-

tems as a whole and some of the areas of stable sands.

With regard to the Gallega marsh and Torre Branch (Brazo de

la Torre), isolated from their natural systems, the rest of Doñana

marshes and the River Guadalquivir respectively, they have suf-

fered a loss of biological potential in comparison with the estuary

environment, in both cases, because they have been cut from these

and the flooding dynamics have been altered23. Recovering or

restoring these areas will increase the area of marshlands in a nat-

ural state, which should generally favour their biological communi-

ties.

Altering the water regimen, restoration and management

Human activities and the loss of space, together with restora-

tion and management activities undertaken in the protected area

since it was first created, have had a notable impact on altering the

regimen of both surface and subterranean waters.The most obvi-

ous consequences are the increasingly severe floods and droughts,

with higher levels of flooding of larger areas in winter, shorter

periods of flooding during the mating and breeding season in the

National Park and a reduction of rains and water resources in gen-

eral, during spring and autumn outside the National Park.

With regard to the surface waters, since the Doñana Marshes

were first transformed, the influence of the floods of the main

Hunting of water fowl in the Doñana area may be affecting endangeredspecies like the marbled teal and the crested coot, as they are often misiden-tified because they are very similar in appearance to other species that canbe hunted, like the teal and the coot. In the photograph, a crested coot.Photograph: CENEAM files.

Year RESTAURATION UNDERTAKING

1974 Marilópez, Lobo and Almajal wells. Artificial flooding.1981 Hydrological regeneration.1984 Restoration of Montaña de Río levee

New sluices built.South-North intervention.

1986 Travieso Nuevo Canal1986-1990 Old riverbeds regain flow.

Restoration of Cangrejo Chico pond.Control of trenches in levees to Estuary.

1998 - Doñana 2005 Project.Guadiamar “Green Corridor” Project.

TABLE 1 Main interventions of hydrological restoration inthe Doñana National Park - 1973-1998.

333

The destruction of the river levee must have happened due to

the combined effect of several factors: the erosion produced by

major floods in wet years, as larger amounts of water were con-

fined in the south of the Doñana Marshes along Entremuros, the

effect of large ships sailing along the Guadalquivir and the dredg-

ing of the river20.

The Travieso Nuevo canal was finished in 1986, which will feed

a considerable flow of water into Doñana Marshes in wet years,

from south of Cangrejo Grande pond, which caused damage to

the Montaña del Rio levee due to the action of wind, opening

breaches and hence draining the marshes easily and without con-

trol through these breaches.

Penetration of the Montaña del Rio levee has caused an exces-

sive elevation of the height of the water level with widespread

flooding throughout the Marshes, including islets and elevations,

and an acceleration of the silting up process37. As a consequence,

the huts of wardens have been flooded in the Marshes, something

that had never happened in the past. In the period 1986-1990, the

canals were finally restored and cleaned, and new ones built, to

allow the Marshes to drain rapidly in the event of botulism epi-

demics that could have a disastrous effect on the waterfowl.

On the other hand, the Doñana Marshes have almost com-

pletely lost the influence of the flooding from the River

Guadalquivir, although they do have a decisive effect on the water

dynamics, especially in wet periods, as they prevent the Marshes

from draining when the water level of the river is too high.

Concerning the groundwater, pumping for domestic and agri-

cultural uses is causing the water table to steadily fall, which, in

consequence, reduces the water input from the ecotone (La Vera)

into the Marshes and from La Rocina stream21 (Committee of

Experts 1992). Moreover, a widespread loss of natural up-welling

points (ojos) has also been recorded in the Marshes, which used

to be a refuge for fish, amphibians and reptiles during the summer,

making natural droughts to be more severe44.

The transformation of the water network and harnessing the

aquifer seem to have shortened the wet season of the Marshes.

Although this has to verified quantitatively, the consequences can

already be detected in the marsh biocenosis.

The combined action of reducing the area of the Marshes,

altering the water dynamics and restoration actions taken global-

Restoration experiences in areas as complex and sensitive as wetlands indicate that success is closely linked to the development of an evaluation and monitor-ing system that enables managers to correct undesired causes and effects in real time. For this reason, and in order to guarantee the hydrological and ecologicalobjectives of the "Doñana 2005" restoration project, an extensive monitoring programme has been designed that, first of all, makes it possible to identify the ini-tial state of the system, its state during the actions and later, it provides information on the responses of the natural system to the interventions. In the picture, apartial view of the area of action concerning the control and creation of new connections between the Doñana Marshes and the neighbouring RiverGuadalquivir, the Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) and Entremuros.Phoograph: AYESA.

334

ly, have had repercussions on the water regimen of the Doñana

Marshes. On the one hand, this combination has produced exces-

sive flooding, especially in the winters of wet years, and, on the

other, it has shortened the period of flooding in spring-summer, as

the connection between ponds to the north of the Marshes, now

transformed, and those to the south, have been lost. Some indica-

tions provided by an analysis of the presence of some species of

water fowl in the Marshes of the National Park, suggest that the

Marshes dry out earlier since the canals have been restored.

A digital analysis of the time series of satellite images will give

us more accurate information on the changes that have occurred

to the duration of the wet season in winter and spring and the

area that is flooded in the Marshes. But, with the existing informa-

tion about the flood area, the height of the water column and time

taken for the Marsh to dry out7 (National Park Reports 1997,

1998 and 1999), it can be said that the level of the water and the

area of flooding have a negative impact on the biological commu-

nities of the Marshes.

In the period 1986-1998, it has been found that the high level

of flooding had a negative impact on the wintering bird colonies as

a whole, as well as harming some mammal communities. In the

95/96 and 96/97 seasons, a decline in the total number of birds

spending the winter here was observed, especially among the

geese, which was attributed to the high level of flooding35. The

mammals, especially buck and hares, suffered a high mortality rate

in years with extremely high levels of flooding, such as in the 89/90

and 95/96 seasons. Furthermore, excessive levels of flooding

seems to have a negative impact on breeding among birds, with

birds delaying the moment they lay their eggs, which reduces the

mating season.The flamingo population has seen a fall in the num-

ber of nesting pairs trying to breed, which suggests that they have

been affected by the high levels of flooding in wet years, during the

period between the opening of the Nuevo Travieso canal (1986)

and the construction of the extension of the Montaña del Rio

(1998).The crested coot also has also shown a tendency to post-

pone the moment to lay its eggs when flood waters are too high

(Field Diaries of the Doñana Biological Station).

The changes in the duration of the winter and spring floods

have also had a negative effect on plant communities, with an

increase in mortality among shrubby sea bright and a reduction of

the cover of submerged macrophytes being observed in wet years

with high levels of flooding36,42.

Shortening of the flood period seems to be responsible for at

least some of the changes in the bird life and the vegetation.

Excessive grazingin the NationalPark has reducedthe vegetation insome areas, affect-ing birds andmammals. Someresearchers sug-gest that the waterrat's distributionhas been limitedin La Vera, anarea of contactbetween theMarshes and theSands, as thereare no reeds forthe rats to spreadthrough, becausethese have allbeen trampleddown by live-stock. In the pic-ture, a magnifi-cent Mostrencabreed bull.

Photograph byJosé María Pérez de Ayala.

335

Valverde38 described the vegetation of the channels in general

terms, recording the presence of bulrushes, a species that indicates

the period of flooding, as it requires a prolonged period of swampy

ground and, although it can survive short periods of drought, it

needs to keep the roots damp to maintain its population numbers.

Sanchez, in 1974, recorded the presence of bulrushes in Caño

Travieso38 and there are also records, in the field diaries of the

Doñana Biological Station, of breeding colonies of purple herons

in the bulrushes of the Guadiamar channel.This species has disap-

peared almost completely from the natural channels of the

Marshes of the National Park, and only maintains large populations

in artificially managed sites.

With regard to the birds and the shortening of the period of

floods, the marbled teal, a globally endangered species, has been

observed to lay its eggs early and has had lower breeding success

rates in comparison with the rates observed in periods in which

flooding occurred later26.

The planned interventions, like recovering Caracoles estate

and its connection to the Travieso channel and making Montaña

del Rio permeable to tides and water discharge to estuary, should

reduce the level of the flood.

Reduction of the water quality

In Doñana, all river courses have brought in some kind of con-

tamination to a greater or lesser extent15. Heavy metal pollution

directly affects and limits the abundance and living conditions of

the aquatic flora, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, birds and mam-

mals. Some heavy metals and pesticides bio-accumulate, so they

can move up the food chain to higher levels, thus increasing their

area of influence to include other species16,22,24,32,34,40.

An excessive inflow of nutrients, particularly of N and P, stim-

ulates the growth of phytoplankton to the extreme that it causes

harmful explosions of algae that can be extremely toxic and can

kill birds and mammals19,27. In Doñana, the high mortality rate

among water fowl is well known, put down to epidemics caused

presumably by botulism. But one should not rule out the influence

of toxic algae in these events.

Water fowl have been described as important vectors of nutri-

ents into aquatic systems16. Certain indications of this phenome-

non occur in Doñana in late spring, when the birds tend to con-

centrate in the few places where the flood waters remain.A con-

centration of birds during the process of changing their feathers

promotes the explosion of blooms of toxic algae.

The submerged aquatic vegetation is a key factor in a whole

range of natural processes, due to the roles it plays in the ecosys-

tem, like stabilising and immobilising sediments, as primary produc-

ers and as habitats-refuges for fish fingerlings, and providing food

for a large number and variety of herbivore waterfowl. Large

amounts of sediment in suspension also limit the growth of

macrophytes, hence affecting the entire food chain of the wet-

land ecosystem.

Improving water quality is the aspect that creates the great-

est uncertainty in the restoration project. On the one hand

there appears to have been a clear improvement in water qual-

ity in the El Rocio Marsh, after the waste water treatment plant

was brought into operation, and one would expect that water

conditions will improve in a similar fashion throughout the

Doñana district in the near future. But, on the other hand, it has

proved impossible to date, to eliminate the transport of sedi-

ments in suspension into the marshes from Los Sotos and

Laguna de los Reyes streams.With regard to the behaviour of

agricultural pollutants, to date, the impact that the input from

Entemuros will have since it has been restored and re-connect-

ed with the Doñana Marshes, is unknown.

UNSUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES

Although the exploitation of resources does not form part

of the Doñana 2005 Project, these activities can affect the state

of some biological communities that are among the objects of

the project.

There is unsustainable fish farming in the Torre Branch and

around Doñana, which is particularly serious with regard to the

capture of young fish, causing an inevitable affect on the popu-

lation dynamics of several species18.

Hunting of water fowl in the Doñana area is also affecting

endangered species like the marbled teal and the coot18.

Overgrazing in the National Park has reduced the vegeta-

tion in some areas, affecting birds and mammals. The distribu-

tion of the water rat in La Vera - a contact zone between the

Marshes and the scrubland - seems to be limited as there are

no reeds for them to disperse through, as they have all been

trampled down by the livestock37.

INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC SPECIES

The introduced species that are causing most ecological

harm in Doñana are the eucalyptus, the Louisiana crayfish and

the ruddy duck.There is also a potential danger from the water

fern Azolla filiculoides and the Florida red eared slider

(Trachemys scripta).These latter two species could affect both

the abundance of submerged macrophytes and the populations

of native turtles.

The introduction of the Louisiana crayfish in 1974 has

wrought a change in the Doñana Marsh food chain, benefiting

and increasing the populations of its predators (herons, sea

gulls, glossy ibis, spoonbills, storks), most probably to the detri-

ment of other herbivorous species like ducks and coots, and pos-

sibly to small wading birds that suffer from greater competition

from these other crayfish consumers28.

The ruddy duck may endanger the white headed duck.

Fortunately, control programmes seem to be limiting the spread of

the species.

SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS

OF THE DOÑANA 2005 RESTORATION PROJECT

During this initial period of the Project, endangered species

that had disappeared almost completely, or which only nested spo-

radically and in small numbers have been recovered as nesting

species.The bittern disappeared as a nesting species in the 60s, but

it returned to nest in the Marshes of the National Park in the

springs of 2002 and 2003, with 7 and 8 breeding areas being locat-

ed respectively. The crested coot has undergone a spectacular

recovery, with 40-42 pairs nesting in 2002 to between 68 and 74

pairs in 2003. The marbled teal, a globally endangered species,

seems to have started the process of recovering its breeding pop-

ulation numbers, with an estimated 86 to 103 breeding pairs iden-

tified in 2002 and between 68 and 84 in 2003.

The negative aspects detected in this period include the

appearance of the exotic fern species Azolla filiculoides, which is

spreading alarmingly in the Doñana Marshes.

On the other hand, there was an elevated mortality rate

among flamingo chicks born in Doñana in 2000, caused by them

eating toxic algae14, hence confirming the danger that cyanobacte-

ria can represent for the biological communities, highlighting the

importance of water quality in this project.

High mortality rates among water fowl are well known in Doñana. These have been put down to epidemics caused by botulism, but one should not rule outthe possible influence of toxic algae in these deaths, and in the deaths of birds of prey that are often found during the breeding season. In the picture, thecourtship of a pair of avocets in Doñana.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

The potential nesting sites of some birds are limited as the vegetation hasbeen decimated by overgrazing. This is the case of the purple heron thatstarted nesting in Juncabalejo as soon as a herbivore exclusion area was cre-ated. In view of the favourable results, at least for some endangered speciesand for communities of macrophytes included in the objectives of theDoñana 2005 project, it can be deduced that precautions should be taken toavoid excessive flooding of the marshes after restoration, and that specialattention should be paid to the quality of the inflowing waters.Photograph CENEAM.

337

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2. BAYÁN, B., 2001. La Diálisis de los Arroyos. Revista Doñana 2005.Noviembre nº 1. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

3. BAYÁN, B., 2002. El agua de El Rocío: Claves de la actuación nº2:Depuración de las aguas residuales de El Rocío. Revista Doñana 2005.Abril nº 2. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

4. BAYÁN JARDIN, B., CASAS GRANDE, J., RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI,A., SAURA MARTÍNEZ, J., URDIALES ALONSO, C., 2001. ProyectoDoñana 2005: Restauración hidrológica de las marismas y cuencas ver-tientes a Doñana. Ed. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

5. BAYÁN, B., 2002. La Marisma al Natural: Claves de la actuación nº 4:Restauración de la Marisma Gallega. Revista Doñana 2005. Noviembrenº 3. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

6. BAYÁN, B., 2003. Fase I. Frenar las arenas: Claves de la actuación nº3.Restauración del Arroyo del Partido. Revista Doñana 2005. Abril nº 4.Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

7. BAYÁN, B., 2003. Claves de la actuación nº 6: Restauración del CañoTravieso. Fase 1. Revista Doñana 2005. Noviembre nº 5. Ministerio deMedio Ambiente.

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10. SANTAMARÍA, L., MONTES,C., HOOTSMANS, M.J.M. 1996.Influence of Environmental Parameters on the Biomass Development ofRuppia drepanensis Populations in Doñana National Park: TheImportance of Conditions Affecting the Underwater Light Climate.International Journal of Salt Lake Research 5: 157-180.

11. FIGUEROLA, J., GREEN, A.J. AND SANTAMARÍA, L., 2002.Comparative dispersal effectiveness of wigeongrass seeds by waterfowlwintering in south-west Spain: quantitative and qualitative aspects.Journal of Ecology 90: 989-1001.

12. FIGUEROLA J., GREEN A.J., SANTAMARIA L., 2003. Passive internaltransport of aquatic organisms by waterfowl in Doñana, south-west Spain.Global Ecology and Biogeography 12: 427-436.

13. DÍAZ-DELGADO, R., GREEN, A., SANTAMARÍA, L., GRILLAS,P.,FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., CHANS, J.J., BRAVO, M.A.,CASTELLANOS, E., URDIALES, C., BAYÁN, B., 2003. La teledetec-ción como herramienta de restauración en la Actuación Nº 6 del ProyectoDoñana 2005 (Finca de Los Caracoles). En: Actas de las VII Jornadas dela Asociación Española de Ecología Terrestre. Ed. CREAF. UniversidadAutónoma de Barcelona.

MONITORING AND EVALUATIONTHE KEY TO THE DOÑANA 2005 RESTORATION PROJECT

14. ALONSO-ANDICOBERRY, C., GARCÍA-VILLADA, L., LÓPEZ-RODAS, V., COSTAS, E., 2002. Catastrophic mortality of flamingos in aSpanish national park caused by cyanobacteria. Veterinary Record 151:706-707.

15. ARAMBURU, P., CABRERA, F., GONZÁLEZ, R., 1996. Quality evalu-ation of the surface waters entering the Doñana National Park (SWSpain). The Science of the Total Environment 191: 185-196.

16. BAOS R. BLAS, J. HIRALDO, F. GÓMEZ, G., JIMÉNEZ, G.,GONZÁLEZ, M.J., BENITO, V. VÉLEZ, D., MONTORO, R., 2003.

Niveles de metales pesados y arsénico en las aves de Doñana y su entornotras el vertido de las minas de Aznalcóllar. Efecto a nivel de individuo eimpacto en las poblaciones. En Corredor Verde de Guadiamar, 2003.Ciencia y Restauración del Río Guadiamar. Consejería de MedioAmbiente.

17. BAYÁN, B., DELIBES, M., 1986. Doñana, con el agua al cuello. Cauce2000, 5: 72-77.

18. CALDERÓN, J., RAMO, C., CHANS, J.J., GARCÍA, L., 1996. Plan degestión cinegética para el ánsar común en las marismas delGuadalquivir. Convenio Cooperación IARA-CSIC, 224 p.

19. CARRILLO, E.; FERRERO, L.M.; ALONSO-ANDICOBERRY, C.;BASANTA, A.; MARTIN, A.; LÓPEZ RODAS, V., COSTAS, E., 2003.Interstrain variability in toxin production in populations of the cyanobac-terium Microcystis aeruginosa from water-supply reservoirs of Andalusiaand lagoons of Doñana National Park (southern Spain). Phycologia42(3).

20. CASAS, J., URDIALES, C., 1995. Introducción a la gestión hidraúlicade las marismas del Parque Nacional de Doñana (SO de España). En:Bases ecológicas para la restauración de humedales en la cuenca mediter-ránea. Consejería de Medio Ambiente, J.A.:165-189.

21. CASTELLS M. (Coordinator), CRUZ J., CUSTODIO E., GARCIANOVO F.,GAUDEMAR J.P., GONZALEZ VALLVE J.L., GRANADOSV., MAGRANER A., ROMAN C., SMART, M., VAN DER MAAREL, E.(International Commission of Experts appointed by the President ofAnadalusia Regional Government), Dictamen sobre estrategias para eldesarrollo socioeconómico sostenible del entorno de Doñana.1992. E.,131 p.

22. DELIBES, M., JIMÉNEZ, B., RIVILLA, J.C., ALÍS, S., GONZÁLEZ,M.J., 2003. Metales pesados y arsénico en heces de Nutria (Lutra lutra)del Río Guadiamar tras el Vertido Tóxico. En Corredor Verde deGuadiamar, 2003. Ciencia y Restauración del Río Guadiamar. Consejeríade Medio Ambiente.

23. FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., DRAKE, P., ARIAS, A.M., GARCÍA, D.,2000. Peces de Doñana y su Entorno. Organismo autónomo de ParquesNacionales. Ministerio de medio Ambiente.

24. FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., DRAKE, P., ARIAS, A.M., GARCÍA-GONZÁLEZ,O., BALDÓ, F., MORENO, R., GORDILLO, M.J.,SÁNCHEZ, GARCÍA, P.J., C., ARRIBAS, C., GARCÍA, D. 2000.Efectos del vertido tóxico de las minas de Aznalcóllar sobre la fauna pis-cícola del río Guadiamar y Estuario del Guadalquivir. En Programa deinvestigación del Corredor Verde del Guadiamar. PICOVER 1999-2002.Junta de Andalucía.

25. GAVALA Y LABORDE, J., 1931-1952. Memoria explicativa de la hojanº 1002 (Dos Hermanas), 1017 (El Asperillo), 1018 (El Rocío), 1033(Palacio de Doñana-Las Marismillas) del Mapa Geológico de España1:50.000. IGME, Madrid 1-23; 1-48; 1-68;

26. GREEN, A.J., 1998. Clutch size, brood size and brood emergence in theMarbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris in the Marismas delGuadalquivir; southwestern Spain. Ibis 140: 670-675.

27. HAVENS, K., BARRY, H., 1999. Draft Lake Okeechobee conceptualmodel. En Central and Southern Florida project comprehensive Reviewstudy.

28. HIRALDO, F., TABLADO, Z., 2003. Efectos del Cangrejo americano sobre lascomunidades de Vertebrados de Doñana. Informe final. Octubre 2003.

29. Instituto de la Juventud, 1988. Recuperación del patrimonio cultural deDoñana y su entorno. Ministerio de Cultura.

30. KITCHELL, J., SCHINDLER, D., HERWING, B., POST, D., OLSON,M., 1999 Nutrient cycling at landscape scale: The role of diel foragingmigrations by geese at the bosque del Apache national Wildlife Refuge,New Mexico.Limnol. Oceanogr., 44 (3, part 2):828-836.

31. MANNY, B.A., JOHNSON, W.C., WETZEL, R.G., 1994. Nutrient addi-tions by waterfowl to lakes and reservoirs: predicting their effects on pro-ductivity and water quality. Hydrobiologia 279/280: 121-132.

32. MERINO, J.A., MURILLO, J.M., CABRERA, F., MARAÑÓN, T.,LÓPEZ, R., MADEJÓN, P., MARTÍNEZ, F. & LAZO, O. 2000.Evaluación de los efectos del vertido de las minas de Aznalcóllar sobre laconcentración de metales pesados en las especies más significativasdesde el punto de vista trófico. En Programa de investigación del CorredorVerde del Guadiamar. PICOVER 1999-2002. Junta de Andalucía.

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34. PRAT, N., TOJA, J., SOLÁ, C., BURGOS, M.D., PLANS, M., RIER-ADEVALL, M., 1999. Effect of dumping and cleaning activities on theaquatic ecosystems of the Guadiamar River following a toxic flood; TheScience of the Total Environment 242 (1-3). Special Issue: The environ-mental impact of the mine tailing accident in Aznalcóllar (south-westSpain): 231-248.

35. PERSSON, H., 2003. Anser anser, Greylag Goose. BWP Update Vol. 4No. 3: 181-216.

36. POST, D., TAYLOR, P., KITCHELL, J., OLSON, M., SCHINDLER, D.,HERWIG, B., 1998. The role of Migratory Waterfowl as Nutrient Vectorsin a Managed Wetland. Conservation Biology: 910-920.

37. ROMÁN, J., FERRERAS, P., DELIBES, M., 2001. ¿Puede ser el excesode ganado un condicionante para la presencia de la rata de agua enDoñana?. V Jornadas de la Sociedad Española de Conservación y Estudiode los Mamíferos (SECEM).

38. SÁNCHEZ, A., 1974. Sobre la Reproducción de la Focha Común (Fulicaatra, L.) en Las Marismas del Guadalquivir. Boletín Central de Ecología.

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40. TEJEDO, M., REQUES, R., 2003. Evaluación de los efectos del veridoTóxico de las minas de Aznalcóllar sobre la comunidad de anfibios delRío Guadiamar. En Corredor Verde de Guadiamar, 2003. Ciencia yRestauración del Río Guadiamar. Consejería de Medio Ambiente.

41. TOMAS VIVES P., (ed). 1996. Monitoring Mediterranean Wetlands: AMethodological Guide. MedWet Publication; Wetlands International,Slimbridge, UK and ICN, Lisbon. 150 p.

42. URDIALES C., 1999. El sistema de la Montaña del Río en la Marismadel Parque Nacional de Doñana: Función, estado y propuestas deactuación. Parque Nacional de Doñana. Junio 1999.

43. VALVERDE, J.A., 1960. Vertebrados de la Marisma del Guadalquivir.Archivos del Instituto de Aclimatación de Almería.

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NOTES AND REFERENCES

Biodiversity is defined as "the collection of genomes,

species, and ecosystems occurring in a geographically

defined region". The main features that characterise the most

important ecosystems and species in Doñana, and their function-

al relations,have been addressed from many points of view in the

course of previous chapters, always following the discourse of

water. This chapter brings together the lists of species of those

biological groups in Doñana that have been studied in depth: ver-

tebrates, crustaceans and rotifers, continental water algae and

vascular plants.

Other groups have been investigated, such as several orders

of insects, fungi, lichens and bryophytes, but have not been

included for some reason or other. It should be pointed out that

the objective of this annex was not to list all reported records

in the area, but rather to demonstrate the biological diversity of

Doñana through some well known groups.

This description and these lists, presented in the form of an

annex, are based on the report drawn up by Juan Bautista

Gallego in 2000, and the new data and corrections provided by

a range of different authors that have taken part in this publica-

tion. Recent revisions of Doñana freshwater algae and several

zooplancton groups have yielded a large number of newly iden-

tified taxa. For this reason the present edition contains a broad-

er species list that the Spanish edition of the book (García Novo

& Marín Cabrera, 2005).

FAUNA

A substantial part of the data published on the global diver-

sity of animal species in Doñana National Park were initially pro-

vided by the book Doñana Datos Básicos (Junta de Andalucía -

1999), which mentions 319 animal species recorded in the zone,

341

not including invertebrates. Figures for the number of vertebrate

species in Doñana differ from those provided by other, older

sources.Hence, Fernandez (1982) counted a total of 272 species

and García Novo counted 428 species in the MaB report (1994).

These three sources of information provide detailed data for

five groups of vertebrates. A comparative analysis shows that

there is no homogeneity in the number of species in any of the

groups.The most striking cases are those of the fish, in which the

total number varies considerably, depending on whether or not

the species found in the estuary are included. In the bird group

too the figures vary, as there is no common criterion concern-

ing whether or not to consider passing species or species occa-

sionally sighted. Finally, the difference in the number of mammal

species is striking, probably due to the inclusion of three species

of bats, a group that was little studied until recently in Doñana

National Park, cetaceans and a new species of micro-mammal,

Crocidura suaveolens.

As in most of the world, the invertebrate fauna of the

Doñana is less well known.There is no exhaustive list of all the

species recorded in the zone, with the exception of some

groups like coleopterans (only some families), dragonflies, but-

terflies, and moths1.

Invertebrates

The groups of species that have focussed the attention of

most studies are the aquatic invertebrates, both from the marsh

area and from fresh water bodies. Research has enabled scien-

tists to reveal the biological wealth of the temporary ponds,

where there are still many species remaining to be recorded,

especially among rotifers and crustaceans, some of which are

endemic species, like Dussartius baeticus (Dussart 1976) and

Lecane donyanensis (Galindo et al. 1994). One species in partic-

ular has been widely investigated, given the repercussions it has

for Doñana wetlands as an invading species, mainly the Marshes.

This is the Louisiana crayfish (Procambarus clarkii).Among ter-

restrial invertebrates, work has focussed on the study of butter-

flies, moths, and ants, with a new species, Cataglyphis floricola,

discovered in the early 90s.

TABLE 1Number of species of vertebretes of Doñana.

VVERTEBRATES FERNÁNDEZ (1982) MAB ((1994) DOÑANA BASIC DATA

Fishes 7 7 +30 estuary 24

Amphibians 12 12 11

Reptiles 19 19 21

Birds 205 361 226

Mammals 29 29 37

TOTAL 272 428 319

Doñana species checklists

342

The micro-crustaceans and rotifers of Doñana*.

In the aquatic environments of Doñana, crustaceans are the

largest group of arthropods.With the exception of the Estuary

and its banks, where decapods play an important role, the largest

amount of biomass and activity is accounted for by the micro-

crustaceans of the plankton and benthos in the inland bodies of

water. Moreover, they offer an extraordinary diversity that, once

again, highlights the role played by water in Doñana's biodiversi-

ty.

This list is the first taxonomic review of rotifers and micro-

crustaceans of the zooplankton of Doñana and its area. It has

been compiled by Arancha Arechederra and co-workers, studying

the reports of 19 scientific publications from 1962 to the present

day, up-dating or correcting the taxa mentioned. Early research

was conducted by pioneers such as Dussart and De Ridder. Later,

the study of zooplankton has continued thanks to the work done

by the Limnology Group of the Department of Plant Biology and

Ecology of the University of Seville since the 70s.

The table includes 205 taxa that have been identified to

species level: 80 rotifers and 126 micro-crustaceans (50

Cladocerans, 25 Ostracods, 23 Cyclopoids, 13 Diaptomids, 8

Harpacticoids, 5 Anostraca, 1 Notostraca and 1 Conchostraca).

Taxa only identified to genus level have been excluded.

The species marked with an * are new reports for Doñana.

The number of Cladocera species, 50, is very high as the total

number of species described by Alonso (1998) for all the ponds

of Mainland Spain as a whole, is 64. By the same token, the num-

ber of Rotifers, 80, appearing in Doñana, is relatively high in com-

parison with the 394 Rotifer taxa (species and varieties) report-

ed for Spain by Velasco (1990).With regard to the Harpacticoids

and Cyclopoids, the number of species reported in the zone is

relatively low if we compare it with Dussart's results (1967) for

European continental waters, where he reported a total of 264

species: 139 Harpacticoids, 82 Cyclopoids and 43 Calanoids; of

the latter, 30 were Diaptomids. The 13 species of Diaptomids

reported in Doñana, in comparison, is high.

The zooplankton species of the aquatic ecosystems of

Doñana and the surrounding area are usually from taxa with a cir-

cum-Mediterranean distribution, together with typical species of

North Africa and the Ethiopian region. Other common species in

these bodies of water are those with a tropical and pan-tropical

distribution. These ecosystems are also an enclave for endemic

species from the Balearic Islands region, like the Cladocerans:

Alona iberica, Alona azorica, Alona salina, Daphnia mediterranea,

Daphnia hispanica and Ephemeroporus margalefi, and the

Anostracean Branchipus cortesi.The singularity of Doñana's zoo-

plankton species is rounded off with endemic species that have

only been described in this zone, such as the Diaptomid

Dussartius baeticus and the rotifer Lecane donyanensis.

* Arancha Arechederra, David León, Khalid Fahd, Julia Toja and Laura Serrano.Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the University of Seville. Data from Alonso, 1985 and 1998; Armengol, 1976; Furest and Toja, 1981; Fahd et al.,2000: Galindo et al., 1994; Mazuelos et al., 1992; Serrano and Toja, 1998; Arechederra etal., in press; León et al., in press. Taxonomic names originally given by the authors of pub-lications have been retained unless more recent research has evidenced a different identi-fication. Taxa where identification is uncertain have been indicated as cf. or sp. and fur-ther studies are under way to their precise identification or new description.

TABLE 2Checklist of aquatic microinvertebrate species of well studied groups found in Doñana.

343

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

Ascomorpha cf. saltans*Brachionus angularisBrachionus bidentataBrachionus calyciflorusBrachionus falcatusBrachionus novae-zelandiaeBrachionus patulusBrachionus plicatilisBrachionus quadridentatusBrachionus urceolarisBrachionus variabilisCephalodella gibbaColurella obtusaDipleuchlanis propatulaFilinia longisetaFilinia opoliensisFilinia terminalisHexarthra fennicaKeratella cochlearisKeratella quadrataKeratella tropicaLecane bullaLecane leontinaLecane lunaLecane lunarisLecane quadridentataLepadella patellaLophocharis salpinaMytilina mucronataNotholca acuminataPlatyias quadricornisTrichotria tetractisTestudinella patinaTripleuchlanis plicata

Triops cancriformis

Alona affinisAlona azoricaAlona costataAlona rectangulaAlona salinaAlonella excisaAlonella nanaBosmina longirostrisCeriodaphnia dubiaCeriodaphnia laticaudataCeriodaphnia quadrangulaCeriodaphnia reticulataChydorus sphaericus

Cephalodella catellinaColurella uncinata*Lecane nanaMytilina cf. ventralis*Testudinella clypeata

Daphnia atkinsoniMoina salina

ROTIFERAAnuraeopsis cf. fissa*Asplachna brightwelliAsplanchnopus multicepsBeauchampiella eudactylotaBrachionus budapestinensisBrachionus leydigy*Cephalodella cf ventripes*Cephalodella forficulaConochilus dossuariosEpiphanes macrourusEuchlanis dapidulaEuchlanis dilatataKeratella procurvaKeratella valgaLecane candidaLecane cf. mucronata*Lecane closterocercaLecane donyanaensisLecane furcataLecane haliclystaLecane lamellataLecane ohioensisLecane stichaeaLecane submagnaLepadella cf. acuminata*Lepadella persimilisLepadella quadricarinataLepadella rhomboidesLophocharis oxysternonMytilina bisulcataPolyarthra vulgarisPompholyx sulcataProales globuliferaSynchaeta cf. oblonga*Testudinella cf. mucronata*Trichocerca bidensTrichocerca elongataTrichocerca gillardiTrichocerca mollisTrichocerca myersiTrichocerca rattus

ANOSTRACABranchipus cortesi*Branchipus schaefferiChirocephalus diaphanusStreptocephalus torvicornis*Tanymastix stagnalis

NOTOSTRACA

SPINICAUDATACyzicus grubei

CLADOCERAAcroperus harpaeAlona ibericaAlona quadrangularisAlona tenuicaudisCeriodaphnia setosaDaphnia bolivariDaphnia hispanicaEsthaterosporus gauthieriGraptoleberis testudinariaMacrothrix laticornisMegafenestra aurita

COPEPODA CALANOIDACopidodiaptomus steueriDiaptomus castorDiaptomus cyaneus

COPEPODA CYCLOPOIDAAcanthocyclops cf. venustusAcanthocyclops vernalisCryptocyclops bicolorCyclops furciferDiacyclops bisetosusDiacyclops languidoidesDiacyclops langidusMegacyclops gigasMetacyclops lusitanusThermocyclops dybowskiiTropocyclops prasinus

COPEPODAHARPACTICOIDAAttheyella crassaBryocamptus pigmaeus

OSTRACODACyclocypris laevisCypricercus reticulatusCypridopsis parvaCypridopsis viduaCyprinotus salinusCypris puberaDarwinula stevensoniEucypris virensHerpetocypris reptansIsocypris beauchampiNotodromas monachus

Diaptomus castanetiNeolovenula alluaudi

Halicyclops cf. brevispinosus*Metacyclops planus*Oithona cf. nana

Bryocamptus cf. minutusHorsiella brevicornis*Nitocra lacustris

Ilocypris decipiens

Daphnia longispinaDaphnia magnaDaphnia meditrerraneaDaphnia parvulaDaphnia pulicariaDaphnia cf. hispanicaDiaphanosoma brachyuraDunhevedia crassaEphemeropus margalefiEurycercus lamellatusIlyocryptus silvaeducensisLeydigia acanthocercoidesLeydigia leydigiiMacrothrix hirsuticornisMacrothrix roseaMoina brachiataMoina micruraOxyurella tenuicaudisPleuroxus aduncusScapholeberis rammneriScapholeberis mucronataSimocephalus exspinosusSimocephalus vetulusTretocephala ambigua

Arctodiaptomus salinusArctodiaptomus wierzejskiiCopidodiaptomus numidicusDiaptomus kenitraensisDussartius baeticusEudiaptomus vulgarisHemidiaptomus roubaouiMixodiaptomus incrassatus

Acanthocyclops cf. kieferiAcanthocyclops robustusDiacyclops bicuspidatusEucyclops serrulatusMacrocyclops albidusMegacyclops viridisMetacyclops minutusParacyclops cf. fimbriatus

Attheyella trispinosaCletocampus retrogressusCanthocamptus staphylinus

Candona neglectaCypria ophthalmicaCypricercus affinisCypricercus obliquusCypridopsis aculeataCypridopsis newtoniCypris bispinosaHerpetocypris chevreuxiHeterocypris cf. barbaraHeterocypris exiguaHeterocypris incongruensIlocypris gibbaLimnocythere inopinata

search effort deployed after the Boliden mine tailings spill, in

April 1998, has helped to raise the number of species recorded.

Together with the extinction of such well known species as

the Atlantic sturgeon, the exotic species are

one of the major threats. A good example of

this is the dangers facing one fish species, the

Andalusian fartet (Aphanius baeticus), classed

as in danger of extinction.

344

TABLE 3Species of butterflies found in the Doñana National Park.

HESPERIDAE NYMPHALIDAE PAPILIONIDAE

Tymelicus actaeon Vanessa atalanta Papilio machaon

Rottemburg Cynthia cardui Iphiclides podalirius

Gegenes nostrodamus(1) Argynnis paphia (2) Zerynthia rumina

Carcharodus alceae Issoria lathonia PIERIDAE

LYCAENIDAE Malitaea phoebe Colias crocea

Laeosopis roboris Charaxes jasius Gonepteryx rhamni

Satyrium spini Pararge aegeria Gonepteryx cleopatra

Satyrium esculi Lasiommata megera Euchloe crameri

Callophris rubi Coenonympha pamphilus Euchloe belemia

Lycaena phlaeas Maniola jurtina Euchloe tagis

Lampides boeticus Melanargia occitanica Pieris brassicae

Cacyreus marshalli(3) Hipparchia statilinus Pieris rapae

Leptotes pirithous Hipparchia fidia Pontia daplidice

Zizeeeria knysna Pyronia tithonus

Celastrina argiolus Pyronia bathseba (2)

Plebejus argus Pyronia cecilia

Aricia cramera Danaus plexippus (3)

Polyommatus semiargus

Polyommatus icarus

(1) Observed by Huertas Dionisio (1977)(2) Observed by Venero (1981)(3) Observed since the work by Rodriguez (1991). Danaus plexippus has been reported frequently in coastal areas of theMediterranean and the south of Cadiz province. The caterpillar feeds on Asclepias curassavica and Gomphocarpus fruticosus, twointroduced Asclepiadaceae species. Caterpillars have been seen on these plants in the area of Las Marismillas. Cacyreus marshalliis a species of South African origin that has recently invaded the Iberian Peninsular, from the Balearic Islands. The caterpillarfeeds on ornamental geraniums. It is frequently found in the yard of the Palacio de Doñana and other settlements within the Parkand its surroundings (Matalascañas tourist resort).This list includes species mentioned in the Rodriguez Ph.D Thesis (1991). This Thesis includes reports from other authors thathad worked in the Biological Reserve, and which are cited in the references.

Vertebrates

FISH

The works of Fernandez-Delgado (1987) provided the initial

list of fish, the number of which varies ostensibly depending on

whether the Estuary area is included or not. From here, there-

* Species extinct in the area** Species found inside the National Park. Based on data supplied by Carlos Fernández-Delgado

DIADROMOUS SPECIES

Petromyzon marinus

Acipenser Studio*

Alosa alosa*

Alosa fallax

Anguilla anguilla**

Chelon labrosus**

Liza ramada**

Liza aurata**

Liza saliens**

Mugil cephalus**

Sardina pilchardus

Engraulis encrasicholus

Hyporhamphus picarti

Dicentrarchus labrax

Dicentrarchus punctatus

Pomadasys incisus

Diplodus bellottii

Diplodus sargus

Diplodus vulgaris

TABLE 4Species of fish found in the Doñana National Park and its surroundings.

Stromateus fiatola

Sparus aurata

Umbrina cirrosa

Umbrina canariensis

Argyrosomus regius

Aphia minuta

Dicologoglossa cuneata

Solea senegalensis

Solea vulgaris

Pomatomus saltator

Lipophrys trigloides

MARINE SPECIES

Barbus sclateri**

Squalius pyrenaicus**

Cobitis paludica**

Atherina boyeri**

Gobius niger

Gobius paganellus

Aphanius baeticus**

Gasterosteus gymnurus*

Syngnathus abaster

Syngnathus acus

Pomatoschistus microps

Pomatoschistus minutus

FRESHWATER SPECIES

Carassius auratus**

Cyprinus carpio**

Gambusia holbrooki**

Micropterus salmoides**

Lepomis gibbosus**

Fundulus heteroclitus*

AMPHIBIANS

11 species of amphibians have been recorded in the Doñana

area.The conservation problems related to the alarming fall in

the number of specimens per species is caused fundamentally by

them being run over, by fishing in the marsh area, by habitat des-

truction and use of pesticides, especially in the rice fields. It has

also been suggested that the introduction of the Louisiana cray-

fish in 1973 has led to a significant reduction in the abundance

of amphibians, due to direct predation or competition for

resources.

REPTILES

The number of reptile species reported in Doñana amounts

to 21. A large part of the research conducted has focussed on

the tortoise (Testudo graeca).Outside the Parks,but inside their

area of influence, there are other species like the chameleon.

The conservation problems concerning these species are

often the same as for the amphibians. But it is also important to

point out the effects of myxomatosis that repeatedly reduced

rabbit population in the 1960s and 1970s.As the rabbit was one

345

TABLE 5Species of Amphibians found in the Doñana area.

URODELA

Triturus pygmaeus*

Triturus boscai*

Pleurodeles waltl

ANURA

Alytes cisternasii*

Discoglossus galganoi*

Pelobates cultripes

Pelodytes ibericus*

Bufo bufo

Bufo calamita

Hyla meridionalis*

Rana perezi

TABLE 6Species of Reptiles found in the Doñana area.

Testudo graeca

Emys orbicularis

Mauremys leprosa

Dermochelys coriacea

Chelonia mydas

Tarentola mauritanica

Acanthodactylus erythrurus

Lacerta lepida

Podarcis hispanica

Psammodromus algirus

Chalcides bedriagai

Chalcides chalcides

Blanus cinereus

Coluber hippocrepis

Coronella girondica

Elaphe scalaris

Macroprotodon cucullatus

Malpolon monspessulanus

Natrix maura

Natrix natrix

Vipera latasti

* Species endemic of the Iberian Peninsula.

346

TABLE 7Species of birds found in the Doñana area.

Acanthis cannabina

Accipiter gentilis

Accipiter nisus

Acrocephalus arundinaceus

Acrocephalus dumetorum

Acrocephalus melanopogon

Acrocephalus paludicola

Acrocephalus palustris

Acrocephalus schoenobaenus

Acrocephalus scirpaceus

Actitis hypoleucos

Aegithalos caudatus

Aegypius monachus

Aix galericulata

Alauda arvensis

Alca torda

Alcedo atthis

Alectoris rufa

Alle alle

Amandava amandava

Anas americana

Anas acuta

Anas clypeata

Anas crecca

Anas cygnoides

Anas discors

Anas penelope

Anas platyrhynchos

Anas querquedula

Anas strepera

Anser albifrons albifrons

Anser albifrons flavirostri

Anser anser anser

Anser anser rubirostri

Anser brachyrhychus

Anser caerulescens

Anser erytropus

Anser fabalis fabalis

Anser fabalis rossicus

Anser indicus

Asio flammeus

Asio otus

Athene noctua

Aythya collaris

Aythya ferina

Aythya fuligula

Aythya marila

Aythya nyroca

Botaurus stellaris

Branta bernicla

Branta canadiensis

Branta leucopsis

Branta ruficollis

Bubo bubo

Bubulcus ibis

Bucephala clangula

Bucephala islándica

Burhinus oedicnemus

Buteo buteo

Buteo rufinus

of the basic prey items of the large vertebrate hunters of the

Doñana area, the effect of a shortage of rabbits was that these

were replaced by large reptiles (snakes, smooth lizard), whose

populations suffered a striking reduction.

BIRDS

Doñana's close relations with birds can be seen from the

fact that the area may be used by six million birds in one year

alone.With regard to the number of species, there is also wide

variation in this group, depending fundamentally on the criteria

used: 205 species according to Fernandez (1982); 342 species in

Llandrés and Urdiales (1990); 361 species in García et al. (1989).

Research has concentrated mainly on water fowl in the

broadest sense, of which there are aerial censuses of differing

Anthus campestris

Anthus cervinus

Anthus novaeseelandiae

Anthus pratensis

Anthus spinoletta

Anthus trivialis

Antropoides virgo

Apus apus

Apus melba

Apus pallidus

Aquila adalberti

Aquila chrysaetos

Aquila clanga

Aquila pomarina

Aquila rapax

Ardea cinerea

Ardea purpurea

Ardeola ralloides

Arenaria interpres

Asio capensis

periods of time, from five to one year series, with special inci-

dence on some species like the greylag goose (Anser anser), the

marbled teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris), the white-headed

duck (Oxyura leucocephala), the spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia)

and the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber). None water bird

species include the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti),

which is the species that has been most studied, due to its crit-

ical conservation situation. Other birds of prey have also been

widely observed and studied, like the black kite (Milvus

migrans), the red kite (Milvus milvus) and the marsh harrier

(Circaetus aeruginosus).

By number, the leading species are the greylag goose and

shoveler duck (Anas clypeata), with over 70,000 individuals per

winter season, followed by the teal (Anas crecca) and the

347

Calandrella brachydactyla

Callandrela raytal

Calandrella rufescens

Calidris alba

Calidris alpina

Calidris canutus

Calidris ferruginea

Calidris maritima

Calidris melanotos

Calidris minuta

Calidris temminckii

Caprimulgus europaeus

Caprimulgus ruficollis

Carduelis carduelis

Carduelis chloris

Carduelis spinus

Carpodacus erythrinus

Catharacta skua

Cercotrichas galactotes

Certhia brachydactyla

Cettia cetti

Charadrius alexandrinus

Charadrius dubius

Charadrius hiaticula

Charadrius morinellus

Chersophilus duponti

Chlidonias hybridus

Chlidonias leucopterus

Chlidonias niger

Ciconia ciconia

Ciconia nigra

Circaetus gallicus

Circus aeruginosus

Circus cyaneus

Circus pygargus

Cisticola juncidis

Clamator glandarius

Clangula hyemalis

Coccothraustes coccothraustes

Columba oenas

Columba palumbus

Coracias garrulus

Corvus corax

Corvus corone

Corvus monedula

Coturnix coturnix

Crex crex

Cuculus canorus

Cyanopica cyana

Cygnus olor

Cygnus columbianus

Delichon urbica

Dendrocopos major

Egretta alba

Egretta garzetta

Egretta gularis

Elanus caeruleus

Emberiza aureola

Emberiza bruniceps

Emberiza calandra

Emberiza cirlus

Emberiza hortulana

Emberiza pusilla

Emberiza rustica

Emberiza schoeniclus

Eremophila alpestris

Erithacus rubecula

Erytripygia galactotes

Estrildia senegalesa

Falco biarmicus

Falco columbarius

Falco eleonore

Falco naumanni

Falco peregrinus peregrinus

Falco peregrinus brookei

Falco subbuteo

Falco tinnunculus

Falco vespertinus

Ficedula albicollis

Ficedula hypoleuca

Ficedula parva

Fratercula arctica

Fringilla coelebs

Fringilla montifringilla

Fulica atra

Fulica cristata

Fulmarulus glacialis

Galerida cristata

Galerida theklae

Gallinago gallinago

Gallinago media

Gallinula chloropus

Gavia arctica

Gavia immer

Gavia stellata

Geronticus eremita

Glareola pratincola

Grus grus

Gypaetus barbatus

Gyps fulvus

Haematopus ostralegus

Haliaeetus albicilla

Hieraetus fasciatus

Hieraetus pennatus

Himantopus himantopus

Hippolais icterina

Hippolais pallida

Hippolais polyglotta

Hirundo daurica

Hirundo rustica

Hydrobates pelagicus

Ixobrychus minutus

Jynx torquilla

Lanius collurio

Lanius excubitor

Lanius nubicus

Lanius senator

Larus argentatus argentatus

Larus argentatus argenteus

Larus argentatus michaellis

Larus audouinii

Larus cachinans

Larus canus

Larus cirrocephalus

Larus delawarensis

Larus fuscus fuscus

Larus fuscus intermedius

Larus fuscus graellsii

Larus genei

Larus glaucoides

Larus hiperboreus

Larus marinus

Larus melanocephalus

Larus minutus

Larus pipixcan

Larus ridibundus

Larus tridactylus

Leptoptilos crumeniferus

Limicola falcenellus

Limnodromus griseus

Limnodromus scolopaceus

Limosa lapponica

Limosa limosa

Locustella luscinioides

Locustella naevia

Loxia curvirostra

Lullula arborea

Luscinia megarhynchos

Luscinia svecica

Lymnocryptes minimus

Marmaronetta angustirostris

Melanitta fusca

Melanitta nigra

Melanocorypha calandra

Melanocorypha yeltoniensis

Mergus serrator

Merops apiaster

Milvus migrans

Milvus milvus

Monticola saxatilis

Monticola solitarius

Motacilla alba alba

Motacilla alba yarrellii

Motacilla cinerea

Motacilla flava

Muscicapa striata

Neophron percnopterus

Netta rufina

Numenius arquata

Numenius phaeopus

Numenius tenuirostris

Nycticorax nycticorax

Oceanites oceanicus

Oceanodroma castro

Oceanodroma leucorrhoa

Oenanthe hispanica

Oenanthe leucopyga

Oenanthe leucura

Oenanthe oenanthe

Oriolus oriolus

Otis tarda

Otus scops

Oxyura jamaicensis

Oxyura leucocephala

Pagophila eburnea

Pandion haliaetus

Parus ater

Parus caeruleus

Parus cristatus

Parus major

Passer domesticus

Passer hispaniolensis

Passer montanus

Pelecanus onocrotalus

Pernis apivorus

Petronia petronia

Phalacrocorax aristotelis

Phalacrocorax carbo

Phalaropus fulicarius

Phalaropus lobatus

Phalaropus tricolor

Philomachus pugnax

Phoinicopterus chilensis

Phoenicopterus minor

Phoenicopterus ruber roseus

Phoenicopterus ruber ruber

Phoenicurus ochruros

Phoenicurus phoenicurus

Phylloscopus bonelli

Phylloscopus collybita

Phylloscopus inornatus

Phylloscopus proregulus

Phylloscopus schwarzi

Phylloscopus sibilatrix

Phylloscopus trochilus

Pica pica

Picus viridis

Platalea leucorodia

Plectrophenax nivalis

Plegadis falcinellus

Pluvialis apricaria

Pluvialis squatarola

Podiceps cristatus

Podiceps nigricollis

Porphyrio porphyrio

Porphyrula alleni

Porzana carolina

Porzana parva

Porzana porzana

Porzana pusilla

Prunella modularis

Pterocles alchata

Pterocles orientalis

Ptyonoprogne rupestris

Puffinus puffinus

Puffinus griseus

Pyrrhula pyrrhula

Quelea quelea

Rallus aquaticus

Recurvirostra avosetta

Regulus ignicapillus

Remiz pendulinus

Rhodopechys githaginea

Riparia riparia

Saxicola rubetra

Saxicola torquata

Scolopax rusticola

Serinus serinus

Sitta europaea

Somateria mollisima

Stercorarius parassiticus

Sterna albifrons

Sterna bengalensis

Sterna caspia

Sterna fuscata

Sterna hirundo

348

Sterna maxima

Sterna nilotica

Sterna paradisea

Sterna sandvicensis

Streptopelia orientalis

Streptopelia turtur

Strix aluco

Sturnus unicolor

Sturnus vulgaris

Sula bassana

Sula capensis

Sylvia atricapilla

Sylvia borin

Sylvia cantillans

Sylvia communis

Sylvia conspicillata

Sylvia curruca

Sylvia hortensis

Sylvia melanocephala

Sylvia nisoria

Sylvia sarda

Sylvia undata

Tachybaptus ruficollis

Tadorna ferruginea

Tadorna tadorna

Tetrax tetrax

Tringa erythropus

Tringa flavipes

Tringa glareola

Tringa nebularia

Tringa ochropus

Tringa stagnatilis

Tringa totanus

Troglodytes troglodytes

Turdus iliacus

Turdus merula

Turdus philomelos

Turdus pilaris

Turdus torquatus

Turdus viscivorus

Turnix sylvatica

Tyto alba

Upupa epops

Uria aalge

Vanellus gregarius

Vanellus vanellus

Xenus cinereus

wigeon (Anas penelope), with over 50,000 individuals of each

species.To all these birds, one must add the large populations of

bar tailed godwit (Limosa limosa), black headed gull (Larus ridi-

bundus) and flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus).

Adding up the different reports the total recorded to date

is 397 species of birds that are included in the attached list

Suncus etruscus

Crocidura suaveolens

Crocidura russula

Myotis myotis

Pipistrellus pipistrellus

Eptesicus serotinus

Miniopterus schreibersii

Mustela nivalis

Mustela putorius

Lutra lutra

Meles meles

Vulpes vulpes

Lynx pardinus

Felis silvestris

Genetta genetta

Herpestes ichneumon

Eliomys quercinus

Apodemus sylvaticus

Rattus rattus

Rattus norvegicus

Mus musculus

Mus spretus

Arvicola sapidus

Microtus duodecimcostatus

Oryctolagus cuniculus

Lepus granatensis

Sus scrofa

Cervus elaphus

Dama dama

Erinaceus europaeus

Delphinus delphis

TABLE 8Species of mammals found in the Doñana area.

MAMMALS

After birds, mammals are the fauna group that attracts most

research attention to their ecology, ethiology and conservation.

Detailed studies have been done on many species, with the

Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) topping the ranking.The lynx is fol-

lowed in interest by its prey, the rabbit, a key species in the area

for sustaining carnivore populations, and, then by the mongoose

and the fallow deer, this later, an introduced species.

One group of mammals for which there were very little data

in the late 1990s, and which we now have a good knowledge of,

is the Chiroptera, or bats. In a early study conducted in 1995, it

was established that there are two breeding species of bats in

Doñana National Park and another 5 species that use the area

as a staging ground.

The Boliden mine tailings spill also affected the mammals,

especially the otter (Lutra lutra) a regular species in River

Guadiamar before the spill. Given it characteristics (habitat and

feeding habits), it is especially sensitive to events of this kind, as

it eats around one kilo of fish and crustaceans per day, and,

therefore, has a high potential for bio-accumulating pesticides

and metals.

FLORA

The global data on plant biodiversity provided by Rivas

Martinez et al. (1980), Garcia Novo (1997) and Doñana Datos

Básicos (1998), refer only to phanerogams, and they observe

how the number has increased over the years. For fungi, the

350

TABLE 9Checklist of Algae species found in the Doñana area.

CYANOPHYTA

Anabaenopsis circularis

Anabaenopsis tanganyikae

Aphanocapsa elachista

Aphanothece clathrata

Chroococcus dispersus

Chroococcus aff. turgidus

Colesphaerium kuetzin-

gianum

Coenocystis aff. plancton-

ica

Dactylococcopsis sp.

Gomphosphaeria aponina

Lyngbia aerugineo-

coerulea

Mastigocladus lamellosus

Merismopedia glauca

Merismopedia punctata

Merismopedia tennuisima

Merismopedia ralleve

Merismopedia tralleri

Microcoleus steenstrupi

Microcystis aeruginosa

Microcystis holsaltica

Microcystis sp.

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

Anabaena aphanizomenoides

Anabaena aff. torulosa

Chroococcus limneticus

Chroococcus minutus

Lyngbya limnetica

Lyngbya maior

Pseudoanabaena limnetica

Rabdonema lineare

Spirulina majus

Synechocystis aff. parvula

Amphidinium sp.

Peridinium sp.

Dystigma sp.

Euglena erhenbergii

Euglena granulata

Euglena texta

Euglena. variabilis

Phacus tortus

Ceratium hirundinella

Colacium vesiculosum

Euglena acus

Euglena oxyuris

Phacus aff. acuminatum

Phacus orbicularis

Oscillatoria formosa

Oscillatoria limnetica

Oscillatoria okenis

Oscillatoria tenuis

Phormidium foveolarum

Phormidium fragile

Phormidium tenue

Rhabdoderma lineare

Raphidiopsis mediterranea

Spirulina labyrinthiformis

Spirulina laxissima

Spirulina platensis

Synecococcus aeruginosus

DINOPHYTA

Glenodinium dybowskii

Gymnodinium sp.

EUGLENOPHYTA

Euglena clara

Euglena aff. spathryncha

Lepocynclis ovum

Phacus brevicaudatus

Phacus caudatus

Phacus curvicauda

Anabaena scheremetievi

Anabaena flos-aquae

Anabaena recta

Anabaena spiroides

Anabaena sphaerica

Aphanocapsa. aff. clathrata

Aphanocapsa elachista

Aphanocapsa aff. holsatica

Aphanothece smithii

Chroococcus minimus

Dermocarpa sp.

Geitleribactrum periphyticum

Gomphosphaeria lacustris

Heteroleiblenia aff. fontana

Lyngbya aestuari

Nostoc sphaericus

Oscillatoria annae

Oscillatoria brevis

Oscillatoria limosa

Oscillatoria lacustris

Oscillatoria aff. laetevires

Phormidium boryanum

Pseudoanabaena amphigranulata

Pseudoanabaena catenata

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

benchmark is the work by Calonge and Telleria (1980) and for

mosses and hepatic plants, the work of Guerra and Wallace

(1986).

351

Phacus pyrum

Trachelomonas intermedia

Trachelomonas hispida

Trachelomonas oblonga

Trachelomonas orenburgica

Trachelomonas scabra

Trachelomonas stockensiana

Trachelomonas varians

Trachelomonas verrucosa

Trachelomonas volvocina

CRYPTOPHYTA

Cryptomonas erosa

Cryptomonas marsoni

Cryptomonas reflexa

CHRYSOPHYTA

(excepting Diatoms)

Anisonema acinus

Aff. Conodendron

Mallomonas sp.

Tribonema aequale

Tribonema angustissimum

Tribonema minus

Tribonema vulgare

BACILLAROPHYCEAE

(Diatoms)

Achnanthes aff. brevipes

Achnanthes aff. ploenensis

Amphora commutata

Amphora ovalis pediculus

Asterionella formosa

Caloneis aff. ladogensis

Caloneis silicicula

Caloneis noricus

Campylodiscus noricus

Cymbella aff. navienliformis

Cymbella aff. tumidula

Diploneis ovalis

Epithemia argus

Epithemia zebra saxonica

Eunotia lunaris

Fragilaria construens

(=Staurosira construens)

Fragilaria intermedia

Gomphonema abreviatum

Gomphonema acuminatum

Gomphonema aff. longiceps

Gomphonema spencerii

Melosira oviens

Nitzschia amphibia

Nitzschia aff. amphioeys

Nitzschia aff. circumsuta

Nitzschia clausi

Nitzschia commutata

Navicula cryptocephala exilis

Nitzschia cuspidata

Navicula dicephala

Nitzschia digitoradiata

Nitzschia aff. gibbula

Nitzschia aff. ignorata

Nitzschia aff. recta

Nitzschia subtilis

Nitzschia viridula

Pinnularia braunii

Pinnularia braunii amphicephala

Pinnularia aff. borealis

Pinnularia aff. divergens

Pinnularia aff. hemiptera

Pinnularia aff. lundii

Pinnularia major

Pinnularia microstaurum

Pinnularia nodosa

Pinnularia aff. paraleliestriata

Stauroneis aff. acuta

Synedra acus radians

(= Ulnaria acus radians)

Thalassiosira fluviatilis

CHLOROPHYTA

Ankistrodesmus gracilis

Ankistrodesmus hantzschii

Chladophora aff. cornuta

Chlamydocapsa planctonica

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

Botriococcus braunii

Chrysidalis sp.

Achnanthes coarctata

Achnanthes aff. inflata

Achnanthes longipes

Achnanthidium exiguum

Achnanthidium hungaricum

Amphora cofeaeformis

Bacillaria paradoxa

Brachysira neoexilis

Caloneis bacillum

Caloneis permagna

Caloneis ventricosa

Cocconeis pediculus

Coscinodiscus lacustris

Craticula cuspidata heribaui

Craticula halophyla

Cyclotella atomus

Cyclotella glomerata

Cymatopleura solea

Cymbella amphicephala

Cylindrospermun stagnale

Denticula küetzingii

Diatoma elongatum

Encyonema caespitosum

Encyonema minutum

Encynopsis microcephala

Entomoneis alata

Epithemia adnata

Eunotia exigua

Eunotia pestinalis

Fallacia subhamulata

Fallacia pygmaea

Frustulia vulgaris

Gomphoneis olivacea

Gomphonema angustatum

Gomphonema lanceolaum

Cryptomonas ovata

Rhodomonas minuta

Rhodomonas sp.

Dynobryon sertularia

Ophiocytium majus

Tribonema elegans

Tribonema viride

Achnantes minutissima

(=Achnanthidium minutissimun)

Amphripora alata

Amphora ovalis

Amphora veneta

Anomoeoneis sphaerophora

Aulacoseria granulata

Caloneis anphisbaena

Cocconeis placentula

Campylodiscus clypeus

Cyclotella kutzingiana

Cyclotella meneghiniana

Cyclotella ocellata

Cylindrotheca gracilis

Cymbella affinis

Cymbella ventricosa

Diploneis elliptica

Eunotia pectinalis

Epithemia sorex

Epithemia turgida

Epithemia zebra

Fragilaria capucina

Gomphonema constrictum

Gomphonema gracile

Gomphonema parvulum

Gyrosigma acuminatum

Mastogloia smithii

Melosira varians

Navicula cryptocephala

Navicula cuspidata

(=Craticula cuspidata)

Navicula cuspidata ambigua

(=Craticula cuspidata ambigua)

Navicula pupula

(=Sellaphora pupula)

Gomphonema olivaceun

Gyrosigma attenuatum

Gyrosigma macrum

Gyrosigma scalproides

Gyrosigma spenceeri

Gyrosigma strgtile

Hantzschia amphioxys

Haslea spicula

Luticola mutica

Luticola ventricosa

Matogloia eliptica

Navicula cryptocephala exilis

Navicula erifuga

Navicula imbricata

Navicula lanceolata

Navicula salinarum

Navicula schroeteri

Navicula seminulum

Navicula subminuscula

Navicula tribialis

Nitzschia commutata

Nitzschia dissipata

Nitzschia fasciculata

Nitzschia filiformis

Nitzschia frugalis

Nitzschia gracilis

Nitzschia granulata

Nitzschia hantzchiana

Nitzschia linearis

Nitzschia lorenciana

Nitzschia obtusa

Nitzschia parvula

Nitzschia pusilla

Nitzschia stagnorum

Nitzschia staurastrum

Nitzschia umbonata

Pinnularia appendiculata

Pinnularuia biceps

Plagiotropis lepidoptera

Planotidium frequentissimum

Planothidium lanceolatum

Pleurosigma elongatum

Rhopalodia musculus

Stauroneis salina

Stephanodiscus dubius

Surirella angusta

Surirella brevisonnii

Surirella ovata apiculata

Surirella striatula

Surirella tenera

Tabularia tabulata

Thalassiosira weissflogii

Tryblionella apiculata

Tryblionella compressa

Tryblionella granulata

Tryblionella littoralis

Tryblionella navicularis

Ankistrodesmus acicularis

Chladophora fracta

Cosmarium botrytis

Crucigenia quadrata

Navicula radiosa

Nitzschia acicularis

Nitzschia closterium

Nitzschia dicephala

Nitzschia hungarica

(= Tryblionella hungarica)

Nitzschia longissima

Nitzschia palea

Nitzschia sigma

Nitzschia sigmoidea

Nitzschia spectabilis

Nitzschia tryblionella

(= Tryblionella gracilis)

Pinnularia gibba

Pinnularia viridis

Rhopalodia gibba

Stauroneis anceps

Stauroneis phoenicenteron

Surirella ovalis

Surirella ovata

Synedra acus

(= Ulnaria acus)

Synedra rumpens

Synedra ulna

(= Ulnaria ulna)

Actinastrum hantzschi

Ankistrodesmus falcatus

Apiocystis brauniana

Bulbochaete sp.

352

Chlorella vulgaris

Closterium aciculare

Closterium dianale

Closterium lunula

Closterium leiblenii

Closterium longisima

Closterium moniliferum

Closterium tumidum

Cosmarium aff. dimazum

Cosmarium humile

Closterium aff. subtumidum

Cosmarium aff. obtusatum

Crucigenia rectangularis

Cylindroteca gracilis

Cystodiniun cornifex

Dictiosphaerium pulchellum

Dictiosphaerium aff. sphagnale

Diplochloris lunata

Elakatothix gelatinosa

Eutetramourus planctonica

Gonium formosum

Hormidium aff. subtile

Hyalorhaphidium rectum

Kirchneriella microscopica

Lagerheimia wratislabiensis

Lagerheimia genevensis

Monorhaphidium arcuatum

Monoraphidium circunde

Monoraphidium aff. dybowski

Monoraphidium griffithii

Monoraphidium komarkovae

Monoraphidium pusillum

Monoraphidium rectum

Oocystis parva

Ourococcus bicaudatus

Pediastrum boryanum

Pediastrum clathratum

Pediastrum duplex

Pediastrum simplex

Pediastrum tetras

Pediastrum aff. distincta

Pleurotaenium errhenbergi

Podoedra aff. distracta

Scenedesmus abundans

Scenedesmus. acutus

Scenedesmus denticulatus

Scenedesmus dimorphus

Scenedesmus intermedius

Scenedesmus opoliensis

Scenedesmus ovalternus

Scenedesmus quadricauda

maximus

Scenedesmus quadispina

Selenastrum capricornutum

Selenastrum minutum

Sphaerocystis schroederi

Spirogyra communis

Spirogyra aff. majuscula

Spirogyra perforans

Spirogyra varians

Staurastrum punctulatum

Staurodesmus dickie circularis

Staurastrum pedunculatum

Tetradesmus wisconsiensis

Tetraedon caudatum

Tetraedon minimum scrobic-

ulatum

Tetraedon regulare

Tetraedron triangulare

Tetraedon trigonum

Tetrastrum heteracanthum

Treubaria setigera

Treubaria triappendiculata

Zygnema sphaericum

Data from Margalef, 1976; López et al., 1991 and unpublished data; Martín y Reyesunpublished data. Taxonomic names originally given by the authors of publicationshave been retained unless more recent research has evidenced a different identifi-cation. Taxa where identification is uncertain have been indicated as aff. or sp. andfurther studies are under way to their precise identification or new description.They have been incorporated to the biodiversity list because they differ from allother identified algae. The list includes 438 taxa.List elaborated by Julia Toja Santillana, Department of Plant Biology and Ecology,University of Seville.

Pseudendoclonium postra-

tum

Ptheromonas angulosa

Scenedesmus appicularis

Scenedesmus bicaudatus

Scenedesmus flexuosus

Scenedesmus lefevrii

Scenedesmus smithii

Scenedesmus tennuispina

Scenedesmus sooi

Scroederia sp.

Spirogyra ellipsospora

Stigeoclonium sp.

Tetraedron cuadratum

Tetradesmus aff. crocini

Tetraedron aff. victoriae

Chlamydomonas spp.

Chodatella quadriseta

Closterium kuetzingii

Cosmarium vexatum

Closteriopsis acicularis

Coelastrum microporum

Cosmarium laeve

Cylindrospermun stagnale

Crucigenia tetrapedia

Monoraphidium circinale

Monoraphidium contortum

Monoraphidium tortile

Neochloris sp.

Oedogonium sp.

Oocystis solitaria

Scenedesmus acuminatus

Scenedesmus ecornis

Scenedesmus falcatus

Scenedesmus quadricauda

Scenedesmus spinosus

Tetraedron minimum

Tetraspora gelatinosa

Ulothrix sp.

Zygnema sp.

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

Water bodies onsandy substrates only

Water bodies onmarshy substrates only

Water bodies oneither substrate

FUNGI

The work of Calonge and Telleria3 done in the area of

Doñana on this group (only in the National Park) lists 250

species.This inventory is, however, recognised as limited, espe-

cially with regard to higher fungi.

Knowledge of the fungi is important for the ecosystem.The

sand flats in particular, very poor in nutrients, are environments

in which the fungus-plant relations (mycorrhyzae relations)

almost certainly play an important role in how the ecosystem

works.

LICHENS

Lichens also belong to the category of the lesser known

groups; in fact, there is no systematic work done on the lichen

flora of the Doñana area. This group is mainly represented by

arenicolous and corticolous lichens, and saxicolous lichen abun-

dance is highly limited as there is very little area of rocky out-

crops in the zone.

353

group. The author recorded7 46 species of macrophytes (11

chlorophytes, 4 bryophytes, 1 pteridophyte, 30 spermatophytes),

11 of which were reported for the first time for the area.

List of vascular plants. Characteristics*.

From a basic list of reports appearing in the literature, pre-

pared by the Doñana Biological Station, the nomenclature of the

taxa has been corrected and sorted out, bringing it in line with

the nomenclature used in the published volumes of Flora Iberica

and, where necessary, with the Flora Vascular de Andalucía

Occidental, indicating the synonyms.

The information has been completed with new reports aris-

ing from field work in Doñana in the "Monitoring the terrestrial

vegetation and the restoration of the vegetation cover" project

undertaken by the Continental Water Ecology Group of the

University of Seville.

The list is made up of currently accepted names, and syn-

onyms have been indicated. Some of the taxa on the list may

possibly be mistaken reports due to misidentification in the orig-

inal publications, and other taxa to be found have not been

included. Nonetheless, the list, with 963 taxa, is the most com-

plete list of the vascular plants of Doñana and the surrounding

area to date:

- 15 pterydophytes, 14 native and 1 introduced.

- 8 gymnosperms, 6 native and 2 introduced.

- 252 monocotyledons, 240 native and 12 introduced.

- 688 dicotyledons, 642 native and 46 introduced.

- Total: 963 taxa, 902 native and 61 introduced.

List elaborated by Mª Paz Esquivias Segura, Department of Plant Biology and Ecologyof the University of Seville.

BRYOPHYTES

The only work published on this group, by Guerra and

Wallace4, is the first and only moss and hepatic study of the area.

As the authors point out, despite the fact that Doñana is an envi-

ronment of low diversity of plants of this kind, the bryophyte

flora is highly interesting.This article reports 66 taxa, including a

new report for Spanish flora; Bryum gemmiferum, and an impor-

tant chorological find; the Ephemerum sessile.

VASCULAR PLANTS

Classical studies of the vascular flora and vegetation of

Doñana National Park have been conducted by Fernández

Galiano and Cabezudo, including the well known ecological map

by González Bernaldez, the ICONA monograph on the ecosys-

tems of the Lower Guadalquivir and Rivas Martínez series of

three monographs5. These articles on vegetation offered a

detailed knowledge of the flora of the Doñana area, estimate at

803 species of flowering plants by Rivas Martínez.

García Novo6 later returned to the subject and described

and interpreted the Doñana vegetation.The many articles writ-

ten, especially by scientists from the Department of Plant

Biology and Ecology, have increased the number of known

species in this area, and have described some new taxa, hence

reaching the figure given by Doñana Datos Básicos (1998) of 875

species.

Taking into consideration the different ecosystems, the data

on the composition of the flora are complete for the sandy

areas, and less so for wetland areas, marshes and fresh water

wetlands. Research into aquatic flora (macrophytes) has pro-

gressed in the last ten years through the works of García Murillo

354

TABLE 10Checklist of vascular plant species found in Doñana.

PTERYDOPHYTES

ADIANTACEAE Adiantum capillus-veneris L.

AZOLLACEAE Azolla filiculoides Lam.Introduced, native to North America.

EQUISETACEAE Equisetum ramosissimum Desf.Equisetum telmateia Ehrh.

HEMIONITIDACEAE Anogramma leptophylla (L.) Link

HYPOLEPIDACEAE Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn

ISOETACEAE Isoetes histrix Bory Isoetes velatum A. Braun in Bory & Durieu Isoetes velatum A. Braun in Bory & Durieu subsp. vela-tum

MARSILEACEAE Marsilea strigosa Willd.

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE Ophioglossum lusitanicum L.Ophioglossum vulgatum L.

OSMUNDACEAE Osmunda regalis L.

SELAGINELLACEAE Selaginella denticulata (L.) Spring

THELYPTERIDACEAE Thelypteris palustris Schott= Thelypteris thelypteroides (Michaux) J. Holub subsp.glabra J. Holub

GYMNOSPERMS

CUPRESSACEAE Cupressus sempervirens L.Introduced, native to the eastern Mediterranean.Juniperus navicularis Gand.= Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. transtagana FrancoJuniperus oxycedrus L. subsp macrocarpa (Sm.) Ball = Juniperus macrocarpa Sm.Juniperus phoenicea L. subsp. turbinata (Guss.) Nyman =Juniperus oophora G. Kunze = Juniperus phoenicea L. subsp. lycia auct.Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters in J. RoyIntroduced, native to northern Africa and Malta.

EPHEDRACEAE Ephedra fragilis Desf.

PINACEAE Pinus pinea L.Pinus pinaster Aiton

MONOCOTYLEDONS

AGAVACEAE Agave americana L.Introduced, native to Mexico.

ALISMATACEAE Alisma lanceolatum With.Alisma plantago-aquatica L.Baldellia ranunculoides (L.) Parl.= Alisma ranunculoides L.= Echinodorus ranunculoides (L.) Engelm. in AschersonIntroduced.Damasonium alisma MillerDamasonium polyspermun Cosson

AMARYLLIDACEAE Leucojum autumnale L.Leucojum trichophyllum SchousboeNarcissus bulbocodium L. subsp. bulbocodiumNarcissus cavanillesii A. Barra & López

= Pancratium humile Cav.= Narcissus humilis (Cav.) Traub = Braxireon humile (Cav.) RafinNarcissus papyraceus Ker-Gawler Narcissus serotinus L.Pancratium maritimum L.

ARACEAE Arum italicum Miller subsp. italicumArisarum simorrhinum Durieu in Duchartre = Arisarum vulgare auct. p. p., non Targ. -Tozz.Pistia stratiotes L.Introduced, native to tropical America.

ARECACEAE (PALMAE)Chamaerops humilis L.Phoenix canariensis Hort ex Chabaud

CYMODOCEACEAECymodocea nodosa (Ucria) Ascherson

CYPERACEAE Carex acuta L.Carex arenaria L.Carex distans L.Carex divisa Hudson= Carex chaetophylla SteudelCarex elata subsp. tartessianaCarex extensa Good.Carex hispida Willd. in Schkuhr Carex laevigata Sm.Carex mairii Cosson & Germ.Carex otrubae Podp.Carex panicea L.Carex paniculata L. subsp. lusitanica (Schkuhr) Maire Carex pseudocyperus L.Carex riparia CurtisCladium mariscus (L.) Pohl Cyperus capitatus Vandelli = Cyperus schoenoides Griseb.Cyperus flavescens L.Cyperus fuscus L.Cyperus laevigatus L. subsp. distachyos (All.) Maire &Weiller in WeillerCyperus longus L.Cyperus michelianus (L.) Link Cyperus rotundus L.Eleocharis multicaulis (Sm.) Desv.Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roemer & Schultes Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsskål) Bubani = Fimbristylis dichotoma auct., non (L.)Vahl Fimbristylis cioniana SaviIntroduced, common in topical Africa.Fuirena pubescens (Poiret) Kunth Rhynchospora modesto-lucennoiSchoenus nigricans L.Scirpus cernuus VahlScirpus fluitans L.= Eleogiton fluitans (L.) LinkScirpus holoschoenus L.= Holoschoenus vulgaris LinkScirpus lacustris L.Scirpus littoralis Schrader= Scirpus littoralis Schrader subsp. termalis (Trabut)Murb.Scirpus maritimus L. subsp. maritimusScirpus pseudosetaceus Daveau Scirpus setaceus L.= Isolepis setacea (L.) R. Br.Scirpus tabernaemontani C. C. Gmelin

DIOSCOREACEAE Tamus communis L.

HYDROCHARITACEAE Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L.

IRIDACEAE Crocus serotinus Salisb. subsp. salzmannii (J. Gay) Mathew = Crocus salzmannii J. Gay

Crocus serotinus Salisb. subsp. serotinusGynandriris sisyrinchium (L.) Parl.= Iris sisyrinchium LGladiolus communis L. subsp. byzantinus (Miller) A. P.HamiltonGladiolus illyricus Koch Iris germanica L.Introduced, often garden hybrids.The species is native to the east-ern Mediterranean.Iris pseudacorus L.Iris xiphium L.Romulea bulbocodium (L.) Sebastiani & MauriRomulea ramiflora Ten. subsp. gaditana (G.Kunze) MaraisRomulea ramiflora Ten. subsp. ramiflora

JUNCACEAE Juncus acutiflorus Ehrh.ex Hoffm. subsp. rugosus (Steudel)Coutinho= Juncus rugosus SteudelJuncus acutus L.Juncus ambiguus Guss.Juncus articulatus L.= Juncus lamprocarpus Ehrh. ex HoffmJuncus bufonius L.Juncus bulbosus L.Juncus capitatus Weigel Juncus effusus L.Juncus emmanuelis A. Fernandes & GarcíaJuncus heterophyllus DufourJuncus hybridus Brot.Juncus maritimus Lam.Juncus pygmaeus L. C. M. Richard in Thuill.Juncus striatus Schousboe ex E. H. F. MeyerJuncus subnodulosus SchrankJuncus subulatus Forsskål Juncus tenageia Ehrh. ex L. fil.Juncus x donyanae Fernández-Carvajal

JUNCAGINACEAE Triglochin barrelieri Loisel.= Triglochin bulbosa subsp. barrelieri (Loisel.) RouyTriglochin laxiflora Guss.

LEMNACEAE Lemna gibba L.Lemna minor L.Lemna trisulca L.Wolffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimmer

LILIACEAEAllium ampeloprasum L.Allium pallens L. subsp. pallensAllium paniculatum L. subsp. paniculatumAsparagus acutifolius L.Asparagus albus L.Asparagus aphyllus L.Asphodelus aestivus Brot.= Asphodelus microcarpusVivAsphodelus ramosus L.= Asphodelus cerasiferus J. Gay Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medicus subsp. serotinumFritillaria hispanica Boiss. & Reuter, in Boiss.Fritillaria lusitanica Wikström.Muscari comosum (L.) MillerMuscari neglectum Guss. ex Ten.Ornithogalum narbonense L.Ornithogalum orthophyllum Ten. subsp. baeticum (Boiss.)Zahar.Ruscus aculeatus L.Scilla autumnalis L.Urginea maritima (L.) Baker = Scilla maritima L.

ORCHIDACEAE Orchis laxiflora Lam.Serapias lingua L.Serapias parviflora Parl.

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POACEAE (Gramineae)Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl.Agrostis castellana Boiss. & Reuter Agrostis pourretii Willd.Agrostis reuteri Boiss.Agrostis stolonifera L.= Agrostis maritima Lam.Agrostis tenerrima Trin.Agrostis truncatula Parl.=Agrostis delicatula sensu auct. plur., non Pourret exLapeyrAiropsis tenella (Cav.) Ascherson & Graebner Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link subsp. arundinacea H. Lindb.fil.= Ammophila australis (Mabille) Porta & RigoAnthoxantum aristatum Boiss. subsp. macranthum ValdésAnthoxanthum ovatum Lag.= Anthoxanthum odoratum L. subsp. ovatum (Lag.) Trabutin Batt. & Trabut Anthoxanthum ovatum Lag. var. exertum H. Lindb. filArrhenatherum album (Vahl) W. D. ClaytonArrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. ex J. & C. Presl subsp.bulbosum (Willd.) Schübler & Martens = Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum (Willd.) SpennerArundo donax L.Introduced, probably native to Asia.Arundo plinii TurraAvellinia michelii (Savi) Parl.Avena barbata Pott ex Link subsp. barbataAvena barbata Pott ex Link subsp. lusitanica (Tab. Mor.)Romero ZarcoAvena byzantina C. Koch Introduced.Avena longiglumis Durieu in DuchartreAvena sativa L. subsp. macrantha (Hackel) Rocha AfonsoIntroduced.Brachypodium distachyon (L.) Beauv.Brachypodium phoenicoides (L.) Roemer & SchultesBrachypodium retusum (Pers.) Beauv.Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) Beauv.Briza maxima L.Briza minor L.Bromus diandrus RothBromus hordeaceus L.Bromus lanceolatus RothBromus matritensis L.Bromus rigidus Roth= Bromus maximus Desf.Bromus rubens L.Chaetopogon fasciculatus (Link) Hayek Corynephorus canescens (L.) Beauv.Corynephorus divaricatus (Pourret) Breistr. subsp.macrantherus (Boiss. & Reuter) Paunero = Corynephorus macrantherus Boiss. & Reuter Crypsis aculeata (L.) Aiton Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam.Cutandia maritima (L.) W. Barbey Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.Cynosurus echinatus L.Dactylis glomerata L. var. hispanica (Roth) Koch = Dactylis hispanica RothDanthonia decumbens (L.) DC. in Lam. & DC.= Sieglingia decumbens (L.) Bernh.Desmazeria marina (L.) Druce Desmazeria rigida (L.) Tutin in Clapham, Tutin & E. F.Warburg subsp. rigida= Catapodium rigidum (L.) C.E. Hubbard in DonyDigitaria debilis (Desf.) Willd.Introduced, native to tropical and southern Africa.Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis subsp. bore-ali-atlanticus (Simonet & Guinochet) Melderis = Agropyron junceiforme (A. & D. Löve) A. & D. Löve = Agropyron junceum auct. hisp.= Agropyron junceum Beauv. subsp. borealiatlanticumSimonet & GuinochetElymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis subsp. farctusFestuca ampla Hackel

Festuca arundinacea Schreber subsp. atlantigena (St.-Yves)AuquierGastridium ventricosum (Gouan) Schinz & Thell.= Gastridium lendigerum (L.) Desv.Gaudinia fragilis (L.) Beauv. subsp. fragilisGaudinia hispanica Stace & TutinGlyceria declinata Bréb.Glyceria fluitans (L.) R. Br.Glyceria notata Chevall.= Glyceria plicata (Fries) FriesHainardia cylindrica (Willd.) Greuter Hainardiopholis x pauneroi Castroviejo =Hainardia cylindrica (Willd.) Greuter x Parapholis incur-va (L.) C. E. Hubbard Holcus lanatus L.Holcus mollis L. subsp. mollisHordeum geniculatum All.= Hordeum hystrix RothHordeum leporinum Link= Hordeum murinum auct.= Hordeum murinum subsp. leporinum (Link) ArcangeliHordeum marinum Hudson= Hordeum maritimum Stokes ex With.Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf in Oliver Hyparrhenia podotricha (Hostch ex Steudel) Anderssonin Schweinf.Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel Lagurus ovatus L.Lolium multiflorum Lam.Lolium perenne L.Lolium rigidum GaudinMelica magnolii Gren. & Godron = Melica ciliata auct., non L.Mibora minima (L.) Desv.Micropyropsis tuberosa Romero Zarco & CabezudoMolineriella minuta (L.) Rouy subsp. australis (Paunero)Rivas Martínez = Molineriella australis (Paunero) E. RicoMolinia caerulea (L.) Moench subsp. arundinacea(Schrank) K. Richter Panicum repens L.Parapholis incurva (L.) C. E. Hubbard Parapholis pycnantha (Hackel ex Druce) C. E. Hubbard Paspalum paspalodes (Michx) ScribnerIntroduced, native to tropical and subtropical America.Paspalum vaginatum SwartzIntroduced, native to tropical and subtropical America..Phalaris brachystachys LinkPhalaris minor Retz.Phalaris paradoxa L.Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel subsp. australis= Phragmites communis Trin.Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel subsp. altissima(Bentham) W. D. Clayton = Arundo isiaca DelilePiptatherum miliaceum (L.) Cosson = Oryzopsis miliacea (L.) Bentham & Hooker exAscherson & Schweinf.Poa annua L.Poa infirma Kunth in Humb., Bonpl. & KunthPoa trivialis L.Polypogon maritimus Willd. subsp. maritimusPolypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf.Polypogon viridis (Gouan) Breistr.Puccinellia fasciculata (Torrey) E. P. BicknellPuccinellia festuciformis (Host) Parl.Puccinellia stenophylla KerguélenRostraria cristata (L.) Tzvelev = Lophochloa cristata (L.) Hyl.Rostraria phleoides (Desf.) J. Holub = Lophochloa hispida (Savi) S. Pignatti Rostraria pumila (Desf.) Tzvelev = Lophochloa pumila (Desf.) BorSaccharum ravennae (L.) Murray = Erianthus ravennae (L.) Beauv.Spartina densiflora Brongn.Introduced and naturalised in coastal marshes, native to southernAmerica.

Spartina maritima (Curtis) FernaldSphenopus divaricatus (Gouan) Reichenb.Sporobolus pungens (Schreber) Kunth = Sporobolus virginicus var. arenarius (Gouan) MaireStipa gigantea LinkStipa tenacissima L.Trisetaria dufourei (Boiss.) Paunero Trisetaria panicea (Lam.) Paunero Vulpia alopecuros (Schousboe) Dumort. var. alopecurus.Vulpia alopecuros (Schousboe) Dumort. var. sylvaticaBoiss.Vulpia ciliata Dumort.Vulpia fontquerana Melderis & StaceVulpia geniculata (L.) LinkVulpia membranacea (L.) Dumort.Vulpia myuros (L.) C. C. Gmelin subsp. sciuroides (Roth)Rouy var. tenella (Boiss.) Maire & Weiller in Maire = Vulpia broteri Boiss. & Reuter

POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton crispus L.Potamogeton lucens L.Potamogeton natans L.Potamogeton panormitanus Viv.= Potamogeton pusillus auct., non L.Potamogeton pectinatus L.Potamogeton polygonifolius Pourret Potamogeton trichoides Cham.& Schlecht.

RUPPIACEAE Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande Ruppia drepanensis Tin. ex Guss.Ruppia maritima L. var. maritima

SMILACACEAE Smilax aspera L. var. altissima Moris & De Not.

SPARGANIACEAE Sparganium erectum L. subsp. erectum

TYPHACEAE Typha angustifolia L.Typha dominguensis (Pers.) SteudelTypha latifolia L.

ZANNICHELLIACEAEAlthenia orientalis (Tzvelev) García Murillo & Talaverasubsp. orientalisZannichellia obtusifolia Talavera, García Murillo & SmitZannichellia pedunculata Reichenb. in Mössler = Zannichellia palustris subsp. pedicellata (Vahlenb. &Rosen) Hegi Zannichellia peltata Bertol. Fl. Ital.

ZOSTERACEAE Zostera noltii Hornem.

DICOTYLEDONS

AIZOACEAECarpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E. Br. in E. PhillipsIntroduced, naturalised in several sectors of the coast. Native ofSouth Africa.Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L.

AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus albus L.Introduced, native to northern and central America.Amaranthus blitoides S.Watson Introduced, native to America.Amaranthus cruentus L.Introduced, native to tropical America.Amaranthus deflexus L.Introduced, native to southern America.Amaranthus graecizans L. subsp. sylvestris (Vill.) BrenanAmaranthus hypochondriacus L.Introduced, native to America..Amaranthus muricatus (Moq.) HieronIntroduced, native to southern America.Amaranthus retroflexus L.Introduced, native to northern America.Amaranthus viridis L.Introduced, native to tropical America.

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ANACARDIACEAEPistacia lentiscus L.

APOCYNACEAENerium oleander L.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia baetica L.

ASCLEPIADACEAEGomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton in W.AitonIntroduced, native to southern Africa.

BORRAGINACEAEAnchusa azurea MillerAnchusa calcarea Boiss.Borrago officinalis L.Cerinthe major L.Cynoglossum creticum MillerEchium arenarium Guss.Echium gaditanum Boiss.Echium plantagineum L.Heliotropium europaeum L.Heliotropium supinum L.Myosotis debilis PomelMyosotis discolor Pers. subsp. dubia (Arrondeau) Blaise Myosotis laxa Lehm. subsp. caespitosa (C.F. Schultz.) Hyl.ex Nordh.Myosotis ramosissima Rochel in Schultes subsp. ramosis-sima

CACTACEAE Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawler) Haw.Introduced, native to southwestern USA, the Bermudes and Cuba.Opuntia maxima Miller= Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller = Opuntia megacantha Salm-DyckIntroduced, probably native to Mexico.

CALLITRICHACEAECallitriche brutia Petagna Callitriche lusitanica SchotsmanCallitriche obtusangula Le Gall = C. platycarpa Kütz.Callitriche stagnalis Scop.Callitriche truncata Guss. subsp. occidentalis (Rouy)Schotsman

CAMPANULACEAE Campanula lusitanica L.Jasione montana L.Lobelia urens L.

Solenopsis laurentia (L.) C. Presl = Laurentia gasparrinii (Tineo) StroblWahlenbergia hederacea (L.) Rchb.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE Lonicera periclymenum L. subsp. hispanica (Boiss.&Reuter) NymanLonicera etrusca G. SantiLonicera implexa Aiton

CARYOPHYLLACEAEArenaria algarbiensis Welw. ex Willk.Arenaria emarginata Brot. subsp. emarginataArenaria hispanica Sprengel = Areanaria cerastioides sensu A.O. Chater & Halliday = Arenaria spathulata sensu Willk. in Willk. and LangeArenaria leptoclados (Reichenb.) Guss.Cerastium glomeratum Thuill.Corrigiola litoralis subsp. perez-larae Chaudhrin= Corrigiola litoralis L. subsp. foliosa (Pérez Lara)ChaudhriChaetonychia cymosa (L.) Sweet = Paronychia cymosa (L.) DC. in Lam.Corrigiola telephiifolia PourretDianthus broteri Boiss. & Reuter = Dianthus malacitanus Haenseler ex Boiss.Dianthus hinoxianus GallegoHerniaria cinerea DC. in Lam. & DC.Honckenya peploides (L.) Ehrh.= Arenaria peploides L.Illecebrum verticillatum L.Loeflingia baetica Lag.Loeflingia baetica Lag. var. baetica Loeflingia baetica Lag. var. micrantha (Boiss. & Reuter)Heywood Moehringia pentandra GayMoenchia erecta (L.) P. Gaertner, B. Meyer & Scherb.Paronychia argentea Lam.Petrorhagia prolifera (L.) P.W. Ball & Heywood in Bull.Polycarpon alsinifolium (Biv.) DC.Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L.Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. subsp. diphyllum (Cav.) O.Bolòs & Font Quer = Polycarpon diphyllum Cav.Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. subsp. tetraphyllumSagina apetala Ard. subsp. apelataSagina maritima G. Don Silene colorata Poiret Silene cretica L.

Silene gallica L.Silene gracilis DC.= Silene longicaulis Pourret ex Lag.Silene inaperta L.Silene laeta (Aiton) Godron in Gren. & GodronSilene latifolia Poiret = Silene alba (Miller) E. H. L. KrauseSilene littorea Brot. subsp. littoreaSilene micropetala Lag.Silene nicaeensis All.Silene nocturna L.Silene ramosissima Desf.Silene scabriflora Brot. subsp. scabrifloraSilene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke subsp. vulgarisSpergula arvensis L.Spergularia marina (L.) Besser = Spergularia salina J.Presl & K. Presl Spergularia media (L.) K. Presl = Spergularia marginata (C.A. Meyer) KittelSpergularia nicaeensis Sarato ex Burnat Spergularia purpurea (Pers.) G. Don fil.Spergularia rubra (L.) J. & C. Presl subsp. longipes (Lange)Briq.= Spergularia purpurea (Pers.) G. Don fil.Spergularia tangerina P. Monnier Stellaria media (L.) Vill.Stellaria pallida (Dumort.) Piré

CERATOPHYLLACEAE Ceratophyllum demersum L.

CHENOPODIACEAEArthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) Moris in Moris& Delponte = Arthrocnemum glaucum (Delile) Ung.-Sternb.Atriplex halimus L.Atriplex patula L.Atriplex patula L.Atriplex prostrata Boucher ex DC.Beta macrocarpa Guss.Beta maritima L.= Beta vulgaris L. subsp. maritima (L.) Arcangeli Chenopodium album L.Chenopodium murale L.Halimione portulacoides (L.) Aellen Halopeplis amplexicaulis (Vahl) Ung.-Sternb. ex Cesati,Passer. & GibelliSalicornia europaea L.Salicornia ramosissima J.Woods

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Salsola kali L.Salsola soda L.Sarcocornia fruticosa (L.) A. J. Scott = Arthrocnemum fruticosum (L.) Moq.Sarcocornia perennis (Miller) A. J. Scott = Arthrocnemum perenne (Miller) MossSarcocornia perennis (Miller) A. J. Scott subsp. alpini (Lag.)CastroviejoSuaeda maritima (L.) Dumort Suaeda splendens (Pourret) Gren. & GodronSuaeda vera Forsskål ex J. F. Gmelin

CISTACEAE Cistus albidus L.Cistus crispus L.Cistus ladanifer L.Cistus libanotis L.= Cistus bourgaeanus Coss.Cistus monspeliensis L.Cistus psilosepalus SweetCistus salviifolius L.Fumana thymifolia (L.) Spach ex Webb = Cistus thymifolius L.Halimium calycinum (L.) K. Koch = Halimium commutatum PauHalimium halimifolium (L.) Willk. in Willk. & Lange Helianthemum apenninum (L.) Mill. subsp. stoechadifolium(Brot.) Samp.= Helianthemum croceum (Desf.) Pers.Xolantha commutata (Gallego) Gallego = Tuberaria commutata GallegoXolantha guttata (L.) Raf.= Tuberaria bupleurifolia (Lam.) Willk.= Tuberaria guttata (L.) Fourr.Xolantha macrosepala (Salzm. ex Boiss.) Gallego = Tuberaria macrosepala (Salzm. ex Boiss.) Willk.

COMPOSITAE (ASTERACEAE) Achillea ageratum L.Aetheorhiza bulbosa (L.) Cass. subsp. bulbosa= Crepis bulbosa (L.) Tausch Anacyclus clavatus (Desf.) Pers.Anacyclus radiatus Loisel.Andryala arenaria (DC.) Boiss. & Reuter Andryala integrifolia L.Anthemis arvensis L.Anthemis cotula L.Anthemis maritima L.Arctotheca calendula (L.) LevynsIntroduced, naturalised in western Portugal and southwesternSpain, native to southern Africa.Artemisia caerulescens L. subsp. caerulescensArtemisia crithmifolia L.Aster squamatus (Sprengel) Hieron Introduced.Aster tripolium L. subsp. pannonicus (Jacq.) SoóBellis annua L. subsp. annuaCalendula arvensis L. subsp. arvensisCarduncellus caeruleus (L.) C. Presl subsp. caeruleusCarduus bourgeanus Boiss. & Reuter subsp. bourgeanusCarduus meonanthus Hoffmanns. & Link subsp. meonan-thusCarduus pycnocephalus L.Carduus tenuiflorus CurtisCarlina corymbosa L.Carlina racemosa L.Carthamus lanatus L. subsp. lanatusCentaurea calcitrapa L.Centaurea diluta AitonCentaurea exarata Boiss. ex Cosson Centaurea melitensis L.Centaurea sphaerocephala L.= Centaurea polyacantha Willd.Centaurea uliginosa Brot.Chamaemelum fuscatum (Brot.) Vasc.Chamaemelum mixtum (L.) All.= Anthemis mixta L.Chrysanthemum coronarium L.Chrysanthemum coronarium L. var. discolor d´Urv.Chrysanthemum segetum L.

Cichorium endivia L.Cichorium intybus L.Cirsium monspessulanum (L.)Hill subsp. ferox (Cosson)TalaveraCirsium pyrenaicum (Jacq.) All.Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.= Cirsium lanceolatus (L.) Scop.Cladanthus arabicus (L.) Cass.Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. Introduced, native to southern America.Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.Introduced, native to northern America.Cotula coronopifolia L.Introduced, naturalsied in western Europe and northern Africa,native to soutehrn Africa.Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr.= Crepis virens L.Crepis neglecta subsp. cretica (Boiss.) Vierh.Introduced, native to Crete and the Carpathians.Cynara humilis L.Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter = Inula viscosa (L.) AitonEvax lusitanica Samp.Evax pygmaea (L.) Brot. subsp. pygmaeaEvax pygmaea (L.) Brot. subsp. ramosissima (Mariz) R.Fernandes & Nogueira = Evax asterisciflora sensu Pérez Lara = E. asterisciflora var. ramosissima MarizGalactites tomentosa MoenchGamochaeta subfalcata (Cabrera) Cabrera = Gnaphalium subfalcatum CabreraIntroduced, native to northern and southern America..Gnaphalium luteo-album L.Gymnostyles stolonifera (Brot.) Tutin = Soliva stolonifera (Brot.) Loudon Introduced,naturalised in southwestern Europe,native to southernAmerica (Uruguay and northeastern Argentina).Hedypnois arenaria (Schousboe) DC.= Leontodon rothii BallHedypnois cretica (L.) Dum.-Courset = Hedypnois ragadioloides (L.) F. G. SchmidtHelichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil. subsp. serotinum(Boiss.) P. FournHelichrysum picardii Boiss. & Reuter var. picardiiHelichrysum picardii Boiss.& Reuter var. virescens Valdés-BermejoHieracium baeticum Arvet-Touvet & Reverchon inHervierHyoseris scabra L.Hypochaeris achyrophorus L.Hypochaeris glabra L.Hypochaeris radicata L.

Inula crithmoides L.Lactuca serriola L.Leontodon longirrostris (Finch & P. D. Sell) Talavera inValdés & al.Leontodon maroccanus (Pers.) Ball Leontodon salzmannii (Schultz Bip.) Ball.Leontodon taraxacoides (Vill.) Mérat = Leontodon nudicaulis auct. non (L.) Banks ex Schinz &R. Keller = Leontodon saxatilis Lam.Logfia gallica (L.) Cosson & Germ.= Filago gallica L.Logfia minima (Sm.) Dumort.= Filago minima (Sm.) Pers.Onopordum dissectum Murb.Onopordum nervosum Boiss.= Onopordum acanthium sensu Pérez LaraOtanthus maritimus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link Otospermum glabrum (Lag.) Willk.Picris echioides L.Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh.Pulicaria odora (L.) Reichenb.= Inula odora L.Pulicaria paludosa Link= Pulicaria uliginosa Hoffmanns. & Link Reichardia gaditana (Willk.) Samp.Reichardia intermedia (Schultz Bip.) Samp.Reichardia tingitana (L.) Roth = Sonchus hispanicum Jacq.Scolymus hispanicus L.Scolymus maculatus L.Scorzonera fistulosa Brot.Scorzonera laciniata L.Senecio aquaticus Hill subsp. erraticus (Bertol.) MathewsSenecio gallicus Chaix in Vill.Senecio jacobaea L.Senecio lividus L.Senecio sylvaticus L.Senecio vulgaris L.Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner Sonchus asper (L.) Hill subsp. asperSonchus oleraceus L.Sonchus maritimus L. subsp. aquatilis (Pourret) NymanSonchus tenerrimus L.Tolpis barbata (L.) Gaertner Tolpis umbellata Bertol.Urospermum picroides (L.) Scop. ex F.W. SchmidtXanthium spinosum L.Introduced, native to southern America.Xanthium strumarium L. subsp. cavanillesii (Schouw) D.Löve & P. DansereauIntroduced, probably native to America.

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CONVOLVULACEAE Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br.Calystegia soldanella (L.) R. Br.Convolvulus arvensis L.Convolvulus siculus L. subsp. siculusCressa cretica L.

CRASSULACEAE Crassula tillaea Lest.-Garl.Sedum album L.Sedum lagascae PauSedum maireanum Sennen in Sennen & Mauricio = S.lagascae sensu auct. lusit., non Pau = Sedum villosum var. ramosum Pérez Lara Umbilicus gaditanus Boiss.= Umbilicus horizontalis auct. iber., non (Guss.) DC.Umbilicus heylandianus Webb & Berthel.Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy in Ridd.= Umbilicus neglectus (Cout.) Rothm. & P. Silva

CRUCIFERAE (BRASSICACEAE)Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. in Holl & Heynh Brassica barrelieri (L.) Janka = Brassica sabularia Brot.Brassica fruticulosa CirilloBrassica nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch in Röhl.Brassica oxyrrhina Coss.Brassica tournefortii GouanCakile maritima Scop. subsp. maritima= Cakile maritima Scop. subsp. aegyptia (L.) NymanCapsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.= Capsella rubella Reut.Cardamine hirsuta L.Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.Introduced, probably native to southern America.Coronopus squamatus (Forssk.) Asch.Diplotaxis catholica (L.) DC.Diplotaxis erucoides (L.) DC. subsp. erucoidesDiplotaxis siifolia Kunze = Diplotaxis catholica subsp. siifolia (Kunze) Maire inJahand. & Maire Diplotaxis siifolia Kunze var. vicentina (Welw. ex Samp.)Cout.Erophila verna (L.) Besser subsp. vernaHirschfeldia incana (L.) Lagr.-Foss. subsp. incanaHymenolobus procumbens (L.) Nutt. in Torr. & A. GrayHutera johnstonii (Samp.) Gómez CampoIberis linifolia L.M. triloba (L.) Spreng.= Malcolmia lacera auct.Malcolmia littorea (L.) R. Br. in W.T.Aiton Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek = Nasturtium officinale R. Br. in W.T.Aiton

Raphanus raphanistrum L. subsp. raphanistrum= Raphanus raphanistrum L. subsp. microcarpus (Lange)Thell. in Hegi Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All. subsp. rugosumSinapis arvensis L.Sisymbrium irio L.Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop.Sisymbrium orientale L.Teesdalia coronopifolia (J. P.Bergeret) Thell.

CUCURBITACEAE Bryonia dioica Jacq.= Bryonia cretica L. subsp. dioica (Jacq.) Tutin Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. in Bory

CUSCUTACEAE (CONVOLVULACEAE)Cuscuta epithymum (L.) L.

DIPSACACEAEDipsacus fullonum L.= Dipsacus sylvestris HudsonPterocephalus diandrus (Lag.) Lag.Pterocephalus intermedius (Lag.) Coutinho.Scabiosa semipapposa Salzm. ex DC.Scabiosa turolensis Pau

ELATINACEAEElatine alsinastrum L.Elatine hexandra (Lapierre) DC.Elatine macropoda Guss.

EMPETRACEAE Corema album (L.)D. Don in Sweet

ERICACEAE Arbutus unedo L.Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull = Erica vulgaris L.Erica ciliaris Loefl. ex L.Erica scoparia L. subsp. scopariaErica terminalis Salisb.Erica umbellata Loefl. ex L.

EUPHORBIACEAE Chamaesyce polygonifolia (L.) Small = Euphorbia polygonifolia L.Introduced, native to the eastern coast of northern America.Euphorbia baetica Boiss.Euphorbia exigua L.Euphorbia helioscopia L.Euphorbia hirsuta L.= Euphorbia pubescens VahlEuphorbia paralias L.Euphorbia peplus L.Euphorbia terracina L.Mercurialis annua L.Mercurialis elliptica Poir. in Lam.

Ricinus communis L.Introduced, native to tropical Africa.

FAGACEAE Quercus canariensis Willd.Quercus coccifera L.Qercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.= Quercus rotundifolia Lam.Quercus suber L.

FRANKENIACEAE Frankenia boissieri Reut. ex Boiss.Frankenia laevis L.Frankenia pulverulenta L.

FUMARIACEAE (PAPAVERACEAE)Fumaria bastardii Boreau Fumaria capreolata L.Fumaria officinalis L.Fumaria parviflora Lam.Fumaria sepium Boiss. & Reuter in Boiss.

GENTIANACEAEBlackstonia perfoliata (L.) HudsonCentaurium erythraea Rafin subsp. grandiflorum (Biv.)MelderisCentaurium maritimum (L.) Fritsch, Mitt.Centaurium pulchellum (Swartz) Druce = Centaurium tenuiflorum subsp. acutiflorum (Schott)ZeltnerCentaurium spicatum (L.) FritschCicendia filiformis L.Exaculum pusillum (Lam.) Caruel in Parl.= Cicendia pusilla (Lam.) Griseb.Gentiana pneumonanthe L.

GERANIACEAE Erodium aethiopicum (Lam.) Brumh. & Thell. in ThellErodium botrys (Cav.) Bertol.Erodium cicutarium (L.) L´Hér. in Aiton Erodium moschatum (L.) L'Hér.in Aiton Geranium columbinum L.Geranium dissectum L.Geranium molle L.Geranium purpureum Vill. in L.Geranium rotundifolium L.

GUTTIFERAE (CLUSIACEAE) Hypericum elodes L.Hypericum humifusum L.Hypericum perforatum L.Hypericum tormentosum L.Hypericum undulatum Schousb. ex Willd.

HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum alterniflorum DC. in Lam & DC.Myriophyllum spicatum L.

HIPPURIDACEAE Hippuris vulgaris L.

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)Lamium amplexicaule L.Lavandula stoechas subsp. luisieri (Rozeira) Rozeira = Lavandula luisieri (Rozeira) Rivas-Martínez Lavandula stoechas subsp. sampaiana Rozeira= Lavandula stoechas subsp. sampaiana var. lusitanica(Chaytor) RozeiraLavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechasLycopus europaeus L.Mentha aquatica L.Mentha pulegium L.Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.Rosmarinus officinalis L.Scutellaria minor HudsonStachis arvensis (L.)L.Teucrium fruticans L.Teucrium scordium L. subsp. scordioides (Schreber)Maire & Petimengin = Teucrium scordioides SchreberThymbra capitata (L.) Cav.= Satureja capitata L.= Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link Thymus albicans Hoffmanns. & Link.= Thymus tomentosus Willd. var. virescens Cosson

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= Melilotus messanensis (L.) All.Melilotus sulcatus Desf.Ononis baetica Clemente var. baetica= Ononis subspicata Lag.Ononis baetica Clemente var. doñanensisOnonis diffusa Ten.Ononis natrix L.Ononis pinnata Brot.Ononis spinosa subsp. australis (Širj.) Greuter & Burdet = Ononis repens L. subsp. australis (Širj.) DevesaOnonis subspicata var. donnanaeOnonis variegata L.Ornithopus compressus L.Ornithopus pinnatus (Mill.) Druce = Ornithopus ebracteatus Brot.Ornithopus sativus Brot. subsp. isthmocarpus (Coss.)DostálRetama monosperma (L.) Boiss.Scorpiurus muricatus L.Scorpiurus sulcatus L.Scorpiurus vermiculatus L.Stauracanthus genistoides (Brot.) Samp.Trifolium angustifolium L.Trifolium arvense L.Trifolium campestre Schreb.Trifolium cernuum Brot.Trifolium cherleri L.Trifolium dubium Sibth.Trifolium fragiferum L.Trifolium glomeratum L.Trifolium isthmocarpum Brot.Trifolium lappaceum L.Trifolium micranthum Viv.Trifolium nigrescens Viv. subsp. nigrescensTrifolium occidentale Coombe= T. repens subsp. occidentale (Coombe) M. LaínzTrifolium ornithopodioides L.Trifolium repens L. var. repensTrifolium resupinatum L.Trifolium scabrum L.Trifolium spumosum L.Trifolium squamosum L.= Trifolium maritimum Huds.Trifolium stellatum L.Trifolium striatum L.Trifolium strictum L.= Trifolium laevigatum Poir.Trifolium subterraneum L.Trifolium suffocatum L.Trifolium tomentosum L.Trifolium vesiculosum SaviUlex argenteusWelw. ex Webb subsp. subsericeus (Cout.)Rothm.Ulex australis Clemente subsp. australisUlex micranthus Lange= Ulex lusitanicus MarizUlex minor Roth. var. lusitanicus (Webb) C.Vicioso Ulex parviflorus Pourr.Vicia benghalensis L.Vicia dasycarpa Ten.= Vicia villosa Roth subsp. varia (Host) Corb.= V. varia HostVicia eriocarpa (Hausskn.) Halácsy = V. villosa Roth subsp. eriocarpa (Hausskn.) P.W. Ball = V. varia var. eriocarpa Hausskn.Vicia lutea L.Vicia parviflora Cav.= Vicia tenuissima Schinz & Thell.= V. laxiflora Brot.Vicia peregrina L.Vicia sativa L. subsp. nigra (L.) Ehrh.

LENTIBULARIACEAE Pinguicula lusitanica L.Utricularia australis R. Br.Utricularia gibba L.= Utricularia exoleta R. Br.= Utricularia gibba subsp. exoleta (R. Br.) P.Taylor

LINACEAE Linum maritimum L.

Linum tenue Desf.Radiola linoides Roth

LYTHRACEAE Lythrum acutangulum Lag.Lythrum baeticum Gonz.-Albo= Lythrum tribracteatum Spreng. subsp. baeticum (Gonz.-Albo) Borja Lythrum borysthenicum (Schrank) Litv.Lythrum hyssopifolia L.Lythrum junceum Banks & Sol.Lythrum salicaria L.Lythrum tribracteatum Spreng.

MALVACEAEAlthaea officinalis L.Lavatera cretica L.Malva hispanica L.Malva parviflora L.= Malva pusilla auct.= M. rotundifolia auct

MYRTACEAEEucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.Introduced, native to Australia. Widely cultivated worldwide andsometimes naturalised.Eucalyptus globulus Labill.Introduced, native to Tasmania.Myrtus communis L.

MYOPORACEAE Myoporum laetum G. Forst.= Myoporum tenuifolium auct., non G. Forst.Introduced, native to New Zealand.

NYMPHAEACEAE Nuphar luteum (L.) Sm.Nymphaea alba L.

ONAGRACEAE (OENOTHERACEAE) Epilobium hirsutum L.Ludwigia palustris (L.) Elliot Oenothera longiflora L. subsp. longiflora L.Introduced, native to southern America.

OLEACEAEFraxinus angustifolia Vahl subsp. angustifoliaJasminum fruticans L.Olea europaea L.Olea europaea L. var. europaeaPhillyrea angustifolia L.Phillyrea latifolia L.

OROBANCHACEAE Cistanche phelypaea (L.) Cout.Orobanche reticulata Wallr.

OXALIDACEAE Oxalis corniculata L.Oxalis pes-caprae L.Introduced, native to southern Africa.

PAPAVERACEAE Argemone mexicana L.Introduced, native to tropical areas of central and southernAmerica.Glaucium corniculatum (L.) J. H. RudolphGlaucium flavum CrantzPapaver dubium L.Papaver rhoeas L.

PHYTOLACCACEAE Phytolacca americana L.Introduced, native to northern and central America.Phytolacca dioica L.Introduced, native to southern America.

PLANTAGINACEAEPlantago afra L.Plantago bellardii All.Plantago coronopus L. subsp. coronopusPlantago crassifolia Forsskål Plantago lagopus L.= Plantago lusitanica L.Plantago lanceolata L.Plantago loeflingii L.Plantago serraria L.

Thymus carnosus Boiss.Thymus mastichina (L.) L. subsp. donyanae R. morales = Thymus tomentosus auct., p.p., non Willd.Thymus mastichina (L.) L. subsp. mastichina= Thymus tomentosus Willd.

LEGUMINOSAE (FABACEAE)Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd.Introduced, native to southeastern Australia.Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. in W.T.AitonIntroduced, native to southeastern Australia and Tasmania.Adenocarpus aureus (Cav.) Pau = A. complicatus subsp. aureus (Cav.) C.ViciosoAnagyris foetida L.Anthyllis hamosa Desf.= Himenocarpus hamosus (Desf.) Vis.Astragalus hamosus L.Astragalus lusitanicus Lam.= Erophaca baetica (L.) Boiss. subsp. baeticaCeratonia siliqua L.Coronilla repanda (Poir.) Guss.Cytisus grandiflorus (Brot.) DC.Cytisus grandiflorus (Brot.) DC. subsp. cabezudoi TalaveraDorycnium gracile Jord.= D. pentaphyllum subsp. gracile (Jord.) Rouy in Rouy &FoucaudDorycnium hirsutum (L.) Ser. in DC.= Lotus hirsutus L.Dorycnium rectum (L.) Ser.Erophaca baetica (L.) Boiss. subsp. baeticaGenista ancistrocarpa SpachGenista anglica L.Genista hirsuta VahlGenista triacanthos Brot.Gleditsia triacanthos L.Introduced, native to northern America.Himenocarpus hamosus (Desf.) Vis.= Anthyllis hamosa Desf.Lathyrus annuus L.Lathyrus aphaca L.Lathyrus palustris L. subsp. nudicaulis (Willk.) P.W. Ball = L. nudicaulis (Willk.) AmoLathyrus sphaericus Retz.Lotus angustissimus L.Lotus arenarius Brot.Lotus castellanus Boiss. & Reut. in Boiss.= L. subbiflorus subsp. castellanus (Boiss.& Reut.) P.W.BallLotus corniculatus L.Lotus creticus L.Lotus glaber Miller = Lotus tenuis Waldst. & Kit. Ex Willd.Lotus hispidus Desf. ex DC. in Lam. & DC.= Lotus subbiflorus LagLotus parviflorus Desf.Lotus pedunculatus Cav.= Lotus uliginosus SchkuhrL. corniculatus L. subsp preslii (Ten) P. Fourn.= Lotus preslii Ten.L. hispidus Desf. ex DC. in Lam. & DC.= Lotus subbiflorus Lag.Lupinus angustifolius L. Lupinus hispanicus Boiss. & Reut.Lupinus luteus L.Medicago coronata (L.) Bartal.Medicago disciformis DC.Medicago italica (Mill.) Fiori in Fiori & Paol.= Medicago tornata (L.) Mill.Medicago littoralis Rohde ex Loisel Medicago marina L.Medicago minima (L.) L.Medicago murex Willd.Medicago polymorpha L.= Medicago hispida Gaertn.Medicago rigidula (L.) All.Medicago turbinata (L.) All. var. olivaeformis (Guss.) PérezLaraMelilotus albus Medik.Melilotus elegans Salzm. ex Ser. in DC.Melilotus indicus (L.) All.Melilotus segetalis (Brot.) Ser. in DC.Melilotus siculus (Turra) B.D. Jacks.

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PLUMBAGINACEAEArmeria gaditana Boiss. in DC.Armeria maritima Willd.Armeria pubigera (Desf.) Boiss.Armeria pungens (Link) Hoffmanns. & Link Armeria velutina Welw. ex Boiss.& ReuterArmeria welwitschii Boiss.Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss. in A. DC.Limonium algarvense ErbenLimonium bellidifolium (Gouan) DumortLimonium binervosum (G.E. Sm.) C.E. Salmon = Limonium salmonis (Sennen & Elías) PignattiLimonium catalaunicum (Willk. & Costa) PignattiLimonium costae (Willk.) PignattiLimonium ferulaceum (L.) Chaz.Limonium narbonense Mill.= Limonium angustifolium (Tausch) Turrill = Limonium serotinum (Reichenb.) Erben Limonium tournefortii (Boiss.) Erben

POLYGALACEAE Polygala vulgaris L.

POLYGONACEAE Emex spinosa (L.) Campd.Polygonum amphibium L.Polygonum arenastrum BoreauPolygonum aviculare L.Polygonum equisetiforme Sm.Polygonum hydropiper L.Polygonum maritimum L.Polygonum salicifolium Brouss. ex Willd.Rumex acetosa subsp. biformis (Lange) Castroviejo &Valdés Bermejo = Rumex biformis LangeRumex acetosella L. subsp. angiocarpus (Murb.) Murb.= Rumex acetosella auct.= R. angiocarpus Murb.Rumex bucephalophorus L. subsp. hispanicus (Steinh.)Rech. fil.= R. bucephalophorus L. var. hispanicus Steinh.Rumex conglomeratus Murray Rumex crispus L.Rumex dentatus subsp. callosissimus (Meissner) Rech. fil.= Rumex dentatus L. subsp. halacsyi sensu PastorRumex pulcher subsp. woodsii (De Not.) Arcangeli = Rumex pulcher L. subsp. divaricatus auct.Rumex roseus L.= Rumex tingitanus L.

PORTULACACEAE Montia fontana L. subsp. amporitana Sennen

PRIMULACEAE Anagallis arvensis L.Anagallis crassifolia ThoreAnagallis foemina Miller= A. arvensis L. subsp. foemina (Mill.) Schinz & Thell.Anagallis monelli L.= Anagallis linifolia LAnagallis tenella (L.) L.Asterolinon linum-stellatum (L.) Duby in DC.Lysimachia ephemerum L.Samolus valerandi L.

PROTEACEAE Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br.Introduced, native to eastern Australia.

RAFFLESIACEAE Cytinus hypocistis (L.) L. subsp. macranthus Wettst.

RANUNCULACEAE Anemone palmata L.Clematis cirrhosa L.Clematis flammula L.Delphinium gracile DC.Nigella papilosa G. López = N. hispanica auct.Ranunculus bulbosus subsp. aleae (Willk.) Rouy & Fouc.= Ranunculus aleae Willk.Ranunculus bulbosus L. var. adscendens (Brot.) Pinto daSilva= Ranunculus bulbosus subsp. adscendens (Brot.) J. Neves

Ranunculus bullatus L.Ranunculus ficaria L.Ranunculus flammula L.Ranunculus muricatus L.Ranunculus ophioglossifolius Vill.Ranunculus parviflorus L. Ranunculus peltatus Schrank subsp. baudotii (Godron) C.D. K. Cook = Ranunculus baudotii GodronRanunculus peltatus Schrank subsp. peltatusRanunculus sardous CrantzRanunculus trilobus Desf.Ranunculus tripartitus DC.

RESEDACEAE Reseda media Lag.Sesamoides canescens (L.) Kuntze = S. interrupta (Boreau) G. LópezSesamoides interrupta (Boreau) G. López = Sesamoides canescens (L.) KuntzeS. suffruticosa (Lange) Kuntze var. latifolia (Merino) G.López= Sesamoides latifolia (Merino) Castrov. & Valdés Berm.

RHAMNACEAEFrangula alnus Miller subsp. baetica (Reverchon & Willk.)Rivas Goday ex DevesaRhamnus alaternus L.Rhamnus lycioides subsp. oleoides (L.) Jahandiez & Maire = R. oleoides L.

ROSACEAE Aphanes microcarpa (Boiss. & Reuter ) Rothm.Crataegus monogyna Jacq.Cydonia oblonga Mill.Introduced, native to western and central Asia and southeasternArabia.Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch.Potentilla reptans L.Pyrus bourgaeana Decne.Rosa canina L.Rubus ulmifolius Schott

RUBIACEAE Crucianella maritima L.Galium aparine L.Galium minutulum Jordan Galium mollugo L.Galium murale (L.)All.Galium palustre L.Galium parissiense L.Galium spurium L.Rubia peregrina subsp. longifolia (Poiret) O.Bolòs Sherardia arvensis L.

RUTACEAE Citrus limonum RissoIntroduced.Citrus sinensis (L.) OsbeckIntroduced.

SALICACEAEPopulus alba L.Populus nigra L.Salix alba L.Salix atrocinerea Brot.Salix fragilis L.Salix purpurea L. var. lambertiana (Sm.) W.D.J. Koch = Salix purpurea L. subsp. lambertiana (Sm.) A. Neumannex Rech. fil.Salix purpurea x S. salviifolia = Salix x matritensis Pau & C.Vicioso

SANTALACEAE Osyris alba L.Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud., in sched.= Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne.

SCROPHULARIACEAE Antirrhinum majus L.Bellardia trixago (L.) All.= Trixago apula Stev.Gratiola linifolia VahlKickxia cirrhosa (L.) FritschLinaria heterophylla subsp. tartessiana C.Vicioso

Linaria lamarckii RouyLinaria munbyana Boiss. & Reuter var. pygmaea (Samp.)Samp.Linaria oblongifolia (Boiss.) Boiss. & ReuterLinaria spartea (L.) Chaz.Linaria tursica Valdés & Cabezudo = Linaria donyanae Valdés-Bermejo, Castroviejo, Costa &Rivas-MartínezLinaria viscosa (L.) Chaz.Misopates orontium (L.) Rafin.Parentucellia latifolia (L.) Caruel in Parl.Parentucellia viscosa (L.) Caruel in Parl.Pedicularis sylvatica L. subsp. lusitanica (Hoffmanns.& Link)CoutinhoScrophularia canina L. subsp. caninaScrophularia frutescens L.Scrophularia lyrata Willd.= Scrophularia auriculata fma. major Lange in Willk. &LangeVerbascum sinuatum L.Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.Veronica anagalloides Guss. Veronica arvensis L.Veronica scutellata L.

SIMAROUBACEAE Ailanthus altissima (Miller) SwingleIntroduced, native to China.A. altissima (Miller) Swingle = Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.

SOLANACEAE Datura stramonium L.Introduced, native to America.Mandragora autumnalis Bertol.Nicotiana glauca R. C. GrahamIntroduced, native to southern America.Solanum dulcamara L.Solanum nigrum L.Solanum sodomeum L.Introduced, native to southern Africa.

TAMARICACEAE Tamarix africana Poir.Tamarix canariensis Willd.Tamarix gallica L.Tamarix parviflora DC.Introduced, native to the eastern Mediterranean and northernAfrica.

THYMELEACEAE Daphne gnidium L.

ULMACEAEUlmus minor Mill.

UMBELLIFERAE (APIACEAE)Ammoides pusilla (Brot.) Breistr.Angelica pachycarpa LangeAnthriscus caucalis M. Bieb.Apium inundatum (L.) Rchb. fil. in Rchb.Apium nodiflorum (L.)Lag.Berula erecta (Huds.) Coville in Contr.= Sium erectum Huds.Bupleurum semicompositum L.Cachrys sicula L.Cachrys libanotis L.Caropsis verticillato-inundata (Thore) Rauschert = Thorella verticillato-inundata (Thore) Briq.Carum verticillatum (L.) W.D.J. Koch.Daucus carota L.Daucus carota L. subsp. gummifer (Syme) Hook. fil.Daucus crinitus Desf.Daucus muricatus (L.) L.Echinophora spinosa L.Elaeoselinum foetidum (L.) Boiss.= Thapsia foetida L.Eryngium campestre L.Eryngium corniculatum Lam.Eryngium galioides Lam.Eryngium maritimum L.Eryngium tenue Lam.Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. piperitum (Ucria) Bég.Hydrocotyle vulgaris L.

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Krubera peregrina (L.) Hoffm.= Capnophyllum peregrinum (L.) LagMargotia gummifera (Desf.) Lange in Willk. & Lange = Elaeoselinum gummiferum (Desf.) Samp.Oenanthe crocata L.Oenanthe fistulosa L.Oenanthe globulosa L.= Oenanthe globulosa L. subsp. kunzei (Willk.) NymanOenanthe lachenalii C.C. Gmel.Peucedanum lancifolium Hoffmanns. & Link ex LangePimpinella villosa Schousb.Pseudorlaya minuscula (Pau) M. LaínzPseudorlaya pumila (L.) Grande Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris Thapsia villosa L.= Thapsia maxima Mill.Thapsia villosa L. var. dissecta Boiss.Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link subsp. neglecta(Spreng.) Thell. in Hegi Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link subsp. purpurea(Ten.) HayekTorilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn.

URTICACEAEParietaria judaica L.Urtica membranacea Poir. in Lam.= Urtica caudata Vahl = Urtica dubia Forssk.Urtica urens L.

VALERIANACEAE Centranthus calcitrapae (L.) DufresneFedia cornucopiae (L.) Gaertner

VERBENACEAEVerbena officinalis L.

VIOLACEAE Viola kitaibeliana Schult. in Roem. & Schult.

VITACEAEVitis vinifera L.Introduced, cultivated since ancient times. Probablynative to southwestern Asia.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAETribulus terrestris L.

Family photo of the Doñana 2005 ScientificCommittee, together with the directors ofthe Doñana Parks and authorities from theJunta de Andalucía (Andalusia RegionalGovernment), taken after the June 2005 ses-sion held in Seville. In that session theCommittee voted to eliminate Montaña delRío dykes and return the canals andriverbeds crossing the Doñana Marshes totheir former state. This was a long awaiteddecision that culminates a process of func-tional restoration of the Marshes.Photograph by Aurora Suárez.

Presentation of the Spanish editionof “Doñana: Water and Biosphere”on December 13th, 2005 in thepremises of the Doñana BiologicalStation (Sevilla). From the left:Francisco Tapia (President of theGuadalquivir HydrologicalConfederation), Fernando Hiraldo(Director of the Doñana BiologicalStation), Cipriano Marín (author),Cristina Narbona (SpanishMinister of Environment),Hermelindo Castro (GeneralCoordinator - Doñana 2005Scientific Commission), FranciscoGarcía Novo (author), LuisRamallo (President of the SpanishCommission for UNESCO).Photograph by Aurora Suárez

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NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. FERNÁNDEZ HAEGER, J., GARCÍA GARCÍA I., AMAT, J.A., 1976,Guía de las Mariposas de Doñana. Naturalia Hispanica, 6: 12-28.

2. IBAÑEZ, GUILLEN, JUSTE, MIGENS, PEREZ, RUIZ (Grupo de Investigaciónde Sistemática y Ecología de Quirópteros) 1995. Quirópteros del ParqueNacional de Doñana: especies, y tamaño y metodos de estima de sus pobla-ciones. Memoria Final proyecto nº 172 Convenio de Cooperación ICONA -CSIC: 116 p.

3. CALONGE, F.D., TELLERIA, M.T., 1980. Introducción al conocimientode los hongos de Doñana (Huelva, España). Lazaroa, 2: 271-326.

4. GUERRA, J., WALLACE, E.C. 1986. Musgos y hepáticas de Doñana(Huelva, España). Bol. Soc. Brot., Ses 2, 59:77-86.

5. GALIANO Y CABEZUDO 1976. Plantas de la Reserva Biológica deDoñana (Huelva). Lagascalia 6 (1):117-176.

6. ALLIER, C., GONZALEZ BERNALDEZ, F., RAMIREZ DIAZ, L. 1972Mapa Ecológico/Ecological map. Reserva Biologica de Doñana. CSIC.Sevilla.

7. GARCIA NOVO, F. et al. 1977. Sintesis Ecológica de los ecosistemas delBajo Guadalquivir, ICONA Monografía 18:9-21;

8. RIVAS MARTÍNEZ et al. 1980. Vegetación de Doñana (Huelva). Lazaroa2:271-326.

9. GARCIA NOVO, F., 1997 The ecosystems of Doñana National Park, inGARCIA NOVO,F., CRAWFORD,R.M.M., DIAZ BARRADAS,M.C.(Eds.) The Ecology and Conservation of European dunes. EUDC/ U. deSevilla. Seville: 97-116.

10. GARCIA NOVO,F., et al. Informe sobre el estado de la Reserva deBiosfera de Doñana. Comité Español del Programa MaB de la UNESCO.Madrid. 77p.

11. GARCIA MURILLO P., BERNUES M., MONTES,C. 1993. Los macrófi-tos acuáticos del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Aspectos florísticos. Actasdel VI Congreso Español de Limnología: 261-267.

THE MICRO-CRUSTACEANS AND ROTIFERS OF DOÑANA

12. ALONSO, M., 1998. Las Lagunas de la España Peninsular. Limnetica15:1-176.

13. ARECHEDERRA, A., LEÓN, D., FAHD, K., TOJA, J., SERRANO, L.The influence of scale on the study of zooplankton in Doñana (SW, Spain).In preparation.

14. DUSSART, B.H., 1967. Contribution à l´étude des Copépodes d´Espagne.P. Inst. Biol. Apl. 42: 87-105.

15. VELASCO, J.L., 1990. Lista faunística y bibliográfica de los rotíferos(Rotatoria) de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares y Canarias.Asociación Española de Limnología Publicaciones. 8.

VASCULAR PLANTS

16. VALDÉS, B., TALAVERA, S., FERNÁNDEZ GALIANO, E. (Eds.) 1987.Flora Vascular de Andalucía Occidental. Ketres Editora. Barcelona Vol.1-3.

17. CASTROVIEJO, S., et al. (Eds), 1989. Flora iberica. Plantas vascularesde la Peninsula ibérica e Islas Baleares. Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC.Madrid. Vol. 1 ss.

the water basin as a whole, it was not until 1998, just after the

Aznalcollar Mines waste reservoir burst, that the Project was

approved. Its genesis at this time was accompanied by the approval

of a whole raft of urgent measures aimed at off-setting the immedi-

ate effects of the mine spill.

But despite all this, Doñana 2005 is far more than a response to

the mine spill. In fact, pressure was only applied in action number 8

(Control and sealing off of the Doñana National Park Marshes),

implemented urgently in the days following the spill, with a view to

preventing the contaminated waters of the Guadiamar River from

entering the National Park. It is true that the dramatic consequences

of the spill from the Aznalcollar Mines reservoir aroused a sense of

solidarity and a determination to overcome not only the immediate

problems caused by the spill, but also the other, underlying problems

that were continually present, but which had nothing to do with the

mines. These problems were, to a certain extent, like injuries that

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EPILOGUEDoñana 2005a forward looking project

363

Since the Doñana 2005 Project was approved by Royal

Decree-Law 7/1999 on the 23rd of April 1998, many deci-

sions have been taken that have undoubtedly enhanced the original

idea. Right from the very beginning, the Project contemplated eight

actions on the ground, each with a specific aim, and a further three,

defined in a more open fashion, aimed at monitoring, research and

dissemination. It is the open natured profile that the legislator

designed for these three latter actions that has made it possible to

redefine the initial philosophy and endow it with a scientific and

social base that guarantees that the actions undertaken will build a

project that will provide a future, rather than just fulfil a mandate.

Regenerating the water system and resources of Doñana has

been a pressing requirement for over twenty years but, after a series

of frustrated attempts, suffering from the defect of not considering

* Coordinador del Proyecto Doñana 2005, durante el período 1999-2004.

Doñana 2005 can only be understood in the context of the space co-existing with its surroundings and its people. A historic merger that is being recovered day by day.In the picture, the first stages of the "Saca de las Yeguas" or Mares' Round Up, a tradition that clearly shows this co-existence. Photograph: CENEAM Files.

FÉLIX MANUEL PÉREZ MIYARES *

364

gradually harmed the water system of the marshes, which is, in turn,

the source of life for the National Park. But the actions aimed at

regenerating the water system of this space, the substance, were

already making their appearance in the collective conscience of the

people, but they only took shape in this moment of disaster.

In broad outlines, the aim of Doñana 2005 is to recover the nat-

ural conditions and state of a system that has been profoundly affect-

ed by man; to free the Mashes of the excessive pressures that were

brought to bear on them and to prevent future risks. Moreover, it is

a project that focuses on surface waters, attempting to eliminate

these complex alterations from different sides and which cannot,

under any circumstance, be considered as unilateral responses.

The most pressing aspect is probably the aspect dealing with

controlling the silting up of the Marshes, as its effects are so visible.

The erosion, transport and sedimentation of sand are especially seri-

ous in the Arroyo del Partido basin,where restoration has been con-

ceived the other way around from what could be considered the log-

ical approach. First of all, work has been done on the lower basin of

the streams to solve the most pressing problems, where sand

deposits are already causing problems, and the work will progress

towards the head waters, taking a global view.The sedimentation fan

will be transferred to the flood plain and the risk of flooding will be

reduced in farming areas by reinforcing the wall and by building oth-

ers. This action also encompasses an environmental restoration of

the banks of the Arroyo, to return it to its natural state and appear-

ance. It is,however,extremely difficult to define such a laborious proj-

ect in s few words, a project in which several years of debate have

been invested and in which the broadest possible consensus has

been built among scientists, local authorities, trade unions, conserva-

tionists, farmers' associations, etc.Action number 1 (Restoration of

the Soto Grande and Soto Chico streams and the Laguna de los

Reyes stream) is a less ambitious measure that was also aimed at pre-

venting the sands from silting up the El Rocio marshes.This action

consisted of eliminating the drainage network from Los Mimbrales

farm and of building naturalised lagoons to allow flash flood waters

some room to expand onto a flood plain,and the sand to be deposit-

ed there, together with a partial self-treatment of the waters.

On the other hand, Doñana 2005 is also about recovering

streams and water courses that no longer function due to agricultur-

al intervention, or even due to neglect, such as El Brazo de la Torre,

that has been cut off and filled in. Life will be brought back to these

waterways and low yield farming land that had been taken from the

Marshes and drained will be recovered, for instance in the area

known as Marisma Gallega and on Los Caracoles farm.

Another aspect of the project is designed to solve the problem

of water pollution that has progressively intensified with the increase

in farming activity. In this sense, a waste water treatment plant has

been built in El Rocio, which is supported by a Guadalquivir Water

The Doñana 2005 Project turned into something that went far beyond aresponse to a mining spill. The dramatic consequences of the bursting ofthe Aznalcollar mine reservoirs aroused an unusually fierce and wide-spread sense of solidarity and a determination to overcome the problems,triggering the start of a profound process of discussion and thought aboutour responsibility to Doñana. A real window looking out over the future.Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

365

Marshes, they found a vast potential for farming, to such an extent

that they aimed to turn it into a second California.The result of this,

the Almonte-Marismas Plan, in the long term, meant bringing exces-

sive pressure to bear on the aquifer, including diverting water cours-

es and draining marshy areas.

The past, always the past… But now is not the time to cry over

spilt milk, as each age works in accordance with a given culture and

at that time, there was nothing to suggest the consequences of their

actions.Now,thanks to advancing our knowledge,we know that sub-

terranean waters, like any other waters, are not an inexhaustible

resource. Now it is time to spread the word and raise public aware-

ness of their inestimable worth.

Experience has shown us that this is the start, now we under-

stand that there will be a new Doñana project, or Doñana 2010 plan

that will address the following operations, to continue the work

started by the first project.This plan will also take on board the mon-

itoring and research plans that are currently in course, as for moni-

toring actions to be efficient, they have to be given continuity beyond

2005, especially the monitoring plans concerned with water quality.

It would also be desirable to continue the work in the area of farm-

ing to strike the right balance, with the support of the sectors

involved,between man, as an exploiter of nature, and Mother Nature

herself.

Doñana 2005 has grown out of research and the advancement

of knowledge, and it is science that has opened man's eyes over the

centuries to the error of his ways, or to the good of his actions.And

we should not forget that progress consists basically of knowing how

to predict the effect of our initiatives, measuring their effect in time

and space, in order to guarantee a worthy existence, which, looking

at the Marshes, could be translated into:Water for all,Water for life.

Board plan to build treatment plants throughout the basin by 2007.

But none of this would make sense if these measures were not

accompanied by an agricultural education policy.The Doñana 2005

research programme includes a study of this issue, which will deter-

mine which treatments are really harmful to the marsh's water sys-

tem and what kind of sustainable farming we should be moving

towards.

As a result of implementing the project, Doñana 2005 has

brought direct benefits for the National Park, as the expropriated

lands have been included in the protected area,by the decision of the

Council of Ministers,which has increased their area by over 7%, from

50,720 hectares to 54,251 hectares.

Finally,Doñana 2005 offers the legacy of a major scientific contri-

bution.The project has laid the foundations for a new working phi-

losophy based on a continued dialogue and an openness to sugges-

tions and new ideas. Research, which has also raised new concerns,

is bearing fruit every day, pushing back the frontiers of our knowl-

edge of the ecosystem significantly from an inter-disciplinary point of

view. For example, a micro-topographic map of the Doñana National

Park marshes has been drawn up, for the first time.This mapping,

together with the different advanced models of the hydro-dynamics

of the Marshes,will act as tools that will lay the foundations for man-

agement work in the National Park and its surroundings.

International Meetings of Experts on regenerating the water system

and resources, a presence in international forums, the continuing and

constant work of a Scientific Committee, over ten associated

research projects, etc. all provide a wealth of results and they are

offering us a glimpse of the path to follow, the models we wish to

move towards with a certain margin of prediction, the ecosystem

that we all desire and that today's science can predict.

The deadline for the work undertaken was 2005,but, as progress

was made, it was seen that all this effort should only represent the

first step for other projects that face new challenges. Doñana 2005

has been stretched as far as its guidelines would allow, but there is

still much to be done in light of the problems of water pollution, the

lack of a delimitation plan or the inappropriate use of the subter-

ranean waters.

We have often thought about the need to study the complete

water cycle; i.e., the correlation between surface and subterranean

waters. Although there are occasional problems, the subterranean

waters demand a plan of action, taking a global view and an integral

approach, also reinforced by an education policy, because the prob-

lem is basically one of education.The local population often thinks

that subterranean waters are a limitless source.This thought maybe

motivated more by the studies on agricultural development conduct-

ed by the World Bank in the fifties than by any real abundance of

water to keep Doñana alive. In the Guadalquivir Valley and the

The legacy left by Doñana 2005 is a major scientific contribution. The pro-ject has created a new working philosophy based on continued dialogueand an openness to suggestions and new ideas. Research, which has alsoraised new concerns, has born fruit, as our knowledge of the ecosystemhas been significantly enhanced from an inter-disciplinary point of view.Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

FRANCISCO GARCÍA NOVO

Born in Madrid (1943). He studied Bs. Sc. on Biology at the Universidad Complutense of Madrid, where he was awarded a Ph. D

degree in Ecology on 1968. Post doctoral specialization 1968-70 at the Estaçao de Melhoramento de Plantas (Elvas, Portugal) and

Botany Department,The University of St Andrews (UK). He joined the staff of the University of Seville in 1970, where he was appoint-

ed Professor of Ecology in 1976. He belongs to the Faculty of Biology and is Scientific Director of the Estación de Ecología Acuática.

His fields of interest have been the ecology of vegetation and the conservation biology. He focused research activities on the rela-

tionship of plants and their environment (plant-water relationships, photosynthesis, growth and structure of plants and vegetation),

working in the Mediterranean basin and in South America countries. His studies on long-term succession led him to investigate the

ecological story of vegetation and the effects of human exploitation on ecosystems. He has devoted a particular attention to sand dune

areas, and to the communities living in them. He has been active in the area of environmental studies (new methods of impact evalu-

ation, sensitivity and vulnerability of ecosystems, biodiversity studies on terrestrial and aquatic environments), and conservation and

restoration activities.

He carried out many of his studies in Andalusia (Spain) and in particular, in Doñana area, contributing to its description, preserva-

tion and present restoration initiatives. He was member of the International Committee of Experts that authored the Dictamen of the

Sustainable Development Plan for Doñana in 1992.

He has authored 320 publications, 107 of which dealing with Doñana. For several years he belonged to Spanish MaB Committee.

He belongs to the Spanish National Academy of Science, to the Academy of Sciences of Seville, and to several Conservation and

Environmental institutions.

He has been awarded the Prize Rey Jaime I for the Environment, the Cross of Alfonso X el Sabio, the Medal of the University of

Bari. He has been named International Commissioner of the Tortuguero National Park of Costa Rica.

Member of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Commission.

The Authors

CIPRIANO MARÍN CABRERA

Born in Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1952). He studied Mathematics at the Universidad de La Laguna. He has developed his profession-

al activity in the fields of sustainable development, renewable energies and environmental management.

Taking into account only his activity in fields related to Doñana and the subjects treated in this book, it has to be emphasized his

role of co-ordinator and promoter of "The Salt Route", an European Project aiming at restoration and valorisation of coastal salt pan

landscapes. He has participated in international projects such as Med-Wet and, more recently, Water Strategy Man (Developing

Strategies for Regulating and Managing Water Resources and Demand in Water Deficient Regions). He has been the Commissary of

the International Contest of Ideas "Parque Dunar" focused on the coastal area of Doñana.Among his several international missions,

his role of member of the UNESCO's Committee of Experts that achieved the defence and protection of the big lagoon complex and

whale sanctuary of "El Vizcaíno" (Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site), in Baja California (Mexico), stands out.

He has been co-director of the first eco-development project under the auspices of UNESCO (La Gomera Ecoplan) and has

directed the scientific reports that lead to the declaration of the islands of Minorca, Lanzarote, La Palma and El Hierro as UNESCO-

MaB Biosphere Reserves.

He is author or co-author of 29 books and 19 chapters in joint publications, mostly covering aspects of sustainable development.

He has also been editor and coordinator of 14 monographic publications, co-editor of the "International Journal of Island Affairs" and,

in 1975, co-founded "Alfalfa", the first ecologist magazine of Spain.

He has been Secretary-general of the 1st World Conference on Sustainable Tourism (1995) and of the 1st European Conference

on Sustainable Island Development (1997), as well as co-ordinator of other 9 international conferences. He has been, among others,

Vice Secretary-general of the International Scientific Council for Island Development and he is Secretary-general of the Unesco Centre

of the Canary Islands.

Member of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Commission.

367

This book has been possible thanks to people who only understood one way ofdoing things for Doñana, by simply doing them well and with enthusiasm.

That is what the authors were commissioned to do byFélix Manuel Pérez Miyares.

That is how we have done it and, hence, we understand that the missionhas been accomplished.

Seville - November, 2005.