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Research ArticleDocumentation of Herbal Medicines Used forthe Treatment and Management of Human Diseases bySome Communities in Southern Ghana
Augustine A Boadu and Alex Asase
Department of Plant and Environmental Biology University of Ghana PO Box LG 55 Legon Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Alex Asase alexasasegmailcom
Received 19 January 2017 Revised 31 March 2017 Accepted 3 May 2017 Published 8 June 2017
Academic Editor Andrea Pieroni
Copyright copy 2017 Augustine A Boadu and Alex Asase This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited
Traditional medicine is an important component of the health care system of most developing countries However indigenousknowledge about herbal medicines of many Ghanaian cultures has not yet been investigated The aim of the present study was todocument herbal medicines used by traditional healers to treat and manage human diseases and ailments by some communitiesliving in Ghana The study was conducted in eight communities in southern Ghana Data were collected from 45 healers usingethnobotanical questionnaire and voucher specimens were collected A total of 52 species of plants belonging to 28 plant familieswere reportedly used for treatment andmanagement of 42 diseases and ailments Medicinal plants were commonly harvested fromthe wild and degraded lowland areas in the morning from loamy soil Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Oral administration of the herbals was most (77) common route of administration whereas theleast used routes were nasal (1) and rectal (2) The results of the study show that herbal medicines are used for treatment andmanagement of both common and specialized human diseases and that factors of place and time are considered important duringharvesting of plants for treatments
1 Introduction
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) about80of developing countries depend on traditionalmedicinesfor their primary health care needs [1] In Ghana traditionalmedicine particularly herbal medicines is an importantcomponent of the health care system of the people [2]The utilization of herbal medicines and associated medicinalplants in Ghana has been documented by many authors [eg[3ndash5]] although there are still many indigenous cultures andcommunities inGhana that possess a great store of traditionalknowledge about herbal medicines for treatment of varioushuman ailments which are yet to be documented The useof herbal medicine in Ghana is widespread but highlydiverse due to floristic and cultural diversity and traditionalmedicine has huge impacts on the local economy andbiodiversity conservation The rich history of use of herbalmedicines and innovative utilization of plants as sources of
medicines in Ghana and broadly within Africa has beenpassed down through generations largely as oral tradition[6] and as such it is important that this knowledge bedocumented The WHO has a keen interest in documentingthe use of medicinal plants by indigenous people fromdifferent parts of the world [7]
Documentation of indigenous knowledge about utiliza-tion of medicinal plants is important for a plethora ofreasons Firstly it ensures that indigenous culture heritageis preserved from being lost for the use of both present andfuture generations [8] Studies have indicated that indigenousknowledge about herbal medicines is continuously being lostthrough factors such as acculturation and biodiversity lossesFor example a comparative study of contemporary plant usesin Ghana shows that themateria medica of the Fanti Ga andAshanti has changed considerably over time [6] Secondlythrough further research such as phytochemical biochem-ical pharmacological and clinical studies information on
HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2017 Article ID 3043061 12 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520173043061
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
indigenous herbal medicines can lead to discovery of newbioactive agents for treatment of ailments Despite the recentinterest in molecular modelling combinatorial chemistryand other synthetic chemistry techniques by pharmaceuticalcompanies and funding organizations natural products andparticularly medicinal plants remain an important sourceof new drugs new drug leads and new chemical entities(NCEs) [9 10] Thirdly biodiversity conservation can beenhanced when information about plants that are harvestedand utilized in the management of ailments within particularareas are available [3] For biodiversity conservation it isalso important to know what quantities of plant materials areharvested not only for home consumption but also for tradeCommercial trade often stimulates extensive wild-collectionwhich often has negative effects on medicinal plant pop-ulation sizes and recovery after harvesting On the otherhand the trade and marketing of herbal medicine createsemployment for thousands of people for example in Ghana[11] For these reasons the harvest should be documented andsustainable so this can continue to be a profitable resource forfuture generations [12]
The aim of this study was to investigate herbal medicinescommonly used for the treatment andmanagement of humandiseases and ailments by some communities living in south-ern Ghana To the best of our knowledge no specific previousethnobotanical report on use of herbal medicines as yet existsfor the studied communities Here we investigated aspectsof the diversity and harvesting of medicinal plants as well asthe modes of preparation and routes of administration of theherbal medicines It is hoped that this baseline data will inaddition to preservation of indigenous knowledge generateinterest for studies regarding the harvesting patterns bioac-tivity and safety of the medicinal plants being used Specifi-cally our study addressed the following questions (1) Whatare the most important species and families of plants beingused (2) Which plant parts are most frequently used(3) Which diseases are commonly treated with the herbalmedicines (4) What is the percentage of plants that areused for treatment and management of a single diseaseversus multiple diseases (5) Which factors of place andtime are considered important during harvesting of plantsfor treatments (6) What are the most common methodsof preparation and routes of administration of the herbalmedicines We hypothesize that healers are consulted forherbal medicines for the treatment and management of onlyspecialized human diseasesailmentsWe further hypothesizethat factors of place and time are considered importantduring harvesting of individual plants for treatments andmanagement of human diseases by traditional healers
2 Materials and Methods
21 Study Area The present study was conducted in 8 com-munities located within Akuapim-North Municipality andLower Manya-Krobo Municipality in southern Ghana (Fig-ure 1) Selection of the studied communities was basedon preliminary surveys by the first author which showedthat traditional healers in the communities possess rich butundocumented traditional knowledge about use of herbal
medicines The selection of the communities was also basedon the perceived willingness of healers in the communities tocooperate with the objectives of our study
The Akuapim-North Municipality covers a land area ofca 450 km2 and is located on longitude 6∘11015840N and latitude0∘501015840W and at altitude 408m above sea level The major veg-etation type is semidecidous forest and the area is mountain-ous consisting of the Togo-Atakora hills There are two rain-ing seasonsmdasha major rainfall between May and August andtheminor rainfall inOctober Average annual rainfall is about1250ndash1270mm and mean daily temperatures range between25 and 30∘C (httpwwwstatsghanagovgh) The natives arethe Akuapim people although other ethnic groups are com-mon in the area Christianity is the predominant religion inthe area
LowerManya-KroboMunicipality is located between lat-itudes 6∘051015840N and 6∘301015840N and longitudes 0∘81015840W and 0∘201015840Wwith an altitude of 4575m above sea level The vegetationis semidecidous forest with patches of savanna woodlandand dispersed secondary forestsThemunicipality lies withinthe semiequatorial climate belt with mean annual rainfallbetween 9000 and 11500mm Temperatures are usually highranging between 26 and 35∘C Topography is relatively flatwith isolated hills (httpwwwstatsghanagovgh)The nativepeople of the area are Krobo but there are people from otherethnic groups such as Ewes Akans and HausasThemajorityof people are Christians with fewMuslims and Traditionalists(httpwwwstatsghanagovgh)
22 Selection of Healers and Data Collection The presentstudy was conducted following the guidelines of the Codeof Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [13]A total of 80 healers from the study area were initiallyapproached through peer recommendations The purposeof the study including research objectives methods of datacollection and intention to publish data were thoroughlyexplained to each individual healer that was approached Sub-sequently detailed interviews for purposes of data collectionwere carried out with only healers that agreed to participatein the study and have signed an individual written priorinformed consent Data were collected from 45 traditionalhealers (Table 1) through interviews using semistructuredquestionnaire with predetermined open-ended and directquestions [14]The interviews were based on the plants beingused diseases and ailments treatedmodes of preparation andadministration of the herbal remedies and factors of time andplace that they consider as importantwhen harvestingmedic-inal plants Healers were interviewed individually and theinterviews were mostly conducted in their homes and placeswhere they collected plants for treatments
23 Specimen Collection and Plant Identification Plant spec-imens were collected with the healers interviewed in placeswhere they normally collected plant materials for usepressed and processed following standard ethnobotanicalpractices [15] Plant identification was achieved by matchinglocal names with those in standard literature [16] follow-ing the work of [17] as well as by comparison of the
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
Nifa
KodjonyaMenekpo
Kubi
Obom
Atua
Tutu
Lakpa
Yensi
Konko
Akuseakuse
Kpong
Akuni
Mamfe
Sappor
Oborpa
Asifaw
Sokode
Yogaga
Ama-hi
Tinkon
Adenya
Adowso
Abonse
Nyensi
Abiriw
Lartey
Saforo
Mampon
Gyakiti
Asenema
Asamang
Kotogye
Nkyenoa
Kwamoso
Odumase
Apirede
Adukrom
Okorase
Yonurase
Ayermaso
Agyemang Akpekope
Sanfoano
Otwetire
Agomanya
Bueyonye
Bepowasi
AsesiesoAwukugua
Akropong
Achichiso Akuni no1
Kurutiase
Obosomase
Oborpa jct
Okrakwadwo
Paterwonya
Boeriakura
Amanokurom
New mangoase
Piengua yokwenor
Amanfrom akwapim
11000 0 110005500(Meters)
RiversRoads
Lower Manya-Krobo DistrictAkuapem North Municipality
Dawu
Study Communities
Towns
5∘54
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘0㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘6㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘12
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘18
㰀0㰀㰀N
5∘54
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘0㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘6㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘12
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘18
㰀0㰀㰀N
0∘18
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘6㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘0㰀0㰀㰀
0∘6㰀0㰀㰀E 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀E0
∘24
㰀0㰀㰀W
0∘24
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘18
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘6㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘0㰀0㰀㰀
0∘6㰀0㰀㰀E 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀E
STUDY AREA
N
Bewiase
Figure 1 Map of study area showing communities where study was conducted
voucher specimens collectedwith those in theGhanaHerbar-ium at Department of Plant and Environmental BiologyUniversity of Ghana Classification and names of plantswere authenticated using The Plant List (2013) database(httpwwwtheplantlistorg)
3 Results and Discussion
31 Composition of Herbal Medicines In total 52 speciesof plants belonging to 28 plant families were documented(Table 2) Of the 28 families of plants members of theFabaceae Euphorbiaceae Asteraceae and Sapindaceae werethe most commonly used ones (12 in each case) in theherbal medicines (Figure 2(a)) The use of members ofthe above families in herbal medicines is widely known inGhana [3] It is widely known that members of the familiescontain secondary metabolites such as tannins phenolicsand alkaloids that are responsible for their bioactivity
Trees formed the majority (37) of the plants being used(Figure 2(b)) Two of the species of plants reported being
used namely Pteridium aquilinum (L) Kuhn and Pteridiumesculentum (Forst) Nakai were ferns whereas the rest of theplants were vascular plants There is very little informationon the use of ferns in the Ghanaian traditional pharmacopeia[see eg [3 4]] Speciesmost commonly reported being usedwere Aloe vera L and Paullinia pinnata L with a percentagefrequency of citation 7 each out of a total of 92 citationsAbout 54 of the species reported being used were cited onlyonce by the healers during the period of the current study
Leaves formed 57 of the herbal medicines documentedOther plant parts used were fruits barks and whole plants(Figure 2(c)) Leaves are commonly used in herbal medicinesbecause they represent the site ofmost photosynthetic activityin plants and they also contain very high concentrationsof secondary metabolites The benefit of a high proportionof leaves being used is also that the threat posed to thepopulations of the plant community is minimal comparedto harvesting of roots and barks The use of a combinationof various plants parts formed 18 of the herbal medicinesand this use is well documented in the literature Since the
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1 Biodata on traditional healers interviewed
Categories Variables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
Sex Female 13 289Male 32 711
Religion Christians 37 822Traditionalist 8 178
Formaleducation
None 6 133Basic 30 667
Secondary 9 200
Age-groups
40ndash49 11 24450ndash59 10 22260ndash69 10 22270ndash79 9 20080ndash89 4 89ge90 1 22
Years of practice
10ndash19 2 4420ndash29 11 24430ndash39 11 24440ndash49 15 33350ndash59 5 111ge60 1 22
composition of secondary metabolites differs in plant organs[18] the use of different organs of the same plant in the herbalmedicines might be to ensure extraction of the differentbioactive agents
32 Common Human Diseases and Ailments Herbal medici-nes were reportedly used for treatment and management of42 diseases and ailments Two ormore herbal medicines werereportedly used for treatment and management of 17 thediseases andailments and the herbals were most commonlyused for treatment and management of stroke fevers anddiabetes (Figure 3) The herbal medicines were used fortreatment and management of both common ailments (egcuts foot root) as well as the more specialized diseases suchas stroke diabetes cancer and stomach ulcer Some of thediseases such as stroke malaria and HIVAIDS are amongthe top 10 causes of deaths in Ghana (httpswwwcdcgovglobalhealthcountriesghana) Knowledge of frequentlyreported diseases andailments can be an indication of healthcare issues in a region and it should be of great importance tohealth care organizations and government
About 43 of the species of plants were reportedly usedin treatment of a single disease whereas the rest of theplants (57) were involved in treatment of more than onediseaseailment Medicinal plants are commonly used in themanagement of different ailments because they contain avariety of bioactive agents such as alkaloids and terpenoids[18 19] It is possible to isolate the bioactive agents orcompounds from extracts made from plants for detailedpharmacological and clinical investigations to be madeNevertheless in some cases isolation of bioactive agents has
been unsuccessful even though the extracts are active In thelatter case characterization of the active extract could enablestructure-related activity studies leading to possible synthesisof a more potent drug to be developed
33 Harvesting of Plant Materials Almost all the healers(98) interviewed harvested plant materials from lowlandareas (Table 3) About half of the healers harvested plantmaterials from forest-mosaic vegetation type while 7 of thehealers considered vegetation type unimportant when har-vesting plants About 93 of the healers considered the habi-tat of individual plants as important during harvesting Of thehealers who considered habitat as important 44 harvestedplants from the wild and 36 harvested from degraded areasand few (13) of them harvested plants from their homegardens The values of degradedsecondary habitats [20] andhome gardens [21 22] as sources of medicinal plants havebeen discussed by authors Secondary forests are gainingmore importance for medicinal plant collection as old-growth forests are becoming scarce and overexploited [2324] Our result is similar to that of [25] which indicated thathealers favoured primary forest and wild habitats in termsof medicinal plant collection According to [26] if a plantgrows readily in the wild and produces a good yield of activeconstituents or takes several years to mature then collectionfrom the wild is most practicable On the other hand ifplants that are harvested fromwild vegetation are rare or haveendemic status overharvesting can be a particularly seriousthreat [27] About 76 of the healers harvested plants fromloamy soils and 18 from sandy soil None of the healers har-vested plants from clayey soils while about 6 of the healerdid not consider soil type when harvesting plants Healersdid not explain why they avoided clayey soil and we did notfind any scientific evidence that clayey soil plants do not pro-duce pharmacologically active secondary metabolites Soilphysiochemical properties particularly nutrient levels affectgrowth and development of plants The levels of secondarymetabolites in plant tissues vary with resource availability[28] and plant nutrient balance in soil is thought to influenceproduction of secondary compounds at the level of metabolicregulation in plants [29] Topography of an area affectsrainfall soil type and amount of light reaching a plant andtherefore indirectly also affects plant growth and develop-ment In this study about 91of the healers harvestmedicinalplants in areas of flat topography while about 9 of thehealers harvested plants from areas of gentle slope
The time of harvesting medicinal plants was investigatedwith respect to time of day (24 hr duration) and season (dryversuswet season) of the year About 57of healers harvestedplants in themorning followed by 289who collected plantsanytime of the day and then 44 that collected plants in theafternoon None of the healers collected plantmaterials in thenight and about 9 considered time of the day unimportantwhen harvesting plant materials for herbal preparationsPlantsmaterials were harvested in themorning because of theimportance of healthcare to healers as they collected plantsfirst thing in the day About 28 of the healers harvestedplants anytime of the day which might suggest that healersalso collected plants as when they are needed According to
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table2Specieso
fplantsreportedlybeingused
byhealersa
rrangedaccordingto
theirfam
ilies
with
inform
ationon
theirh
abitsailm
entstre
atedplant
partsu
sedmetho
dsof
preparation
androuteo
fadm
inistratio
nof
thep
lants
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Acanthaceae
Ruelliabrevifolia
(Poh
l)C
Ezcurra
(A029)
Mokotso
(Krobo
)11
Herb
Halito
sisLeaf
Infusio
nNasal
Aloaceae
Aloe
vera
L(A
001)
Aloe
65
Herb
Diabetes
Diabetes
Typh
oidfever
Baldness
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera
pungensK
unth
(A028)
Nkassenkasee(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Stom
achulcer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ann
onaceae
Polya
lthialongifolia
(Son
n)Th
waites
(K001)
Tsogaga(
Krob
o)22
Tree
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Apocyn
aceae
Alsto
niabooneiDe
Wild
(A026)
Nyamedua
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Sexu
aldisorders
Root
andbark
Infusio
nTo
pical
Rauvolfia
vomito
riaWennb
erg(A
025)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Oste
oarthritis
Leafandbark
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ascle
piadaceae
Calotro
pisgigantea
(L)WTA
iton
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Heartbu
rns
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Asteraceae
Chromolaena
odorata
(L)R
MK
ing
(K003)
Acheam
pong
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)32
Shrub
Typh
oidfever
Stop
bleeding
Typh
oidfever
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Laun
aeataraxacifolia
(Wild
)Amin
exC
Jeffrey
(K002)
Unk
nown
32
Herb
Bloo
dpressure
Diuretic
Bloo
dpressure
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
aDelile(A
023)
Awun
yun(A
kuapem
)32
Shrub
Malaria
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOral
Vernoniaconferta
Benth(K
010)
Owud
ifukete(A
kuapem
)22
Shrub
Diabetes
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOral
Bign
oniaceae
Kigelia
afric
ana
(Lam
)Be
nth(K
004)
Nfuten(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Piles
Bark
Infusio
nOral
Spathodea
campanu
lata
PBe
auv
(K005)
Aku
akua
nisuo(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Bombacaceae
Bombax
buonopozenseP
Beauv(A
002)
Nyank
uduroAkonk
odies
(Aku
apem
)Tree
Stroke
Diabetes
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nOral
OralT
opical
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium
indicum
L(K
007)
Akomfemtik
oro
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Con
vulsion
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Capp
aridaceae
Euadeniaem
inensL
(K
008)
Dinsik
uro(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Lowsperm
coun
tRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthesrobu
sta(O
liv)Prance
(K00
9)Afambere
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Rheumatism
Leafandseed
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Com
bretaceae
Term
inaliasuperba
Englamp
Diels(A
021)
Ofram
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Con
vulsion
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Cucurbita
ceae
Mom
ordica
charantia
L(K
020)
Nyenye(Kr
obo)
22
Clim
ber
Snakeb
iteDiabetes
Who
leplant
Who
leplant
Infusio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Cyperaceae
CyperusesculentusL
(A
020)
WintoW
intin
o(K
robo
)11
Herb
Typh
oidfever
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Dennstaedtia
ceae
Pteridium
aquilin
um(L)Ku
hn(A
012)
Unk
nown
11Herb
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Pteridium
esculen
tum
(Forst)N
akai(A
018)
Meyaabea(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Menstr
uald
isorders
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Euph
orbiaceae
Brideliafer
ruginea
Benth(K
014)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Discoglyprem
nacaloneura(Pax)P
rain
(A017)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Stroke
Femaleinfertility
Leafandroot
Leafandroot
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralR
ectal
Drypetesa
ubrevillei
Leandri(K0
17)
Duameko(A
kuapem
)11
Shrub
Stroke
Root
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Drypetesfl
oribun
daHutch(K0
16)
Katirika(
Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Misc
arria
geRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Jatro
phacurcas
L(A
014)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Hernia
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
L(A
015)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Highfever
Leafandfruit
Decoctio
nOral
Macaranga
barteri
MullArg(K0
15)
Opam
(Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Foot
rot
Bark
Decoctio
nOral
Uapaca
guineensis
MullArg(A016)
Agyahere(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Rootbarkand
leaf
Decoctio
nTo
pical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
indigenous herbal medicines can lead to discovery of newbioactive agents for treatment of ailments Despite the recentinterest in molecular modelling combinatorial chemistryand other synthetic chemistry techniques by pharmaceuticalcompanies and funding organizations natural products andparticularly medicinal plants remain an important sourceof new drugs new drug leads and new chemical entities(NCEs) [9 10] Thirdly biodiversity conservation can beenhanced when information about plants that are harvestedand utilized in the management of ailments within particularareas are available [3] For biodiversity conservation it isalso important to know what quantities of plant materials areharvested not only for home consumption but also for tradeCommercial trade often stimulates extensive wild-collectionwhich often has negative effects on medicinal plant pop-ulation sizes and recovery after harvesting On the otherhand the trade and marketing of herbal medicine createsemployment for thousands of people for example in Ghana[11] For these reasons the harvest should be documented andsustainable so this can continue to be a profitable resource forfuture generations [12]
The aim of this study was to investigate herbal medicinescommonly used for the treatment andmanagement of humandiseases and ailments by some communities living in south-ern Ghana To the best of our knowledge no specific previousethnobotanical report on use of herbal medicines as yet existsfor the studied communities Here we investigated aspectsof the diversity and harvesting of medicinal plants as well asthe modes of preparation and routes of administration of theherbal medicines It is hoped that this baseline data will inaddition to preservation of indigenous knowledge generateinterest for studies regarding the harvesting patterns bioac-tivity and safety of the medicinal plants being used Specifi-cally our study addressed the following questions (1) Whatare the most important species and families of plants beingused (2) Which plant parts are most frequently used(3) Which diseases are commonly treated with the herbalmedicines (4) What is the percentage of plants that areused for treatment and management of a single diseaseversus multiple diseases (5) Which factors of place andtime are considered important during harvesting of plantsfor treatments (6) What are the most common methodsof preparation and routes of administration of the herbalmedicines We hypothesize that healers are consulted forherbal medicines for the treatment and management of onlyspecialized human diseasesailmentsWe further hypothesizethat factors of place and time are considered importantduring harvesting of individual plants for treatments andmanagement of human diseases by traditional healers
2 Materials and Methods
21 Study Area The present study was conducted in 8 com-munities located within Akuapim-North Municipality andLower Manya-Krobo Municipality in southern Ghana (Fig-ure 1) Selection of the studied communities was basedon preliminary surveys by the first author which showedthat traditional healers in the communities possess rich butundocumented traditional knowledge about use of herbal
medicines The selection of the communities was also basedon the perceived willingness of healers in the communities tocooperate with the objectives of our study
The Akuapim-North Municipality covers a land area ofca 450 km2 and is located on longitude 6∘11015840N and latitude0∘501015840W and at altitude 408m above sea level The major veg-etation type is semidecidous forest and the area is mountain-ous consisting of the Togo-Atakora hills There are two rain-ing seasonsmdasha major rainfall between May and August andtheminor rainfall inOctober Average annual rainfall is about1250ndash1270mm and mean daily temperatures range between25 and 30∘C (httpwwwstatsghanagovgh) The natives arethe Akuapim people although other ethnic groups are com-mon in the area Christianity is the predominant religion inthe area
LowerManya-KroboMunicipality is located between lat-itudes 6∘051015840N and 6∘301015840N and longitudes 0∘81015840W and 0∘201015840Wwith an altitude of 4575m above sea level The vegetationis semidecidous forest with patches of savanna woodlandand dispersed secondary forestsThemunicipality lies withinthe semiequatorial climate belt with mean annual rainfallbetween 9000 and 11500mm Temperatures are usually highranging between 26 and 35∘C Topography is relatively flatwith isolated hills (httpwwwstatsghanagovgh)The nativepeople of the area are Krobo but there are people from otherethnic groups such as Ewes Akans and HausasThemajorityof people are Christians with fewMuslims and Traditionalists(httpwwwstatsghanagovgh)
22 Selection of Healers and Data Collection The presentstudy was conducted following the guidelines of the Codeof Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [13]A total of 80 healers from the study area were initiallyapproached through peer recommendations The purposeof the study including research objectives methods of datacollection and intention to publish data were thoroughlyexplained to each individual healer that was approached Sub-sequently detailed interviews for purposes of data collectionwere carried out with only healers that agreed to participatein the study and have signed an individual written priorinformed consent Data were collected from 45 traditionalhealers (Table 1) through interviews using semistructuredquestionnaire with predetermined open-ended and directquestions [14]The interviews were based on the plants beingused diseases and ailments treatedmodes of preparation andadministration of the herbal remedies and factors of time andplace that they consider as importantwhen harvestingmedic-inal plants Healers were interviewed individually and theinterviews were mostly conducted in their homes and placeswhere they collected plants for treatments
23 Specimen Collection and Plant Identification Plant spec-imens were collected with the healers interviewed in placeswhere they normally collected plant materials for usepressed and processed following standard ethnobotanicalpractices [15] Plant identification was achieved by matchinglocal names with those in standard literature [16] follow-ing the work of [17] as well as by comparison of the
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
Nifa
KodjonyaMenekpo
Kubi
Obom
Atua
Tutu
Lakpa
Yensi
Konko
Akuseakuse
Kpong
Akuni
Mamfe
Sappor
Oborpa
Asifaw
Sokode
Yogaga
Ama-hi
Tinkon
Adenya
Adowso
Abonse
Nyensi
Abiriw
Lartey
Saforo
Mampon
Gyakiti
Asenema
Asamang
Kotogye
Nkyenoa
Kwamoso
Odumase
Apirede
Adukrom
Okorase
Yonurase
Ayermaso
Agyemang Akpekope
Sanfoano
Otwetire
Agomanya
Bueyonye
Bepowasi
AsesiesoAwukugua
Akropong
Achichiso Akuni no1
Kurutiase
Obosomase
Oborpa jct
Okrakwadwo
Paterwonya
Boeriakura
Amanokurom
New mangoase
Piengua yokwenor
Amanfrom akwapim
11000 0 110005500(Meters)
RiversRoads
Lower Manya-Krobo DistrictAkuapem North Municipality
Dawu
Study Communities
Towns
5∘54
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘0㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘6㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘12
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘18
㰀0㰀㰀N
5∘54
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘0㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘6㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘12
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘18
㰀0㰀㰀N
0∘18
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘6㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘0㰀0㰀㰀
0∘6㰀0㰀㰀E 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀E0
∘24
㰀0㰀㰀W
0∘24
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘18
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘6㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘0㰀0㰀㰀
0∘6㰀0㰀㰀E 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀E
STUDY AREA
N
Bewiase
Figure 1 Map of study area showing communities where study was conducted
voucher specimens collectedwith those in theGhanaHerbar-ium at Department of Plant and Environmental BiologyUniversity of Ghana Classification and names of plantswere authenticated using The Plant List (2013) database(httpwwwtheplantlistorg)
3 Results and Discussion
31 Composition of Herbal Medicines In total 52 speciesof plants belonging to 28 plant families were documented(Table 2) Of the 28 families of plants members of theFabaceae Euphorbiaceae Asteraceae and Sapindaceae werethe most commonly used ones (12 in each case) in theherbal medicines (Figure 2(a)) The use of members ofthe above families in herbal medicines is widely known inGhana [3] It is widely known that members of the familiescontain secondary metabolites such as tannins phenolicsand alkaloids that are responsible for their bioactivity
Trees formed the majority (37) of the plants being used(Figure 2(b)) Two of the species of plants reported being
used namely Pteridium aquilinum (L) Kuhn and Pteridiumesculentum (Forst) Nakai were ferns whereas the rest of theplants were vascular plants There is very little informationon the use of ferns in the Ghanaian traditional pharmacopeia[see eg [3 4]] Speciesmost commonly reported being usedwere Aloe vera L and Paullinia pinnata L with a percentagefrequency of citation 7 each out of a total of 92 citationsAbout 54 of the species reported being used were cited onlyonce by the healers during the period of the current study
Leaves formed 57 of the herbal medicines documentedOther plant parts used were fruits barks and whole plants(Figure 2(c)) Leaves are commonly used in herbal medicinesbecause they represent the site ofmost photosynthetic activityin plants and they also contain very high concentrationsof secondary metabolites The benefit of a high proportionof leaves being used is also that the threat posed to thepopulations of the plant community is minimal comparedto harvesting of roots and barks The use of a combinationof various plants parts formed 18 of the herbal medicinesand this use is well documented in the literature Since the
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1 Biodata on traditional healers interviewed
Categories Variables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
Sex Female 13 289Male 32 711
Religion Christians 37 822Traditionalist 8 178
Formaleducation
None 6 133Basic 30 667
Secondary 9 200
Age-groups
40ndash49 11 24450ndash59 10 22260ndash69 10 22270ndash79 9 20080ndash89 4 89ge90 1 22
Years of practice
10ndash19 2 4420ndash29 11 24430ndash39 11 24440ndash49 15 33350ndash59 5 111ge60 1 22
composition of secondary metabolites differs in plant organs[18] the use of different organs of the same plant in the herbalmedicines might be to ensure extraction of the differentbioactive agents
32 Common Human Diseases and Ailments Herbal medici-nes were reportedly used for treatment and management of42 diseases and ailments Two ormore herbal medicines werereportedly used for treatment and management of 17 thediseases andailments and the herbals were most commonlyused for treatment and management of stroke fevers anddiabetes (Figure 3) The herbal medicines were used fortreatment and management of both common ailments (egcuts foot root) as well as the more specialized diseases suchas stroke diabetes cancer and stomach ulcer Some of thediseases such as stroke malaria and HIVAIDS are amongthe top 10 causes of deaths in Ghana (httpswwwcdcgovglobalhealthcountriesghana) Knowledge of frequentlyreported diseases andailments can be an indication of healthcare issues in a region and it should be of great importance tohealth care organizations and government
About 43 of the species of plants were reportedly usedin treatment of a single disease whereas the rest of theplants (57) were involved in treatment of more than onediseaseailment Medicinal plants are commonly used in themanagement of different ailments because they contain avariety of bioactive agents such as alkaloids and terpenoids[18 19] It is possible to isolate the bioactive agents orcompounds from extracts made from plants for detailedpharmacological and clinical investigations to be madeNevertheless in some cases isolation of bioactive agents has
been unsuccessful even though the extracts are active In thelatter case characterization of the active extract could enablestructure-related activity studies leading to possible synthesisof a more potent drug to be developed
33 Harvesting of Plant Materials Almost all the healers(98) interviewed harvested plant materials from lowlandareas (Table 3) About half of the healers harvested plantmaterials from forest-mosaic vegetation type while 7 of thehealers considered vegetation type unimportant when har-vesting plants About 93 of the healers considered the habi-tat of individual plants as important during harvesting Of thehealers who considered habitat as important 44 harvestedplants from the wild and 36 harvested from degraded areasand few (13) of them harvested plants from their homegardens The values of degradedsecondary habitats [20] andhome gardens [21 22] as sources of medicinal plants havebeen discussed by authors Secondary forests are gainingmore importance for medicinal plant collection as old-growth forests are becoming scarce and overexploited [2324] Our result is similar to that of [25] which indicated thathealers favoured primary forest and wild habitats in termsof medicinal plant collection According to [26] if a plantgrows readily in the wild and produces a good yield of activeconstituents or takes several years to mature then collectionfrom the wild is most practicable On the other hand ifplants that are harvested fromwild vegetation are rare or haveendemic status overharvesting can be a particularly seriousthreat [27] About 76 of the healers harvested plants fromloamy soils and 18 from sandy soil None of the healers har-vested plants from clayey soils while about 6 of the healerdid not consider soil type when harvesting plants Healersdid not explain why they avoided clayey soil and we did notfind any scientific evidence that clayey soil plants do not pro-duce pharmacologically active secondary metabolites Soilphysiochemical properties particularly nutrient levels affectgrowth and development of plants The levels of secondarymetabolites in plant tissues vary with resource availability[28] and plant nutrient balance in soil is thought to influenceproduction of secondary compounds at the level of metabolicregulation in plants [29] Topography of an area affectsrainfall soil type and amount of light reaching a plant andtherefore indirectly also affects plant growth and develop-ment In this study about 91of the healers harvestmedicinalplants in areas of flat topography while about 9 of thehealers harvested plants from areas of gentle slope
The time of harvesting medicinal plants was investigatedwith respect to time of day (24 hr duration) and season (dryversuswet season) of the year About 57of healers harvestedplants in themorning followed by 289who collected plantsanytime of the day and then 44 that collected plants in theafternoon None of the healers collected plantmaterials in thenight and about 9 considered time of the day unimportantwhen harvesting plant materials for herbal preparationsPlantsmaterials were harvested in themorning because of theimportance of healthcare to healers as they collected plantsfirst thing in the day About 28 of the healers harvestedplants anytime of the day which might suggest that healersalso collected plants as when they are needed According to
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table2Specieso
fplantsreportedlybeingused
byhealersa
rrangedaccordingto
theirfam
ilies
with
inform
ationon
theirh
abitsailm
entstre
atedplant
partsu
sedmetho
dsof
preparation
androuteo
fadm
inistratio
nof
thep
lants
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Acanthaceae
Ruelliabrevifolia
(Poh
l)C
Ezcurra
(A029)
Mokotso
(Krobo
)11
Herb
Halito
sisLeaf
Infusio
nNasal
Aloaceae
Aloe
vera
L(A
001)
Aloe
65
Herb
Diabetes
Diabetes
Typh
oidfever
Baldness
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera
pungensK
unth
(A028)
Nkassenkasee(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Stom
achulcer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ann
onaceae
Polya
lthialongifolia
(Son
n)Th
waites
(K001)
Tsogaga(
Krob
o)22
Tree
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Apocyn
aceae
Alsto
niabooneiDe
Wild
(A026)
Nyamedua
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Sexu
aldisorders
Root
andbark
Infusio
nTo
pical
Rauvolfia
vomito
riaWennb
erg(A
025)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Oste
oarthritis
Leafandbark
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ascle
piadaceae
Calotro
pisgigantea
(L)WTA
iton
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Heartbu
rns
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Asteraceae
Chromolaena
odorata
(L)R
MK
ing
(K003)
Acheam
pong
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)32
Shrub
Typh
oidfever
Stop
bleeding
Typh
oidfever
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Laun
aeataraxacifolia
(Wild
)Amin
exC
Jeffrey
(K002)
Unk
nown
32
Herb
Bloo
dpressure
Diuretic
Bloo
dpressure
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
aDelile(A
023)
Awun
yun(A
kuapem
)32
Shrub
Malaria
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOral
Vernoniaconferta
Benth(K
010)
Owud
ifukete(A
kuapem
)22
Shrub
Diabetes
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOral
Bign
oniaceae
Kigelia
afric
ana
(Lam
)Be
nth(K
004)
Nfuten(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Piles
Bark
Infusio
nOral
Spathodea
campanu
lata
PBe
auv
(K005)
Aku
akua
nisuo(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Bombacaceae
Bombax
buonopozenseP
Beauv(A
002)
Nyank
uduroAkonk
odies
(Aku
apem
)Tree
Stroke
Diabetes
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nOral
OralT
opical
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium
indicum
L(K
007)
Akomfemtik
oro
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Con
vulsion
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Capp
aridaceae
Euadeniaem
inensL
(K
008)
Dinsik
uro(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Lowsperm
coun
tRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthesrobu
sta(O
liv)Prance
(K00
9)Afambere
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Rheumatism
Leafandseed
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Com
bretaceae
Term
inaliasuperba
Englamp
Diels(A
021)
Ofram
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Con
vulsion
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Cucurbita
ceae
Mom
ordica
charantia
L(K
020)
Nyenye(Kr
obo)
22
Clim
ber
Snakeb
iteDiabetes
Who
leplant
Who
leplant
Infusio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Cyperaceae
CyperusesculentusL
(A
020)
WintoW
intin
o(K
robo
)11
Herb
Typh
oidfever
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Dennstaedtia
ceae
Pteridium
aquilin
um(L)Ku
hn(A
012)
Unk
nown
11Herb
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Pteridium
esculen
tum
(Forst)N
akai(A
018)
Meyaabea(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Menstr
uald
isorders
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Euph
orbiaceae
Brideliafer
ruginea
Benth(K
014)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Discoglyprem
nacaloneura(Pax)P
rain
(A017)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Stroke
Femaleinfertility
Leafandroot
Leafandroot
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralR
ectal
Drypetesa
ubrevillei
Leandri(K0
17)
Duameko(A
kuapem
)11
Shrub
Stroke
Root
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Drypetesfl
oribun
daHutch(K0
16)
Katirika(
Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Misc
arria
geRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Jatro
phacurcas
L(A
014)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Hernia
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
L(A
015)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Highfever
Leafandfruit
Decoctio
nOral
Macaranga
barteri
MullArg(K0
15)
Opam
(Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Foot
rot
Bark
Decoctio
nOral
Uapaca
guineensis
MullArg(A016)
Agyahere(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Rootbarkand
leaf
Decoctio
nTo
pical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
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Diabetes ResearchJournal of
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
Nifa
KodjonyaMenekpo
Kubi
Obom
Atua
Tutu
Lakpa
Yensi
Konko
Akuseakuse
Kpong
Akuni
Mamfe
Sappor
Oborpa
Asifaw
Sokode
Yogaga
Ama-hi
Tinkon
Adenya
Adowso
Abonse
Nyensi
Abiriw
Lartey
Saforo
Mampon
Gyakiti
Asenema
Asamang
Kotogye
Nkyenoa
Kwamoso
Odumase
Apirede
Adukrom
Okorase
Yonurase
Ayermaso
Agyemang Akpekope
Sanfoano
Otwetire
Agomanya
Bueyonye
Bepowasi
AsesiesoAwukugua
Akropong
Achichiso Akuni no1
Kurutiase
Obosomase
Oborpa jct
Okrakwadwo
Paterwonya
Boeriakura
Amanokurom
New mangoase
Piengua yokwenor
Amanfrom akwapim
11000 0 110005500(Meters)
RiversRoads
Lower Manya-Krobo DistrictAkuapem North Municipality
Dawu
Study Communities
Towns
5∘54
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘0㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘6㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘12
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘18
㰀0㰀㰀N
5∘54
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘0㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘6㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘12
㰀0㰀㰀N
6∘18
㰀0㰀㰀N
0∘18
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘6㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘0㰀0㰀㰀
0∘6㰀0㰀㰀E 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀E0
∘24
㰀0㰀㰀W
0∘24
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘18
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘6㰀0㰀㰀W 0
∘0㰀0㰀㰀
0∘6㰀0㰀㰀E 0
∘12
㰀0㰀㰀E
STUDY AREA
N
Bewiase
Figure 1 Map of study area showing communities where study was conducted
voucher specimens collectedwith those in theGhanaHerbar-ium at Department of Plant and Environmental BiologyUniversity of Ghana Classification and names of plantswere authenticated using The Plant List (2013) database(httpwwwtheplantlistorg)
3 Results and Discussion
31 Composition of Herbal Medicines In total 52 speciesof plants belonging to 28 plant families were documented(Table 2) Of the 28 families of plants members of theFabaceae Euphorbiaceae Asteraceae and Sapindaceae werethe most commonly used ones (12 in each case) in theherbal medicines (Figure 2(a)) The use of members ofthe above families in herbal medicines is widely known inGhana [3] It is widely known that members of the familiescontain secondary metabolites such as tannins phenolicsand alkaloids that are responsible for their bioactivity
Trees formed the majority (37) of the plants being used(Figure 2(b)) Two of the species of plants reported being
used namely Pteridium aquilinum (L) Kuhn and Pteridiumesculentum (Forst) Nakai were ferns whereas the rest of theplants were vascular plants There is very little informationon the use of ferns in the Ghanaian traditional pharmacopeia[see eg [3 4]] Speciesmost commonly reported being usedwere Aloe vera L and Paullinia pinnata L with a percentagefrequency of citation 7 each out of a total of 92 citationsAbout 54 of the species reported being used were cited onlyonce by the healers during the period of the current study
Leaves formed 57 of the herbal medicines documentedOther plant parts used were fruits barks and whole plants(Figure 2(c)) Leaves are commonly used in herbal medicinesbecause they represent the site ofmost photosynthetic activityin plants and they also contain very high concentrationsof secondary metabolites The benefit of a high proportionof leaves being used is also that the threat posed to thepopulations of the plant community is minimal comparedto harvesting of roots and barks The use of a combinationof various plants parts formed 18 of the herbal medicinesand this use is well documented in the literature Since the
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1 Biodata on traditional healers interviewed
Categories Variables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
Sex Female 13 289Male 32 711
Religion Christians 37 822Traditionalist 8 178
Formaleducation
None 6 133Basic 30 667
Secondary 9 200
Age-groups
40ndash49 11 24450ndash59 10 22260ndash69 10 22270ndash79 9 20080ndash89 4 89ge90 1 22
Years of practice
10ndash19 2 4420ndash29 11 24430ndash39 11 24440ndash49 15 33350ndash59 5 111ge60 1 22
composition of secondary metabolites differs in plant organs[18] the use of different organs of the same plant in the herbalmedicines might be to ensure extraction of the differentbioactive agents
32 Common Human Diseases and Ailments Herbal medici-nes were reportedly used for treatment and management of42 diseases and ailments Two ormore herbal medicines werereportedly used for treatment and management of 17 thediseases andailments and the herbals were most commonlyused for treatment and management of stroke fevers anddiabetes (Figure 3) The herbal medicines were used fortreatment and management of both common ailments (egcuts foot root) as well as the more specialized diseases suchas stroke diabetes cancer and stomach ulcer Some of thediseases such as stroke malaria and HIVAIDS are amongthe top 10 causes of deaths in Ghana (httpswwwcdcgovglobalhealthcountriesghana) Knowledge of frequentlyreported diseases andailments can be an indication of healthcare issues in a region and it should be of great importance tohealth care organizations and government
About 43 of the species of plants were reportedly usedin treatment of a single disease whereas the rest of theplants (57) were involved in treatment of more than onediseaseailment Medicinal plants are commonly used in themanagement of different ailments because they contain avariety of bioactive agents such as alkaloids and terpenoids[18 19] It is possible to isolate the bioactive agents orcompounds from extracts made from plants for detailedpharmacological and clinical investigations to be madeNevertheless in some cases isolation of bioactive agents has
been unsuccessful even though the extracts are active In thelatter case characterization of the active extract could enablestructure-related activity studies leading to possible synthesisof a more potent drug to be developed
33 Harvesting of Plant Materials Almost all the healers(98) interviewed harvested plant materials from lowlandareas (Table 3) About half of the healers harvested plantmaterials from forest-mosaic vegetation type while 7 of thehealers considered vegetation type unimportant when har-vesting plants About 93 of the healers considered the habi-tat of individual plants as important during harvesting Of thehealers who considered habitat as important 44 harvestedplants from the wild and 36 harvested from degraded areasand few (13) of them harvested plants from their homegardens The values of degradedsecondary habitats [20] andhome gardens [21 22] as sources of medicinal plants havebeen discussed by authors Secondary forests are gainingmore importance for medicinal plant collection as old-growth forests are becoming scarce and overexploited [2324] Our result is similar to that of [25] which indicated thathealers favoured primary forest and wild habitats in termsof medicinal plant collection According to [26] if a plantgrows readily in the wild and produces a good yield of activeconstituents or takes several years to mature then collectionfrom the wild is most practicable On the other hand ifplants that are harvested fromwild vegetation are rare or haveendemic status overharvesting can be a particularly seriousthreat [27] About 76 of the healers harvested plants fromloamy soils and 18 from sandy soil None of the healers har-vested plants from clayey soils while about 6 of the healerdid not consider soil type when harvesting plants Healersdid not explain why they avoided clayey soil and we did notfind any scientific evidence that clayey soil plants do not pro-duce pharmacologically active secondary metabolites Soilphysiochemical properties particularly nutrient levels affectgrowth and development of plants The levels of secondarymetabolites in plant tissues vary with resource availability[28] and plant nutrient balance in soil is thought to influenceproduction of secondary compounds at the level of metabolicregulation in plants [29] Topography of an area affectsrainfall soil type and amount of light reaching a plant andtherefore indirectly also affects plant growth and develop-ment In this study about 91of the healers harvestmedicinalplants in areas of flat topography while about 9 of thehealers harvested plants from areas of gentle slope
The time of harvesting medicinal plants was investigatedwith respect to time of day (24 hr duration) and season (dryversuswet season) of the year About 57of healers harvestedplants in themorning followed by 289who collected plantsanytime of the day and then 44 that collected plants in theafternoon None of the healers collected plantmaterials in thenight and about 9 considered time of the day unimportantwhen harvesting plant materials for herbal preparationsPlantsmaterials were harvested in themorning because of theimportance of healthcare to healers as they collected plantsfirst thing in the day About 28 of the healers harvestedplants anytime of the day which might suggest that healersalso collected plants as when they are needed According to
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table2Specieso
fplantsreportedlybeingused
byhealersa
rrangedaccordingto
theirfam
ilies
with
inform
ationon
theirh
abitsailm
entstre
atedplant
partsu
sedmetho
dsof
preparation
androuteo
fadm
inistratio
nof
thep
lants
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Acanthaceae
Ruelliabrevifolia
(Poh
l)C
Ezcurra
(A029)
Mokotso
(Krobo
)11
Herb
Halito
sisLeaf
Infusio
nNasal
Aloaceae
Aloe
vera
L(A
001)
Aloe
65
Herb
Diabetes
Diabetes
Typh
oidfever
Baldness
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera
pungensK
unth
(A028)
Nkassenkasee(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Stom
achulcer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ann
onaceae
Polya
lthialongifolia
(Son
n)Th
waites
(K001)
Tsogaga(
Krob
o)22
Tree
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Apocyn
aceae
Alsto
niabooneiDe
Wild
(A026)
Nyamedua
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Sexu
aldisorders
Root
andbark
Infusio
nTo
pical
Rauvolfia
vomito
riaWennb
erg(A
025)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Oste
oarthritis
Leafandbark
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ascle
piadaceae
Calotro
pisgigantea
(L)WTA
iton
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Heartbu
rns
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Asteraceae
Chromolaena
odorata
(L)R
MK
ing
(K003)
Acheam
pong
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)32
Shrub
Typh
oidfever
Stop
bleeding
Typh
oidfever
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Laun
aeataraxacifolia
(Wild
)Amin
exC
Jeffrey
(K002)
Unk
nown
32
Herb
Bloo
dpressure
Diuretic
Bloo
dpressure
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
aDelile(A
023)
Awun
yun(A
kuapem
)32
Shrub
Malaria
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOral
Vernoniaconferta
Benth(K
010)
Owud
ifukete(A
kuapem
)22
Shrub
Diabetes
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOral
Bign
oniaceae
Kigelia
afric
ana
(Lam
)Be
nth(K
004)
Nfuten(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Piles
Bark
Infusio
nOral
Spathodea
campanu
lata
PBe
auv
(K005)
Aku
akua
nisuo(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Bombacaceae
Bombax
buonopozenseP
Beauv(A
002)
Nyank
uduroAkonk
odies
(Aku
apem
)Tree
Stroke
Diabetes
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nOral
OralT
opical
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium
indicum
L(K
007)
Akomfemtik
oro
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Con
vulsion
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Capp
aridaceae
Euadeniaem
inensL
(K
008)
Dinsik
uro(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Lowsperm
coun
tRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthesrobu
sta(O
liv)Prance
(K00
9)Afambere
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Rheumatism
Leafandseed
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Com
bretaceae
Term
inaliasuperba
Englamp
Diels(A
021)
Ofram
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Con
vulsion
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Cucurbita
ceae
Mom
ordica
charantia
L(K
020)
Nyenye(Kr
obo)
22
Clim
ber
Snakeb
iteDiabetes
Who
leplant
Who
leplant
Infusio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Cyperaceae
CyperusesculentusL
(A
020)
WintoW
intin
o(K
robo
)11
Herb
Typh
oidfever
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Dennstaedtia
ceae
Pteridium
aquilin
um(L)Ku
hn(A
012)
Unk
nown
11Herb
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Pteridium
esculen
tum
(Forst)N
akai(A
018)
Meyaabea(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Menstr
uald
isorders
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Euph
orbiaceae
Brideliafer
ruginea
Benth(K
014)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Discoglyprem
nacaloneura(Pax)P
rain
(A017)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Stroke
Femaleinfertility
Leafandroot
Leafandroot
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralR
ectal
Drypetesa
ubrevillei
Leandri(K0
17)
Duameko(A
kuapem
)11
Shrub
Stroke
Root
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Drypetesfl
oribun
daHutch(K0
16)
Katirika(
Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Misc
arria
geRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Jatro
phacurcas
L(A
014)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Hernia
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
L(A
015)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Highfever
Leafandfruit
Decoctio
nOral
Macaranga
barteri
MullArg(K0
15)
Opam
(Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Foot
rot
Bark
Decoctio
nOral
Uapaca
guineensis
MullArg(A016)
Agyahere(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Rootbarkand
leaf
Decoctio
nTo
pical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1 Biodata on traditional healers interviewed
Categories Variables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
Sex Female 13 289Male 32 711
Religion Christians 37 822Traditionalist 8 178
Formaleducation
None 6 133Basic 30 667
Secondary 9 200
Age-groups
40ndash49 11 24450ndash59 10 22260ndash69 10 22270ndash79 9 20080ndash89 4 89ge90 1 22
Years of practice
10ndash19 2 4420ndash29 11 24430ndash39 11 24440ndash49 15 33350ndash59 5 111ge60 1 22
composition of secondary metabolites differs in plant organs[18] the use of different organs of the same plant in the herbalmedicines might be to ensure extraction of the differentbioactive agents
32 Common Human Diseases and Ailments Herbal medici-nes were reportedly used for treatment and management of42 diseases and ailments Two ormore herbal medicines werereportedly used for treatment and management of 17 thediseases andailments and the herbals were most commonlyused for treatment and management of stroke fevers anddiabetes (Figure 3) The herbal medicines were used fortreatment and management of both common ailments (egcuts foot root) as well as the more specialized diseases suchas stroke diabetes cancer and stomach ulcer Some of thediseases such as stroke malaria and HIVAIDS are amongthe top 10 causes of deaths in Ghana (httpswwwcdcgovglobalhealthcountriesghana) Knowledge of frequentlyreported diseases andailments can be an indication of healthcare issues in a region and it should be of great importance tohealth care organizations and government
About 43 of the species of plants were reportedly usedin treatment of a single disease whereas the rest of theplants (57) were involved in treatment of more than onediseaseailment Medicinal plants are commonly used in themanagement of different ailments because they contain avariety of bioactive agents such as alkaloids and terpenoids[18 19] It is possible to isolate the bioactive agents orcompounds from extracts made from plants for detailedpharmacological and clinical investigations to be madeNevertheless in some cases isolation of bioactive agents has
been unsuccessful even though the extracts are active In thelatter case characterization of the active extract could enablestructure-related activity studies leading to possible synthesisof a more potent drug to be developed
33 Harvesting of Plant Materials Almost all the healers(98) interviewed harvested plant materials from lowlandareas (Table 3) About half of the healers harvested plantmaterials from forest-mosaic vegetation type while 7 of thehealers considered vegetation type unimportant when har-vesting plants About 93 of the healers considered the habi-tat of individual plants as important during harvesting Of thehealers who considered habitat as important 44 harvestedplants from the wild and 36 harvested from degraded areasand few (13) of them harvested plants from their homegardens The values of degradedsecondary habitats [20] andhome gardens [21 22] as sources of medicinal plants havebeen discussed by authors Secondary forests are gainingmore importance for medicinal plant collection as old-growth forests are becoming scarce and overexploited [2324] Our result is similar to that of [25] which indicated thathealers favoured primary forest and wild habitats in termsof medicinal plant collection According to [26] if a plantgrows readily in the wild and produces a good yield of activeconstituents or takes several years to mature then collectionfrom the wild is most practicable On the other hand ifplants that are harvested fromwild vegetation are rare or haveendemic status overharvesting can be a particularly seriousthreat [27] About 76 of the healers harvested plants fromloamy soils and 18 from sandy soil None of the healers har-vested plants from clayey soils while about 6 of the healerdid not consider soil type when harvesting plants Healersdid not explain why they avoided clayey soil and we did notfind any scientific evidence that clayey soil plants do not pro-duce pharmacologically active secondary metabolites Soilphysiochemical properties particularly nutrient levels affectgrowth and development of plants The levels of secondarymetabolites in plant tissues vary with resource availability[28] and plant nutrient balance in soil is thought to influenceproduction of secondary compounds at the level of metabolicregulation in plants [29] Topography of an area affectsrainfall soil type and amount of light reaching a plant andtherefore indirectly also affects plant growth and develop-ment In this study about 91of the healers harvestmedicinalplants in areas of flat topography while about 9 of thehealers harvested plants from areas of gentle slope
The time of harvesting medicinal plants was investigatedwith respect to time of day (24 hr duration) and season (dryversuswet season) of the year About 57of healers harvestedplants in themorning followed by 289who collected plantsanytime of the day and then 44 that collected plants in theafternoon None of the healers collected plantmaterials in thenight and about 9 considered time of the day unimportantwhen harvesting plant materials for herbal preparationsPlantsmaterials were harvested in themorning because of theimportance of healthcare to healers as they collected plantsfirst thing in the day About 28 of the healers harvestedplants anytime of the day which might suggest that healersalso collected plants as when they are needed According to
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table2Specieso
fplantsreportedlybeingused
byhealersa
rrangedaccordingto
theirfam
ilies
with
inform
ationon
theirh
abitsailm
entstre
atedplant
partsu
sedmetho
dsof
preparation
androuteo
fadm
inistratio
nof
thep
lants
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Acanthaceae
Ruelliabrevifolia
(Poh
l)C
Ezcurra
(A029)
Mokotso
(Krobo
)11
Herb
Halito
sisLeaf
Infusio
nNasal
Aloaceae
Aloe
vera
L(A
001)
Aloe
65
Herb
Diabetes
Diabetes
Typh
oidfever
Baldness
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera
pungensK
unth
(A028)
Nkassenkasee(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Stom
achulcer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ann
onaceae
Polya
lthialongifolia
(Son
n)Th
waites
(K001)
Tsogaga(
Krob
o)22
Tree
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Apocyn
aceae
Alsto
niabooneiDe
Wild
(A026)
Nyamedua
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Sexu
aldisorders
Root
andbark
Infusio
nTo
pical
Rauvolfia
vomito
riaWennb
erg(A
025)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Oste
oarthritis
Leafandbark
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ascle
piadaceae
Calotro
pisgigantea
(L)WTA
iton
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Heartbu
rns
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Asteraceae
Chromolaena
odorata
(L)R
MK
ing
(K003)
Acheam
pong
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)32
Shrub
Typh
oidfever
Stop
bleeding
Typh
oidfever
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Laun
aeataraxacifolia
(Wild
)Amin
exC
Jeffrey
(K002)
Unk
nown
32
Herb
Bloo
dpressure
Diuretic
Bloo
dpressure
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
aDelile(A
023)
Awun
yun(A
kuapem
)32
Shrub
Malaria
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOral
Vernoniaconferta
Benth(K
010)
Owud
ifukete(A
kuapem
)22
Shrub
Diabetes
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOral
Bign
oniaceae
Kigelia
afric
ana
(Lam
)Be
nth(K
004)
Nfuten(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Piles
Bark
Infusio
nOral
Spathodea
campanu
lata
PBe
auv
(K005)
Aku
akua
nisuo(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Bombacaceae
Bombax
buonopozenseP
Beauv(A
002)
Nyank
uduroAkonk
odies
(Aku
apem
)Tree
Stroke
Diabetes
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nOral
OralT
opical
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium
indicum
L(K
007)
Akomfemtik
oro
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Con
vulsion
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Capp
aridaceae
Euadeniaem
inensL
(K
008)
Dinsik
uro(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Lowsperm
coun
tRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthesrobu
sta(O
liv)Prance
(K00
9)Afambere
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Rheumatism
Leafandseed
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Com
bretaceae
Term
inaliasuperba
Englamp
Diels(A
021)
Ofram
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Con
vulsion
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Cucurbita
ceae
Mom
ordica
charantia
L(K
020)
Nyenye(Kr
obo)
22
Clim
ber
Snakeb
iteDiabetes
Who
leplant
Who
leplant
Infusio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Cyperaceae
CyperusesculentusL
(A
020)
WintoW
intin
o(K
robo
)11
Herb
Typh
oidfever
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Dennstaedtia
ceae
Pteridium
aquilin
um(L)Ku
hn(A
012)
Unk
nown
11Herb
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Pteridium
esculen
tum
(Forst)N
akai(A
018)
Meyaabea(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Menstr
uald
isorders
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Euph
orbiaceae
Brideliafer
ruginea
Benth(K
014)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Discoglyprem
nacaloneura(Pax)P
rain
(A017)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Stroke
Femaleinfertility
Leafandroot
Leafandroot
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralR
ectal
Drypetesa
ubrevillei
Leandri(K0
17)
Duameko(A
kuapem
)11
Shrub
Stroke
Root
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Drypetesfl
oribun
daHutch(K0
16)
Katirika(
Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Misc
arria
geRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Jatro
phacurcas
L(A
014)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Hernia
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
L(A
015)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Highfever
Leafandfruit
Decoctio
nOral
Macaranga
barteri
MullArg(K0
15)
Opam
(Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Foot
rot
Bark
Decoctio
nOral
Uapaca
guineensis
MullArg(A016)
Agyahere(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Rootbarkand
leaf
Decoctio
nTo
pical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
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Diabetes ResearchJournal of
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table2Specieso
fplantsreportedlybeingused
byhealersa
rrangedaccordingto
theirfam
ilies
with
inform
ationon
theirh
abitsailm
entstre
atedplant
partsu
sedmetho
dsof
preparation
androuteo
fadm
inistratio
nof
thep
lants
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Acanthaceae
Ruelliabrevifolia
(Poh
l)C
Ezcurra
(A029)
Mokotso
(Krobo
)11
Herb
Halito
sisLeaf
Infusio
nNasal
Aloaceae
Aloe
vera
L(A
001)
Aloe
65
Herb
Diabetes
Diabetes
Typh
oidfever
Baldness
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Topical
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera
pungensK
unth
(A028)
Nkassenkasee(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Stom
achulcer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ann
onaceae
Polya
lthialongifolia
(Son
n)Th
waites
(K001)
Tsogaga(
Krob
o)22
Tree
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Apocyn
aceae
Alsto
niabooneiDe
Wild
(A026)
Nyamedua
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Sexu
aldisorders
Root
andbark
Infusio
nTo
pical
Rauvolfia
vomito
riaWennb
erg(A
025)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Oste
oarthritis
Leafandbark
Infusio
nRe
ctal
Ascle
piadaceae
Calotro
pisgigantea
(L)WTA
iton
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Heartbu
rns
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Asteraceae
Chromolaena
odorata
(L)R
MK
ing
(K003)
Acheam
pong
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)32
Shrub
Typh
oidfever
Stop
bleeding
Typh
oidfever
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Laun
aeataraxacifolia
(Wild
)Amin
exC
Jeffrey
(K002)
Unk
nown
32
Herb
Bloo
dpressure
Diuretic
Bloo
dpressure
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
aDelile(A
023)
Awun
yun(A
kuapem
)32
Shrub
Malaria
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOral
Vernoniaconferta
Benth(K
010)
Owud
ifukete(A
kuapem
)22
Shrub
Diabetes
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOral
Bign
oniaceae
Kigelia
afric
ana
(Lam
)Be
nth(K
004)
Nfuten(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Piles
Bark
Infusio
nOral
Spathodea
campanu
lata
PBe
auv
(K005)
Aku
akua
nisuo(A
kuapem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Bombacaceae
Bombax
buonopozenseP
Beauv(A
002)
Nyank
uduroAkonk
odies
(Aku
apem
)Tree
Stroke
Diabetes
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nOral
OralT
opical
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium
indicum
L(K
007)
Akomfemtik
oro
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Con
vulsion
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Capp
aridaceae
Euadeniaem
inensL
(K
008)
Dinsik
uro(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Lowsperm
coun
tRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthesrobu
sta(O
liv)Prance
(K00
9)Afambere
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Rheumatism
Leafandseed
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Com
bretaceae
Term
inaliasuperba
Englamp
Diels(A
021)
Ofram
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Con
vulsion
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Cucurbita
ceae
Mom
ordica
charantia
L(K
020)
Nyenye(Kr
obo)
22
Clim
ber
Snakeb
iteDiabetes
Who
leplant
Who
leplant
Infusio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Cyperaceae
CyperusesculentusL
(A
020)
WintoW
intin
o(K
robo
)11
Herb
Typh
oidfever
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Dennstaedtia
ceae
Pteridium
aquilin
um(L)Ku
hn(A
012)
Unk
nown
11Herb
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Pteridium
esculen
tum
(Forst)N
akai(A
018)
Meyaabea(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Menstr
uald
isorders
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Euph
orbiaceae
Brideliafer
ruginea
Benth(K
014)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Discoglyprem
nacaloneura(Pax)P
rain
(A017)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Stroke
Femaleinfertility
Leafandroot
Leafandroot
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralR
ectal
Drypetesa
ubrevillei
Leandri(K0
17)
Duameko(A
kuapem
)11
Shrub
Stroke
Root
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Drypetesfl
oribun
daHutch(K0
16)
Katirika(
Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Misc
arria
geRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Jatro
phacurcas
L(A
014)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Hernia
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
L(A
015)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Highfever
Leafandfruit
Decoctio
nOral
Macaranga
barteri
MullArg(K0
15)
Opam
(Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Foot
rot
Bark
Decoctio
nOral
Uapaca
guineensis
MullArg(A016)
Agyahere(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Rootbarkand
leaf
Decoctio
nTo
pical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
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EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
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PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
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Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
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Diabetes ResearchJournal of
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Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Bombacaceae
Bombax
buonopozenseP
Beauv(A
002)
Nyank
uduroAkonk
odies
(Aku
apem
)Tree
Stroke
Diabetes
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nOral
OralT
opical
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium
indicum
L(K
007)
Akomfemtik
oro
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Con
vulsion
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Capp
aridaceae
Euadeniaem
inensL
(K
008)
Dinsik
uro(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Lowsperm
coun
tRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Chrysobalanaceae
Maranthesrobu
sta(O
liv)Prance
(K00
9)Afambere
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Rheumatism
Leafandseed
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Com
bretaceae
Term
inaliasuperba
Englamp
Diels(A
021)
Ofram
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Con
vulsion
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Cucurbita
ceae
Mom
ordica
charantia
L(K
020)
Nyenye(Kr
obo)
22
Clim
ber
Snakeb
iteDiabetes
Who
leplant
Who
leplant
Infusio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Cyperaceae
CyperusesculentusL
(A
020)
WintoW
intin
o(K
robo
)11
Herb
Typh
oidfever
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Dennstaedtia
ceae
Pteridium
aquilin
um(L)Ku
hn(A
012)
Unk
nown
11Herb
Fever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Pteridium
esculen
tum
(Forst)N
akai(A
018)
Meyaabea(
Aku
apem
)11
Herb
Menstr
uald
isorders
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Euph
orbiaceae
Brideliafer
ruginea
Benth(K
014)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Discoglyprem
nacaloneura(Pax)P
rain
(A017)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Stroke
Femaleinfertility
Leafandroot
Leafandroot
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralR
ectal
Drypetesa
ubrevillei
Leandri(K0
17)
Duameko(A
kuapem
)11
Shrub
Stroke
Root
Decoctio
nOralT
opical
Drypetesfl
oribun
daHutch(K0
16)
Katirika(
Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Misc
arria
geRo
otandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Jatro
phacurcas
L(A
014)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Hernia
Leaf
Infusio
nOral
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
L(A
015)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Highfever
Leafandfruit
Decoctio
nOral
Macaranga
barteri
MullArg(K0
15)
Opam
(Aku
apem
)11
Shrub
Foot
rot
Bark
Decoctio
nOral
Uapaca
guineensis
MullArg(A016)
Agyahere(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Stroke
Rootbarkand
leaf
Decoctio
nTo
pical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegalen
sis(H
outt)R
oberty
(K022)
Unk
nown
11Tree
Highfever
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Albiziafer
ruginea
(GuillampPerr)B
(K021)
Awiemtosamina
(Aku
apem
)11
Tree
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
Baphianitid
aLo
dd
(A005)
Odw
aen
11Sh
rub
Retarded
grow
thLeaf
Infusio
nTo
pical
Berliniasp(A013)
Unk
nown
22
Tree
Rheumatism
Fever
Root
andbark
Bark
Infusio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
Oral
CassiaalataL
(K0
23)
Kobatso(K
robo
)33
Shrub
Purgative
Menstr
uald
isorders
Fertilityprob
lems
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Copaifera
salikound
aHeckel(A030)
Otedu
a(Aku
apem
)22
Tree
Highfever
Piles
Bark
Root
andbark
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nTo
pical
OralR
ectal
Lamiaceae
Ocim
umgratissim
umSeem
(A011)
Nun
num
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Bloatin
gLeaf
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Malvaceae
Gossypium
hirsutum
L(K
024)
Asaw
adua
(Aku
apem
)22
Herb
Oste
oarthritis
Infertility
Leaf
Leaf
Infusio
nInfusio
nOral
Oral
Meliaceae
Azadira
chta
indica
A
Juss(A
008)
Nim
tso(K
robo
)54
Tree
Fever
Fever
Malaria
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Khayasenegalen
sisA
Juss(K0
08)
Mahogany
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)33
Tree
Infertility
Maleinfertility
Bark
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
Oral
Menisp
ermaceae
Sphenocentriu
mjollyanum
Pierre
(K026)
Kram
aoti(A
kuapem
)11
Herb
Diabetes
Who
leplant
Decoctio
nOral
Moringaceae
Moringa
oleiferaLam
(A007)
Moringa
33
Tree
Bloo
dtonic
Pruritu
sJaun
dice
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Myrtaceae
Psidium
guajavaL
(K028)
Agu
ava(
Aku
apem
Krobo
)22
Shrub
Diarrho
eaRo
otDecoctio
nOral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2Con
tinued
Families
Scientificn
ames
(vou
cher
specim
en)
Localn
ames
(Aku
apem
Krobo
)Frequencyof
citatio
n(
)Habitof
plant
Dise
ases
andailm
ents
Plantp
arts
Metho
dsof
preparation
Routeo
fadministratio
n
Rutaceae
Citru
ssinensis
Pers
(K030)
Ank
a(Aku
apem
)Kp
eta
(Krobo
)11
Tree
Con
stipation
Leafandfruit
Infusio
nOral
Zanthoxylum
leprie
uriiGuillamp
Perr(K0
29)
Okanto(A
kuapem
)Oyaa
(Krobo
)22
Shrub
Sexu
alweakn
ess
Stroke
Leaf
Root
Decoctio
nDecoctio
nOral
OralT
opical
Sapind
aceae
Lecaniodisc
uscupanioidesP
lanch
(K031)
Unk
nown
11Sh
rub
Stom
achulcer
Leaf
Decoctio
nOral
Paullin
iapinn
ataL
(A002)
Tuatin
(Twi)Detsemam
u(K
robo
)65
Herb
Misc
arria
geStom
achulcer
Stroke
HIV
AID
SBo
nefracture
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf
Decoctio
nInfusio
nDecoctio
nDecoctio
nInfusio
n
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
OralR
ectal
Sapo
taceae
Aningeria
altissim
a(A
Chev)
Aubrev
(K033)
Asanfena
(Twi)
22
Shrub
Stop
sbleeding
Leafandbark
Decoctio
nOral
Malacanthaalnifolia
Pierre
(K032)
Unk
nown
22
Shrub
Misc
arria
geLeaf
Decoctio
nOral
Solanaceae
Physalisangulata
L(K
034)
Totoa(
Krob
o)11
Herb
Cancer
Who
leplant
Infusio
nOralT
opical
Solanu
mmelo
ngena
L(A
003)
Unk
nown
33
Shrub
Anaem
iaFruit
Infusio
nOral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Families
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Apoc
ynac
eae
Alo
acea
e
Am
aran
thac
eae
Bign
onia
ceae
Capp
arad
acea
e
Euph
orbi
acea
e
Chry
soba
lana
ceae
Den
nsta
edtia
ceae
Bom
baca
ceae
Bora
gina
ceae
Com
bret
acea
e
Lam
iace
ae
Cucu
rbita
ceae
Sapo
tace
ae
Mal
vace
aeAc
anth
acea
e
Ruta
ceae
Men
isper
mac
eae
Meli
acea
eA
stera
ceae
Sola
nace
ae
Cype
race
ae
Ann
onac
eae
Myr
tace
aeSa
pind
acea
e
Mor
inga
ceae
Faba
ceae
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
(a)
Herbal remediesSpecies of plants
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Num
ber o
f her
bals
spec
ies
Herbs Shrubs ClimbersTreesHabit of plants
(b)
Leaf57Others
18
Whole plant9
Root6
Bark6
Fruit4
(combinationsof variousplant parts)
(c)
Figure 2 Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families (b) habit of plants and (c) percentage of plant parts
the healers they collected plants any time of the day becausethey sometimes needed to treat emergency cases There isscientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plantchemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hoursdue to the interconversions of compounds [19] Accordingto [30] time of the day should be given important consid-eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtainoptimum yield of desired products For season of the yearmore than half of the healers (67) harvested plants duringboth dry and wet seasons followed by 200 who collectedin only the wet season and about 7 collected in only dryseason About 7 of the healers did not consider season ofthe year as an important factor during harvesting of plant
materials although the availability of certain plant parts couldbe directly related to season of the year
34 Methods of Preparation and Administration of HerbalMedicines Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions(67) and infusions (33) Although it is documented that avariety of methods have been used for preparation of herbalmedicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have beenthe widely reported [eg [18]] However differences existin the preparations of decoctions and infusions both withinhealers and from place to place In the study area diversityexisted among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Diseases andailments treated
Oste
oart
hriti
s
Hig
h bl
ood
pres
sure
Stop
s ble
edin
g
Pile
s
Dia
bete
s
Mal
aria
Typh
oid
feve
r
Con
vulsi
on
Men
strua
l diso
rder
s
Rheu
mat
ism
Feve
rsSt
roke
Dia
rrho
ea
Misc
arria
ges
Hig
h fe
ver
Stom
ach
ulce
r
Ana
emia
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8N
umbe
r of h
erba
l med
icin
es
Figure 3 Human diseases commonly treated andmanaged withherbal medicines
water) length of time of boiling and how long the decoctionswere kept Infusions were made by adding waterlocal gin(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although theamount of solvent added and duration of use of infusionsdiffered Generally there were no standards in the methodsof preparation of the herbal medicines by even the samehealer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantageof traditional medicine [26 31] It also means that herbalmedicines made by the same healer could vary in potencywhich has implications in their use for treatment of patients
The routes of administration of the remedies reportedin this study were oral rectal topical and nasal (Table 1)However the most common route of administration was oral(77) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes(10) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1) and rectal(2)The fact that oral route of administration of the herbalswas most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-ously reported [18 32] However a recent study in [33] foundfrequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western Africantraditional medicine The route of administration of herbalmedicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extractsof the plants [32] For example herbal medicines whosebioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated whenadministered orally while terpenoids especially essential oilsare best administered through dermal andnasal routes Bothdecoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally45 and 17 respectively Only infusions were administeredvia the rectal and nasal routes
4 Conclusions
In this paper we have documented the current state ofknowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment andmanagement of human diseases among some communitiesliving in southern Ghana This documentation contributes
Table 3 Information on considerations on factors of place andtime during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in somecommunities in southern Ghana
Placetime Factorsvariables Number ofhealers
Percentage ofhealers
ElevationLowland 44 978Highland 1 22
Unimportant 0 0
Habitat
Wild 20 444Home garden 6 133Degraded area 16 356Unimportant 3 67
Seasonality
Wet season 9 200Dry season 3 67
Both 30 667Unimportant 3 67
Soil type
Loam soil 34 756Sandy soil 8 177Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 67
Time of day
Morning 26 578Eveningnight 0 0Afternoon 2 44Anytime 13 289
Unimportant 4 89
Topography
Steep slope 0 0Gentle slope 4 88Flat land 41 911
Unimportant 0 0
Vegetationtype
Forest 17 378Savanna 2 44
Forest-savannamosaic 23 511
Unimportant 3 66
primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenousknowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana The findingsfrom the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbalmedicines for the treatment and management of both com-mon and specialized diseases and ailments The extent towhich the people living in the area consult the healers isunknown but it is important to understanding this in orderto determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the healthcare system of the people It is also essential to scientificallyevaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reportedin the current study using plant materials from the areathrough pharmacological toxicological and clinical studiesin order to ensure the safety of the people consuming themedicines and for possible drug development The results ofthe study have also confirmed that factors of time and placeare given considerations during harvesting of plant materialsby healers Further studies on the methods and quantities ofplant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
our understanding on the impacts of harvesting of medicinalplants on biodiversity conservation in the area
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding this manuscript
Authorsrsquo Contributions
Augustine A Boadu conducted field work and identificationof plants Alex Asase conceived idea designed study andwrote manuscript Both authors read and approved the finalmanuscript
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the chiefs and herbalists living inthe study area for providing information and permission topublish the findings of this study Thanks are due to the staffof the Ghana Herbarium for assistance in the identificationof the plantsThe authors also thank the Department of Plantand Environmental Biology at theUniversity of Ghana for theapproval to conduct the study
References
[1] J B Calixto ldquoTwenty-five years of research on medicinal plantsin Latin America a personal viewrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacol-ogy vol 100 no 1-2 pp 131ndash134 2005
[2] A Hensel E Kisseih M Lechtenberg F Petereit C Agyareand A Asase ldquoFrom ethnopharmacological field study to phy-tochemistry and preclinical research the example of Ghanaianmedicinal plants for improved wound healingrdquo in Ethnophar-macology M Heinrich and A K Jager Eds pp 179ndash197 JohnWiley amp Sons Ltd Chichester UK 1st edition 2015
[3] R N Mshana D K Abbiw I Addae-Mensah et al TraditionalMedicine and Pharmacopoeia Contribution to the Revision ofEthnobotanical and Floristic Studies in Ghana Science andTechnology Press CSIR 2001
[4] D K Abbiw Useful Plants of Ghana Intermediate TechnologyPublication Royal Botanic Gardens LondonKew UK 1990
[5] PORSPI Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia Policy Research andStrategic Planning Institute Council for Scientific and Indus-trial Research CSIR Ghana 1992
[6] J Soelberg A Asase G Akwetey and A K Jager ldquoHistoricalversus contemporary medicinal plant uses in Ghanardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 160 pp 109ndash132 2015
[7] J Buragohain ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic com-munities of Tinsukia district of Assam Indiardquo Research inScience and Technology vol 3 pp 31ndash42 2011
[8] S T Mahwasane L Middleton and N Boaduo ldquoAn ethnob-otanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plantsused by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area Limpopoprovince SouthAfricardquo South African Journal of Botany vol 88pp 69ndash75 2013
[9] D J Newman G M Cragg and K M Snader ldquoNatural pro-ducts as sources of new drugs over the period 1981ndash2002rdquoJournal of Natural Products vol 66 no 7 pp 1022ndash1037 2003
[10] M S Butler ldquoThe role of natural product chemistry in drugdiscoveryrdquo Journal of Natural Products vol 67 no 12 pp 2141ndash2153 2004
[11] T van Andel B Myren and S Van Onselen ldquoGhanarsquos herbalmarketrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 140 no 2 pp 368ndash378 2012
[12] T R van Andel S Croft E E van Loon D Quiroz A MTowns andNRaes ldquoPrioritizingWestAfricanmedicinal plantsfor conservation and sustainable extraction studies based onmarket surveys and species distribution modelsrdquo BiologicalConservation vol 181 pp 173ndash181 2015
[13] ISE International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics 2016httpwwwethnobiologynetethicsphp
[14] S Ragosta I Harris N Gyakari E Otoo and A AsaseldquoPartcipatory ethnomedicinal cancer research with Fante-Akanherbalists in rural Ghanardquo Ethnobiology Letters vol 6 no 1 pp66ndash79 2015
[15] G Martin EthnobotanymdashA Manual of Methods EarthsacnPublishers Limited London UK 1995
[16] W Hawthorne and N Gyakari Photoguide for the Trees ofGhana Oxford Forestry Institute 2006
[17] A Asase and G Oppong-Mensah ldquoTraditional antimalarialphytotherapy remedies in herbal markets in southern GhanardquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 126 no 3 pp 492ndash499 2009
[18] K Busia Fundamentals of HerbalMedicine vol 1 amp 2 LightningSource UK Ltd Milton Keynes UK 2016
[19] W C Evans Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy WR SaundersLondon UK 16th edition 2009
[20] A M Towns S Ruysschaert E van Vliet and T van AndelldquoEvidence in support of the role of disturbance vegetation forwomenrsquos health and childcare in Western Africardquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 10 no 1 p 42 2014
[21] A Agelet M A Bonet and J Valles ldquoHomegardens and theirrole as a main source of medicinal plants in mountain regionsof Catalonia (Iberian Peninsula)rdquo Economic Botany vol 54 no3 pp 295ndash309 2000
[22] C High and C M Shackleton ldquoThe comparative value of wildand domestic plants in home gardens of a South African ruralvillagerdquo Agroforestry Systems vol 48 no 2 pp 141ndash156 2000
[23] J Salick A Mejia and T Anderson ldquoNon-timber forestproducts integrated with natural forest management Rio SanJuan Nicaraguardquo Ecological Applications vol 5 no 4 pp 878ndash895 1995
[24] R L Chazdon and F G Coe ldquoEthnobotany of woody speciesin second-growth old-growth and selectively logged forests ofnortheastern Costa Ricardquo Conservation Biology vol 13 no 6pp 1312ndash1322 1999
[25] R M Kunwar L Mahat R P Acharya and R W Buss-mann ldquoMedicinal plants traditional medicine markets andmanagement in far-west Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology andEthnomedicine vol 9 no 1 article no 24 2013
[26] A Sofowora Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine inAfrica Spectrum Books Ibadan Nigeria 3rd edition 2008
[27] A P Dold and M L Cocks ldquoThe trade in medicinal plants inthe Eastern Cape Province South Africardquo South African Journalof Science vol 98 no 11-12 pp 589ndash597 2002
[28] P D Coley J P Bryant and F S Chapin III ldquoResourceavailability and plant antiherbivore defenserdquo Science vol 230no 4728 pp 895ndash899 1985
[29] D A Herms andW JMattson ldquoThe dilemma of plants to growor defendrdquo Quarterly Review of Biology vol 67 no 3 pp 283ndash335 1992
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
[30] P N Okolie and B N Obasi ldquoDiurnal variation of cyanogenicglucosides thiocyanate and rhodanese in cassavardquo Phytochem-istry vol 33 no 4 pp 775ndash778 1993
[31] E Evans-Anfom Traditional Medicine in Ghana PracticeProblems and Prospects Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences1986
[32] A Gurib-Fakim ldquoMedicinal plants traditions of yesterday anddrugs of tomorrowrdquo Molecular Aspects of Medicine vol 27 no1 pp 253ndash255 2006
[33] T van Andel S van Onselen B Myren A Towns and DQuiroz ldquoThe medicine from behind The frequent use ofenemas in western African traditional medicinerdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 174 pp 637ndash643 2015
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom
Submit your manuscripts athttpswwwhindawicom
Stem CellsInternational
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION
of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Behavioural Neurology
EndocrinologyInternational Journal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Disease Markers
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
BioMed Research International
OncologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
PPAR Research
The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Journal of
ObesityJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
OphthalmologyJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Diabetes ResearchJournal of
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Research and TreatmentAIDS
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Gastroenterology Research and Practice
Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014
Parkinsonrsquos Disease
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom