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Do Global Banks Spread Global Imbalances? The Case of Assetbacked Commercial Paper During the Financial Crisis of 20072009 Philipp Schnabl, NYU Stern (joint with Viral Acharya, NYU SternNBERCEPR) International Monetary Fund International Monetary Fund Annual Research Conference November 6, 2009

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Page 1: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Do Global Banks Spread Global Imbalances?The Case of Asset‐backed Commercial Paper During the Financial Crisis of 2007‐2009

Philipp Schnabl, NYU Stern

(joint with Viral Acharya, NYU Stern‐NBER‐CEPR)

International Monetary FundInternational Monetary Fund

Annual Research Conference

November 6, 2009

Page 2: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Motivation

• What explains the geography of the financial crisis?

• Observe large global imbalances before crisis– Large capital flows from surplus to deficit countries– Demand for riskless assets from surplus countries– Global imbalances generate financial fragility in deficit countriesGlobal imbalances generate financial fragility in deficit countries

• But, financial crisis had immediate global impact, g p– Large losses at global banks in both surplus and deficit countries– First bank bailouts were in “surplus” Germany

Page 3: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

What we do?

• Analyze geography of global banks’ off‐balance sheet d iconduits

– Conduits are structured purpose vehicles managed by large banks – Purchase and hold financial assetsPurchase and hold financial assets– Finance assets by selling Asset‐backed Commercial Paper (ABCP)

• Provides window to study risk choices of global banks– Conduits are separate entities (“banks within banks”)

• Financial crisis started with “modern” bank run on conduits in Aug 2007conduits in Aug 2007

Page 4: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Growth and decline of ABCP

1200

1300

1000

1100

1200

ng (b

n)

900

1000

Billion

Outstandin

700

800

ABC

P O

500

600

1/7/2004 1/7/2005 1/7/2006 1/7/2007 1/7/2008 1/7/2009

Time

Page 5: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Results

• Conduits invest in U.S./U.K. assets and fund themselves in USD/– Suggests banks “manufacture” riskless assets in response to safe 

asset demand– Geography consistent with global imbalances viewg p y g

• Global banks in “weakly regulated” financial systems sponsor conduits

– Global banks in both deficit and surplus countries provide guarantees – Geography consistent with regulatory arbitrage

• Global banks transmit crisis to surplus and deficit countries– More exposure to conduits leads to lower bank stock returns– Larger effects on banks in surplus countries than deficit countries– Increase in U.S. dollar borrowing of U.S. subsidiaries of European banks

Page 6: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Outline

1. Institutional backgroundst tut o a bac g ou d

2. Empirical analysis– Geography of conduits

– Event  Study 

Page 7: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Related literature

Global imbalances and safe‐asset demand• Global imbalances amplify asset bubble (Obstfeld & Rogoff, 2009) 

• Global asset scarcity led to U.S. capital inflows and asset bubble (Caballero, Fahri, and Gourinchas, 2008)(Caballero, Fahri, and Gourinchas, 2008)

• Safe asset demand creates financial fragility (Caballero and Krishnamurthy, 2009)

Securitization• Securitization can concentrate risk (Shin, 2009; Acharya,  Schnabl, 

and Suarez 2009)and Suarez 2009)

• Incentive problems in securitization (Dell'Ariccia, Deniz, and Laeven, 2008; Keys et al., 2009)

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Traditional model: banks as delegated monitors

Bank balance sheet

Assets Liabilities

Loans Deposits

Capital/Equity

Page 9: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

New model: securitization

Assets Liabilities

Bank balance sheet

Assets Liabilities

Loans Deposits

Capital

Assets Liabilities

Structured purpose vehicle

Assets Liabilities

Loans Asset‐BackedS iti (ABS) InvestorsSecurities (ABS) Investors

Page 10: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

New model+: securitization w/o risk transfer

b l

Bank Balance Sheet

Assets Liabilities

DepositsLoans

CapitalGuarantees

Loans

Assets Liabilities

Conduit 

Asset‐BackedCommercial Loans InvestorsPaper (ABCP)

Investors

Page 11: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Securitization without risk transfer

Conduit Other securitization (e.g., CDO)

Assets

(e.g., CDO)

Medium and long‐term

Long‐termg

Debt Short‐term(no tranches) 

Long‐term (tranched)

Credit Rating Short‐term Long‐term

L i k Vi b k Vi T hiLow risk Via bank Guarantee

Via Tranching

Page 12: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Example: Conduit Balance Sheet

Ormond Quay (July 2007)

Assets Liabilities

Residential Mortgage- $6.3bn Asset-Backed C i l P

$11.3bn

backed SecuritiesCommercial Mortgage-backed Securities

$2.7bn

Commercial Paper (ABCP)

Consumer Loans $0.5bn

Other $1.8bn

$11.3bn

Total $11.3bn

Guarantee by German bank S h L d b k

Short‐term debt: Average M t it 1 M thSachsen Landesbank Maturity < 1 Month

Page 13: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

New Model+: Lower capital requirementsBank

Capital Requirement 

8%Loans 

Assetp q

(Basel 1)

8% 

Guarantees 0% ‐ 0.8%

Conduit 

Capital Requirement

Loans 0%

AssetCapital Requirement(Basel 1)

Loans 0%

Page 14: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Benefits of ABCP

• Banks:– Fees on services– Maturity arbitrage (“lend long, fund short”)– Regulatory arbitrage (“circumvent capital requirements”)– Regulatory arbitrage ( circumvent capital requirements )Manufacture riskless assets without capital charge

• Investors:– Higher return compared to TreasuriesRating satisfies Money Market Funds regulatory requirements– Rating satisfies Money Market Funds regulatory requirements

Can invest in long‐term assets via “riskless assets”

Page 15: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Risks of ABCP

• Banks:– Investors may not extend ABCP (“rollover risk”)– Banks need to provide liquidity (purchase conduit assets) and absorb credit losses on conduit assetsabsorb credit losses on conduit assets

• Investors:– Need to liquidate conduit assets if bank is in default

Page 16: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Outline

1. Institutional backgrounds u o a bac g ou d

2. Empirical analysis– Geography of conduits

– Event  Study 

Page 17: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Data Sources

• Rating Agency Reports (Moody’s, S&P, Fitch)Rating Agency Reports (Moody s, S&P, Fitch)

• Balance Sheet Data (Bankscope)

• Money Market Holdings (iMoneyNet, Federal Reserve Board)

• Conduit‐level prices and quantities (Depository Trust & Clearing Corporation)

Page 18: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Global imbalances

United States

4.5

Germany

Japan

United Ki d

United States

3.5

4

P)

FranceGermany

Italy

NetherlandsS i

Sweden

l d

Kingdom

3

g(Co

untry GDP

AustriaBelgiumDenmark

FinlandGreeceIreland

Norway

Portugal

Spain Switzerland

2

2.5Log

1.5

‐15.0  ‐10.0  ‐5.0  0.0  5.0  10.0  15.0  20.0 

Current Account SurplusCurrent Account Surplus

Page 19: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Conduits invest in U.S. and U.K.

Conduit Name Size (bn) Asset Origin (%)Grampian 37 U.S. (70.4%)

Amstel 20 Netherlands (100%)

Scaldis 18 U.S. (51.1%), U.K. (10.1%)

Atalantis One 16 U.S. (40.5%), NL (27.1%)

Thames Asset No1 18 U.K. (57.8%), U.S. (35.8%) 

Solitaire Funding  15 U.S. (68.9%), U.K. (24.9%),

Stanfield Victoria  22 U.S. (96%), U.K. (2%)

Cancara Asset Sec. 15 U.S. (76%), U.K. (19%)Cullinan Finance Limited 13 U.S. (62%),  U.K. (23%)

Ormond Quay 12 U.S. (38%), U.K. (22%)

Source: Moody’s ratings reports, sample only includes conduits with available data on asset origin

Page 20: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Conduits primarily funded in U.S. money markets

Issuing CurrencyCurrency %USD 715 73.8%EURO 219 22.6%Other 35 3.6%

Commercial Paper Holdings by Investor ClassInvestor %

Total 970

Investor %Money Market Funds and Mutual Funds 722.5 32.6%Funding Corporations 584.3 26.4%F i I t 226 5 10 2%Foreign Investors 226.5 10.2%Other Investors 682.6 30.8%Total 2215.9

Source: Federal Reserve Flows of Funds, iMoneyNet data, Moody’s data

Page 21: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Ten largest sponsor

SponsorABCP  ABCP/Tier1 

Sponsor(bn) (%) Tier1 Ratio (%)

Citigroup (US) 92.7 102.0% 8.6%ABN Amro (NL) 68.6 219.5% 8.5%Bank of America (US) 45.7 50.2% 8.6%HBOS Plc (UK) 43.9 99.7% 8.1%JP Morgan (US)  42.7 52.7% 8.7%g ( )HSBC (UK) 39.4 44.9% 9.4%Deutsche Bank (GE) 38.7 125.0% 8.5%Société Générale (FR) 38 6 87 1% 7 8%Société Générale (FR) 38.6 87.1% 7.8%Barclays Plc (UK) 33.1 73.2% 7.7%Rabobank (NL) 30.7 88.3% 10.7%

Source: Moody’s rating reports

Page 22: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Sponsors in both surplus and deficit countries

Country ABCP (bn) %Country ABCP (bn) %

United States  305.1 31.5%

Germany  204.5 21.1%

U i d Ki d 1 8 3 16 3%United Kingdom  158.3 16.3%

Netherlands  125.8 13.0%

France  75.7 7.8%

Japan  40.8 4.2%

Belgium  35.2 3.6%

Switzerland  13.1 1.3%%

Other 11.2 1.2%

Total  969.7

Page 23: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Sponsors in both surplus and deficit countries

United States 300.0

Germany200.0

250.0

n)

Netherlands

United Kingdom

150.0

BCP (in

 billion

Belgium

France

Japan50.0

100.0AB

AustriaDenmarkFinlandGreece IrelandItaly NorwayPortugalSpain Sweden Switzerland0.0

‐15.0  ‐10.0  ‐5.0  0.0  5.0  10.0  15.0  20.0 

Current Account SurplusCurrent Account Surplus

Page 24: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Sponsors in both surplus and deficit countries

35.0%

Netherlands

25.0%

30.0%

y

Belgium15 0%

20.0%

/ Ba

nk Equ

ity

Belgium

France

GermanyUnited Kingdom

10.0%

15.0%

ABC

P/

AustriaDenmark

Finland

a ce

Greece IrelandItaly Japan NorwayPortugalSpain

SwedenSwitzerlandUnited States

0.0%

5.0%

‐15.0  ‐10.0  ‐5.0  0.0  5.0  10.0  15.0  20.0 

Current Account Surplus

Page 25: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

“Weakly” regulated financial systems

Capital RequirementType Capital Requirement

On‐balance sheet (Basel 1) 8%

Conduits, U.S. (before 2004) 0%

Conduits, U.S. (after 2004) 0.8%

Conduits, Germany  (Basel 1) 0% (+ Landesbanken, y ( ) (Guarantees)

Conduits, Germany (Basel 2) 1.6% (+ lower risk weights)

Conduits, Spain 8%

Conduits, Canada “Market disruption clause”

Page 26: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Growth and decline of ABCP

1,200

1,300

ng (b

n)

1,000

1,100

Outstandin

800

900

USD

 Billion

Enron After‐Enron Capital Rules

ABC

P O

600

700

Subprime Mortgage Crisis

500

600 Mortgage Crisis

Time

Page 27: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Outline

1. Related literaturee a ed e a u e

2. Institutional background

3. Empirical analysisp y– Geography of conduits

– Event  Study 

Page 28: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Rise in Overnight ABCP Spreads%)

5

nds Rate (%

4

ver Fed Fun

2

3

Spread

 ov

1

0

‐1

Time

Page 29: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Event Study

• Test whether global banks spread crisisTest whether global banks spread crisis

• Sample:– Start of financial crisis (August 2007)– Banks with assets >=$5bn in assetsSt k t il bl– Stock returns available

• Estimation:Estimation:

Page 30: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Banks with more conduits experience larger stock declines

ABCP/Equity

8) 0

7‐July 2008

Banco Santander SA HSBC Holdings Plc

Kabushiki Kaisha Mitsubishi UFJKBC Group‐KBC

LBB Holding AG‐Landesbank Berlin 

Holding AGPNC Financial Services Group Inc

Standard Chartered Plc

0 2

‐0.1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

uns(July 07

BNP Paribas

Danske Bank A/SING Groep NV

Intesa Sanpaolo

JP Morgan Chase & Co.

Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group‐Mitsubishi UFJ 

Financial Group Inc

KBC Group KBC Groep NV/ KBC Groupe SA

Lloyds Banking Group Plc

Mizuho Financial Group

Nomura Holdings Inc

Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group, Inc‐0.3

‐0.2

eturn

Stock retru

Bank of America Corporation

Barclays Plc

Capital One Financial Corporation

Commerzbank AG

Crédit Agricole S.A.

Credit Suisse Group

Fortis

cGroup

Natixis

Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken AB

Société GénéraleSunTrust Banks, Inc. Zions Bancorporation

Deutsche Bank AG

‐0.5

‐0.4

Stock Re

Citigroup Inc

Fifth Third Bancorp

FortisNatixis

‐0.7

‐0.6

‐0.8

Page 31: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Banks with more conduits have lower returns

Dependent Variable: Stock Return (August 2007)(1) (2) (3) (4)(1) (2) (3) (4)

Conduit Exposure ‐0.034 ‐0.023 ‐0.022 ‐0.029(0.007)** (0.005)** (0.008)** (0.009)**

Size Controls N Y Y YOther Controls N N Y YCountry FE N N N YOb i 107 107 107 107Observations 107 107 107 107R‐squared 0.068 0.277 0.289 0.359

Page 32: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Robustness

• Robust to changes in estimation window

• Robust to restricting sample to large banks >=$50 billion

• Robust to dropping outliers (German banks) and estimating with high and low exposure indicator variables

Page 33: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Countries with more conduits experience larger banks stock declines

0

ABPC/Equity

NORWAY

S AI

‐0.1

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

2007)

AUSTRIA

DENMARK

FINLAND

GREECE

ITALYJAPAN NETHERLANDS

ROMANIA

SPAIN

SWEDENUNITED KINGDOM‐0.3

‐0.2

rn (A

ugust 

BELGIUM

FRANCE

GERMANY

PORTUGAL

USA

‐0.5

‐0.4

Stock retu

IRELAND

PORTUGAL

SWITZERLAND

0 7

‐0.6

‐0.7

Page 34: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

U.S. subsidiaries of European banks increase dollar borrowingg

100

0

‐300

‐200

‐100

‐500

‐400

billion

s

‐700

‐600

‐800

Source: McGuire and von Peter (BIS Review 2009)Source: McGuire and von Peter (BIS Review, 2009)

Page 35: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Conclusions

• Banks use conduits to “manufacture” riskless assets– Conduits invest in U.S. and U.K assets– Funded in U.S. money markets

• Weakly regulated financial system underwrite conduit risks– Global banks transmit financial crisis to both deficit and surplus 

icountries

• Future research: Motivation for setting up conduitsutu e esea c ot at o o sett g up co du ts– Corporate governance, government guarantees

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Investment strategies

Panel A: Conduits

Total

# Conduits Size# Conduits SizeAll Conduits 296 1,235.3Conduit type

Multi‐Seller 135 548.0

Single‐Seller 63 173.5

Securities Arbitrage 35 213.8Secu t es b t age 35 3.8

Other 63 299.9

Page 37: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Ten largest conduits

Program Name Sponsor  ABCP (bn) Main Asset Type (%)

Grampian Funding  HBOS 37.9 Residential Mortgages (36%)

Amstel Funding  ABN Amro 30.7 CDO/CLO (84%)

Scaldis Capital Fortis Bank 22 6 Asset backed securities (77%)Scaldis Capital  Fortis Bank  22.6 Asset backed securities (77%)

Sheffield Barclays 21.4 Mortgages (43%)

Morrigan TRR  Hypo Public  18.9 Bonds (51%)

Cancara Asset  Lloyds 18.8 Residential Mortgages (43%)

Solitaire Funding HSBC  18.5 Residential Mortgages (45%)

Rhineland Funding IKB 16 7 CDO/CLO (95%)Rhineland Funding  IKB 16.7 CDO/CLO (95%)

Mane Funding  ING  13.7 Asset backed securities (91%)

Atlantis One  Rabobank 13.5 Commercial Loans (100%)

Page 38: DoGlobal Banks Imbalances? - International Monetary Fund · DoGlobal Banks Spread Global Imbalances? ... Barclays Plc Capital One ... Motot at oivation for settsett ging up coco du

Results

• Banks use conduits to manufacture “riskless” assetsd b (“l d l b h ”)– Conduits engage in maturity arbitrage (“lend long, borrow short”)

– Structured to avoid bank capital requirements – Riskless to outside investors because banks assume all risks

• Global banks in “weakly” regulated financial system set up conduits

Conduits mostly invest in US assets financed with U S dollar debt– Conduits mostly invest in US assets financed with U.S. dollar debt– Debt is sold to risk‐averse investors (e.g., U.S. money market funds)– Banks in both current account surplus and deficit countries set up conduits

• Empirical findings

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Global banks as sponsors for U.S. assets

$credit guarantee,

t $

fi i l

AssetsUS, UK

SponsorGLOBAL

management

$

ConduitFunded in USD

financialassets

$

ABCP $

InvestorUS

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Conduits primarily funded in U.S. 

Total# Sponsors ABCP# Sponsors ABCP

All Programs 126 1,235.3Sponsor type

Commercial Banks 64 903.3Structured Finance 27 181.7Mortgage Lender 16 71.1Other 19 79.1

Country of OriginUnited States 68 488.5Germany 15 204.1United Kingdom 10 195.7Other 33 347 0Other 33 347.0

Source: Analysis based on Moody’s ratings reports and Bankscope data 

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Conduits primarily funded in USD

Currency USD Euro Other Total %

United States 302 0 3 305 31.5%G 139 63 3 205 21 1%Germany 139 63 3 205 21.1%United Kingdom 93 62 3 158 16.3%Netherlands 57 66 3 126 13.0%F 51 24 1 76 7 8%France 51 24 1 76 7.8%Other 73 5 23 100 10.3%Total (billion) 715 219 35 970% 73 7% 22 6% 3 6%% 73.7% 22.6% 3.6%

Source: Author’s analysis based on Bankscope and Moody’s data