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Dogfaces: The Infantry in Normandy

Soldiers aboard an LCT landing craft crossing the English Channel, June, 1944. Photo 80-G-59422. Courtesy Naval History and Heritage Command.

By Michael Kern

Program Assistant, National History Day

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“The rifleman fights without the promise of either reward or relief. Behind every river there’s another hill – and behind that hill, another river. After weeks or months in the line only a wound can offer him the comfort of safety, shelter and a bed. Those who are left to fight, fight on, evading death, but knowing each day of evasion they have exhausted one more chance of survival. Sooner or later, unless victory comes, this chase must end on the litter or in the grave.”

- Lt. Gen. Omar N. Bradley

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What is National History Day?

National History Day is a non-profit organization which promotes history education for secondary and elementary education students. The program has grown into a national program since its humble beginnings in Cleveland, Ohio in 1974. Today over half a million students participate in National History Day each year, encouraged by thousands of dedicated teachers. Students select a historical topic related to a theme chosen each year. They conduct primary and secondary research on their chosen topic through libraries, archives, museums, historic sites, and interviews. Students analyze and interpret their sources before presenting their work in original papers, exhibits, documentaries, websites, or performances. Students enter their projects in contests held each spring at the local, state, and national level where they are evaluated by professional historians and educators. The program culminates in the Kenneth E. Behring National Contest, held on the campus of the University of Maryland at College Park each June.

In addition to discovering the wonderful world of the past, students learn valuable skills which are critical to future success, regardless of a student’s future field:

• Critical thinking and problem solving skills • Research and reading skills • Oral and written communication and presentation skills • Self-esteem and confidence • A sense of responsibility for and involvement in the democratic process

Participation in the National History Day contest leads to success in school and success after graduation. More than five million NHD students have gone on to successful careers in many fields, including business, law, and medicine. NHD helps students become more analytical thinkers and better communicators, even if they do not choose to pursue a career in history.

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What is the Normandy Scholars Institute?

Established in 2011, the Normandy Scholars Institute is a program which teaches high school students and teachers about D-Day and the fighting in Normandy during World War II. The program is a partnership between National History Day and The George Washington University made possible by the generosity of Albert H. Small. Mr. Small is a veteran of the U.S. Navy who served in Normandy during World War II. He is passionate about history education and wants to ensure that the sacrifices of World War II veterans are honored and remembered by America’s youth.

Each winter National History Day selects a group of teachers from across the country to participate in the program. Each teacher selects a student to work with during the institute. The teacher and student work as a team, learning side-by-side, making the institute a unique educational experience. Starting in spring, the team reads books on World War II and on D-Day, giving them a better understanding of the history and historical context of the campaign. Each student selects a soldier from their community who was killed during the war and who is buried at the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial. The team works with a research mentor to learn about the life of their soldier. In June, the teams travel to Washington, DC for several days of program events before flying to France to visit the historical sites where the teams’ soldiers fought and died. The trip culminates with a trip to the American cemetery where the student reads a eulogy in front of their soldier’s grave. After returning to the United States, the students and teachers share their experience with others by making a website about their soldier and giving presentations at their schools.

In addition to getting to experience Normandy firsthand, students and teachers will:

• Learn the true cost of war and the meaning of freedom and sacrifice • Improve research and problem solving skills • Attain a deeper understanding of America’s participation in World War II • Establish relationships with peers and colleagues from across the country

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Table of Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………..6

Infantry Combat, 1914-1941…………………………………….7

The Infantry Division……………………………………………9

Infantry Regiment……………………………………………….11

Field Artillery Battalion…………………………………………15

Tank Battalion…………………………………………………...19

Ranger Infantry Battalion………………………………………..23

Infantry Combat in Normandy…………………………………...26

Resources…………………………………………………………30

Bibliography………………………………………………………35

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Introduction

This guide covers U.S. infantry forces in Normandy. It should be a helpful reference for students who are researching a soldier from any of the units listed below. All of these units were either organic or attached to the infantry division, so they are treated here. In addition, the Ranger infantry battalion is discussed in this guide, because the Rangers worked in close cooperation with regular infantry units in Normandy and their experience in Normandy was similar to an infantryman’s. This guide discusses the history, organization, tactics, and combat experiences of the men in these units. It is worth reading all sections of this guide regardless of the type of unit your soldier served with, because these units all worked together.

• Infantry Regiment • Field Artillery Battalion • Tank Battalion • Ranger Infantry Battalion

Army poster urging workers to produce more equipment. Courtesy Center of Military History.

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Infantry Combat, 1914-1941

The Rock of the Marne The U.S. Army in Action series. Courtesy Center of Military History.

Great advances in infantry weaponry were made in the years after the Civil War. The bolt action rifle, machinegun, and rapid firing artillery all extended the range and lethality of infantry combat. Against these weapons, soldiers could not hope to advance across open ground and survive. Yet, soldiers in trenches were almost impossible to hit with artillery or machineguns. The infantry had to move in close to attack successfully.1

Infantry tactics struggled to overcome these technological advances during the first two years of World War I. Dense lines of soldiers disappeared as soldiers spread out to survive in the face of modern firepower. Military commanders turned to the artillery cannon as the solution to the difficulty of successfully attacking soldiers in trenches armed with machineguns and rifles. Their efforts were in vain – even firing millions of shells at enemy trenches did not kill the soldiers sheltering inside. The machineguns of the day were too heavy for soldiers to carry with them in an attack. The only way to capture enemy defenses was for the infantry to get close to the defenders and attack them with hand grenades and close range shooting. But infantry lacked the firepower to be able to cross no-man’s land without the help of machineguns.

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1 Civil War weapons, Brent Nosworthy. The Bloody Crucible of Courage: Fighting Methods and Combat Experience of the Civil War. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003; and newer weapons, Paddy Griffith. Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The British Army’s Art of Attack, 1916-18. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994, 38-44.

2 1914-1915 combat, Griffith, 47-64.

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In 1916, the British Army introduced two weapons that made infantry attacks possible. First, they adopted the Lewis Gun, an invention made by an U.S. Army officer named Isaac Newton Lewis. The Lewis Gun was a light machinegun, light and portable enough to be carried forward by soldiers and used in the attack. The British Army also developed the first tanks. Though the first tanks had thin armor, were painfully slow, and were mechanically unreliable (and their crews tended to get carbon monoxide poisoning), the tank and the light machinegun offered the infantry mobile firepower they could use to overcome enemy defenses.3

The British Army took advantage of these new inventions to develop new tactics which became called ‘fire and maneuver’ tactics. They decided that the key to a successful attack was in not allowing the enemy to shoot at their soldiers while they were crossing open ground. An artillery barrage before the infantry attack ensured that German soldiers stayed in their protective underground shelters instead of venturing into the trench to shoot at the British soldiers. The infantrymen moved forward while the barrage was keeping their enemies occupied. Half of the British soldiers fired Lewis Guns at the trenches to make the Germans keep their heads down while the other half of the soldiers moved in close to finish the enemy off with grenades. In 1918, the U.S. Army issued instructions which stated that when attacking trenches:

“The assault on such positions must be prepared and supported by artillery directed by its own observers and agents of laiason, and by the infantry’s own weapons. The close cooperation of infantry and artillery is of prime importance. On favorable ground, the artillery preparation may be completed, or even replaced, by the assault of a line of tanks.”4

These tactics proved successful and were soon adopted by all armies (and they are still standard today). After the war, each squad was equipped with a light machinegun. This allowed infantry squads to perform their own fire and maneuver attacks. Half of the squad provided covering fire while the other half moved.5

3 Lewis Guns and tanks, Griffith, 103-134. 4 Fire and maneuver, Griffith, 65-83; and “the assault on such,” War Department. Instructions for the Offensive Combat of Small Units, War Department Document No. 802, May, 1918. Washington: War Department, 1918, 11.

5 Tactics and weaponry adopted as standard, Stephen Bull. World War II Infantry Tactics: Squad and Platoon. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2004, 23-29.

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The Infantry Division

• Division Headquarters o Signals Company o Military Police Platoon o Quartermaster Battalion o Ordinance Light Maintenance Company o Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop o Engineer Combat Battalion o Medical Battalion o Field Artillery Battalion (Medium) o 3x Field Artillery Battalion (Light) o 3x Infantry Regiments

• Likely Attachments to the division:

o Tank Battalion o Tank Destroyer Battalion o Anti-Aircraft Battalion (Automatic Weapons)

The main fighting strength of the infantry division was the infantry regiment. The regiment was supported by a field artillery battalion and, usually, by a company of tanks and a company of tank destroyers from the attached Tank Battalion and Tank Destroyer Battalion. The division could expect support from anti-aircraft, anti-tank, and reconnaissance units, making the infantry division a ‘combined arms’ organization capable of attacking and defending ground successfully. The division numbered 14,253 men and 1,440 vehicles.6

The signals company operated radios and telephone equipment to communicate with the units within the division and to communicate with other divisions and with the corps headquarters. The Military Police platoon mostly directed traffic on the roads within the division’s section of the rear area, while the quartermaster battalion ensured that the division’s units received the supplies and equipment they needed to keep fighting. The ordinance light maintenance company repaired the vehicles of the signals, quartermaster, MP, cavalry reconnaissance and engineer units not assigned to particular regiments or artillery battalions.

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6 Division structure, Andrew Mollo. The Armed Forces of World War II: Uniforms, insignia and organization. New York: Crown Publishers, 1981, 151 and Gary Kennedy. “The United States Infantry Division, mid 1943 to 1945,” Battalion Organization during the Second World War. Accessed October 11, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/Divisions/Inf%20Divs/united_states_infantry_division%20mid%201943%20to%201945.htm; and manpower and vehicle stats, Mollo, 151.

7 Division support elements, Mollo, 151.

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Infantry Regiment

The infantry regiment was the primary combat unit of the infantry division. The regiment had three battalions of infantry, supported by several heavy weapons and support companies. The headquarters company provided the staff, bodyguards, and administrative support for the regiment’s commander. The service company performed maintenance on the regiment’s vehicles, brought supplies to the regiment’s troops, and evacuated wounded soldiers to the division’s medical battalion. The regiment had two heavy weapons companies: A cannon company to provide artillery support for the regiment at a moment’s notice and an anti-tank company to protect the regiment from German tanks:

• Infantry Regiment o Headquarters and Headquarters Company o Service Company o Medical Detachment o Cannon Company o Anti-tank Company o 3x Infantry Battalions8

The cannon company had six 105mm cannons, divided into three platoons. Each platoon had two guns and trucks to tow them. The company functioned as the regiment’s artillery and used methods similar to a field artillery battalion. The company command group had two officers, several NCOs, and several enlisted soldiers who acted as radio operators, truck drivers, and messengers. Each platoon had about thirty soldiers.9

The anti-tank company had nine 57mm anti-tank guns, divided into three platoons. Each platoon had three squads of ten men, each with one 57mm gun, a bazooka rocket launcher, and a truck. The platoon was commanded by an officer, with an NCO and an enlisted man as assistants. The company also had an anti-tank mine platoon of one officer and thirty men, whose men laid anti-tank mine fields in places where German vehicles were likely to travel. The anti-tank company was often broken up, with each anti-tank gun platoon being attached to one of the regiment’s infantry battalions.

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8 Kennedy, “Infantry Division.”

9 Cannon Company, War Department. Cannon Company, Infantry Regiment. FM 7-37, 28 March 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944, 1-19. 10 Anti-tank Company, War Department. Antitank Company, Infantry Regiment and Antitank Platoon, Infantry Battalion. FM 7-35, 15 March 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944, 1-18.

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There was also a medical detachment with surgeon and several medics to aid him, and enough company aid men to provide each rifle company with several medics. The medics assigned to the company treated the casualty and attempted to stabilize the soldier and stop excessive bleeding. If the soldier was unable to walk, battalion litter teams carried him to the battalion aid station just behind the front line, where the battalion surgeon and several aid men worked to save the soldier.11

The main fighting strength of the regiment was the 860 man infantry battalion:

• Infantry Battalion o Headquarters Company (9 officers, 112 men) o Heavy Weapons Company (8 officers, 152 men) o 3x Rifle Companies (each 6 officers, 187 men)

The regiment’s battalions were numbered (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), while the regiment’s companies were lettered. 1st Battalion had A, B, C, and D companies. 2nd Battalion had E, F, G, and H companies. 3rd Battalion had I, K, L, and M companies. There was no ‘J’ company, for some reason no one has discovered. D, H, and M companies were heavy weapons companies. The other nine were rifle companies. Platoons and squads were numbered (e. g. 2nd Platoon).12

The battalion headquarters company functioned in the same way as the regiment’s headquarters company. The headquarters company also included an Ammunition and Pioneer Platoon (A&P Platoon) which carried ammunition to the battalion’s companies, an Intelligence and Reconnaissance Platoon (I&R Platoon) which scouted for enemy units and an antitank platoon with three guns.

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The heavy weapons company provided the heavy firepower which helped the battalion’s infantry attack. The company had mortar and machinegun platoons:

• Heavy Weapons Company (8 officers, 152 men) o Company Headquarters (2 officers, 26 men) o 2x Machinegun Platoons (each 1 officer, 35 men with four heavy machineguns) o Mortar Platoon (4 officers, 56 men with six 81mm mortars)

11 War Department, Infantry Battalion, 44-46, War Department. Supply and Evacuation, the Infantry Regiment; Service Company and Medical Detachment. FM 7-30, 1 June 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944 and War Department, Medical Detachment, Infantry Regiment, T/O&E 7-11. 26 February 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. 12 Battalion structure and nomenclature, Gary Kennedy. “The United States Infantry Battalion, mid 1943 to 1945,” Battalion Organization during the Second World War. Accessed October 11, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/Infantry/united_states_infantry_battalion%20mid%201943%20to%201945.htm 13 Command and support units, War Department. Infantry Battalion, FM 7-20, 1 October 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944.

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The rifle companies each had three rifle platoons and a weapons platoon. Every other organization in the infantry division existed for the sole purpose of supporting the men in the rifle companies.14

• Rifle Company (6 officers, 187 men)

o Company Headquarters (2 officers, 33 men with five bazooka rocket launchers) o Weapons Platoon (1 officer, 34 men)

Mortar section (17 men with three 60mm mortars) Machinegun section (12 men with two M1919A4 machineguns)

o 3x Rifle Platoons (1 officer, 40 men) Platoon Headquarters (1 officer, 4 men) Rifle Squad (12 men)

The company was led by a captain, with a 1st lieutenant and 1st sergeant as assistants. Each platoon was commanded by a 2nd lieutenant, with a staff sergeant as assistant commander. The weapons platoon performed the same type of job that the battalion heavy weapons company performed – they just had fewer, lighter weapons. The rifle squads were commanded by a sergeant, with a corporal as assistant squad leader. Because of casualties and lack of replacements, it was not uncommon to find a 2nd lieutenant commanding a company or a corporal commanding a squad.15

Individual riflemen were armed with the M1 Garand, a rapid firing rifle with more firepower than a bolt action rifle. The rifle squad was divided into three teams, labeled Able, Baker, and Charlie. Able team was a two man scout team which scouted as far ahead of the squad as possible while still staying in sight. Baker team was four men strong, led by the squad’s corporal. The team included the squad’s main firepower, a Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR). The other six men in the squad, including the squad leader, were in Charlie team. Charlie team was the squad’s assault team.

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When the squad was moving towards the enemy, Able team led the way. Once the Germans were located, the squad leader directed Baker team to a position from which it could provide covering fire. Baker and Charlie teams were supposed to fire at the Germans until the Germans became pinned down by the American fire and stopped shooting. Then Baker team would continue firing while Charlie team, led by the squad leader, moved in close to the German position and dispatched them with hand grenades and rifle fire.

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14 Battalion heavy weapons company, Kennedy, “Infantry Battalion.”

15 Rifle company organization and jobs, Kennedy, “Infantry Battalion.” 16 Squad organization, Bull, 23-45. 17 Team roles, Bull, 32, 41-42.

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The rifle company was expected to use fire and maneuver tactics to gain its objective. The rifle company field manual stated that

“At the first position each attacking platoon seeks to gain fire superiority over the enemy to its front by subjecting him to fire of such accuracy and intensity that the hostile fire becomes inaccurate or diminished in volume…Further advances are made by successive rushes, or movement of individuals or small groups of the leading squads and platoons, or by maneuver of rear echelons. The movement of advancing elements is covered by fire of those remaining in position and by the fire of company and battalion supporting weapons and artillery…This combination of fire and maneuver enables attacking rifle elements to reach positions from which they can overcome the enemy.”18

Soldiers of the 47th Infantry move through a gap in the bocage Army Signal Corps Photo. 111-SC-191997. Courtesy National Archives.

18 “At the first position,” War Department. Rifle Company, Infantry Regiment. FM 7-10, 18 March 1944. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1944, 47-48.

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What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the regiment, along with their most likely job. Doing further research should help determine exactly what job your soldier had in his unit.19

Colonel: Commanded the regiment

Lt. Colonel: Commanded a battalion or was executive officer of the regiment Major: Was a staff officer or executive officer of a battalion Captain: Commanded a company or was a staff officer 1st Lieutenant: Executive officer of a company 2nd Lieutenant: Commanded a platoon Master Sergeant: Senior NCO in the regiment and a role model for the men 1st Sergeant: Senior NCO in a company and served as a role model for the men Tech Sergeant: More senior executive officer of a platoon, aka the ‘platoon sergeant’ Staff Sergeant: Executive officer of a platoon, aka the ‘platoon sergeant’ Technician 3rd Class: Medic or radio operator Sergeant: Squad leader Technician 4th Class: Medic, radio operator, or driver Corporal: Assistant squad leader or weapon gunner, driver Technician 5th Class: Medic, radio operator, or driver PFC/Private: Rifleman or messenger

Soldiers under fire from German 88mm guns take cover behind a bocage embankment Army Signal Corps Photo. 111-SC-356038. Courtesy National Archives.

19 War Department, Infantry Battalion.

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Field Artillery Battalion

American 105mm gun crew in action

Courtesy Stolly.org.uk.

The Field Artillery Battalion provided artillery support for the division’s infantry. This was a vital task and artillery support often meant the difference between victory and defeat on the World War II battlefield. Fortunately, the U.S. Army was second to none when it came to making effective use of artillery. American artillery tactics were very sophisticated and were unsurpassed by any army in the world.20

The job of the Field Artillery Battalion was to support the activities of the infantry regiments. They did this in several ways. The battalion provided artillery barrages in support of infantry attacks. During a battle, the battalion responded to requests for barrages from infantry commanders. The battalion performed ‘counter battery’ fire to knock out German artillery batteries firing at American troops. The battalion also attacked German reinforcements and command posts to make it more difficult for German officers to coordinate their activities and get troops to the right place on the battlefield.

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Each infantry division had four artillery battalions. Three of the battalions were ‘light’ battalions equipped with 105mm guns. The other battalion was a ‘medium’ battalion equipped with 155mm guns. The 105mm gun fired a thirty-three pound shell up to seven mile; the 155mm guns could fire a ninety-five pound shell up to nine miles. Regardless of equipment, the

20 American artillery tactics, Michael D. Doubler. Closing with the Enemy: How GIs Fought the War in Europe, 1944-1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994, 10-30. 21 Missions, War Department. Field Artillery Tactical Employment. FM 6-20, 5 February 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944, 8-10.

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battalions were organized and functioned in the same manner. The light battalions were generally attached to an infantry regiment to provide support. The medium battalion was kept in general support of the division and assigned to fire barrages as needed.22

The 509 man Field Artillery Battalion had 12 guns and 124 vehicles:

• Field Artillery Battalion (30 officers, 479 men) o Headquarters and HQ battery (14 officers, 132 men) o Service Battery (4 officers, 62 men) o Medical Detachment (1 officer, 11 men) o 3x Gun Batteries (each 4 officers, 100 men with 4 guns)

The battalion was commanded by a Lt. Colonel. The three batteries were lettered A, B, and C. They were each commanded by a captain. Each gun battery had four gun sections, each in charge of crewing one gun. The guns were crewed by ten men each and were towed by trucks. Some of the battery’s officers and NCOs were attached to the infantry regiment that the battalion supported, to help adjust the fire of their battery.23

The service battery was responsible for the maintenance of the guns and the battalion’s vehicles. The headquarters battery provided the staff elements needed to plan fire missions, keep track of supplies, and oversee the operations of the gun batteries. The headquarters battery also had two Piper L-4 Grasshopper airplanes, used to adjust artillery bombardments. The L-4 was a tiny airplane with no weapons, but was the airplane most feared by German soldiers because it could call on the wraith of an entire Field Artillery Battalion.

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During combat operations, a battery could be in ‘direct’ or ‘general’ support of a military unit. Batteries in direct support of a unit in effect were attached to that unit. The battery was assigned to support that particular unit with whatever artillery support they needed. Batteries in general support were not attached to a particular unit. Instead they provided support on an as needed basis for any unit that needed artillery fire. The medium field artillery battalion was usually ally kept in general support, while the light battalions were usually used in direct support of an infantry regiment or battalion. Artillery was not kept in reserve – since artillery fire could

22 Division artillery, Mollo, 151; and gun characteristics, Joseph Balkoski. Beyond the Beachhead: The 29th Infantry Division in Normandy. Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, PA: 1999, 105. 23 Organization, War Department. Field Artillery Battalion, Motorized, 105mm Howitzer, Truck Drawn, T/O&E 6-25. 27 September 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944 and War Department. Medical Detachment, Field Artillery Battalion, Motorized, 105mm Howitzer, Truck Drawn, T/O&E 6-25. 27 September 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. 24 Headquarters and Service Batteries, Balkoski, 104 and 287.

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be quickly switched from target to target the division’s artillery batteries were kept firing as much as possible, as circumstances and ammunition supply allowed.25

Batteries providing direct support for an infantry unit provided a team of forward observers (FOs) that went up to the front line with the infantry. The forward observer team consisted of several men, lead by an officer or NCO from the battery in direct support. The forward observers had a radio with which they could contact their battery to request fire missions. All men in the FO team were trained to adjust and coordinate artillery missions. In addition to ground-based FO teams, the battalion had two airplanes which they used for Forward Observation missions. Infantrymen were also trained in forward artillery observation, in case an FO team was not available or had been incapacitated. Infantrymen down to the rank of staff sergeant knew how to call for artillery missions.

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Because guns had a range of several miles, it was very rare for the gunners to be able to see their target. Almost without exception, artillery missions were ‘indirect;’ that is, the gunners received instructions by radio from an FO who could see the target. The FO radioed a description of the target (“enemy infantry,” or “enemy tanks,” etc.) and map coordinates of the target’s location to the battery’s Fire Direction Center (FDC). Each battery had a fire direction center, and the battalion and division also had FDCs. The FDC decided what priority the request should receive, in relation to the other requests being sent by other units. The FDC then performed mathematical calculations based on the target’s range, elevation, and other factors. The FDC staff then took the number received from that calculation and looked up the relevant aiming instructions for that data in a binder full of artillery aiming data. The FDC could then send the aiming instructions to the guns who would perform the fire mission. If a battery FDC felt that a mission was particularly important, they could coordinate with the battalion FDC or the division FDC to get the entire battalion or even multiple battalions to fire at the target. The U.S. Army was the only army in the world to use this system, which allowed artillerymen to provide maximum support on a moment’s notice to any unit in need of assistance.

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The Fire Direction Center concept also allowed Americans to use an advanced technique called a ‘time-on-target’ barrage. Most casualties from artillery fire occurred in the first few seconds of an attack, when troops might be caught outside of trenches or buildings by the unexpected barrage. American artillery batteries learned how to calculate the firing of their guns so that multiple batteries could hit an area at the same time, providing maximum damage to the target.

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25 Support options, War Department, Field Artillery, 8-10.

26 Forward observers, Balkoski 110-111 and Doubler 19-20; and air observers, Balkoski, 111-112. 27 Fire Direction Centers, Balkoski, 112-115. 28 Time-on-target, Doubler, 19, 67.

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Before a planned infantry or tank attack, the FO team worked with their battery’s FDC to ‘register’ targets for the planned bombardment. Registering targets required preparing information on the range and elevation of the targets to be bombarded so that the FDC could calculate aiming instructions for the bombardment. At the pre-planned time, the battery or battalion bombarded the target with shells, helping the infantry attack by ‘suppressing’ the German defenders (i.e. making them keep their heads down and not shoot). Once the infantry moved within 100-200 yards of the barrage, the FO team ordered the battery to stop firing so that Americans were not hit by accident. Then the infantry used their firepower to keep the Germans pinned down and move in for the kill.29

An L-4 Grasshopper flies over a battery of 105mm guns during a training exercise in England Courtesy Center of Military History, The War against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas, page 42.

The FO team could also request impromptu artillery missions against targets which had not been registered. This occurred frequently, either when the Germans attacked an American unit or when an American attack stalled and needed extra help. Artillery fire needed to be ‘adjusted’ to perform an impromptu fire mission, because there was not enough time to gather the precise ranging and elevation measurements needed for the FDC to calculate aiming. The Forward Observer sent map coordinates to the battery as usual. Then one gun from the battery fired a ‘ranging’ shot. The Forward Observer noted where the ranging shot landed and gave the battery instructions on how to move the fire so that it hit the target (“up 200, left 50 yards,” etc.). The battery continued to fire ranging shots until the shells landed where the FO wanted them to 29 Bombardments, Doubler, 19.

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land. Once the ranging shot was on target, the FO called for ‘fire for effect’ and the entire battery or battalion bombarded the target until the FO ordered them to cease firing.30

What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the battalion, along with their most likely job. Further research should help determine exactly what role your soldier played in his unit.31

Lt. Colonel: Commanded the battalion

Major: Was a staff officer or executive officer of the battalion Captain: Commanded a battery or was a staff officer 1st Lieutenant: Executive officer of a battery 2nd Lieutenant: Assistant executive officer of a battery Master Sergeant: Senior NCO in the battalion and a role model for the men 1st Sergeant: Senior NCO in a battery and served as a role model for the men Tech Sergeant: Gun section leader Staff Sergeant: Gun section leader Technician 3rd Class: Medic or mechanic Sergeant: Gun section leader or maintenance team commander Technician 4th Class: Gun crewman, radio operator, medic, mechanic, or truck driver Corporal: Gunner, vehicle driver, or assistant maintenance team leader Technician 5th Class: Gun crewman, radio operator, medic, mechanic, or truck driver PFC/Private: Carried and loaded ammunition for a gun

A 155mm gun fires during a training exercise

Courtesy Center of Military History, The War against Germany: Europe and Adjacent Areas, page 42. 30 Impromptu fire missions, Balkoski, 114-115. 31 Jobs, Balkoski, 104-105, 109-115.

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Tank Battalion Tank Battalions were independent units which were attached to a particular infantry division. Each division could expect to receive at least one tank battalion, and tank battalions tended to stay attached to a division for long periods of time. However, the battalion was independent of the division and was actually organic to the General Headquarters (GHQ) of the Army Ground Forces, commanded by Lt. General Lesley McNair. Because these battalions were controlled by the General Headquarters, they were often referred to as ‘GHQ’ tank battalions. About half of the Army’s tanks ended up assigned to one of these GHQ tank battalions. The rest were divided up amongst the Army’s sixteen armored divisions.32

GHQ tank battalions existed to help the infantry capture objectives. The tank battalion was usually broken up, with each company or platoon being assigned to a particular infantry regiment or infantry battalion. The tank battalion’s units would be attached to a unit for a particular attack and then withdrawn back to the control of the GHQ tank battalion. Tanks were very powerful units which excelled at working with infantry to capture objectives. But they were bad at defending territory since they were such large targets, so they were placed in reserve in the rear area until they were needed for another attack.33

Since tanks were armed with a long range cannon and machineguns that could hit a target 800 or more yards away, tanks were best suited to working in open terrain like rolling hills and fields. Even under these conditions, tanks needed to work closely with infantry to be most effective. The tanks and infantry formed a team – the tanks helped eliminate German machineguns and infantry squads which slowed the American infantry advance and the infantry protected the tanks from German anti-tank teams and helped the tanks spot targets (tank crews have only a small field of view from inside the tank). In the claustrophobic bocage country of Normandy, close cooperation with infantry was absolutely vital to the survival of the tank crewmen. The tank battalion field manual noted that

“the cooperation of all elements must be insured. Each commander must understand that his unit is only part of a team and that he must work in close cooperation with all other units. Teamwork is obtained by combined training. Tanks can take terrain but they cannot hold it. Tanks must not be expected to neutralize an objective for a long period of time.”34

32 Mollo, 232-233.

33 Roles, War Department. Tank Battalion. FM 17-33, December 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944., 4-18. 34 Armament, War Department, Tank Battalion, 11, 13; favorable terrain, War Department, Tank Battalion, 3; tank-infantry cooperation, War Department. “Tank-Infantry Teamwork,” Combat Lessons No. 9, 1945. Accessed October

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The tank battalion had four companies of tanks, supported by headquarters, medical, and maintenance units:

• Tank Battalion

o Headquarters and Headquarters Company (13 officer, 127 men) o Service Company (4 officer, 108 men) o Medical Detachment (2 officers, 18 men) o 3x Medium Tank Companies (each 5 officers, 112 men) o Light Tank Company (5 officers, 89 men)35

The Headquarters Company had a reconnaissance platoon, a mortar platoon, and an assault gun platoon (5 Sherman tanks armed with 105mm guns which specialized in knocking out buildings and bunkers) in addition to their normal administrative and command staffs. The main fighting power of the battalion was the three medium tank companies:

• Medium Tank Company (5 officers, 116 men) o Company Headquarters (1 officer, 16 men with 3 tanks and 1 vehicle) o Maintenance Section (1 officer, 9 men with 3 vehicles) o Admin, Supply & Mess Section (19 men with 1 vehicle) o 3x Tank Platoons (each 1 officer, 24 men with 5 tanks) 36

The medium companies did most of the fighting if the battalion needed to provide tanks to help infantry assault a German-held town or other defensive position. Medium tank companies were equipped with either M4A1 Sherman tanks or M4A3 Sherman tanks, which were practically identical. They were armed with a 75mm cannon, two .30 caliber machineguns and a .50 heavy machinegun for air defense. In July, medium tank companies began receiving M4A1 tanks with a long-barreled 76mm gun which was more effective against German tanks. One tank in the company headquarters was armed with a 105mm gun, which was better for use against buildings, hedgerows, etc. The light tank company’s M5A1 Stuart tanks were faster than the Sherman, but had less firepower. Both tanks had 2” of armor to protect them. Stuart tanks had a 37mm gun, two .30 caliber machineguns and a .30 machinegun for air defense. They were used for scouting missions rather than for assaults whenever possible:

11, 2011. http://www.lonesentry.com/combatlessons/index.html; and “the cooperation of all,” 2; “the cooperation,” Tank Battalion, 2. 35 Tank Battalion organization, War Department. Tank Battalion, T/O&E 17-25. 18 November 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944 and War Department. Medical Detachment, Tank Battalion, T/O&E 17-25. 18 November 1944. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944. 36 Medium tank company organization, War Department, Tank Battalion, 6; and tank characteristics and employment, War Department. Tank Battalion, 9-13.

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• Light Tank Company (5 officers, 91 men) o Company Headquarters (1 officer, 9 men with 2 tanks and 1 vehicle) o Maintenance Section (1 officer, 9 men with 3 vehicles) o Admin, Supply & Mess Section (16 men with 1 vehicle) o 3x Tank Platoons (each 1 officer, 19 men with 5 tanks)37

Sherman tanks had a crew of five men. A private or private first class served as the tank’s driver. Another man worked as the tank’s radio operator. He also fired the bow machinegun, located on the front right of the tank. An enlisted man served as the loader for the tank’s cannon. When the tank commander called for a particular type of shell (armor piercing, high explosive, smoke, etc.), the loader pulled the shell out of the storage bin and loaded it into the breech of the cannon. The tank’s gunner was a corporal and was second-in-command of the tank. In addition to firing the tank’s cannon, he also fired the tank’s coaxial machinegun, located right next to the cannon. The tank commander was a sergeant. He directed the movement and fire of the tank, and selected the type of shells that the gunner fired. Tank platoons were commanded by a 2nd lieutenant, who acted as tank commander for his tank in addition to acting as the platoon’s commander. The platoon sergeant of a tank platoon was a staff sergeant. The tank company was commanded by a captain. The company’s XO did not ride in a tank in battle – if the captain was killed or wounded, the most senior 2nd lieutenant took over command of the company until the 1st lieutenant could take over command. The Stuart tanks of the light company only had four man crews – the tank commander also served as the vehicle’s loader in addition to his other duties, making him a very busy man!38

In combat, the tank battalion used much the same tactics as the infantry. Each tank was assigned to a rifle platoon or rifle squad. Tanks suppressed German positions with their cannon and machineguns so that their infantry could move up or another tank/infantry team could advance. The tank battalion manual stated that “the battalion advances by fire and maneuver, the maneuvering element always being covered by a supporting element. When the maneuvering force has advanced to the limit of supporting distance, it may, in turn, support the movement of the remainder of the command.”39

37 Light tank company, War Department, Tank Battalion, 7 38 Tank crew jobs, War Department, Tank Battalion, 6-7. 39 “The battalion advances,” War Department, Tank Battalion, 2.

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What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the battalion, along with their most likely job. Further research should help determine exactly what role your soldier played in his unit.40

Lt. Colonel: Commanded the battalion

Major: Was a staff officer or executive officer of the battalion Captain: Commanded a company or was a staff officer 1st Lieutenant: Executive officer of a company or was a staff officer 2nd Lieutenant: Commanded a platoon or maintenance section Master Sergeant: Senior NCO in the battalion and a role model for the men 1st Sergeant: Senior NCO in a company and served as a role model for the men Tech Sergeant: More senior platoon sergeant Staff Sergeant: Platoon sergeant Technician 3rd Class: Medic or mechanic Sergeant: Tank commander or maintenance team leader Technician 4th Class: Medic, mechanic, or driver Corporal: Gunner, tank driver, or assistant maintenance team leader Technician 5th Class: Medic, mechanic, or driver PFC/Private: Tank crewman, driver, or clerk

M4A3 Sherman tank with added camouflage

Courtesy wwiivehicles.com. 40 Jobs, War Department, Tank Battalion, 6-7.

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Ranger Infantry Battalion

The Ranger battalions were specialized commando organizations used for assault or reconnaissance missions needing specialized skills. They played a vital role on D-Day, helping the Americans secure a foothold on Omaha Beach. Unfortunately, they tended to be misused by higher commanders as the campaign in Northwest Europe continued. The Rangers were the best and most dependable unit in the Army, so they tended to be called upon to perform tasks which the infantry could have performed, but not necessarily as well. The Ranger battalions suffered heavy casualties in Normandy and in other campaigns later in the war.41

Ranger uses a toggle rope to climb the cliff at Ponte du Hoc, June 6, 1944 Photo 80-G-45716. Courtesy Naval History and Heritage Command.

The Rangers were based on the British Commandos – units formed in 1940 following the British Army’s retreat out of France. Churchill ordered the British military to ‘set Europe ablaze’ and the British Army, Royal Navy, and Royal Marines responded by creating small units of highly-trained soldiers who could conduct raids on the European mainland. The commandos had some notable successes and in 1942 an American officer named Colonel William Darby convinced the Army that they should follow the British example. Darby recruited, trained, and led the 1st Ranger Battalion to several spectacular victories during the North African campaign in 1942. Following the success of the 1st Rangers, the Army created five more battalions. The 1st, 41 Ranger battalion usage in World War II, Robert W. Black, Rangers in World War II. New York: Ivy Books, 1992.

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3rd, and 4th Rangers (collectively known as “Darby’s Rangers”) served in Italy, the 2nd and 5th Battalions served in Northwest Europe, and the 6th Battalion served in the Pacific.42

Rangers were handpicked volunteers – nobody was assigned to a Ranger unit. Men competed to get a chance to be part of such an elite group. Their training was rigorous. Long distance marches with heavy packs were frequent and if a man dropped out on even a single march, he was out of the Rangers. The training focused on long distance marches, climbing, infantry assault tactics, and hand-to-hand combat training. The 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions trained in the United States before going to England in late 1943. Once in England, they completed their training at the Commando Depot in Achnacarry, Scotland.

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A Ranger battalion was organized in the same way that a British Army commando battalion was organized:

• Ranger Battalion (26 officers, 478 men) o Headquarters Company (8 officers, 88 men) o 6x Rifle Companies (each 3 officers, 65 men)

Company HQ (1 officer, 3 men) 2x Rifle Platoons (each

• Platoon Headquarters (1 officer, 3 men) • Mortar Section (6 men with one 60mm mortar) • 2x Assault Sections (each 11 men) 44

The battalion totaled 504 men and was quite lean. They did not have much in the way of support weapons. The battalion had six 81mm mortars which they could issue to rifle companies as desired, along with ten bazooka rocket launchers. These were men who moved quickly and traveled light – the Rangers hit fast, captured an objective, held it for a short period of time and were pulled out of the line. They could not slog it out with the Germans day after day.

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The rifle company was led by a captain, with a 1st sergeant as his assistant. There was no executive officer – the 1st sergeant filled that duty. In fact, there were fewer officers and NCOs in

42 British Commandos, Military Intelligence Service, War Department. British Commandos. Special Series No. 1, August 9, 1942. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1942; Churchill’s plan for raids on Europe, B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy: The Classic Book on Military Strategy. New York: Meridian, 1991, 367; Darby and the 1st Battalion, William O. Darby. Darby’s Rangers: We Led the Way. San Raphael, CA: Presidio Press, 1980; and other battalions, Black.

43 Ranger selection and training, Ronald L. Lane. Rudder’s Rangers. Manassas, VA: Ranger Associates, 1979, 25-37. 44 Organization, Gary Kennedy. “United States Army Ranger Battalion,” Battalion Organization during the Second World War. Accessed October 11, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/UnitedStates/united_states_army_ranger_battal.htm 45 Organization, Kennedy, “Ranger Battalion.”

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the Ranger Battalion than in other similar sized units. The Rangers expected each man to show initiative and leadership on the battlefield, even the enlisted soldiers. Platoons were commanded by a 1st lieutenant or a 2nd lieutenant, with a staff sergeant as his assistant. Each platoon had access to a bazooka, which the lieutenant could assign to a soldier of choice. The assault sections were led by a sergeant who coordinated the efforts of two teams, each of five men. One team had a Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) gunner and served as the base of fire team. The other team was the assault team. The two teams worked together to conduct the same fire and maneuver tactics used by the infantry, but with a precision forged out of months of intense training and selection.46

What was my soldier’s job?

This is a list of the different ranks of soldiers in the battalion, along with their most likely job. Further research should help determine exactly what role your soldier played in his unit.

Lt. Colonel: Commanded the battalion Major: Was a staff officer or executive officer of the battalion Captain: Commanded a company or was a staff officer 1st Lieutenant Commanded a platoon or was a staff officer 2nd Lieutenant Commanded a platoon Master Sergeant Senior NCO in the battalion and a role model for the men 1st Sergeant Senior NCO in a company and served as a role model for the men Tech Sergeant More senior platoon sergeant Staff Sergeant Platoon sergeant Technician 3rd Class: Medic Sergeant Assault section or mortar section leader Technician 4th Class: Medic or radio operator Corporal Assistant assault section leader Technician 5th Class: Medic or radio operator PFC/Private Rifleman47

Ranger uniform patch 46 Roles in the battalion, Kennedy, “Ranger Battalion.” 47 Jobs, Kennedy, “Ranger Battalion.”

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Infantry Combat in Normandy

The infantry did most of the hard fighting and the dying during the war. Infantrymen accounted for just 14% of the Army Ground Forces manpower during World War II, yet suffered 70% of its battle casualties. Infantry were not very glamorous, but they were very important, accounting for about 2/3 of the Army’s divisions during WWII. Within the infantry division, infantrymen suffered 92% of casualties. Artillerymen accounted for another 4%, with the last 4% spread among the other types of units. Once a division was sent into combat, they tended to stay in combat — the 90th Infantry Division accumulated 308 days of combat experience from Normandy to Germany, more than any other American combat division in the Army.48

The Army saw the rifleman as the key to victory in infantry combat. Before the war, American inventor John Garand invented the M1 rifle, a revolutionary design for its time. Other armies equipped their infantrymen with bolt action rifles. After firing a bolt action rifle, the soldier had to pull back a metal bolt and push it back forward again to load the next bullet into the chamber before he could fire the next shot. The M1 Garand was semi-automatic – the soldier could fire bullets as fast as he could pull the trigger, giving the American rifleman more firepower than his counterpart in other armies. The U.S. Army considered the M1 a battle-winning weapon. In fact, General George S. Patton stated that the M1 was “the greatest battle implement ever devised.” The Army decided that infantry would be able to overwhelm an enemy with rifle fire, so the squad did not need a true light machinegun. Unfortunately, they were wrong. While the M1 was an excellent weapon, German squads armed with the excellent MG-42 (‘Hitler’s Buzz saw’) had far more firepower than American soldiers did with their M1s and BAR. To make matters worse, German troops hidden in the bocage were more likely spot the Americans and open fire first. Consequently, American soldiers tended to become pinned down by German fire and unable to move forward without help from supporting weapons.

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American tanks did not have an easier time than the infantrymen. The American Sherman tank was quite vulnerable to German anti-tank weapons. Its armor simply was not thick enough to protect it from German shells and anti-tank rockets and it had a high-profile, making it easy to spot and to hit. When the Sherman did get hit it often burned, because of poorly designed ammunition storage compartments. American soldiers called the Sherman ‘the Ronson,’ after a brand of cigarette lighter. Ronson’s advertisements boasted that “Ronson always lights the first

48 Infantry strength and casualties, Doubler, 240;number of infantry divisions, Lone Sentry: Photographs, Documents, and Research on World War II. “Campaigns of U.S. Army Divisions in Europe, North Africa, and Middle East.” Accessed October 12, 2011. http://www.lonesentry.com/usdivisions/campaigns.html; casualties within the infantry division, John C. McManus. The Deadly Brotherhood: The American Combat Soldier in World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 1998, 3; 90th Division in most combat, Doubler, 236. 49 American and German weapons, Balkoski, 82-90; “the greatest battle implement,” George S. Patton quoted in Balkoski, 82; and Germans likely to see Americans first, Balkoski, 148-163.

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time.” German units bristled with anti-tank weapons, each one capable of destroying a Sherman. The Germans even developed a portable, disposable one shot anti-tank rocket launcher called the panzerfaust. German squads tended to have two or three of these weapons. In July, 1944 an American tank commander named Sergeant Curtis G. Culin found a way for tanks to cut through the bocage. Culin mounted metal shears to the front of his tank, which allowed the tank to break through the bocage embankment instead of having to drive over it. The ‘Culin device’ quickly spread throughout the Army’s tank battalions and armored regiments; tanks with the Culin device fitted to their hull were called ‘rhinos.’50

When German tanks were encountered, the situation got even worse. Lt. General Lesley McNair, commander of the Army Ground Forces, decreed that American tanks should be designed and armed with weapons best suited to fighting infantry. American tank cannons and anti-tank guns were not as powerful as their German counterparts. German guns could easily penetrate the armor of American tanks, while American tank crews generally had to maneuver for shots against the weaker side armor of the German vehicles. Even the tank destroyer battalions did not have the firepower to tackle German tank units head on – instead they tried to use cunning and surprise to ambush German tanks from the side or the rear.

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Faced with these difficulties, soldiers learned to use teamwork to defeat their enemies. The American tank crews helped the infantry suppress and assault German infantry and the infantrymen returned the favor by protecting the tanks from German anti-tank units. The soldiers could also call on assistance from Army Air Forces fighter planes armed with bombs or rockets to destroy German tanks and from artillery batteries to bombard German infantry.

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American artillery quickly became the German soldier’s worst nightmare and the American soldier’s best friend. The artillerymen worked tirelessly to provide support to infantry and tank units in need of extra firepower against enemy defenses. American artillery fire was decisive in many battles throughout the war, and certainly proved immensely helpful to American soldiers in Normandy. A British Army study conducted after the war showed that artillery was the main killer on the WWII battlefield:

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50 Sherman design characteristics, Belton Y. Cooper. Death Traps: The Survival of an American Armored Division in World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 1998, 335-342; Ronson, Funding Universe. “Ronson PLC.” Accessed October 12, 2011. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Ronson-PLC-company-History.html; German anti-tank weapons, Gary Kennedy. “The German Grenadier Battalion, 1943-1945.” Battalion Organization during World War II. Accessed October 12, 2011. http://www.bayonetstrength.150m.com/German/Infanterie/german_grenadier_battalion%201943%20to%201945.htm; Culin device, Doubler, 45-46. 51 American tanks versus German tanks, Cooper, 335-342. 52 Teamwork, “Tank-Infantry Teamwork;” and air support, Doubler, 63-86. 53 American artillery support, Doubler, 19-20; and distribution of casualties, Bull, 6.

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Weapon Casualties Artillery, mortars, aircraft bombs 75% Machineguns, rifles, anti-tank shells 10% Mines and booby traps 10% Other 5%

When American soldiers were not fighting, they were either marching somewhere, digging foxholes, or resting in them. Whenever an American soldier was going to be in one place for more than a few minutes, he took his shovel out of his pack and dug a six-foot deep hole for protection. Squads dug their holes in the same location, in the place that the platoon leader ordered them to dig. Two or three men shared a foxhole. Tank crews dug a larger hole for everyone underneath their tank, for extra protection. Sometimes the unit was ordered to move again as soon as the men finished digging. Other times, a unit might be in one place for several days. If this occurred, the soldiers continued digging to connect the foxholes with each other to form a ‘slit trench.’ Soldiers tended to stay in their foxhole or slit trench unless they had a good reason to leave it – the foxhole meant safety and being outside meant being exposed to bullets and shells. One man in each foxhole was always on guard duty. The other man or men slept, read, wrote letters, ate, etc.54

Men learned to eat, drink, and sleep whenever they got a chance, because they never knew when they would have the next opportunity. Soldiers only got about three hours of sleep a night. They were woken up constantly by the need to take their turn as a guard, or by false alarms of enemy attacks by frightened comrades, or by the never-ending pounding of artillery. Soldiers used their helmet as their toilet and as their wash basin whenever the need arose. They went months at a time without bathing, except for a makeshift bath in a puddle of cold, muddy water. They went a week or more without shaving and they tended to have lice.

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Soldiers had hot meals delivered to them by their company mess sergeant, who brought up pots of food in a jeep at night. Hot meals were not very common, however, and the combat soldier tended to survive on Army rations from his pack. They came in four different varieties. The most commonly consumed were K rations, which came in a small cardboard box marked B, L, or D (for Breakfast, Lunch, or Dinner). Denis Huston of the 99th Infantry Division described the contents of the D box K ration: “The D box included a can of hash or some other mixture of food not readily identifiable by sight, smell, or taste, a candy bar, four cigarettes, sugar, Nescafe, and crackers or hardtack.” C rations were similar, but packaged in two metal cans. One can held food which the soldier cooked over a small stove he took out of his pack, and the other held assorted powdered drinks, coffee, crackers, cigarettes, sugar, candy, and toilet paper. Tank crews

54 Foxholes and trenches, McManus, 71-73. 55 Sleep, McManus, 269; and hygiene, McManus, 76-78 and John Ellis. The Sharp End: The Fighting Man in World War II. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980, 185.

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and artillerymen tended to eat ‘10 in 1’ rations, which they stored in or on their vehicles. The 10 in 1 ration came packaged in a large cardboard box and contained enough assorted foods for ten men to eat. The 10 in 1 ration was particularly prized because it provided soldiers with some variety, instead of the same lousy food day after day. The soldiers also were issued with D rations, which were very hard chocolate bars. They were intended for use in an emergency and a soldier could get a day’s calories from consuming only three or four of them. The D ration was bitter in taste and many soldiers became nauseous after eating an entire bar. Soldiers usually used their bayonets to shave a few scrapings of the bar (it was too hard to break with bare hands) into their canteens to make a chocolate drink.56

Combat soldiers tended to be resentful of soldiers who served in support roles in the rear area, in more comfortable and less dangerous living conditions. Many combat soldiers felt that they had more in common with the Germans than they did with the ‘rear echelon commandos’ in the rear. They also tended to be distrustful of outsiders. The combat soldier’s world became very small – just the other guys in the squad, the hole he lived in, and the field and hedgerows surrounding his home. They lived on rumors and wild stories, hoped that everyday brought a letter from home, and – if they dared – dreamed of the day when the war would end and they could all go home. His comrades – whether he liked them or not – became his family. If a soldier got a package from home, he shared its contents with the rest of the group. Outsiders were treated with cold indifference until they proved themselves worthy of being admitted to the group.

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Old Campaigners (Cold and Wet), Mitchell Jamieson, June 1944. Courtesy Navy Art Collection.

56 Rations, McManus, 16-30; and “the D box included,” Denis Huston quoted in McManus, 24. 57 Attitudes, McManus, 237-305.

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Resources

Books

The best book about the American combat soldier in World War II is probably The Deadly Brotherhood: The American Combat Soldier in WWII by John C. McManus. McManus’s two books on Normandy – The Americans at D-Day: American Combat Experience at the Normandy Invasion and The Americans at Normandy: The Summer of 1944, the American War from the Normandy Beaches to Falaise – are also worth reading. They are both filled with personal stories and the words of the veterans themselves. The Sharp End by John Ellis is also excellent, but is more general, as it considers American, British, and Commonwealth soldiers. Army cartoonist Bill Mauldin’s memoir Up Front! is an excellent book and should be read by anyone wanting a better understanding of the daily life and attitudes of the American soldier during the war. The book is also graced with dozens of Mauldin’s cartoons, making it an enjoyable read. The Infantry’s Armor: The U.S. Army’s Separate Tank Battalions in World War II by Harry Yeide is a good history of the GHQ tank battalions. Closing with the Enemy: How GIs Fought the War in Europe, 1944-1945 by Michael D. Doubler is a detailed look at Army fighting methods during the war. The book can be a bit dense at times, but it is the best single volume on how the Army waged the war in Europe. It also includes a wonderful chapter on combat in Normandy. John Keegan provides an insightful and accessible look at infantry combat in his landmark book, The Face of Battle. Keegan’s book is also useful for the insights into the psychology of combat soldiers which he provides. More detailed study of this topic can be gained from On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society and in On Combat: The Psychology and Physiology of Deadly Conflict in War and in Peace, both by Dave Grossman and Loren Christensen. S. L. A. Marshall’s discussion of the problems of combat leadership in Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command is quite interesting. Marshall gained a notorious reputation because of the “Ratio of Fire” chapter in Men Against Fire and because of his poor research methods. Despite his flaws, Marshall saw combat firsthand during the war and interviewed hundreds of veterans days or even hours after coming out of combat. He offers a very insightful look at infantry combat and his ideas should not be dismissed wholesale because of his flaws.

Most divisions which fought in Normandy have been the subject of book-length unit histories. The best place to find what books have been written about your unit is WorldCat, the international library database. WorldCat also lists libraries in your area where the book is available, making it quite handy for research: http://www.worldcat.org

Online Resources

The U.S. Army’s Center of Military History has published a series of excellent books on World War II, including From Utah Beach to Cherbourg, Omaha Beachhead, Cross Channel

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Attack, and Breakout and Pursuit. Some of the archival resources on their website may also prove useful: http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/ww2eamet.html

Lone Sentry: Photographs, Documents, and Research on World War II is a true gem of a resource. Most useful are the ‘GI Series’ of booklets. These are short histories published by divisions just after the war. The “U.S. Divisions” section at the bottom of the home page has links to pages listing detailed information about each unit. The website also has numerous articles, training manuals and intelligence bulletins which provide interesting primary sources for various topics: http://www.lonesentry.com/

American D-Day has a number of useful documents, including primary source documents relating to the 1st and 29th Infantry Divisions: http://www.americandday.org/

6 Juin 1944 also has useful documents, oral histories, maps, and photographs for both the Utah and Omaha Beach assaults: http://www.6juin1944.com/assaut/en_index.html

The Veterans History Project at the Library of Congress’s website is a great place to find oral histories of veterans from your soldier’s unit. Check the relevant boxes and search for the regiment or battalion for which you are looking: http://www.loc.gov/vets/

The U.S. Coast Guard’s website has some nice information and images of their activities at Normandy: http://www.uscg.mil/history/Normandy_Index.asp

These are only a selection of the many websites with WWII information available. It is a good idea to type your soldier’s name or his unit into a search engine and see what you can find!

Images and artwork

http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/Normandy/pictures.html

http://www.history.army.mil/art/Posters/WWII/WW2.htm

http://www.history.army.mil/html/artphoto/pripos/pripos.html

http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-eur/normandy/nor3.htm

http://www.history.navy.mil/ac/d-day/exdday/exdday.htm

http://www.stolly.org.uk/ETO/

http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/ww2.html

http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/photos/#aviation

http://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures/

http://www.archive.org/ (NOTE: Has many WWII-era newsreels and documentaries)

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Archival Sources

The National Archives has a handy brochure on researching WWII soldiers: http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/ww2-participation.pdf

The American Battle Monuments Commission’s (ABMC) website allows you to search for soldiers by name, by state, or by unit here: http://www.abmc.gov/search/wwii.php

If your soldier was an enlisted man or NCO, the first step in researching him is to find his enlistment record. The enlistment record lists some basic information about the soldier – marital status, age, race, height, year of birth, selectee or volunteer, etc. They are available online at the National Archives’s website. The best way to search is by using the soldier’s service number (S/N). ABMC’s listing for that soldier will give you his service number. If you do not have the soldier’s service number, try searching for his name instead. Most of the records are here:

http://aad.archives.gov/aad/fielded-search.jsp?dt=893&cat=WR26&tf=F&bc=,sl

If you don’t find the soldier, try here:

http://aad.archives.gov/aad/fielded-search.jsp?dt=929&cat=WR26&tf=F&bc=,sl

You may be able to get the soldier’s military personnel file from the National Personnel Records Center (NPRC) in St. Louis, Missouri by mailing in Standard Form 180. The form lists the place to mail the form on the last page. Most WWII U.S. Army records were destroyed in a fire in 1973, but it is worth a try:

http://www.archives.gov/research/order/standard-form-180.pdf

The Army created an Individual Deceased Personnel File (IDPF) for each soldier killed during the war. The IDPF takes months to get, but gives valuable information and often contains correspondence with family members regarding the deceased. The ones I have seen do not contain any images or descriptions of the state of the body, but it is probably a good idea to have the file sent to your teacher, just in case. To get your soldier’s IDPF, fill out the Freedom of Information Act request on at the end of this section and mail it to:

The Human Resources Command, FOIA Office, 1600 Spearhead Division Avenue, Building 1, Third Floor, Ft. Knox, KY 40122.

The National Archives’s website has lists of military personnel killed during the war by state and by county. The forward to these books often has interesting information about your state’s participation in the war. The Army lists are here:

http://www.archives.gov/research/arc/ww2/army-casualties/

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The best place to do research on your soldier’s family is http://www.ancestry.com. Ancestry offers a two week free trial, so you should be able to find your soldier’s census data using the information from ABMC’s website and his enlistment record (if applicable). Some libraries have Ancestry on a computer for free use. By now, you hopefully know where your soldier was from and have a year of birth. Using that information, you can think about where he may have gone to high school. What high schools were around in his town or city in the late 1930s? Contact the school’s librarian. They may be able to find a yearbook picture of the soldier. It is also a good idea to talk to the people at your local or state historical society. They may be able to find you find resources. Try finding a library or university with the soldier’s local newspaper archived. You may be able to find an article about him or an obituary. Remember that obituaries were sometimes not printed until months after the soldier died. It often took weeks for the Army to send information regarding the soldier to his family. A city or county directory may have been published for your soldier’s area by R. L. Polk & Company. These directories list each resident in alphabetical order and give a one-sentence listing of their place of work, job title, and address. Check WorldCat or your local library for listings. Researching the soldier’s personal life is the most difficult part of fallen soldier research. You have to think like a detective and be creative to try to find sources. Sometimes a piece of evidence from one source and another scrap of information from another source can lead to wonderful results.

Your soldier’s military records are housed in two different archives. The records of your soldier’s military unit are at the National Archives at College Park, Maryland. These records contain all kinds of military documents. You can find after action reports discussing what happened during a battle, orders from your soldier’s commander, lists of medals or awards, and even minute-by-minute logs of messages coming in to the unit’s staff officers. Sometimes, these records have really interesting items, like cartoons, unit newspapers, and other items that give you an idea of what life in your soldier’s unit was like. A few other records are housed at the National Personnel Records Center. The NPRC has unit rosters of all of the men in a unit, but not for the years 1944 or 1945 (those were thrown out). They also have company morning reports – a short document filled out each morning by the company listed what happened that day, the number of men in the unit, and the names of men not present for duty that day for whatever reason.

Sometimes you find the information you want very quickly during your research and other times you have to work for it. Sometimes the information is just gone forever. But it is best to ‘leave no stone unturned’ and to try everything. Your hard work will usually be rewarded with good results. Take a lesson your soldier had to learn in Normandy – be flexible, be creative, and don’t give up.

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Freedom of Information Act Request TO: Department of the Army Human Resources Command of Excellence ATTN: FOIA, Bldg 1, 3rd Floor, Suite 17 1600 Spearhead Division Avenue Fort Knox, KY 40122 E-mail address: Foia.hrc@conus.army.mil Telephone: 502-613-4400 I request a copy of the Individual Deceased Personnel File (IDPF) pertaining to: Soldier’s Rank and Name: ________________________________________________ Serial Number if known: _______________________________ Date of Death: _______________________ Conflict: ____________________ Next of Kin requesting documents: _________________________________________ Next of Kin day time phone number: ___________________ Mailing address where documents will be sent: _______________________________ Signature of requestor and Date

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Bibliography

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