Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars? First Principles of Instruction M. David Merrill Professor Utah State University

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Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars?

First Principles of Instruction

M. David Merrill

ProfessorUtah State University

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Case Study Elements of Market Strategy

Brief Text

Graphic

Audio -- narrator reads text

Define Marketing

Marketing is a word you hear or use almost daily.

You probably know several ways the term is used. As you focus on writing a strategic marketing plan, be sure your team agrees on some common definitions, so you are all clear about what the plan is to accomplish. How would you define marketing?

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Case Study Elements of Market Strategy

Inserted Questions

Because competition changes the market so quickly, the smart move is to have an ongoing process in your business for developing your market strategy for each product or service.

Choose the statement below that's true.

__ Strategic marketing planning is primarily for larger companies.

__ Every business that wants to succeed should make marketing strategy a continuous process.

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Course Evaluation Content

– Accurate, appropriate, tools

Design & Delivery Web optimized? Function? Enhance learning? Apply skills in simulations or scenarios? Customize? Relevant assessment? Learning styles? Navigation?

Value Better than alternatives? Worth the time and money?

www.onlinelearningguide.com

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Under content they state:

"The information provided in the course is clear, but overall the lesson fails to engage. Although the concepts involved in a marketing strategy are covered, the course fails to give good, concrete steps and detail for when you actually sit down to make a strategic marketing plan. The result is limited retention and limited applicability."

Under Design and delivery they state:

"Interactivity is limited to learner assessments, which include feedback. Assessments are offered before, during, and following lesson units."

Under value they state:

"The course is fair value for managers, who need an introduction to marketing strategy."

They give the course 2 1/2 stars on their 5 star rating system.

Lguide.com evaluation

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My Evaluation

Marketing concepts -- no examples Assessment - remember information not application Based on Effective Instructional Strategies

– Not Problem-based – No Activation of previous experience– No Demonstration– No Application– No Integration

No stars!

Introduction to Marketing is ineffective instruction.

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Many instructional design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?

A principle is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions

regardless of program or practice.

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Levels of Design Theory

Instructional design theory, as represented in Reigeluth (1999), varies from basic descriptive laws about learning to broad curriculum programs that concentrate on what is taught rather than on how to teach.

Do all of these design theories and models have equal value?

Are all of these design theories and models merely alternative ways to approach design?

Do these design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?

If so, what are these underlying principles?

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Principles, Programs, Practices

Practice -- a specific instructional activity

Program -- an approach consisting of a set of prescribed

practices.

Principle -- a relationships that is always true under

appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.

Practices always implement or fail to implement underlying

principles whether they are specified or not.

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Instructional Practice

What is an instructional practice? It is what a given designer or trainer/teacher does to implement instruction.

A given instructional principle can usually be implemented via a wide variety of practices.

If a given practice fails to implement the relevant underlying principle there will be a decrement in learning.

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Instructional Programs

What is an instructional program? – It is prescribed set of instructional practices.

Instructional approaches may facilitate the implementation of one or more instructional principles.

If the practices prescribed by the program do not implement underlying principles, then there will be a decrement in learning.

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Example Program with Practices

Lewis, Watson, Schaps (In Reigeluth) Social, Ethical, and Intellectual Development -- Education’s Full Mission

Program– Literature Based Reading

Practices– Select books rich in social and ethical themes (content)

– Partner Reading

– Read aloud

– Promote values (e.g. Ask “How can we help our partners?”)

What are the prescriptive principles required?

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Example Program with Practices

Kovalik & McGeehan (In Reigeluth)

Program– Integrated Thematic Instruction (ITI)

Practices– Create a year long theme, monthly components, weekly topics

– Select a physical location or event (field trip)

– Identify key points (statement of concept, significant knowledge or skill)

– Write inquiries and assessment

• “Using a topographical map of our area, determine the boundaries of our watershed. Draw a map to scale. Include our school, major roads, and a dozen other well known reference points.”

Very broad setting for learning. What are prescriptive principles involved?

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Instructional Principles

What is a principle? It is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice.

Parsimony would dictate that there should be only a few

instructional design principles that can support a wide variety of instructional programs and practices.

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Premise: Many instructional design theories and models have fundamental underlying principles in common?

Agenda: Identify these underlying first principles?

A principle is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions

regardless of program or practice.

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Hypotheses

Learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the implementation of these first principles.

Learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the degree that these principles are explicitly implemented rather than haphazardly implemented.

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Method of Inquiry

Analyze instructional theories and models to extract general first

principles.

Identify the cognitive processes associated with each principle.

Identify empirical support for the principles.

Describe the implementation of the principles in a variety of different instructional theories and models.

Identify prescriptions for instructional design associated with these principles.

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Areas of Investigation

Instructional Design Models

Knowledge Objects

Cognition & Mental Models

Automated Instructional

Design


Meta-Mental Models

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Cognition -- A Simplified View

Associative Memory– Propositions– Rules– Automation

Schematic Memory– Schemata– Mental Models– Problem Solving

Data Structures + ProcessesDeclarative + Procedural

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Some Cognitive Principles

Isolated actions and operations processed by associative memory. Information-about processed by associative memory.

Problem solving requires schematic memory New schema are built by tuning and restructuring existing schema. Mental models operate on tasks and problems. Problem solving is selecting a mental model and processing the new

information via the mental model. Mental models develop slowly via successive tuning and restructuring Problems of conceptualization, planning, and interpretation are

processed via mental models.

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Cardinal Principles of Instruction

The Cognitive Structure Principle• … the development of that cognitive structure that is

most consistent with the desired learned performance.

The Elaboration Principle• … incremental elaboration for increased generality

and complexity

The Learner Guidance Principle• … active cognitive processing

The Practice Principle• … monitored learner performance with feedback

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Learning is facilitated when …

the learner is engaged in solving a real-world problem.

new knowledge builds on the learner’s existing

knowledge.

new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.

new knowledge is applied by the learner.

new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world.

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Problem

Activation

DemonstrationApplication

Integration

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Bransford -- Star Legacy

The Challenges

Generate Ideas

Multiple Perspectives

Research & Revise

Test Your Mettle

Go Public

Look ahead

Reflect back

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McCarthy 4-MAT

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MeaningMeaning

ConceptualizingConceptualizingOperationalizingOperationalizing

RenewingRenewingConnect, Examine

Image, DefineTry, Extend

Refine, Integrate

share, dialogue, reflect

acquire knowledge, understand theoryact, practice, tinker

adapt, re-present, share, renew

WHY?WHY?IF?IF?

WHAT?WHAT?HOW?HOW?

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Andre -- Instructional Episode

Activate phase– activate preexisting knowledge or motivational structures

Instruction phase– types of information provided

– how learners are encourages to process information and relate it to preexisting knowledge

Feedback phase– types of performances that are encouraged

– types of information provided as a result of the learner’s performance

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Problem

Learning is facilitated when … the learner is engaged in solving a real-world problem. The learner is engaged at the problem or task level not just

the operation or action level. the learner solves a progression of problems.

the learner is guided to an explicit comparison of problems.

Problems promote acquisition, elaboration, and use of mental

models rather than only associative memory.

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Activation

Learning is facilitated when … the learner is directed to recall, relate, describe, or apply

knowledge from relevant past experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.

the learner is provided relevant experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.

Activates a mental model appropriate for restructuring or tuning.

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Demonstration

Learning is facilitated when … the learner is shown as well as told. the demonstration is consistent with the learning goal. the learner is directed to relevant information. the learner is shown multiple representations. the learner is directed to explicitly compare alternative

representations. media plays a relevant instructional role.

Instantiates the mental model.

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Application

Learning is facilitated when … the learner is required to use his/her new knowledge to solve

problems. this problem solving activity is consistent with the learning

goal. the leaner is shown how to detect and correct errors. the learner is guided in his/her problem solving by appropriate

coaching that is gradually withdrawn.

Enables the student to restructure and tune the mental model.

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Integration

Learning is facilitated when …

the learner can demonstrate his/her new knowledge and skill.

the learner can reflect-on, discuss, and defend his/her new

knowledge.

the learner can create, invent, and explore new and personal

ways to use his/her new knowledge.

Promotes association among mental models and increased

generalizability.

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Gardner -- Multple Approches to Understanding --

“You’ll never understand the theory unless you [publicly] apply it.” p. 74

Activation– Entry points. “… one begins by finding a way to engage the

students and to place them centrally within the topic.” p. 81 Defines different types of entry points.

– Telling analogies. “..come up with instructional analogies, drawn from material that is already understood.” P. 82

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Gardner (cont.)

Demonstration – “… portray the topic in a number of ways.” p. 85

Application– … [provide] many [and varied] opportunities for

practice.” p. 86 Integration

– “… display one’s comprehension … in a publicly justified manner.”

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Nelson Collaborative Problem Solving

Build readiness -- (Activation)– Form and norm groups

– determine a preliminary problem definition

– define and assign roles

Engage in an iterative collaborative problem solving process -- (Application)– finalize the solution

Synthesize and Reflect -- (integration)– Assess products and processes

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Jonassen --Constructivist Learning Environments The model conceives of a problem … as the focus of the

environment, … Jonassen, 1999– Modeling -- demonstration– Coaching -- application– Scaffolding -- sequence of cases

• Related cases • worked examples• multiple perspectives• selectable information just-in-time• cognitive (knowledge construction tools)

– task representation tools

– performance support tools

– information gathering tools

– Provoke reflection, Perturb Learner’s models -- integration

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van Merriënboer -- 4C/ID

Principled Skill Decomposition

Development of Learning Environment

Algorithmic Methods

Prerequisite Knowledge

Heuristic Methods

Supportive Knowledge

Part-Task Practice

Prerequisite Information

Whole-Task Practice

Supportive Information

Rule Automation Schema Acquisition

Analysis

Design

recurrent skills non-recurrent skills

procedures specific rulesfacts

conceptsplans

principlesHeuristics

SAPsconceptual models

goal-plan hierarchiescausal modelsmental models

available during practiceavailable before practice

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Schank --Learning by DoingThe first step … is determining ... a mission that will be motivational for

the student to pursue. Shank, et al, 1999

Goal Based Scenarios

Goals -- process and content

Mission -- real-world problem

Cover story -- the problem to be solved

The role --

Scenario operations -- application

Resources -- stories -- contextualized demonstration

Feedback -- learner guidance

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Findings to date

Are the theories we have reviewed fundamentally different?

NO!

All theories incorporate some of these principles. No theory includes all of these principles. Some theories include principles or prescriptions not on our

list of first principles. (Area for further investigation).

No theory includes a contrary principle or prescription.

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How do these theories differ?

Implementation details differ.– Detailed discussion beyond scope of this presentation.

Principle(s) emphasized differs– Bransford -- phases of learning– McCarthy -- phases of learning and learning styles– Andre -- learning episodes– Gardner -- public exhibition of understanding

& kinds of intelligence– Nelson -- collaboration– Jonassen -- problem solving in learning environments– van Merriënboer -- problem solving sequence of cases & sequencing

of supporting information– Schank -- problem solving (cases) & stories

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Conclusion

There are first principles of instruction that are similarregardless of theory or philosophical orientation.

Hypothesis: failure to implement these first principles in the programs and practices will cause a decrement in learning.

Much remains to be done in articulating these first principles and tracing their role in different theories.

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Documents

Does Your Instruction Rate 5 Stars? First Principles of Instruction M. David Merrill Professor Utah State University