Does our Personality Predict Music Preference

Mitch Beavers and Lauren MutispaughDr. Christopher Buchholz (Faculty Advisor)

Roanoke College

AbstractResearch has shown that various aspects of our personality are related to the

types of music that we choose. We used Rentfrow and Gosling’s (2003) Short

Test of Music Preference, which measures an individual’s preference for musical

genres. We also used Buchholz’s (2006) measures complex/simple music

preference and happy/sad music preference. Responses on these scales were

correlated with personality measures. Preference for reflective/complex music

was positively correlated with need for cognition. Preference for intense/rebellious

music was negatively correlated with sad music preference and positively

correlated with need for cognition. Energetic/rhythmic was positively correlated

with extraversion. Finally, complex music preference was positively correlated

with need for cognition and openness to experiences and happy music

preference was positively correlated with agreeableness.

IntroductionPrevious research has shown a link between personality traits and music

preference (e.g., Catell & Anderson, 1953; McCown, Keiser, Mulhearn, &

Williamson, 1997; North, Hargreaves, & O’Neill, 2000). These studies, however,

have each used different methods of measuring music preference and according

to Zweigenhaft (2008) music preference may vary with age and location. It is

possible that the links between music preference and personality may vary

across samples. This study will replicate Rentfrow and Gosling’s 2003 study to

examine the reliability of their findings. This study will also look at a variety of

other personality and music preference measures to determine their possible

correlations.

Our music preference may be developmental. “Most people acquire their

musical taste during adolescence among friends of the same age, and they carry

early preferences right through the grave” (Sloboda, 1985, p263). There is also a

suggestion that we imprint preferences for music between the ages of ten and

twelve. While these preferences are not set in stone, there does appear to be a

stability of preference throughout life (Jourdain, 1997).

There is some indication that these preferences may reflect underlying

personality traits (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). One of the earliest attempts to

map music preference onto personality was made by Cattell and Anderson

(1953). They correlated the IPAT music preference test with Cattell’s 16

Personality Factor Questionnaire. They found that several of the personality

factors correlated with music preference. However, because they were mainly

interested in using the IPAT to examine the dimensions of the 16 PFQ, their

publication does not provide the specific music preference categories.

There have been several attempts over the years since Cattell and

Anderson to examine the relationship between personality and music preference.

McCown, Keiser, Mulhearn, and Williamson (1997), for example, found a

connection between extraversion and a musical preference for songs with

exaggerated bass. North, Hargreaves, and O’Neill (2000) indicate that there is

a link between music preference and ones social identity, in addition to one’s

self-views and self-esteem.

More recently, Rentfrow and Gosling developed the Short Test of Music

Preferences (STOMP) in 2003 that asked respondents to rate 14 different music

categories. These 14 categories clustered into 4 groups after a factor analysis.

They called these groups reflective and complex, upbeat and conventional,

energetic and rhythmic, and intense and rebellious. Reflective/complex includes

a preference for classical, blues, folk and jazz. Upbeat/conventional includes

country, religious, and soundtracks/themes. Energetic/rhythmic includes

dance/electronica, rap/hip-hop, and soul/funk. Finally, intense/rebellious includes

alternative, rock, and heavy metal music.

Rentfrow and Gosling (2003) found that these categories correlated with

several personality factors. Extraversion correlated with the upbeat and

conventional category, as well as with the energetic and rhythmic category.

Agreeableness was only correlated with the upbeat and conventional category.

Conscientiousness was found to correlate with the upbeat and conventional

category as well. Openness to experience correlated with reflective and complex,

intense and rebellious, and upbeat and conventional categories. None of the

music preference categories correlated with emotional stability. Finally, self-

esteem was found to have low, but significant correlations with the upbeat and

conventional category as well as with the energetic and rhythmic category.

HypothesesIn this study we used Rentfrow and Gosling’s (2003) STOMP which measures

an individual’s preference for musical genres; however, we also were interested in

the relationship between cognitive ability and music preference. Several

researchers have shown a link between cognitive ability and preference for

aesthetically complex or simple stimuli (Barron, 1955; Frances, 1976; Kammann,

1966; as cited in Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). Therefore, it is possible that measures

of cognitive ability, such as need for cognition, are predictive of an individual’s

preference for complex or simple music. In order to assess participant’s preference

for complex music we used Buchholz’s (2006) measures complex/simple music

preference. Finally, we also included Buchholz’s (2006) measure of happy/sad

music preference in order to test the relationship between preference for different

moods of music with personality. We predicted that we would replicate Rentfrow

and Gosling’s (2003) results. Also, we predict that complex music preference will be

correlated with need for cognition. All other variables included in this study were

exploratory in nature.

DiscussionFrom our results there are several tentative conclusions we can make about

the relationship between personality and music preference. Participants who like

complex music tend to be more open to experiences and have a higher need for

cognition. This is to be expected, in that people who seek out new experiences and

new cognitive problems would be expected to also seek out music that is more

complex in nature. However, the correlation between complex music preference

and sad music preference is a little more difficult to explain. It appears that those

who prefer complex music also like their music to be sad. It is possible that music

that has a more melancholy tone may tend to be more complex in structure;

however, future research will have to investigate this more fully.

Participants who prefer happy music appear to be more agreeable as well as to

have higher self-esteem. It is unclear the direction of this relationship, but it is

nonetheless intriguing. Also, those who like their music happy appear to like music

that is energetic & rhythmic and possibly upbeat and conventional as well. Both of

these categories include music that is happier in its nature, however, happy music

preference was negatively correlated with reflective and complex music. In light of

the relationship between complex music preference and sad music preference, this

also makes sense since the reflective/complex category includes music that is more

complex.

For the remainder of the results, we will discuss the implications in terms of

what type of personalities are associated with each type of music preference;

however, most of these relationships are difficult to explain due to the limits of the

data in this study. Individuals who like more religious music appear to have higher

self-esteem and prefer happy music. Those who listen to classical music and

soundtracks appear to less agreeable and prefer more complex music. In the case

of classical music, these participants also appear to prefer sad music. Those who

like rap and hip-hop seem to be more agreeable, extraverted, and to prefer music

that is happy and simple in nature. Individuals who listen to heavy metal music

appear to be low in both conscientiousness and emotional stability. This result is

worth noting in that low scores on these personality measures could indicate other

issues in mental health. Country music lovers tend to be low in openness to

experiences, but high in conscientiousness. They also appear to prefer music that

is simpler in nature. As one might expect, those that prefer jazz music are more

open to experiences and prefer complex music. Similarly, those who like blues

music prefer music that is more complex and sad. Finally, those who prefer folk,

rock, and heavy metal tend to prefer more complex music and those who prefer

pop, as expected, tend to prefer more simple music

MethodsParticipants completed various measures of personality and cognitive ability.

The measures included the Big 5 factors (Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swan, 2003), self-

esteem (Rosenberg, 1965), and need for cognition (Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, &

Jarvis 1996). Participants also completed Renfrow and Gosling’s (2003) Short Test

of Music Preference (STOMP). The STOMP test contains questions which indicate

14 genres of music: alternative, blue, classical, country, electronica/dance, folk,

heavy metal, rap/hip-hop, jazz, pop, religious, rock, soul/funk, and soundtracks.

Preferences were rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1-Not at all; 7- A great deal).

Buchholz’s (2006) music complexity scale was used assess an individual’s desired

level of music complexity. This scale is a 9 item Likert-type scale that included

questions such as “I prefer music that is more complex in nature”, “Most of the

music I listen to has many different instruments and parts”, and “I prefer music that

is rhythmic and uncomplicated”. Finally, Buchholz’s (2006) happy-sad music

preference scale. This scale is a 8 item Likert-type scale that included happy

statements such as “I prefer music that is upbeat and happy” and “I prefer music

that is light and uplifting”, while sad-relevant items included statements such as “I

find that I prefer to listen to sad music even when I am in a good mood” and “I like

music that has a darker feel to it”.

ResultsAs seen in Figure 1, there was a clear preference for complex music

(McomplexMP = 4.75, SD = .81; MsimpleMP = 3.30, SD = .72). After reverse coding

the simple music preference items, nine of the ten original items were found to have

high intercorrelations, therefore, we created a composite score of complex music

preference (α = .80). Demonstrating the link between cognitive ability and music

preference, complex music preference was significantly correlated with openness to

experience (r = .396, p=.001) and need for cognition (r = .389, p=.002) (see Table

1). As hypothesized, complex music preference was positively correlated with the

global STOMP category reflective & complex (r = .522, p<.001). As shown in Table

1, complex music preference was found to positively correlate with a variety of

specific STOMP categories (classical [r = .615, p <.001], blues [r = .358, p=.001],

folk [r = .322, p =.003], jazz [r = .358, p =.001], rock [r = .236, p =.029], and heavy

metal [.234, p=.031]). Complex music preference was found to be negatively

correlated with a variety of specific STOMP categories (country [r = -.288, p =.008],

rap/hip-hop [r = -.369, p=.001], and pop [r = -.255, p =.018].

As depicted in Figure 1, participants in our study showed a higher preference

for happy music (M = 4.51, SD = .57) than their preference for sad music (M = 3.72,

SD = 1.04). After reverse coding the happy music preference items, all eight items

were found to have fairly high intercorrelations, therefore, we created a composite

score called preference for happy music (α = .69). 1.46). As shown in Table 1,

preference for happy music correlated with both self-esteem (r = .330, p=.009) and

agreeableness (r = .339, p=.007). Interestingly, preference for happy music was

negatively correlated with a preference for complex music (r = -.393, p<.001),

suggesting that those who like happy music like simple music and those who like

sad music like more complex music. Preference for happy music was found to be

correlated with several STOMP categories (reflective and complex [r = -.312, p

=.004], energetic and rhythmic [r = .221, p=.042], and approaching significance for

upbeat and conventional [r = .212, p =.052]. As shown in Table 1, preference for

happy music was correlated to several specific genres as well classical (r = -.419,

p<.001), blues (r = -.289, p=.007), rap/hip-hop (r = .385, p<.001), and religious (r =

.252, p=.020). Finally, preference for happy music was also correlated

agreeableness (r = .331, p =.002).

Concerning the replication of Rentfrow and Gosling’s (2003) results, the

majority of the correlations failed to replicate. The only music preference category

that correlated with any personality traits was energetic/rhythmic. This category was

positively correlated to extraversion (r = .263, p = .039). This does, however,

replicate at least one of their findings. If we break down the categories to specific

genres, we do find some interesting correlations (see Table 1). Extraverts appear to

like rap and hip-hop music (r = .282, p = .009). Interestingly, participants high in

agreeableness appear to like rap/hip-hop (r = .297, p = .006) but dislike both

classical (r = -.228, p = .036) and soundtracks (r = -.228, p = .036). Conscientious

participants like country (r = .258, p = .017) and dislike heavy metal (r = -.245, p =

.024). Those that are more neurotic appear to like heavy metal (r = .260, p = .016).

Participants who were more open to experiences seem to like jazz music (r = .237,

p = .029) but dislike country (r = -.245, p = .024). Finally, those with higher self-

esteem appear to show a preference for religious music (r = .307, p = .004).

References

Buchholz, C. T., (2006). Musical complexity, mood, and personality.

Unpublished manuscript.

Cattell, R.B. & Anderson J. C. (1953a). The I.P.A.T. Music Preference Test of

Personality. Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability

Testing.

Gosling, S.D., Rentfrow, P.J., & Swann, W.B., Jr. (2003). A very brief measure of

the Big-Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality,

37, 504–528.

Jourdain R. (1997). Music, the brain, and ecstasy: How music captures our

imagination. New York: William Morrow & Co.

McCown, W., Keiser, R., Mulhearn, S., & Williamson, D. (1997). The role of

personality and gender in preferences for exaggerated bass in

music. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 543-547.

North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J., & O’neill, S.A. (2000). The importance of music to

adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 255-

272.

Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2003). The do re mi’s of everyday life: The

structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1236-1256.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press.

Sloboda, J.A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Zweigenhaft, R. (2008). A do re mi encore: A closer look at the personality correlates of

music preferences. Journal of Individual Differences, 29(1), 45-55.

ReferencesBuchholz, C. T., (2006). Musical complexity, mood, and personality.

Unpublished manuscript.

Cattell, R.B. & Anderson J. C. (1953a). The I.P.A.T. Music Preference Test of

Personality. Champaign, IL: Institute for Personality and Ability

Testing.

Gosling, S.D., Rentfrow, P.J., & Swann, W.B., Jr. (2003). A very brief measure

of the Big-Five personality domains. Journal of Research in

Personality, 7, 504–528.

Jourdain R. (1997). Music, the brain, and ecstasy: How music captures our

imagination. New York: William Morrow & Co.

McCown, W., Keiser, R., Mulhearn, S., & Williamson, D. (1997). The role of

personality and gender in preferences for exaggerated bass in

music. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 543-547.

North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J., & O’neill, S.A. (2000). The importance of music

to adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 255-

272.

Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2003). The do re mi’s of everyday life: The

structure and personality correlates of music preferences. Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1236-1256.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press.

Sloboda, J.A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Zweigenhaft, R. (2008). A do re mi encore: A closer look at the personality

correlates of music preferences. Journal of Individual Differences,

29(1), 45-55.

Figure 1

Extraversion -- -- -- -- -- -- .28** -- -- -- --

Agreeableness -- -- -- -.23* -- -- .30** -.23* -- -- --

Conscientiousness -- -- -- -- .26* -.25* -- -- -- -- --

Emotional

Stability -- -- -- -- -- -.26* -- -- -- -- --

Openness -- -- -- -- -.25 -- -- -- -- .24* --

Need for Cognition -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Self-Esteem -- -- -- -- -- -- -- .31* -- -- --

Complex MP .24* .36** .32** .62** -.29** .23* -.37** -- -- .36** -.26*

Happy MP -- -.29** -- -.42** -- -- .39** .25* -- -- --

Rock

Blu

es

Folk

Classical

Country

Heav

y M

etal

Rap

Hip

-Hop

Relig

ious

Soundtrack

s

Jazz

Pop

*Significant at α = .05

**Significant at α = .01

Correlation Table