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ED 377 230 TM 022 406
AUTHOR Tirre, William C.TITLE Knowledge and Ability Factors Underlying Simple
Learning by Accretion.PUB DATE [90]
NOTE 35p.; In: Genetic, Social, and General PsychologyMonographs, v117 nl p91-126.
PUB TYPE Reports Research/Technical (143)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Cognitive Ability; Computer Assisted Testing;
Control Groups; Imagery; Individual Differences;*Knowledge Level; Learning; *Military Personnel;Regression (Statistics); *Visualization
IDENTIFIERS *Accretion; Air Force; *Semantic Elaboration; TrigramAnalysis
ABSTRACTIn this study, the relationships between simple
learning by accretion and various cognitive ability variables wereexplored. Computerized tests of five sources of individualdifferences were administered to a sample of 714 Air Force recruits,along with a trigram-English word paired-associate task, which waspresented as a foreign language Jocabulary learning task. Subjectswere assigned at random to one of three groups: control, semanticelaboration, or interactive imagery. Subjects in the semanticelaboration group were instructed to generate sentences to link thetrigram and the word in a memorable way. Subjects in the interactiveimagery group were given the additional instruction of visualizingthe generated sentence. Trigrams (CVCs) varied in meaningfulnessacross the two lists of eights pairs in the task. Results showed thatmeaningfulness and strategy had the expected main effects on learningand that strategy interacted with verbal knowledge in initiallearning so that learners with more knowledge benefitted more thanlearners with less knowledge. Regression analyses showed that arepresentative measure from each proposed source made a significantunique contribution to the explained variance in paired-associatelearning. Contains four figures and one table. (Contains 61references.) (Author)
************************************************************************ Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
from the original document.***********************************************************************
YN
,77
AE
D 3
77 2
30G
ener
ic. S
ocia
l, an
d G
ener
al P
sych
olog
y M
onog
raph
s. 1
17(1
). 9
1-4
26
Kno
wle
dge
and
Abi
lity
Fact
ors
Und
erly
ing
Sim
ple
Lea
rnin
gB
y A
ccre
tion
WIL
LIA
M C
. TIR
RE
Uni
ted
Stat
es A
ir F
orce
Hum
an R
esou
rces
Lab
orat
ory
Bro
oks
Air
For
ce B
ase,
Tex
as
Abs
trac
t93
A F
ive-
Sou
rce
The
oret
ical
Fra
mew
ork
94
Rea
naly
sis
of P
rior
LAM
P R
esea
rch
97
Met
hod
100
Res
ults
106
Dis
cuss
ion
116
Ref
eren
ces
123
U.S
DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Offi
ce o
f Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
and
Impr
ovem
ent
ED
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
NC
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
Thi
s do
cum
ent h
as b
een
repr
oduc
ed a
sre
ceiv
ed fr
om th
e pe
rson
or
orga
niza
tion
orig
inat
ing
ito
Min
or c
hang
es h
ave
been
mad
e to
impt
oYre
prod
uchO
n Q
ualit
y
Poi
nts
of m
ew o
r op
inio
ns s
tate
d in
this
doc
om
ent d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
repr
esen
t offi
cial
OE
RI p
ositi
on o
r po
licy 91
Kno
wle
dge
and
Abi
lity
Fact
ors
Und
erly
ing
Sim
ple
Lea
rnin
gB
y A
ccre
tion
WIL
LIA
M C
. TIR
RE
Uni
ted
Stat
es A
ir F
orce
Hum
an R
esou
rces
Lab
orat
ory
Bro
oks
Air
For
ce B
ase,
Tex
as
.111
=11
1111
1111
,.
AB
STR
AC
T. I
n th
isst
udy,
the
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n si
mpl
e le
arni
ng b
y ac
cret
ion
and
vari
ous
cogn
itive
abi
lity
vari
able
s w
ere
expl
ored
. Com
pute
rize
dte
sts
of f
ive
sour
ces
of in
divi
dual
dif
fere
nces
wer
e ad
min
iste
red
to a
sam
ple
of 7
14 A
ir F
orce
recr
uits
, alo
ng w
ith a
trig
ram
-Eng
lish
wor
d pa
ired
-ass
ocia
te ta
sk, w
hich
was
pre
-se
nted
as
a fo
reig
n la
ngua
ge v
ocab
ular
y le
arni
ng ta
sk. S
ubje
cts
wer
e as
sign
ed a
tra
ndom
to o
ne o
f th
ree
grou
ps: c
ontr
ol, s
eman
tic e
labo
ratio
n,or
inte
ract
ive
imag
ery.
Subj
ects
in th
e se
man
tic e
labo
ratio
n gr
oup
wer
e in
stru
cted
to g
ener
ate
sent
ence
s to
link
the
trig
ram
and
wor
d in
a m
emor
able
way
. Sub
ject
s in
the
inte
ract
ive
imag
ery
grou
p w
ere
give
n th
e ad
ditio
nal i
nstr
uctio
n of
vis
ualiz
ing
the
gene
rate
d se
nten
ce.
Tri
gram
s (C
VC
s) v
arie
d in
mea
ning
fuln
ess
acro
ss th
e tw
o lis
ts o
f ei
ght p
airs
in th
eta
sk. R
esul
ts s
how
ed th
at m
eani
ngfu
lnes
s an
d st
rate
gy h
ad th
e ex
pect
ed m
ain
effe
cts
on le
arni
ng a
nd th
at s
trat
egy
inte
ract
ed w
ith v
erba
l kno
wle
dge
in in
itial
lear
ning
so
that
lear
ners
with
mor
e kn
owle
dge
bene
fitte
d m
ore
than
lear
ners
with
less
kno
wl-
edge
. Reg
ress
ion
anal
yses
sho
wed
that
a r
epre
sent
ativ
e m
easu
re f
rom
eac
h pr
opos
edso
urce
mad
e a
sign
ific
ant u
niqu
e co
ntri
butio
n to
the
expl
aine
d va
rian
ce in
pai
red-
asso
ciat
e le
arni
ng.
AFT
ER
A S
ER
IES
OF
STJ
TIM
ES
cond
ucte
d in
the
1930
s an
d 19
40s,
Woo
d-ro
w (
1946
) co
nclu
ded
that
ther
e w
as li
ttle
if a
ny r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
inte
lli-
genc
e an
d th
e ab
ility
to le
arn.
The
se c
oncl
usio
ns w
ent a
lmos
t unc
halle
nged
until
Alli
son
(196
0) a
nd S
take
(19
61)
repo
rted
ext
ensi
ve c
orre
latio
nal s
tudi
esin
whi
ch a
var
iety
of
lear
ning
task
s w
ere
rela
ted
to a
var
iety
of
psyc
hom
etri
cm
easu
res
of in
telli
genc
e an
d ac
hiev
emen
t. C
ronb
ach
and
Snow
(19
77)
did
anex
tens
ive
revi
ew o
f th
e lit
erat
ure
and
conc
lude
d th
at c
ogni
tive
abili
ties
and
the
abili
ty to
lear
n w
ere
rela
ted,
thou
gh o
nly
mod
erat
ely.
The
sam
e co
nclu
-si
ons
wer
e dr
awn
in m
ore
rece
nt s
tudi
es, (
e.g.
, Hun
dal &
Hor
n, 1
977;
Lab
ouvi
e-V
ief,
Lev
in, H
urlb
ut, &
Urb
erg,
197
7).
BE
ST C
OPY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
933
94G
enet
ic, S
ocia
l, an
d G
ener
al P
sych
olog
y M
onog
raph
slit
re95
In th
e pr
esen
t stu
dy, I
atte
mpt
ed to
rel
ate
lear
ning
per
form
ance
to c
og-
nitiv
e ab
ilitie
s. M
ore
spec
ific
ally
, the
pur
pose
of
this
stu
dy w
as to
det
erm
ine
if v
aria
bles
cho
sen
to r
epre
sent
com
pone
nts
of a
gen
eral
mod
el o
f in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
in k
now
ledg
e an
d sk
ill a
cqui
sitio
n co
uld
acco
unt f
or in
divi
dual
vari
atio
n in
pai
red-
asso
ciat
e le
arni
ng, a
rel
ativ
ely
sim
ple
form
of
lear
ning
by
accr
etio
n (R
umel
hart
& N
orm
an, 1
978)
. Lea
rnin
g by
acc
retio
n de
note
s in
-cr
ease
s in
kno
wle
dge
obta
ined
thro
ugh
the
addi
tion
of p
ropo
sitio
ns to
exi
stin
gkn
owle
dge
stru
ctur
es o
r th
roug
h th
e es
tabl
ishm
ent o
f ne
w c
onne
ctio
ns b
e-tw
een
exis
ting
conc
epts
. Pai
red-
asso
ciat
e le
arni
ng c
an b
e us
ed e
ffec
tivel
y in
voca
bula
ry in
stru
ctio
n an
d ot
her
curr
icul
um a
reas
req
uiri
ng f
act l
earn
ing
(for
a re
view
, see
Pre
ssle
y, L
evin
, & D
elan
ey, 1
982)
and
is a
n ex
celle
nt p
redi
ctor
of s
choo
l gra
des
in E
nglis
h, s
cien
ce, m
ath,
and
soc
ial s
tudi
es (
Stev
enso
n,H
ale,
Kle
in, &
Mill
er, 1
968)
, and
of
end
of c
ours
e gr
ades
in A
ir F
orce
for
eign
lang
uage
lear
ning
(fo
r a
sum
mar
y, s
ee C
arro
ll, 1
962)
.
A F
ive-
Sour
ce T
heor
etic
al F
ram
ewor
k
A g
ener
al th
eore
tical
fra
mew
ork
for
stud
ies
on in
divi
dual
dif
fere
nces
inkn
owle
dge
and
skill
acq
uisi
tion
was
des
crib
ed b
y K
yllo
nen
and
Chr
ista
l(1
988)
in th
eir
prog
ress
rep
ort o
n th
e L
earn
ing
Abi
litie
s M
easu
rem
ent P
ro-
gram
(L
AM
P). T
he f
ram
ewor
k de
scri
bed
here
dif
fers
onl
y in
the
addi
tion
ofa
fift
h so
urce
of
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es, m
etac
ogni
tion.
Bas
ical
lyth
e fr
ame-
wor
k pr
opos
es th
at in
divi
dual
var
iatio
n in
kno
wle
dge
and
skill
acq
uisi
tion
isdu
e to
the
oper
atio
n of
fiv
e so
urce
s: d
ecla
rativ
e kn
owle
dge,
pro
cedu
ral
know
ledg
e or
cog
nitiv
e sk
ill, w
orki
ng m
emor
y ca
paci
ty, i
nfor
mat
ion
pro-
cess
ing
spee
d, a
nd m
etac
ogni
tion
Dec
lara
tive
know
ledg
e co
nsis
ts o
f th
e fa
cts
and
conc
epts
a p
erso
n ha
sst
ored
in lo
ng-t
erm
mem
ory.
Bjo
rklu
nd (
1987
) pr
opos
ed th
ree
way
s in
whi
chde
clar
ativ
e kn
owle
dge
can
faci
litat
e as
soci
ativ
e le
arni
ng: (
a) b
y m
akin
g co
n-ce
pts
in s
eman
tic m
emor
y m
ore
acce
ssib
le; (
b) b
y m
akin
g th
e ac
tivat
ion
ofse
man
tic r
elat
ions
mor
e au
tom
atic
and
less
eff
ortf
ul; a
nd (
c) b
y fa
cilit
atin
g
Dev
elop
men
t of t
his
artic
le w
as s
uppo
rted
by
the
Air
For
ce L
earn
ing
Abi
litie
s M
ea-
sure
men
t Pro
gram
(LA
MP
), a
bas
ic r
esea
rch
prog
ram
con
duct
ed a
t the
Air
For
ceH
uman
Res
ourc
es L
abor
ator
y an
d co
-spo
nsor
ed b
y th
e A
ir F
orce
Offi
ce o
f Sci
entif
icR
esea
rch.
The
opi
nion
s ex
pres
sed
here
are
the
auth
or's
and
do
not n
eces
saril
y re
flect
thos
e of
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
Air
For
ce.
I tha
nk S
cott
Cha
iken
, Kur
t Str
uck,
Dan
Wol
tz, a
nd W
illia
m A
lley
for
thei
rva
luab
le c
omm
ents
on
the
artic
le a
nd P
atric
k K
yllo
nen
for
his
advi
ce o
n th
e pa
thm
odel
ing.
I al
so th
ank
Ric
h W
alke
r, E
rnes
t Pen
a, C
indi
Gar
cia,
Jo
Ann
Hal
l, an
dJa
nice
Her
efor
d, w
ho p
rogr
amm
ed th
e te
sts
for
this
stu
dy, a
nd R
oy C
hollm
an a
ndhi
s st
aff a
t !A
ckla
nd A
ir F
orce
Bas
e, w
ho c
olle
cted
the
data
.R
eque
sts
for
repr
ints
sho
uld
be s
ent t
o W
illia
m C
. Tirr
e, A
ir F
orce
Hum
anR
esou
rces
Lab
orat
ory1
M0E
, Bro
oks
Air
For
ce B
ove,
TX
782
35-5
601.
the
use
of e
labo
rativ
e st
rate
gies
. Roh
wer
(19
80)
had
a si
mila
r pr
opos
al, r
e-fe
rrin
g to
the
sem
antic
rel
atio
ns a
per
son
has
stor
ed a
s ev
ent r
eper
toir
es.
Lea
rnin
g is
fac
ilita
ted
whe
n th
e re
latio
ns to
be
lear
ned
are
sim
ilar
to th
ose
alre
ady
lear
ned.
Rec
ent L
AM
P st
udie
s ha
ve f
ound
pos
itive
cor
rela
tions
be-
twee
n as
soci
ativ
e le
arni
ng a
nd k
now
ledg
e as
mea
sure
d by
ver
bal a
chie
vem
ent
and
voca
bula
ry te
sts
(Kyl
lone
n &
Tir
re, 1
988;
Kyl
lone
n, T
irie
, & C
hris
tal,
1989
) th
us p
rovi
ding
indi
rect
evi
denc
e in
fav
or o
f th
e B
jork
lund
/Roh
wer
hy-
poth
esis
.Pr
oced
ural
kno
wle
dge
refe
rs to
the
"how
-to"
kno
wle
dge
stud
ents
hav
eac
quir
ed (
And
erso
n, 1
983)
. Inc
lude
d in
this
cat
egor
y ar
e co
gniti
ve s
kills
,st
rate
gies
, pro
blem
-sol
ving
heu
rist
ics,
mne
mon
ic te
chni
ques
, and
pro
cess
ing
com
pone
nts
acqu
ired
as
part
of
the
deve
lopm
enta
l pro
cess
.Se
vera
l stu
dies
sug
gest
that
ther
e is
con
side
rabl
e va
riat
ion
in k
now
ledg
eof
eff
ectiv
e le
arni
ng s
trat
egie
s su
ch a
s se
man
tic e
labo
ratio
n an
d in
tera
ctiv
eim
ager
y th
at a
ccou
nts
for
a si
gnif
ican
t por
tion
of th
e va
rian
ce in
ove
rall
as-
soci
ativ
e le
arni
ng s
ucce
ss (
Cam
p, M
arkl
ey, &
Kra
mer
, 198
3; R
ohw
er &
Bea
n, 1
973;
Roh
wer
& L
itrow
nik,
198
3; R
ohw
er, R
aine
s, E
off,
& W
agne
r,19
77; W
ang,
198
3). A
rec
ent s
tudy
by
Kyl
lone
n, T
irre
, and
Chr
ista
l (19
89)
dem
onst
rate
d th
at tr
aini
ng o
n an
ela
bora
tive
proc
essi
ng s
trat
egy
inte
ract
edw
ith v
erba
l kno
wle
dge.
The
mai
n fi
ndin
g w
as th
at e
very
one
bene
fitte
d fr
omtr
aini
ng o
n ho
w to
con
stru
ct m
emor
able
rel
atio
ns b
etw
een
wor
d pa
irs,
but
subj
ects
with
mor
e ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
bene
fitte
d m
ore.
Thi
s su
gges
ts th
at s
uc-
cess
ful u
se o
f el
abor
ativ
e pr
oces
sing
may
dep
end
on h
ow m
uch
know
ledg
eth
e st
uden
t can
bri
ng to
bea
r. T
he f
act t
hat a
ll th
e su
bjec
ts b
enef
itted
som
esu
gges
ts th
at s
trat
egic
kno
wle
dge
and
verb
al k
now
ledg
e ar
eun
corr
elat
ed; b
utth
is f
indi
ng n
eeds
to b
e re
plic
ated
.T
wo
sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
skill
s ar
e hy
poth
esiz
ed to
pla
y im
port
ant r
oles
in s
impl
e le
arni
ng b
y ac
cret
ion,
bot
h of
whi
ch in
volv
e th
e ac
tivat
ion
or c
on-
stru
ctio
n of
rel
atio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
item
s in
sem
antic
mem
ory:
sem
antic
infe
r-en
ce a
nd in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
. Sem
antic
infe
renc
eis
a m
ajor
com
pone
nt o
fve
rbal
ana
logy
sol
utio
n (S
tern
berg
, 197
7; T
irre
, 198
3; W
hite
ly &
Bar
nes,
1979
). N
odes
in s
eman
tic m
emor
y ar
e pr
esum
ed to
be
conn
ecte
d by
sem
antic
rela
tions
(e.
g., C
haff
in &
Her
rman
n, 1
984,
198
7). S
tude
nts
grad
ually
acqu
ire
know
ledg
e of
cer
tain
reg
ular
type
s of
sem
antic
rel
atio
ns, a
nd th
is f
acili
tate
san
alog
y so
lutio
n (T
irre
, 198
3; W
hite
ly &
Daw
is, 1
974)
. Not
e th
esi
mila
rity
to R
ohw
er (
1980
), w
ho s
ugge
sted
that
lear
ning
shou
ld b
ecom
e ea
sier
as
stu-
dent
s ac
quir
e m
ore
even
t rep
erto
ires
(se
man
tic r
elat
ions
).T
he h
ypot
hesi
ssu
gges
ted
here
is th
at b
ecau
se r
elat
iona
l con
stru
ctio
n is
invo
lved
inbo
th v
er-
bal a
nalo
gy s
olut
ion
and
elab
orat
ive
proc
essi
ng in
ass
ocia
tive
lear
ning
,ver
bal
anal
ogy
solu
tion
shou
ld b
e a
sign
ific
ant p
redi
ctor
of
pair
ed-a
ssoc
iate
lear
n-
ing.
The
leve
ls o
f pr
oces
sing
fra
mew
ork
of C
raik
and
Loc
khar
t(19
72)
sug-
gest
ed th
at a
per
man
ent m
emor
y tr
ace
coul
d be
est
ablis
hed
with
outc
onsc
ious
96G
enet
ic, S
ocia
l, an
d G
ener
al P
sych
olog
y M
onog
raph
s
effo
rt s
o lo
ng a
s th
e st
imul
i wer
e pr
oces
sed
sem
antic
ally
(e.
g.. C
raik
& T
ul-
ving
, 197
5). I
t is
wor
th c
onsi
deri
ng w
heth
er s
tude
nts
diff
er s
yste
mat
ical
ly in
the
abili
ty to
acq
uire
info
rmat
ion
inci
dent
ally
and
whe
ther
this
abi
lity
is p
re-
dict
ive
of in
tent
iona
l lea
rnin
g. I
n pr
evio
us r
esea
rch
(Tir
re &
Elli
ott,
1988
),w
e de
mon
stra
ted
relia
ble
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es in
inci
dent
al m
emor
yfo
r se
-m
antic
rel
atio
ns a
nd f
ound
sig
nifi
cant
cor
rela
tions
bet
wee
n th
is ty
pe o
f in
ci-
dent
al m
emor
y an
d in
tent
iona
l lea
rnin
g fr
om te
xt. T
he s
ame
inci
dent
al m
em-
ory
task
was
use
d in
the
curr
ent s
tudy
.W
orki
ng m
emor
y re
fers
to a
mem
ory
syst
em d
edic
ated
to th
e te
mpo
rary
stor
age
of in
form
atio
n th
at a
rise
s du
ring
the
perf
orm
ance
of
cogn
itive
task
ssu
ch a
s re
adin
g, p
robl
em s
olvi
ng, a
nd le
arni
ng. B
adde
ley
(198
3) p
ropo
sed
that
wor
king
mem
ory
cons
ists
of
a lim
ited-
capa
city
cen
tral
pro
cess
or th
at d
i-re
cts
the
activ
ities
of
seve
ral s
lave
sys
tem
s, in
clud
ing
an a
rtic
ulat
ory
loop
that
stor
es a
nd m
anip
ulat
es s
peec
h-ba
sed
info
rmat
ion
and
a vi
suo-
spat
ial s
crat
chpa
d th
at g
ener
ates
and
mai
ntai
ns v
isua
l im
ages
. Wor
king
mem
ory
has
been
show
n to
be
impo
rtan
t in
com
plex
acc
retiv
e le
arni
ng a
s in
lear
ning
fro
m te
xt(e
.g.,
Dan
eman
& G
reen
, 198
6; M
asso
n &
Mill
er, 1
983;
Tir
re &
Pen
a,19
89),
but
dat
a co
ncer
ning
its
role
in s
impl
er ty
pes
of a
ccre
tive
lear
ning
are
scan
t. R
ecen
tly, h
owev
er, B
adde
ley,
Pap
agno
, and
Val
iar
(198
8) r
epor
ted
clin
ical
evi
denc
e th
at th
e ar
ticul
ator
s lo
op w
as in
volv
ed in
ass
ocia
tive
lear
ning
.A
sec
ond
conc
ept o
f w
orki
ng m
emor
y ha
s be
en s
ugge
sted
by
And
erso
n(1
983)
and
by
Car
d, M
oran
, and
New
ell (
1986
). I
n th
is c
once
pt, w
orki
ngm
emor
y is
the
subs
et o
f kn
owle
dge
that
can
be
acce
ssed
at a
giv
en m
omen
tte
mpo
rary
kno
wle
dge
stru
ctur
es r
ecei
ving
atte
ntio
n an
d pe
rman
ent p
arts
of
long
-ter
m m
emor
y cu
rren
tly a
ctiv
ated
.A
stu
dy b
y W
oltz
(19
88)
expl
ored
the
role
s of
the
two
conc
epts
of
wor
k-in
g m
emor
y in
ski
ll ac
quis
ition
. Sub
ject
s le
arne
d a
rule
-app
licat
ion
task
and
took
a v
arie
ty o
f te
sts
desi
gned
to a
sses
s th
e B
adde
ley
(198
3) c
once
pt o
fw
orki
ng m
emor
y an
d th
e A
nder
son
(198
3) c
once
pt o
f w
orki
ng m
emor
y as
activ
atio
n ca
paci
ty. A
s pr
edic
ted,
test
s of
Bad
dele
y's
notio
n of
wor
king
mem
-or
y w
ere
pred
ictiv
e of
initi
al d
ecla
rativ
e le
arni
ng o
f ru
les
and
proc
edur
es,
whe
reas
mea
sure
s of
act
ivat
ion
capa
city
wer
e pr
edic
tive
of s
ubse
quen
t pra
c-tic
ed p
erfo
rman
ce o
f th
e sk
ill.
Info
rmat
ion
proc
essi
ng s
peed
ref
ers
to th
e ra
te a
t whi
ch a
per
son
can
exec
ute
basi
c co
gniti
ve p
roce
sses
suc
h as
stim
ulus
app
rehe
nsio
n, e
ncod
ing,
com
pari
son,
dec
isio
n, a
nd lo
ng-t
erm
mem
ory
retr
ieva
l. A
stu
dy b
y le
.. yl
lone
net
al.
(198
9) s
ough
t to
dete
rmin
e th
e ro
le o
f pr
oces
sing
spe
ed in
pair
ed-
asso
ciat
es le
arni
ng. K
yllo
nen
et a
l. hy
poth
esiz
ed th
at s
tude
nts
who
cou
ld p
ro-
cess
info
rmat
ion
mor
e qu
ickl
y w
ould
hav
e m
ore
time
to c
onst
ruct
rel
atio
nsbe
twee
n th
e st
imul
us a
nd r
espo
nse
term
s an
d w
ould
con
sequ
ently
dem
on-
stra
te b
ette
r re
call.
Sub
ject
s w
ere
adm
inis
tere
d a
pair
ed-a
ssoc
iate
sle
arni
ngta
sk in
whi
ch s
ever
al li
sts
wer
e pr
esen
ted
at .5
, 1, 2
, 4, a
nd 8
s p
er p
air,
as
6
Tirr
e97
wel
l as
a va
riet
y of
cog
nitiv
e ta
sks
desi
gned
to a
sses
s pr
oces
sing
late
ncy.
Res
ults
of
the
five
exp
erim
ents
sho
wed
that
mem
ory
sear
ch ti
me
cons
iste
ntly
adde
d to
ver
bal k
now
ledg
e in
pre
dict
ing
lear
ning
whe
n th
e st
udy
time
was
shor
t (e.
g., .
5 an
d 1
s), b
ut d
id n
ot p
redi
ct le
arni
ng w
hen
stud
y tim
e w
asam
ple.
Com
pari
son
time
and
sim
ple
reac
tion
time
also
sho
wed
fai
r co
nsis
t-en
cy in
pre
dict
ing
lear
ning
, but
the
rela
tions
hips
wer
e ty
pica
lly s
mal
ler.
Met
acog
nitio
n an
d ex
ecut
ive
proc
esse
s ar
e ge
nera
l cog
nitiv
e sk
ills
ac-
quir
ed th
roug
h ex
peri
ence
(e.
g., B
row
n &
DeL
oach
e, 1
978)
. Bak
er a
ndB
row
n (1
984)
des
crib
e tw
o as
pect
s of
met
acog
nitio
n. T
he f
irst
is th
e st
uden
t'sco
ncep
t of
his
abili
ties
and
thei
r ad
apta
bilit
y to
dem
ands
of
the
lear
ning
situ
-at
ion.
The
sec
ond
is s
elf-
regu
latio
n, w
hich
incl
udes
pla
nnin
g, m
onito
ring
,re
visi
ng, a
nd e
valu
atin
g st
rate
gies
for
lear
ning
or
prob
lem
sol
ving
. In
this
stud
y th
e fo
rmer
was
of
inte
rest
bec
ause
an
earl
ier
stud
y (T
irre
, 198
4) h
adde
mon
stra
ted
a si
gnif
ican
t con
trib
utio
n of
this
var
iabl
e to
the
pred
ictio
n of
verb
al le
arni
ng.
Rea
naly
sis
of P
rior
LA
MP
Res
earc
h
A r
eana
lysi
s of
dat
a co
llect
ed in
the
LA
MP
labo
rato
ry f
or a
dif
fere
nt s
tudy
(N =
855
, Tir
re, 1
984)
add
ress
ed s
ever
al o
f th
e is
sues
just
dis
cuss
ed a
ndsu
bseq
uent
ly m
otiv
ated
the
pres
ent s
tudy
. In
the
1984
stu
dy, I
sou
ght t
o de
-te
rmin
e th
e fa
ctor
str
uctu
re u
nder
lyin
g a
dive
rse
set o
f co
gniti
ve m
easu
res,
whi
ch in
clud
ed v
ario
us r
easo
ning
test
s, 3
pai
red-
asso
ciat
e le
arni
ng ta
sks,
the
mea
ning
-ide
ntity
task
, a le
arni
ng-s
kills
que
stio
nnai
re, a
nd th
e 10
mea
sure
s of
know
ledg
e an
d co
gniti
ve s
kill
cont
aine
d in
the
Arm
ed S
ervi
ces
Voc
atio
nal
Apt
itude
Bat
tery
(A
SVA
B; D
epar
tmen
t of
Def
ense
, 198
5).
The
rea
naly
sis
focu
sed
on tw
o qu
estio
ns. T
he f
irst
was
whe
ther
rea
son-
ing
skill
s an
d pa
ired
-ass
ocia
te le
arni
ng w
ould
be
corr
elat
ed a
nd w
heth
er in
-du
ctiv
e re
ason
ing
wou
ld b
e a
stro
nger
cor
rela
te th
an o
ther
for
ms
of r
easo
n-in
g, w
ith v
erba
l ana
logi
es b
eing
the
stro
nges
t of
all b
ecau
se o
f th
e se
man
ticfe
atur
e ex
trac
tion
and
com
pari
son
proc
esse
s th
ese
two
activ
ities
sha
re. T
hese
cond
was
whe
ther
rea
soni
ng s
kills
, ver
bal k
now
ledg
e, a
nd s
trat
egic
kno
wl-
edge
wou
ld m
ake
sign
ific
ant i
ndep
ende
nt c
ontr
ibut
ions
to th
e ex
plan
atio
n of
pair
ed-a
ssoc
iate
lear
ning
var
ianc
e.R
easo
ning
ski
ll w
as m
easu
red
with
com
pute
r-ad
min
iste
red
vers
ions
of
seve
ral s
tand
ard
task
s us
ed in
the
rese
arch
lite
ratu
re: v
erba
l ana
logi
es (
Ach
-en
bach
, 197
0; S
tern
berg
, 197
7), l
inea
r sy
llogi
sms
(Hut
tenl
oche
r, 1
968)
,gr
amm
atic
al r
easo
ning
(B
adde
ley,
196
8; B
adde
ley
& H
itch,
197
4), l
ette
r se
-ri
es (
Sim
on &
Kot
ovsk
y, 1
963)
, and
num
ber
sets
(T
hurs
tone
, 193
8). T
heve
rbal
ana
logy
, let
ter
seri
cs, a
nd n
umbe
r-se
ts te
sts
wer
e se
lect
ed to
rep
rese
ntin
duct
ive
reas
onin
g.T
he th
ree
pair
ed-a
ssoc
iate
task
s w
ere
iden
tical
in p
roce
dure
but
dif
fere
ntin
con
tent
. The
con
tent
s us
ed in
the
task
s w
ere
CV
C tr
igra
m p
airs
(a
mix
ture
98G
ener
a-, S
ocia
l. an
d G
ener
al P
sych
olog
y A
lono
,vap
hsT
irre
99
of h
igh
mea
ning
fuln
ess
pair
s an
d lo
w m
eani
ngfu
lnes
spa
irs)
, pic
ture
pai
rs(r
eal o
bjec
ts v
s. r
ando
m s
crib
bles
), a
nd E
nglis
h w
ord
pair
s(h
igh
vs. l
owim
ager
y). F
or e
ach
task
, 60
stim
ulus
-res
pons
e pa
irs
wer
epr
esen
ted
in 6
list
s
of 1
0 ite
ms
each
. Eac
h pa
ir w
as p
rese
nted
for
4 s
.A
fter
the
10th
pai
r of
the
list,
a re
cogn
ition
test
was
give
nin
whi
ch th
e st
imul
us w
as p
rese
nted
and
the
subj
ect h
ad to
sel
ect t
he c
orre
ct r
espo
nse
term
fro
m a
mon
gfi
ve a
ltern
ativ
es.
Dis
trac
tors
wer
e ot
her
resp
onse
term
s pr
esen
ted
in th
e cu
rren
tlis
t. H
alf
the
subj
ects
wer
e gi
ven
a 10
-min
less
on o
n se
man
ticel
abor
atio
n an
d vi
sual
im-
ager
y te
chni
ques
that
cou
ld b
eap
plie
d to
the
expe
rim
enta
l lea
rnin
g ta
sks.
The
cont
rol s
ubje
cts
wer
e le
ft to
thei
r ow
n de
vice
s.th
e fi
rst s
tep
in th
e re
anal
ysis
was
the
com
putin
gof
a c
ompo
site
or
over
-
aii l
earn
ing
scor
e as
the
aver
age
of th
e th
ree
lear
ning
task
s, a
s su
gges
ted
byth
e m
easu
rem
ent m
odel
pro
pose
d by
Hum
phre
ys(1
976)
. To
test
the
hypo
th-
esis
con
cern
ing
reas
onin
g sk
ills,
the
corr
elat
ions
of th
e fi
ve r
easo
ning
task
sw
ith th
e ov
eral
l lea
rnin
g sc
ore
(ave
rage
of
the
thre
ele
arni
ng ta
sks)
wer
e co
m-
pare
d af
ter
corr
ectin
g fo
r m
easu
rem
ent e
rror
.'T
his
rean
alys
is r
evea
led
iden
-
tical
ran
king
s of
cor
rela
tions
for
the
stra
tegy
-tra
ined
and
cont
rol g
roup
s. A
na-
logi
cal r
easo
ning
nad
the
high
est c
orre
latio
n w
ithas
soci
ativ
e le
arni
ng (
r =
.499
, .41
2, f
or s
trat
egy
and
cont
rol g
roup
s,re
spec
tivel
y); f
ollo
wed
by
lette
r
seri
es(r
=.4
57, .
363,
res
pect
ivel
y), n
umbe
r se
ts (
r =
.413
, .33
0), t
hree
term
ser
ies
(.37
5, .2
9R),
and
gra
mm
atic
alre
ason
ing
(.36
7, .2
95).
Thu
s, th
eth
ree
high
est c
orre
late
s of
ass
ocia
tive
lear
ning
wer
ein
duct
ive
reas
onin
g
task
s, a
nd th
e hi
ghes
t of
thes
e w
as a
nalo
gica
lrea
soni
ng, a
s pr
edic
ted.
The
nex
t ana
lysi
s re
gres
sed
the
over
all l
earn
ing
scor
e on
ase
t of
cogn
i-
tive
abili
ty s
core
s re
pres
entin
g ve
rbal
know
ledg
e, v
erba
l pro
cess
ing
spee
d(m
eani
ng ;d
entit
y re
spon
se ti
me)
, gen
eral
reas
onin
g ab
ility
, qua
ntita
tive
rea-
soni
ng (
not i
nclu
ded
in g
ener
al r
easo
ning
),te
chni
cal k
now
ledg
e, c
leri
cal
spee
d an
d ac
cura
cy, a
nd f
our
subs
cale
sco
res
onel
abor
ativ
e st
rate
gies
, dee
pse
man
tic p
roce
ssin
g, m
etho
dica
l stu
dy h
abits
, and
self
-ass
essm
ent o
f le
arn-
ing
abili
ties
obta
ined
fro
m a
lear
ning
ski
llsqu
estio
nnai
re. I
n ad
ditio
n, a
bi-
nary
vec
tor
codi
ng c
ontr
ol v
ersu
sst
rate
gy-t
rain
ed s
ubje
cts
was
incl
uded
.T
he r
egre
ssio
n an
alys
is f
irst
cre
ated
a f
ull
mod
el c
omis
ting
of a
ll pr
edic
-
tor
vari
able
s, in
clud
ing
all s
trat
egy
by c
ontin
uous
var
iabl
e pr
oduc
t ter
ms
that
code
d th
e tw
o-w
ay in
tera
ctio
ns o
f in
tere
st.
Rem
oval
of
the
two-
way
inte
rac-
tions
did
not
res
ult i
n a
sign
ific
ant d
rop
inth
e ex
plai
ned
vari
ance
, so
they
wer
e di
scar
ded.
Rem
oval
oft
he c
ontr
ol v
ersu
s st
rate
gy-t
rain
ed v
ecto
r di
d re
-su
lt in
a s
igni
fica
nt d
ecre
ase,
so
it w
as r
etai
ned
in th
e eq
uatio
n. F
urth
er p
run-
ing
of th
e eq
uatio
n w
as a
chie
ved
with
the
back
war
d el
imin
atio
n m
etho
d. T
his
resu
lted
in a
red
uced
mod
el w
ith f
our
pred
icto
rsac
coun
ting
for
32.6
% o
f th
e
'Cor
rect
ion
for
atte
nuat
ion
was
des
irab
le b
ecau
se th
ere
ason
ing
task
s V
arie
d in
rel
i-
abili
ty. T
he f
orm
ula
used
was
: rr,
=w
here
R,,.
is th
e re
liabi
lity
of
the
pred
icto
r x.
0
vari
ance
(ad
just
ed, 3
2.3%
). T
he p
redi
ctor
sre
mai
ning
in th
e eq
uatio
n w
ere:
gene
ral r
easo
ning
(sr
=.3
47),
str
ateg
y(s
r =
.324
), s
elf
asse
ssm
ent o
f le
arn-
ing
abili
ty(s
r =
.109
), a
nd v
erba
l kno
wle
dge
(sr
=.0
82),
with
eac
h un
ique
cont
ribu
tion
sign
ific
ant a
t the
.005
leve
l(s
r =
sem
i-pa
rtia
l or
part
cor
rela
-
tion)
. The
rea
naly
sis
of th
e T
irre
(19
84)
data
set w
as im
port
ant b
ecau
se it
iden
-
tifie
d se
para
te k
now
ledg
e an
d ab
ility
fact
ors
that
pre
dict
suc
cess
in a
cqui
ring
new
ass
ocia
tions
and
dem
onst
rate
d th
e pr
edic
ted
rela
tions
betw
een
type
s of
reas
onin
g an
d pa
ired
-ass
ocia
te le
arni
ng.
Seve
ral q
uest
ions
rem
aine
d un
an-
swer
ed, w
hich
the
pres
ent s
tudy
add
ress
ed.T
he f
irst
con
cern
ed s
eman
tic in
-
fere
nce
abili
ty, a
com
pone
nt o
f ve
rbal
indu
ctiv
ere
ason
ing.
To
wha
t ext
ent
wou
ld s
eman
tic in
fere
nce
abili
ty h
elp
toex
plai
n as
soci
ativ
e le
arni
ng, w
hen
wor
king
mem
ory
capa
city
is p
artia
led
out?
Stud
ies
by H
olzm
an, P
elle
grin
o,
and
Gla
ser
(198
2, 1
983)
sug
gest
ed a
maj
or r
ole
for
wor
king
mem
ory
inin
-
duct
ive
reas
onin
g ta
sks,
so
it w
as n
eces
sary
toev
alua
te th
e in
depe
nden
t con
-
trib
utio
ns o
f w
orki
ng m
emor
y an
d se
man
ticin
fere
nce
in e
xpla
inin
g le
arni
ng.
A s
econ
d qu
estio
n w
as w
heth
erw
orki
ng m
emor
y ha
s a
dire
ct e
ffec
t on
asso
ciat
ive
lear
ning
, in
addi
tion
to th
esu
spec
ted
indi
rect
eff
ect t
hrou
gh s
e-
man
tic in
fere
nce.
In
othe
r re
sear
ch,
Kyl
lone
n an
d lir
re (
1988
) fo
und
sign
if-
ican
t pat
h co
effi
cien
ts f
rom
rea
soni
ngab
ility
and
ver
bal k
now
ledg
e fa
ctor
s to
gene
ral a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng a
bilit
y. T
hepa
th f
rom
a m
emor
y sp
an f
acto
r to
asso
ciat
ive
lear
ning
was
not
sig
nifi
cant
.H
owev
er, t
his
is n
ot s
uffi
cien
t evi
-
denc
e to
rul
e ou
t the
invo
lvem
ent o
fwcr
king
mem
ory
in a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng.
Mem
ory
span
has
bee
n ob
serv
ed to
not
corr
elat
e w
ith c
ogni
tive
perf
orm
ance
in s
ituat
ions
whe
re d
ual t
ask
mea
sure
sof
wor
king
mem
ory
do c
orre
late
sub
-
stan
tially
(e.
g.,,D
anem
an &
Car
pent
er,
1980
).
The
thir
d se
t of
ques
tions
con
cern
sth
e ro
le o
f st
rate
gic
know
ledg
e in
asso
ciat
ive
lear
ning
. Pas
t res
earc
h in
our
labo
rato
ry (
e.g.
, Kyl
lone
n et
al.,
1989
) fo
und
that
all
subj
ects
ben
efitt
edfr
om m
nem
onic
str
ateg
y tr
aini
ng b
ut
that
sub
ject
s w
ith a
gre
at d
eal o
fver
bal k
now
ledg
e be
nefi
tted
mor
e th
an th
ose
with
littl
e ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge.
Thi
sfi
ndin
g su
gges
ts th
at v
erba
l kno
wle
dge
and
stra
tegi
c kn
owle
dge
are
inde
pend
ent o
feac
h ot
her
but t
hat s
tude
nts
with
mor
e
verb
al k
now
ledg
e ca
n ta
ke g
reat
erad
vant
age
of m
nem
onic
str
ateg
ies
that
in-
volv
e ac
cess
ing
verb
al k
now
ledg
e.T
o ou
r su
rpri
se, t
his
know
ledg
e-by
-tr
eatm
ent i
nter
actio
n w
as n
otre
plic
ated
in th
e T
irre
(19
84)
data
set i
n an
yof
the
stim
ulus
set
s, in
clud
ing
the
wor
d-pa
ir s
et, w
hich
was
nea
rly
iden
tical
in
form
at to
the
Kyl
lone
n et
al.
mat
eria
ls.
With
res
pect
to s
trat
egic
kno
wle
dge,
the
ques
tions
add
ress
ed in
the
pres
-
ent s
tudy
are
twof
old:
(a)
whe
ther
str
ateg
y tr
aini
ng in
tera
cts
with
verb
al
know
ledg
e, v
erba
l pro
cess
ing
spee
d,se
man
tic in
fere
nce,
wor
king
mem
ory,
or s
ome
othe
r co
gniti
veva
riab
le; a
nd (
b) w
heth
er a
n in
tera
ctiv
e im
ager
y ty
pe
of s
trat
egy
is s
uper
ior
to a
sem
antic
ela
bora
tion
type
of
stra
tegy
inw
hich
visu
al im
ager
y is
not
exp
licitl
ypr
ompt
ed.
9
100
Gen
etic
. Soc
ial,
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
The
four
th s
et o
f que
stio
ns c
once
rns
the
role
of v
erba
l inf
orm
atio
n pr
o-ce
ssin
g sp
eed
in a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng. P
ast L
AM
P r
esea
rch
(Kyl
lone
n et
al.,
1989
) in
dica
ted
that
mem
ory
sear
ch s
peed
was
pre
dict
ive'
of a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arn-
ing
prim
arily
whe
n st
udy
time
was
sev
erel
y lim
ited.
Oth
er L
AM
P r
esea
rch
(i.e.
, the
Tirr
e, 1
984,
rea
naly
sis)
sho
wed
that
ver
bal p
roce
ssin
g sp
eed
(in-
clud
ing
the
mem
ory
sear
ch c
ompo
nent
) di
d no
t add
to v
erba
l kno
wle
dge,
reas
onin
g, a
nd s
trat
egic
kno
wle
dge
in p
redi
ctin
g as
soci
ativ
e le
arni
ng u
nder
norm
al s
tudy
con
ditio
ns. T
he fa
ilure
of v
erba
l pro
cess
ing
spee
d to
pre
dict
lear
ning
und
er a
nyth
ing
but s
peed
ed c
ondi
tions
cou
ld b
e du
e to
cho
ice
ofpr
edic
tors
. Thu
s, in
the
pres
ent s
tudy
, a m
ore
dive
rse
set o
f lex
ical
and
se-
man
tic p
roce
ssin
g sp
eed
task
s w
as c
onsi
dere
d.In
add
ition
to th
ese
maj
or q
uest
ions
, the
pre
sent
stu
dy in
vest
igat
ed th
ede
gree
to w
hich
inte
ntio
nal a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng w
as p
redi
ctab
le b
y in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
and
if th
is in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
abi
lity
wou
ld a
dd to
ski
lls d
emon
-st
rate
d on
oth
er s
eman
tic p
roce
ssin
g ta
sks
(ver
ifyin
g se
man
tic r
elat
ions
and
solv
ing
anal
ogie
s) in
pre
dict
ing
inte
ntio
nal l
earn
ing
by a
ccre
tion.
Thi
s st
udy
also
inve
stig
ated
the
degr
ee to
whi
ch m
etac
ogni
tive
know
ledg
e, a
s re
flect
ed
in a
lear
ning
str
ateg
ies
ques
tionn
aire
, wou
ld p
redi
ct le
arni
ng.
Met
hod
Subj
ects
The
sub
ject
s w
ere
813
Air
For
ce b
asic
rec
ruits
on
thei
r 6t
h da
y of
bas
ic tr
ain-
ing
at L
ack
land
Air
For
ce B
ase,
Tex
as. T
hree
per
cent
of t
hese
sub
ject
s w
ere
omitt
ed fr
om th
e st
udy
beca
use
they
rep
orte
d th
at E
nglis
h w
as a
sec
ond
lan-
guag
e. O
f the
rem
aini
ng 7
89 s
ubje
cts,
714
had
com
plet
e da
tase
ts d
eter
min
edby
list
wis
e de
letio
n. A
ges
rang
ed fr
om 1
7 to
27
year
s w
ith a
med
ian
age
of19
. Abo
ut 8
5% o
f the
sam
ple
wer
e hi
gh s
choo
l gra
duat
es w
ith n
o co
llege
. An
addi
tiona
l 13%
had
som
e co
llege
but
no
degr
ee. A
ppro
xim
atel
y 20
% o
f the
sam
ple
wer
e w
omen
.
App
arat
us
The
Air
For
ce H
uman
Res
ourc
es L
abor
ator
y (A
FT
IRL)
Exp
erim
enta
l Tes
ting
Fac
ility
is e
quip
ped
with
30
Zen
ith 2
48 (
IBM
AT
-com
patib
le)
com
pute
rspl
aced
in in
divi
dual
stu
dy c
arre
ls. T
he c
ompu
ters
are
equ
ippe
d w
ith e
nhan
ced
grap
hics
ada
ptor
(E
GA
) co
lor
mon
itors
and
sta
ndar
d ke
yboa
rds
for
resp
onse
entr
y. A
ll te
sts
othe
r th
an th
e A
rmed
Ser
vice
s V
ocat
iona
l Apt
itude
Bat
tery
(AS
VA
B)
wer
e ad
min
iste
red
usin
g a
com
pute
r w
ith th
e LA
MP
aut
omat
edte
stin
g sy
stem
sof
twar
e w
ritte
n in
Tur
ho P
asca
l by
0A0
Cor
pora
tion
pro-
gram
mer
s un
der
Air
For
ce c
ontr
act.
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
Tin
e10
1
Cri
teri
a T
asks
The
prim
ary
crite
rion
task
con
sist
ed o
f a C
VC
Eng
lish
wor
d pa
ired-
asso
ciat
ele
arni
ng ta
sk w
ith tw
o lis
ts o
f eig
ht p
airs
. One
list
cons
iste
d of
hig
hly
mea
n-
ingf
ul C
VC
trig
ram
s (e
.g.,
KU
P, T
IR, L
IK)
sele
cted
from
Arc
her
(196
0)pa
ired
with
Eng
lish
wor
ds o
f med
ium
freq
uenc
y an
d co
ncre
tene
ss a
ccor
ding
to th
e T
oron
to w
ord
pool
nor
ms
(Frie
ndly
, Fra
nklin
, Hof
fman
,&
Rub
in,
1982
). T
he s
econ
d lis
t con
sist
ed o
f les
s m
eani
ngfu
l CV
C tr
igra
ms
(e.g
., K
IJ,
PU
W, W
EM
) pa
ired
with
Eng
lish
wor
ds s
elec
ted
by th
e sa
me
crite
ria. B
oth
lists
wer
e ad
min
iste
red
to e
ach
subj
ect,
with
hal
f of t
he s
ubje
cts
rece
ivin
g th
ehi
ghly
mea
ning
ful l
ist f
irst.
Tw
o id
entic
ally
con
stru
cted
vers
ions
of t
he le
arn-
ing
task
wer
e ad
min
iste
red
to s
epar
ate
sets
of s
ubje
cts.
The
lear
ning
task
was
pre
sent
ed a
s a
fore
ign
lang
uage
lear
ning
task
, in
whi
ch th
e ob
ject
was
to le
arn
the
Eng
lish
mea
ning
s of
Plu
toni
an w
ords
as
quic
kly
as p
ossi
ble.
The
task
beg
an b
y pr
esen
ting
each
pai
r on
the
CR
Tsc
reen
for
3.5
s. T
his
was
follo
wed
by
test
tria
ls in
whi
ch th
e C
VC
stim
ulus
term
wou
ld a
ppea
r an
d th
e su
bjec
t wou
ld b
e pr
ompt
ed to
type
in th
e fir
st tw
ole
tters
of i
ts E
nglis
h m
eani
ng. T
he s
hort
ened
res
pons
e fo
rmat
was
use
d be
-ca
use
a su
bsta
ntia
l pro
port
ion
of A
ir F
orce
rec
ruits
do
noth
ave
typi
ng s
kills
.
Afte
r th
e su
bjec
t pre
ssed
the
Ent
er k
ey to
reg
iste
r a
resp
onse
, the
com
pute
rw
ould
dis
play
"C
orre
ct"
or "
Wro
ng,"
and
giv
e th
e co
rrec
t ans
wer
, for
ex-
ampl
e, "
KU
P m
eans
Loa
n" fo
r 1
s. P
airs
dro
pped
out
of th
e lis
t afte
r th
ree
succ
essi
ve c
orre
ct r
espo
nses
.S
ubje
cts
wer
e as
sign
ed to
thre
e gr
oups
at r
ando
m. C
ontr
ol s
ubje
cts
wer
egi
ven
no s
peci
al in
stru
ctio
ns o
n ho
w to
app
roac
hth
e le
arni
ng ta
sk. S
ubje
cts
in th
e se
man
tic e
labo
ratio
n gr
oup
wer
e in
stru
cted
to c
reat
e E
nglis
h w
ords
out
of th
e C
VC
wor
ds a
nd th
en c
reat
e a
sim
ple
sent
ence
to c
onne
ct th
e tw
ow
ords
. Fou
r ex
ampl
es w
ere
give
n to
illu
stra
te th
e pr
oces
s. S
ubje
cts
in th
ein
tera
ctiv
e im
ager
y gr
oup
wer
e in
stru
cted
to p
roce
ed in
a s
imila
r m
anne
r.T
hat i
s, th
ey w
ere
inst
ruct
ed to
thin
k of
Eng
lish
wor
ds fo
r th
e C
VC
s, g
ener
ate
a se
nten
ce d
epic
ting
the
inte
ract
ion
of th
e tw
o ob
ject
sna
med
by
the
wor
ds,
and
then
gen
erat
e a
men
tal i
mag
e of
this
inte
ract
ion.
Fou
r ex
ampl
es il
lus-
trat
ed th
e pr
oces
s by
des
crib
ing
the
visu
al im
ages
that
cou
ld b
e ge
nera
ted
for
each
pai
r.T
he s
econ
d cr
iterio
n ta
sk w
as a
rap
id p
rese
ntat
ion
paire
d-as
soci
ate
task
cons
istin
g of
six
10-
item
list
s of
Eng
lish
wor
d pa
irs.
Eac
h pa
ir w
as g
iven
a
sing
le e
xpos
ure
for
1 s,
whi
ch p
revi
ous
rese
arch
had
indi
cate
d w
as in
suffi
-ci
ent t
ime
for
stra
tegy
use
(K
yllo
nen
et a
l., 1
989)
. Fol
low
ing
the
10th
pai
rof
each
list
, the
sub
ject
was
pre
sent
ed a
rec
ogni
tion
test
in w
hich
the
stim
ulus
term
of e
ach
pair
was
pre
sent
ed, a
nd th
e su
bjec
t had
tose
lect
the
corr
ect
resp
onse
term
from
am
ong
five
alte
rnat
ives
(ea
ch w
ere
resp
onse
term
s in
the
curr
ent l
ist)
. The
pur
pose
of t
his
seco
nd le
arni
ngta
sk w
as to
pro
vide
a m
ea-
11
102
Gen
etic
. Soc
ial.
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
Tirt
e10
3
sure
of a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng u
nder
spe
eded
pro
cess
ing
cond
ition
s in
ord
erto
repl
icat
e th
e K
yllo
nen
et a
l. st
udy.
Exp
erim
enta
l Tes
ts
In th
e A
lpha
bet R
ecod
ing
Wor
king
Mem
ory
Tes
t (W
oltz
, 198
8),
subj
ects
wer
e pr
esen
ted
with
36
serie
s of
thre
e no
nas,
jace
nt le
tters
(e.
g., H
, R, W
),ea
ch a
ppea
ring
on th
e ce
nter
of t
he c
ompu
ter
scre
en in
suc
cess
ion
for
Is.
Afte
r th
e fin
al le
tter
in th
e se
ries,
an
inte
ger
(3
< i
< 3
) w
as p
rese
nted
,w
hich
sig
nale
d th
e su
bjec
t to
mov
e ba
ckw
ard
or fo
rwar
d by
i to
find
a n
ewst
ring
of le
tters
. So
if th
e st
ring,
H, R
, W, w
ere
pres
ente
d, fo
llow
edby
3,th
e co
rrec
t ans
wer
wou
ld b
e E
, 0, T
. Sol
utio
n tim
e an
dac
cura
cy w
ere
re-
cord
ed.
Thi
s ta
sk w
as d
esig
ned
so th
at h
igh-
leve
l ver
bal a
nd q
uant
itativ
esk
ills
wou
ld n
ot b
e re
quire
d fo
r ta
sk p
erfo
rman
ce. A
lthou
gh a
lpha
bet
reca
ll an
dco
untin
g pr
oces
ses
wer
e ex
pect
ed to
be
high
ly d
evel
oped
for
this
popu
latio
n,th
e po
ssib
ility
rem
aine
d th
at p
erfo
rman
ceon
this
task
was
to s
ome
degr
eede
pend
ent o
n th
ese
low
-leve
l ski
lls.
Tw
o fe
atur
es o
f thi
s ta
sk w
ere
desi
gned
to m
axim
ize
the
dem
and
for
conc
urre
nt p
roce
ssin
g an
d te
mpo
rary
sto
rage
. Firs
t, th
e st
imul
iw
ere
pre-
sent
ed w
ith o
nly
a br
ief e
xpos
ure;
then
they
had
to b
e m
aint
aine
d in
mem
ory.
Sec
ond,
sub
ject
s w
ere
not p
erm
itted
to ty
pe in
any
new
lette
r un
til a
ll of
the
prob
lem
had
bee
n so
lved
. Thu
s, p
artia
l sol
utio
ns h
adto
be
mai
ntai
ned
inm
emor
y al
ong
with
unp
roce
ssed
lette
rs w
hile
cou
ntin
g fo
rwar
dor
bac
kwar
din
the
alph
abet
.
The
Ver
bal A
nalo
gies
Tes
t (S
tern
berg
& N
igro
, 198
0)w
as s
elec
ted
as a
mea
sure
of s
eman
tic in
fere
nce
abili
ty. I
t pre
sent
ed 6
0 ite
ms
with
four
alte
r-na
tive
answ
ers.
The
re w
ere
equa
l num
bers
of t
he fo
llow
ing
item
form
ats:
A:B
C: D
I D2
D3
1)4,
A:B
CI :
DI 0
2:1)
2 C
3:D
3 C
4:D
4,A
:B
I::
CI:D
I B2
:: C
2:D
2 B
3 ::
C3:
D3
B4
C4:
D4
whe
re A
, B, C
, and
D w
ere
com
mon
Eng
lish
wor
ds. T
he s
ubje
ct ty
ped
in th
enu
mbe
r (
Ito
4)
corr
espo
ndin
g to
his
ans
wer
. The
com
pute
rga
ve a
ccur
acy
and
resp
onse
-tim
e fe
edba
ckon
cor
rect
res
pons
es a
nd n
o fe
edba
ck o
n in
cor-
rect
res
pons
es.
The
Bas
ic A
nalo
gica
l Rea
soni
ng T
est w
ith C
ued
Rec
all
was
bas
ed o
n a
verb
al a
nalo
gies
test
des
igne
d by
Ach
enba
ch(1
970)
to id
entif
y st
uden
ts w
hore
lied
on v
erba
l ass
ocia
tion
rath
er th
an r
easo
ning
to s
olve
ana
logy
pro
blem
s.In
this
test
, sub
ject
sw
ere
pres
ente
d 68
sta
ndar
d an
alog
y pr
oble
ms
with
five
alte
rnat
ives
. Hal
f of t
he it
ems
wer
e w
ritte
n so
that
one
dis
trac
tor
was
a s
tron
gas
soci
ate
of th
e th
ird te
rm o
f the
ana
logy
(e.g
.; pi
g is
to h
oar
as d
og is
to: c
at,
smok
e, a
nt, t
urtle
, wol
f). I
n th
isca
se, c
at is
a s
tron
g as
soci
ate
of d
og, b
ut
does
not
cor
rect
ly c
ompl
ete
the
anal
ogy,
the
right
ans
wer
bei
ng w
olf.
The
othe
r ha
lf of
the
item
s w
ere
writ
ten
so th
at n
one
of th
e di
stra
ctor
s w
ere
stro
ngas
soci
ates
of t
he th
ird te
rm o
f the
ana
logy
(e.
g., k
eep
is to
ret
ain
as h
ave
isto
: pai
n, lo
t, po
wer
, rec
ess,
pos
sess
).In
the
pres
ent v
ersi
on o
f the
task
, ite
ms
wer
e pr
esen
ted
indi
vidu
ally
on
the
com
pute
r sc
reen
. The
re w
ere
two
fram
es p
er it
em. T
he a
nalo
gy d
omai
n(A
is to
B)
was
pre
sent
ed o
n th
e fir
st fr
ame
and
the
rem
aind
er o
f the
item
(C
is to
DI,
D2,
D3,
D4,
D5)
was
pre
sent
ed o
n th
e se
cond
fram
e, s
o th
at e
ncod
-in
g tim
e fo
r th
e do
mai
n co
uld
be e
stim
ated
sep
arat
ely.
Afte
r th
e 17
th it
em,
subj
ects
wer
e gi
ven
a su
rpris
e cu
ed-r
ecal
l tes
t. T
he A
term
of t
he a
nalo
gy w
aspr
esen
ted
(e.g
., ke
ep)
alon
g w
ith fi
ve p
ossi
ble
alte
rnat
ives
for
B (
e.g.
, re-
tain
). T
he a
ltern
ativ
es c
onsi
sted
of t
he fi
rst a
nd la
st le
tters
of B
term
s se
pa-
rate
d by
two
blan
ks (
e.g.
, R__
N)
The
dis
trac
tors
wer
e ot
her
prev
ious
ly e
n-co
unte
red
B te
rms.
Sub
ject
s ty
ped
the
num
ber
corr
espo
ndin
g to
thei
r ch
oice
.A
fter
the
cued
-rec
all t
est,
subj
ects
wer
e to
ld th
at th
ere
wou
ld b
e no
furt
her
surp
rise
reca
ll te
sts,
and
the
anal
ogy
test
was
res
umed
.T
he S
eman
tic R
elat
ions
Ver
ifica
tion
Tes
t with
Inci
dent
al C
ued
Rec
all
pres
ente
d su
bjec
ts w
ith s
impl
e se
nten
ces
such
as
"Plu
mbe
rs w
ork
with
pip
es"
to v
erify
as
true
or
fals
e. It
ems
wer
e ar
rang
ed in
thre
e bl
ocks
of 4
8, w
ithap
prox
imat
ely
four
sen
tenc
es (
half
true
) fo
r ea
ch o
f 12
sem
antic
rel
atio
nsre
pres
ente
d in
eac
h bl
ock.
The
sem
antic
rel
atio
ns w
ere
sele
cted
from
thos
eid
entif
ied
by C
haffi
n an
d H
errm
ann
(198
4, 1
987)
. The
follo
win
g ar
e ex
-am
ples
of f
our
rela
tions
use
d: s
ynon
ymity
(bu
ypur
chas
e), a
gent
-act
ion
(art
-is
tpai
nts)
, inv
ited
attr
ibut
es (
hosp
italc
lean
), a
nd fu
nctio
nal p
art-
who
le (
en-
gine
car)
.T
he fi
rst a
nd la
st w
ords
of e
ach
stat
emen
t wer
e pr
esen
ted
in g
reen
upp
er-
case
lette
rs; w
here
as th
e m
iddl
e w
ords
wer
e pr
esen
ted
in w
hite
low
erca
sele
tters
. Thi
s se
rved
to m
ake
the
end
wor
ds m
ore
visu
ally
pro
min
ent.
Afte
r th
efir
st b
lock
of 4
8 ite
ms,
sub
ject
s w
ere
pres
ente
d a
surp
rise
cued
-rec
all t
est.
The
sub
ject
was
pre
sent
ed e
ither
the
first
wor
d fo
r a
stat
emen
t pre
cedi
ng a
blan
k, o
r th
e la
st w
ord
follo
win
g a
blan
k. T
he s
ubje
ct w
as r
equi
red
to ty
pe in
the
first
two
lette
rs o
f the
wor
d's
com
plem
ent.
If th
e su
bjec
t wer
e pr
esen
ted
"PLU
MB
ER
S_?
_,"
PI w
as th
e co
rrec
t ans
wer
. The
sec
ond
bloc
k of
48
item
s w
as id
entic
al to
the
first
with
the
exce
ptio
n th
at s
ubje
cts
wer
e to
ld th
ata
cued
-rec
all t
est w
ould
follo
w. A
tim
e lim
it of
5 s
was
set
on
indi
vidu
alve
rific
atio
n ite
ms
to p
reve
nt e
xces
sive
stu
dy ti
me,
thou
gh th
is m
ay h
ave
been
unne
cess
ary
beca
use
subj
ects
wer
e st
ill u
nder
tim
e pr
essu
re. T
he th
ird b
lock
of v
erifi
cafi&
ii ite
ms
follo
wed
the
seco
nd c
ued-
reca
ll te
st. T
his
was
not
fol-
low
ed b
y a
reca
ll te
st.
The
Pho
nolo
gica
l Pro
cess
ing
Spe
ed T
est w
as p
atte
rned
afte
r a
test
de-
vise
d by
Ols
on, K
liegl
, Dav
idso
n, a
nd F
oltz
(19
85)
to m
easu
re le
xica
l acc
ess
by s
peec
h re
codi
ng. S
ubje
cts
wer
e pr
esen
ted
68 p
airs
of n
onw
ord
lette
rst
rings
, one
of w
hich
sou
nded
like
a r
eal w
ord
(e.g
., ba
ikba
pe).
The
task
13
I44
Gen
ent%
Sor
ial.
and
Gen
eral
Psy
ch21
2sy
Mon
ogra
phs
was
to s
elec
t the
str
ing
that
sou
nded
like
a r
eal w
ord.
Sub
ject
s w
ere
inst
ruct
edto
res
pond
as
quic
kly
as th
ey c
ould
with
out s
acrif
icin
g ac
cura
cy a
nd w
ere
give
n re
spon
se ti
me
feed
back
on
corr
ect r
espo
nses
onl
y.T
he O
rtho
grap
hic
Pro
cess
ing
Spe
ed T
est a
lso
orig
inat
ed w
ith O
lson
et
al. (
1985
). T
his
test
was
des
igne
d to
mea
sure
dire
ct a
cces
s tim
e to
the
lexi
-co
n. S
ubje
cts
wer
e pr
esen
ted
48 p
airs
of l
ette
r st
rings
, eac
h pa
ir co
nsis
ting
ofst
rings
iden
tical
in p
ronu
ncia
tion
(e.g
., sm
oaks
mok
e). T
he s
ubje
ct's
task
was
to s
elec
t the
str
ing
that
spe
lled
a re
al w
ord.
The
Mea
ning
Iden
tity
with
Rep
eate
d Ite
ms
Tes
t was
pat
tern
ed a
fter
one
devi
sed
by W
oltz
(19
88)
to m
easu
re s
peed
of s
eman
tic c
ompa
rison
on
non-
repe
ated
tria
ls a
nd a
ctiv
atio
n ca
paci
ty a
s re
spon
se la
tenc
y sa
ving
s on
rep
eate
dtr
ials
and
con
sist
ed o
f 220
tria
ls in
whi
ch th
e su
bjec
t had
to d
ecid
e w
heth
ertw
o w
ords
had
the
sam
e or
diff
eren
t mea
ning
s. T
he te
st b
egan
with
40
fairl
ydi
fficu
lt m
atch
ing
tria
ls (
e.g.
, exo
nera
tevi
ndic
ate)
inte
nded
to m
easu
re v
o-ca
bula
ry k
now
ledg
e. T
x° w
ords
wer
e pr
esen
ted
on th
e ce
nter
of t
he c
ompu
ter
scre
en w
ith o
ne w
ord
abov
e th
e ot
her,
ski
ppin
g a
line.
Fol
low
ing
thes
e 40
tria
ls, 1
80 tr
ials
wer
e pr
esen
ted
in w
hich
the
wor
ds w
ere
know
n to
90%
of
the
Air
For
ce r
ecru
it po
pula
tion
(e.g
., in
fant
baby
). H
alf o
f the
se tr
ials
wer
ere
peat
s of
ear
lier
tria
ls. T
rials
wer
e re
peat
ed a
fter
lags
of 1
, 2, 4
, and
8. H
alf
of th
e re
peat
ed tr
ials
wer
e pr
esen
ted
as e
xact
rep
licas
of t
he o
rigin
al tr
ials
,an
d ha
lf w
ere
pres
ente
d so
that
the
corr
ect r
espo
nse
(sam
e or
diff
eren
t) w
asth
e op
posi
te o
f the
orig
inal
cor
rect
res
pons
e. In
the
latte
r ty
pe o
f rep
eate
dtr
ial,
the
top
wor
d re
mai
ned
the
sam
e bu
t the
bot
tom
wor
d w
as d
iffer
ent.
The
inst
ruct
iona
l set
and
feed
back
wer
e th
e sa
me
as fo
r th
e pr
evio
us tw
o te
sts.
The
Lea
rnin
g S
trat
egie
s Q
uest
ionn
aire
(LS
Q)
was
bas
ed o
n a
self-
repo
rtin
stru
men
t dev
elop
ed b
y S
chm
eck
(Sch
mec
k, 1
983;
Sch
mec
k, R
ibic
h, &
Ra-
man
aiah
, 197
7). I
t con
sist
ed o
f 71
stat
emen
ts to
whi
ch th
e su
bjec
ts r
espo
nded
agre
e or
dis
agre
e. S
tate
men
ts c
orre
spon
ded
to fo
ur s
cale
s: (
a) D
eep
Pro
cess
-in
g, o
r th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
the
subj
ects
crit
ical
ly e
valu
ated
, con
cept
ually
or-
gani
zed,
and
com
pare
d an
d co
ntra
sted
the
info
rmat
ion
they
stu
died
; (b)
Ela
b-or
ativ
e P
roce
ssin
g, o
r th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
sub
ject
s tr
ansl
ated
info
rmat
ion
enco
unte
red
in te
xts
into
thei
r ow
n w
ordi
ng, g
ener
ated
per
sona
l con
cret
e ex
-am
ples
, and
use
d vi
sual
imag
ery
to e
ncod
e ne
w id
eas;
(c)
Sel
f Ass
essm
ent o
fM
emor
izat
ion
Abi
lity,
or
the
prof
icie
ncy
with
whi
ch s
ubje
cts
reta
ined
spe
-ci
fic, d
etai
led
info
rmat
ion,
suc
h as
nam
es, d
ates
, pla
ces;
and
(d)
Met
hodi
cal
Stu
dy, o
r th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
the
subj
ect e
ngag
ed in
sys
tem
atic
stu
dy p
rac-
tices
, suc
h as
rew
ritin
g no
tes,
out
linin
g te
xt, g
ener
atin
g qu
estio
ns, o
r dr
illin
g.
AS
VA
B S
ubte
sts
Thr
ee te
sts
wer
e se
lect
ed fr
om th
e A
SV
AB
as
indi
cato
rs o
f ver
bal k
now
ledg
ean
d tw
o te
sts
wer
e se
lect
ed a
s in
dica
tors
of r
easo
ning
ski
ll. T
he A
SV
AB
isth
e vo
catio
nal a
ptitu
de b
atte
ry u
sed
for
enlis
ted
pers
onne
l sel
ectio
n an
d cl
as-
1 4
Ti I
TC
105
sific
atio
n pu
rpos
es in
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
arm
ed s
ervi
ces
(Dep
artm
ent o
f De-
fens
e, 1
985)
.2 F
ive
of th
e su
btes
ts c
ompr
isin
g th
e A
SV
AB
wer
e us
ed a
s pr
e-di
ctor
sin
this
stud
y: G
ener
al S
cien
ce, W
ord
Kno
wle
dge,
Par
agra
phC
ompr
ehen
sion
, Arit
hmet
ic R
easo
ning
, and
Mec
hani
cal C
ompr
ehen
sion
.T
he G
ener
al S
cien
ce s
ubte
st (
Ver
bal K
now
ledg
e F
acto
r, 2
5 ite
ms,
11
min
) is
com
pose
d of
mul
tiple
-cho
ice
item
s as
sess
ing
know
ledg
e of
life
sci
-en
ce, p
hysi
cal s
cien
ce, a
nd e
arth
sci
ence
. The
Wor
d K
now
ledg
e su
btes
t (V
er-
bal K
now
ledg
e F
acto
r, 3
5 ite
ms,
11
min
) m
easu
res
voca
bula
ry w
ith tw
o ty
pes
of it
ems.
Abo
ut 6
0% o
f the
item
s ta
ke th
e fo
rm "
mos
t nea
rlym
eans
. ..
." T
he o
ther
40%
pre
sent
the
targ
et w
ord
in c
ompl
ete
sent
ence
san
d re
quire
the
exam
inee
to s
elec
t the
wor
d w
hich
cou
ld b
e us
ed in
pla
ceof
it. A
ccor
ding
to th
e m
anua
l, th
e P
arag
raph
Com
preh
ensi
on s
ubte
st (
Ver
bal
Kno
wle
dge
Fac
tor,
15
item
s, 1
3 m
in)
was
,des
igne
d to
mea
sure
rea
ding
com
-pr
ehen
sion
ski
ll. F
iftee
n pa
ssag
es a
re p
rese
nted
, var
ying
in s
ize
from
30
to12
0 w
ords
. Eac
h is
follo
wed
by
one
mul
tiple
-cho
ice
ques
tion.
' The
Arit
h-m
etic
Rea
soni
ng s
ubte
st (
Qua
ntita
tive
Rea
soni
ng F
acto
r, 3
0 ite
ms,
36
min
)co
nsis
ts o
f alg
ebra
wor
d pr
oble
ms
desi
gned
to e
mph
asiz
e th
e m
athe
mat
ical
oper
atio
ns r
equi
red
for
solu
tion
rath
er th
an c
ompu
tatio
nal c
ompl
exity
. Thi
ste
st w
as s
elec
ted
as a
n in
dica
tor
of r
easo
ning
abi
lity
othe
r th
an a
nalo
gica
lre
ason
ing.
Lar
son,
Mer
ritt,
and
Will
iam
s (1
988)
rep
orte
d a
corr
elat
ion
of .5
3w
ith R
aven
s P
rogr
essi
ve M
atric
es s
core
s ob
tain
ed o
n a
sam
ple
of U
.S. N
avy
enlis
ted
pers
onne
l.Ite
ms
in th
e M
echa
nica
l Com
preh
ensi
on s
ubte
st (
Tec
hnic
al K
now
ledg
ean
d S
kill
Fac
tor,
25
item
s, 1
9 m
in)
mea
sure
ski
ll in
indu
cing
and
app
lyin
gm
echa
nica
l prin
cipl
es in
the
cont
ext o
f pro
blem
s in
volv
ing
sim
ple
devi
ces.
Mos
t ite
ms
pres
ent p
icto
rial o
r gr
aphi
c di
spla
ys. T
his
test
was
als
o se
lect
edas
an
indi
cato
r of
rea
soni
ng a
bilit
y. L
arso
n et
al.
(198
8) r
epor
ted
a co
rrel
atio
nof
.60
with
Rav
ens
Pro
gres
sive
Mat
rices
sco
res.
Pro
cedu
re
All
test
ing
was
con
duct
ed a
t the
Air
For
ce H
uman
Res
ourc
es L
abor
ator
y(A
FH
RL)
Exp
erim
enta
l Tes
ting
Fac
ility
at L
ackl
and
Air
For
ce B
ase,
Tex
as.
'Des
crip
tive
info
rmat
ion
on th
e A
SV
AB
was
obt
aine
d fr
om th
e T
echn
ical
Sup
ple-
men
t to
the
Cou
nsel
or's
Man
ual f
or th
e A
rmed
Ser
vice
s V
ocat
iona
l Apt
itude
Bat
tery
,pu
blis
hed
by th
e D
epar
tmen
t of D
efen
se. F
acto
r an
alys
es o
f the
AS
VA
B w
ere
re-
port
cd b
y R
ee, M
ullin
s, M
athe
ws,
and
Mas
sey
(198
2).
The
AS
VA
B C
ouns
elor
's M
anua
l cla
ims
that
the
cont
ents
of t
hepa
ssag
es w
ere
sele
cted
so
as to
min
imiz
e th
e ef
fect
s of
the
exam
inee
's p
rior
know
ledg
e in
ans
wer
ing
the
ques
tions
. Exa
min
atio
n of
test
item
s su
gges
ts th
at th
e se
lect
ion
stra
tegy
mig
htha
ve b
een
to c
hoos
e al
l hig
hly
fam
iliar
topi
cs w
hich
mig
ht b
e fo
und
in p
opul
arm
agaz
ines
. Thi
s st
rate
gy m
ay h
ave
had
the
oppo
site
effe
ct o
f ind
ucin
g ex
amin
ees
tore
ly o
n pr
ior
know
ledg
e.
_tJ
tOn
Gen
eve.
Sne
ad. a
nd G
ener
al P
syha
logy
Mon
ogra
phs
Sub
ject
s w
ere
seat
ed a
t the
car
rels
and
bega
n th
e se
ssio
n by
rea
ding
a s
hort
brie
fing
on th
e pu
rpos
e of
the
stud
y.T
his
was
follo
wed
by
a se
t of e
xerc
ises
desi
gned
to fa
mili
ariz
e th
em w
ith th
eke
yboa
rd.
The
crit
erio
n ta
sks
wer
e th
e fir
st te
sts
to b
ead
min
iste
red,
with
the
rapi
d-
pres
enta
tion
Eng
lish
wor
d pa
ired-
asso
ciat
e ta
skbe
ing
the
first
test
. Fol
low
ing
this
test
, the
sub
ject
s w
ere
give
n th
eC
VC
-Eng
lish
wor
d pa
ired-
asso
ciat
e
task
. Prio
r to
act
ual t
estin
g on
the
CV
C-E
nglis
h w
ord
task
, sub
ject
s w
ere
give
n ei
ther
inst
ruct
ion
on a
ppro
pria
te m
nem
onic
stra
tegi
es (
sem
antic
ela
bo-
ratio
n an
d in
tera
ctiv
e im
ager
y gr
oups
) or
no
spec
ial i
nstr
uctio
n (c
ontr
olgr
oup)
. The
lear
ning
str
ateg
ies
ques
tionn
aire
was
fixed
last
in th
e ba
ttery
. MI
of th
e re
mai
ning
test
s w
ere
pres
ente
d in
diffe
rent
ran
dom
ord
ers
to e
ach
sub-
ject
. A 5
-min
bre
ak w
as g
iven
at t
he a
ppro
xim
ate
mid
poin
t of t
he 3
-hr
ses-
sion
. The
AS
VA
B h
ad b
een
adm
inis
tere
d at
vario
us ti
mes
prio
r to
enl
istm
ent
in th
e A
ir F
orce
.
Res
ults
Pre
dict
or a
nd C
riter
ion
Tes
t Sco
res
Mea
ns, s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns, a
nd r
elia
bilit
y es
timat
es fo
r th
eex
perim
enta
l tes
t
scor
es a
nd A
SV
AB
suh
test
sco
res
are
foun
d in
Tab
le 1
. The
Alp
habe
t Rec
od-
ing
Wor
king
Mem
ory
Tes
t (A
WM
; Wol
tz, 1
988)
was
scor
ed fo
r ac
cura
cy a
t
each
com
bina
tion
of d
irect
ion
( +
or
) an
d le
vel (
1, 2
, and
3).
A s
ingl
eov
eral
l acc
urac
y sc
ore
(AW
MP
C, o
vera
ll pe
rcen
t cor
rect
) w
asus
ed in
the
regr
essi
on a
naly
ses
alon
g w
ith a
mea
n so
lutio
n tim
e (A
WM
ST
) sc
ore.
Rel
i-
abili
ty e
stim
ated
by
the
odd-
even
met
hod
was
.791
for
AW
MP
C.
The
Ste
rn-
berg
/Nig
ro V
erba
l Ana
logi
es T
est (
VA
T; S
tern
berg
& N
igro
,19
80)
was
scor
ed fo
r ac
cura
cy (
VA
TP
C)
and
for
med
ian
resp
onse
tim
e(V
AT
RT
). R
eli-
abili
ty w
as e
stim
ated
at .
827
for
VA
TP
C a
nd .9
34 fo
r V
AT
RT
.T
he B
asic
Ana
logi
es T
est w
ith In
cide
ntal
Cue
d R
ecal
l (B
AR
T:
Ach
en-
bach
, 197
0) w
as s
core
d fo
r re
ason
ing
accu
racy
and
res
pons
e tim
e(B
AR
TP
Can
d B
AR
TR
T)
and
thes
e co
rrel
ated
sub
stan
tially
with
the
sam
efr
om th
eS
tern
berg
/Nig
ro V
AT
(r
= .5
7 fo
r ac
cura
cy, a
nd .5
0 fo
r re
spon
se ti
me,
re-
spec
tivel
y). B
AR
TP
C a
nd B
AR
TR
T w
ere
not u
sed
in th
e su
bseq
uent
reg
res-
sion
ana
lyse
s to
avo
id e
xper
imen
tal d
epen
denc
y w
ith th
e in
cide
ntal
reca
ll
scor
e fr
om th
e sa
me
test
. The
inci
dent
al r
ecal
l sco
re(B
AR
IR)
cons
iste
d of
the
perc
ent o
f ana
logy
dom
ain
B te
rms
that
wer
e co
rrec
tly r
ecal
led
give
n th
e
A te
rm a
s a
cue.
The
BA
RIR
sco
re h
ad o
nly
mod
est r
elia
bilit
y (R
.rx'
=.6
19),
mos
tly b
ecau
se o
f its
sm
all s
ize
(17
item
s).
The
Sem
antic
Rel
atio
ns V
erifi
catio
n w
ith In
cide
ntal
Cue
d R
ecal
l(S
RV
;C
haffi
n &
Her
rman
n, 1
984.
198
7) w
as s
core
d fo
r m
edia
n ve
rific
atio
n tim
e on
corr
ect r
espo
nses
( S
MR
RT
,=
.985
) an
d ac
cura
cy (
SR
VP
C,
Rxx
'
.799
). T
he s
econ
d bl
ock
of 4
8 ite
ms
asse
ssed
inci
dent
al r
ecal
l of A
giv
en B
16
Tirr
e10
7
TA
BLE
1D
escr
iptiv
e S
tatis
tics
and
Rel
iabi
lity
Est
imat
es
Tes
tM
SD
Rxx
'
Alp
habe
t Rec
odin
g S
olut
ion
Tim
e (A
WM
ST
)9.
586.
02na
Ver
bal A
nalo
gies
Sol
utio
n T
ime
(VA
TR
T)
7.66
2.05
.934
Ort
hogr
aphi
c P
roce
ssin
g S
peed
(O
RP
RT
).8
8.1
6.9
66
Pho
nolo
gica
l Pro
cess
ing
Spe
ed (
PH
PR
T)
1.95
.57
.963
Mea
ning
Iden
tity
Eas
y Ite
ms
RT
(W
OR
T)
1.26
.33
.960
Mea
ning
Iden
tity
Res
idua
l Act
ivat
ion
(RE
SA
CT
V)
0.00
.08
.300
Sem
antic
Rel
atio
ns V
erifi
catio
n S
peed
(S
MR
RT
)1.
83.3
7.9
85
Alp
habe
t Rec
ordi
ng (
AW
MP
C)
30.9
15.6
.791
Ver
bal A
nalo
gies
(V
AT
PC
)67
.213
.4.8
27
Ort
hogr
aphi
c P
roce
ssin
g A
ccur
acy
(OR
PP
C)
97.0
3.1
.834
Pho
nolo
gica
l Pro
cess
ing
Acc
urac
y (P
HP
PC
)86
.411
.1.9
04
Mea
ning
Iden
tity
Diff
icul
t Ite
ms
(MID
PC
)76
.012
.4.6
86
Mea
ning
Iden
tity
Eas
y Ite
ms
PC
(M
IDE
PC
)93
.94.
0.6
85
Sem
antic
Rel
atio
ns V
erifi
catio
n A
ccur
acy
(SM
RP
C)
91.9
4.5
.799
Inci
dent
al R
ecal
l (S
MR
IRP
C)
44.6
13.7
.828
Inci
dent
al R
ecal
l of A
nalo
gy T
erm
s (B
AR
IRP
C)
71.2
16.3
.619
LSQ
Dee
p P
roce
ssin
g (L
SQ
DP
PC
)66
.618
.1.8
96LS
Q S
elf-
Ass
essm
ent o
f Mem
ory
(LS
QS
AP
C)
69.3
20.8
.915
AS
VA
B G
ener
al S
cien
ce19
.43.
3.5
98
AS
VA
B W
ord
Kno
wle
dge
29.6
4.1
.683
AS
VA
B P
arag
raph
Com
preh
ensi
on12
.91.
8.5
72
AS
VA
B A
rithm
etic
Rea
soni
ng23
.24.
6.8
31
AS
VA
B M
echa
nica
l Com
preh
ensi
on17
.73.
8.7
52R
apid
Pre
sent
atio
n P
aire
d A
ssoc
iate
s (R
PP
AP
C)
53.8
15.5
.871
Trig
ram
-Wor
ds T
rials
to C
riter
ion
(TW
PA
TT
C)
All
case
s78
.241
.0.5
57
Con
trol
83.7
38.2
Inte
ract
ive
Imag
ery
73.2
38.9
Sem
antic
Ela
bora
tion
78.1
44.9
Trig
ram
-Wor
ds %
Cor
rect
Rec
all (
TW
PA
PC
)A
ll C
ases
50.6
13.4
.608
Con
trol
47.8
11.7
Inte
ract
ive
Imag
ery
52.4
14.0
Sem
antic
Ela
bora
tion
51.5
14.0
Itigr
am-W
ords
1st
8 T
rials
(T
WP
AF
8PC
)A
ll C
ases
19.7
14.9
.568
Con
trol
17.5
12.6
Inte
ract
ive
Imag
ery
21.4
16.1
Sem
antic
Ela
bora
tion
19.9
15.4
Now
. RT
sig
nifie
s m
edia
n re
spon
se ti
me,
PC
sig
nifie
s pe
rcen
t cor
rect
.R
elia
bilit
y w
as e
sti-
mat
ed a
s th
e co
rrec
ted
split
hal
f cor
rela
tion
for
the
com
pute
rized
pre
dict
ors.
Rel
iabi
lity
for
AS
VA
H te
sts
was
com
pute
d as
the
stab
ility
coe
ffici
ent m
ultip
lied
by th
e in
tern
alco
nsis
tenc
y
(alp
ha).
Rel
iahi
litie
s fo
r th
e tr
igra
m-w
ords
test
sco
res
wer
ees
timat
ed a
s pr
opor
tion
of to
tal
varia
nce
due
to in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces.
108
Gen
etic
, Soc
ial,
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
orB
giv
en A
; and
this
was
sco
red
as p
erce
ntco
rrec
t rec
all (
SR
VIR
. R.te
=
.828
). S
RV
IR c
orre
late
d .3
3 w
ith B
AR
IR.
Thi
s co
rrel
atio
n is
, .47
whe
n co
r-
rect
ed fo
r m
easu
rem
ent e
rror
in b
oth
varia
bles
.T
he P
hono
logi
cal a
nd O
rtho
grap
hic
Pro
cess
ing
Spe
ed T
ests
(P
HP
S;
OR
PS
; Ols
on e
t al.,
198
5) w
ere
scor
edfo
r bo
th m
edia
n re
spon
se ti
me
on
corr
ect a
nsw
ered
item
s (R
.rx'
=.9
63, .
966,
res
pect
ivel
y) a
nd a
ccur
acy
(Rxx
'
= .9
04, .
834,
resp
ectiv
ely)
. The
Mea
ning
Iden
tity
with
Rep
eate
d Ite
ms
Tes
t
(MID
; Wol
tz, 1
988)
was
sco
red
for
thre
e pa
ram
eter
s. A
voc
abul
ary
scor
e w
as
obta
ined
from
the
first
40
item
s (M
IDP
C, R
xx' =
.686
). A
med
ian
resp
onse
time
on c
orre
ctly
ans
wer
ed e
asy
item
s (e
rror
rat
e <
.10)
was
obt
aine
d to
indi
cate
sem
antic
ret
rieva
l and
com
paris
ontim
e (M
IDR
T, R
xx' =
.985
). T
he
third
par
amet
er w
as r
espo
nse
time
onse
cond
occ
urre
nces
of i
tem
s re
sidu
al-
ized
on
resp
onse
tim
e on
non
repe
ated
item
s (R
ES
AC
TV
). T
his
para
met
er
was
inte
nded
to m
easu
reac
tivat
ion
capa
city
, but
pro
ved
to h
ave
low
relia
bilit
y
(Rxx
' = .3
00).
The
Lea
rnin
g S
trat
egie
s Q
uest
ionn
aire
(LS
Q; S
chm
eck,
198
3; S
chm
eck
et a
l., 1
977)
was
sco
red
for
four
subs
cale
s: s
elf-
asse
ssm
ent o
f lea
rnin
g
(LS
QS
A),
pro
pens
ity to
eng
age
in d
eep
proc
essi
ng (
LSQ
DP
), p
rope
nsity
to e
ngag
e in
ela
bora
tive
proc
essi
ng (
LSQ
EP
), a
nd m
etho
dica
l stu
dyha
bits
(LS
QM
S).
In c
ontr
ast t
o ou
r pr
ior
stud
y(T
ime,
198
4) s
umm
ariz
ed e
arlie
r,
ther
e w
as n
o va
rianc
e on
pro
pens
ity to
eng
age
in e
labo
rativ
e pr
oces
sing
-all
resp
onde
nts
repo
rted
usi
ng th
ese
stra
tegi
es. I
nad
ditio
n, th
e co
rrel
atio
n be
-
twee
n m
etho
dica
l stu
dy h
abits
and
lear
ning
was
ess
entia
lly z
ero.
As
a co
n-
sequ
ence
, onl
y th
e LS
QD
Pan
d LS
QS
A s
cale
s w
ere
reta
ined
for
furt
her
anal
-
ysis
. The
Trig
ram
-Wor
d P
aire
d A
ssoc
iate
Lear
ning
Tas
k (T
WP
AL)
yie
lded
thre
e cr
iterio
n sc
ores
: tria
ls to
crit
erio
n(T
WP
AT
TC
), p
erce
nt c
orre
ct o
n fir
st
eigh
t tria
ls (
TW
PA
F8P
C),
and
per
cent
cor
rect
on
all t
rials
(T
WP
AP
C).
The
corr
elat
ion
betw
een
TW
PA
PC
and
log
TW
PA
TT
C w
as.9
2. T
he r
elia
bilit
y
of th
is le
arni
ng ta
sk c
anno
t be
estim
ated
with
the
conv
entio
nal p
sych
omet
ric
form
ulas
bec
ause
the
assu
mpt
ions
of s
uch
proc
edur
es a
re v
iola
ted.
The
bes
t
way
to e
stim
ate
the
relia
bilit
y of
such
a ta
sk w
ould
be
to c
orre
late
para
llel
form
s of
the
task
. Alth
ough
we
have
par
alle
lfo
rms,
they
wer
e no
t adm
inis
-
tere
d to
the
sam
e su
bjec
ts. A
sec
ond
way
toes
timat
e th
e re
liabi
lity
wou
ld b
e
to d
eter
min
e ho
w m
uch
of th
e ov
eral
lva
rianc
e (b
etw
een
and
with
in s
ubje
cts)
was
due
to in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
(see
Coh
en &
Coh
en, 1
975)
. Usi
ng th
ispr
oced
ure,
rel
iabi
lity
was
est
imat
ed a
t .60
8 an
d.5
68, f
or T
WP
AP
C a
nd
TW
PA
F8P
C, r
espe
ctiv
ely.
The
Rap
id P
rese
ntat
ion
Pai
red
Ass
ocia
tes
Tes
t(R
PP
A)
yiel
ded
one
scor
e
of in
tere
st: o
vera
ll pe
rcen
t cor
rect
rec
ogni
tion
(RP
PA
PC
) on
the
cued
rec
og-
nitio
n te
sts
follo
win
g ea
ch li
st p
rese
ntat
ion.
Rec
ogni
tion
late
ncy
was
als
o re
-
cord
ed, b
ut w
as n
ot a
naly
zed.
Rel
iabi
lity
was
est
imat
ed to
be .8
71 fo
r th
e
perc
ent c
orre
ct r
ecog
nitio
n sc
ore.
Tirr
e10
9
Cre
atio
n of
Com
posi
te V
aria
bles
To
redu
ce th
e nu
mbe
r of
pre
dict
or v
aria
bles
,co
mpo
site
var
iabl
es w
ere
cre-
ated
, con
sist
ing
of u
nit w
eigh
ted
aver
ages
ofc
once
ptua
lly r
elat
ed v
aria
bles
.
A v
erba
l kno
wle
dge
scor
e (V
KN
), fo
r in
stan
ce, w
asco
mpu
ted
as th
e av
erag
e
of s
tand
ardi
zed
'sco
res
on th
e A
SV
AB
Wor
dK
now
ledg
e, G
ener
al S
cien
ce,
Par
agra
ph C
ompr
ehen
sion
sub
test
s, a
nd th
eM
eani
ng Id
entit
y vo
cabu
lary
test
. Lex
ical
/sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
spee
d(L
SR
T)
was
com
pute
d as
the
aver
age
of s
tand
ardi
zed
resp
onse
tim
e sc
ores
on
the
follo
win
g te
sts:
OR
PS
, PH
PS
,
SR
VT
, and
MID
(ex
clud
ing
the
seco
nd p
rese
ntat
ion
of it
ems)
. A c
ompl
emen
-
tary
acc
urac
y sc
ore
(LS
AC
C)
was
com
pute
d as
the
aver
age
of th
e pe
rcen
t
corr
ect s
core
s on
the
sam
e te
sts
(tho
ugh
the
diffi
cult
item
s on
the
MID
wer
e
excl
uded
and
use
d in
stea
d as
a v
ocab
ular
y m
easu
re a
sde
scrib
ed e
arlie
r). T
he
four
th c
ompo
site
var
iabl
e w
as th
e av
erag
e of
the
two
inci
dent
al le
arni
ng
scor
es, B
AR
IR a
nd S
RV
IR.
Cor
rela
tions
Bet
wee
n P
redi
ctor
and
Crit
erio
nV
aria
bles
It is
inst
ruct
ive
to e
xam
ine
the
sim
ple
corr
elat
ions
foun
d be
twee
n th
e co
gni-
tive
abili
ty m
easu
res
and
lear
ning
crit
eria
bef
ore
cons
ider
ing
the
deta
ils o
f the
mul
tiple
reg
ress
ion
anal
yses
. Cor
rela
tions
wer
eco
rrec
ted
for
mea
sure
men
t
erro
r in
the
pred
icto
r to
per
mit
mor
eva
lid c
ompa
rison
s. T
able
2 s
how
s th
e
corr
elat
ions
for
the
who
le ta
sk c
riter
ia, T
WP
AT
TC
and
TW
PA
PC
. The
bes
t
TA
BLE
2C
orre
latio
ns B
etw
een
Cog
nitiv
e P
redi
ctor
s an
d Le
arni
ng T
ask
Crit
eria
Pre
dict
or
Crit
eria
TW
PA
TT
CT
WP
AP
CT
WP
AF
8PC
RP
PA
PC
r,ro
r.rc
ro
INC
LRN
- .5
46-
.483
.570
.503
.502
.443
.458
.409
VA
TP
C-.
501
-.45
3.4
85.4
41.3
96.3
60.3
92.3
61
VK
N.4
09.3
78.4
48.4
14.3
80.3
51.3
74.3
46
AW
MP
C.4
32.3
88.4
43.3
94.3
52.3
13.2
98.2
67
AR
ITH
RE
S.3
85-
.325
.404
.336
.363
.302
.365
.300
LSA
CC
.399
- .3
79.4
02.3
86.3
11.2
98.3
16.3
09
ME
CH
CO
MP
- .2
68.2
01.2
99.2
25.2
75.2
07.2
27.1
63
LSQ
DP
- .2
60.2
46.2
54.2
40.1
92.1
82.2
35.2
22
LSQ
SA
.167
- .1
62.1
9118
3.1
71.1
64.1
93.1
85
LSR
T.1
37.1
35-.
185
- .1
84.1
78-,
177
.240
- .2
39
Not
e. r
, den
otes
cor
rela
tions
that
hav
e be
en c
orre
cted
for
mea
sure
men
t err
or;
ro d
enot
es o
b-se
rved
cor
rela
tions
. Var
iabl
es in
volv
ing
AS
VA
B s
ubte
sts
have
bee
nco
rrec
ted
for
both
sta
bilit
y
and
inte
rnal
con
sist
ency
. N =
714
.
110
Gen
etic
. Soc
ial.
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
pred
icto
r of
mea
ning
ful p
aire
d-as
soci
ate
lear
ning
was
inci
dent
al le
arni
ng(I
NC
LRN
. r =
.570
for
TW
PA
PC
..5
46 fo
r T
WP
AT
TC
coi
laps
ing
over
list-
grou
p co
mbi
natio
ns).
It is
not
sur
pris
ing
that
inci
dent
al le
arni
ng w
ould
he
high
ly p
redi
ctiv
e of
inte
ntio
nal l
earn
ing.
but
it is
inte
rest
ing
to n
ote
that
thes
etw
o fo
rms
of le
arni
ng a
re fa
r fr
omid
entic
al, h
avin
g ab
out 3
0% o
f the
var
ianc
e
in c
omm
on.
The
sec
ond
high
est c
orre
late
of p
aire
d-as
soci
ate
lear
ning
was
sem
antic
infe
renc
e as
mea
sure
d by
ver
bal a
nalo
gies
( V
AT
PC
, r =
.485
for
TW
PA
PC
..5
01 fo
r T
WP
AT
TC
). T
he c
orre
latio
ns fo
r ve
rbal
ana
logi
es w
ere
high
erth
an th
ose
obta
ined
for
the
othe
r re
ason
ing
skill
s, s
uch
as a
rithm
etic
rea
son-
ing
(AR
ITH
RE
S, r
= .4
04.
.385
) an
d m
echa
nica
l rea
soni
ng (
ME
CH
-C
OM
P, r
= .2
99,
.268
), th
us r
eplic
atin
g th
e re
anal
ysis
of t
he T
irre
(198
4)da
tase
t.T
he n
ext t
hree
set
s of
cor
rela
tions
wer
e es
sent
ially
equ
al to
thos
e ob
-ta
ined
with
the
arith
met
ic r
easo
ning
test
. Tha
t is,
the
aver
age
abso
lute
cor
re-
latio
ns o
btai
ned
with
lexi
cal/s
eman
tic p
roce
ssin
g ac
cura
cy (
LSA
CC
), w
ork-
ing
mem
ory
(AW
MP
C),
and
ver
bal k
now
ledg
e (V
KN
) ra
nged
from
.400
to.4
38. F
inal
ly, t
he lo
wes
t sig
nific
ant c
orre
latio
ns w
ere
foun
d w
ith a
sel
f-re
port
ed te
nden
cy to
em
ploy
dee
p pr
oces
sing
(LS
QD
P, r
= .2
54,
.260
), a
self-
asse
ssm
ent o
f lea
rnin
g ab
ility
(LS
QS
A, r
= .1
91,
.167
), a
nd w
ithle
xica
l-sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
spee
d (L
SR
T, r
=18
5. .1
37).
A s
imila
r pa
ttern
of c
orre
latio
ns w
as fo
und
with
the
rapi
d pr
esen
tatio
npa
ired-
asso
ciat
es te
st (
RP
PA
). T
he h
ighe
st c
orre
latio
ns w
ere
foun
d w
ith in
-ci
dent
al le
arni
ng (
INC
LRN
, r =
.458
) an
d w
ith v
erba
l ana
logi
es (
VA
TP
C, r
= .3
92).
Thi
s w
as fo
llow
ed b
y ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
(VK
N, r
= .3
74),
'arit
h-m
etic
rea
soni
ng (
r =
.365
). a
nd a
ccur
acy
on th
e le
xica
l-sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
task
s (L
SA
CC
. r =
.316
).T
here
wer
e tw
o no
tabl
e di
ffere
nces
in th
e pa
ttern
of c
orre
latio
ns fo
und
for
RP
PA
. The
firs
t is
that
wor
king
mem
ory
corr
elat
ed s
ubst
antia
lly le
ss w
ell
with
lear
ning
(A
WN
, r =
.298
for
RP
PA
PC
, r =
.443
for
TW
PA
PC
). T
his
diffe
renc
e is
sig
nific
ant,
t(71
2) =
3.9
4, p
< .0
01 (
com
pute
d on
raw
cor
rela
-tio
ns).
The
sec
ond
is th
at le
xica
l-sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
spee
d co
rrel
ated
som
e-w
hat b
ets
,-r
(LS
RT
. r =
.240
for
RP
PA
PC
. r =
.185
for
TW
PA
PC
,r
= .1
37 fo
r T
WP
AT
TC
). T
his
diffe
renc
e w
as s
igni
fican
t onl
y fo
r th
eR
PP
AP
C-
TW
PA
TT
C c
ompa
rison
, /(7
12)
=5.
96, p
< .0
01. T
he la
tter
findi
ng is
con
sist
ent w
ith th
e hy
poth
esiz
ed r
ole
of in
form
atio
n pr
oces
sing
spee
d in
rap
idly
pre
sent
ed p
aire
d-as
soci
ates
lear
ning
.
Mai
n R
egre
ssio
n A
naly
ses
for
the
Trig
ram
-Wor
d T
ask
Zer
o-or
der
corr
elat
ions
are
the
best
ava
ilabl
e da
ta fo
r th
e su
bsta
ntiv
e in
terp
re-
tatio
n of
rel
atio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
the
pred
icto
r an
d cr
iterio
n va
riabl
es. H
owev
er,
to te
st h
ypot
hese
s co
ncer
ning
the
rela
tions
hip
of o
ne c
ogni
tive
abili
ty v
aria
ble
2 0
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
line
111
to le
arni
ng, w
hile
con
trol
ling
one
or m
ore
othe
r va
riabl
es, p
art c
orre
latio
n,
regr
essi
on, o
r re
late
d pr
oced
ures
mus
t be
empl
oyed
.A
com
bina
tion
of s
imul
tane
ous
and
hier
arch
ical
incl
usio
n re
gres
sion
mod
elin
g pr
oced
ures
(C
ohen
& C
ohen
, 197
5) w
ere
used
toan
alyz
e th
e in
di-
vidu
al d
iffer
ence
s va
rianc
e. T
he s
quar
e se
mi-p
artia
l or
part
corr
elat
ions
(sr
)
resu
lting
from
a s
imul
tane
ous
incl
usio
n re
gres
sion
anal
ysis
ref
lect
the
amou
nt
of c
riter
ion
varia
nce
that
eac
h pr
edic
tor
uniq
uely
expl
ains
. Whe
n th
e do
mai
n
of p
oten
tial p
redi
ctor
s ha
s be
en e
xten
sive
ly s
ampl
ed, a
sin
the
pres
ent s
tudy
,
a si
gnifi
cant
uni
que
cont
ribut
ion
stro
ngly
sug
gest
s th
at th
e pr
edic
tor
shou
ld
be in
clud
ed in
the
mod
el o
f the
phe
nom
enon
bei
ngst
udie
d.T
he r
egre
ssio
n eq
uatio
n w
as c
onst
ruct
ed in
two
step
s.O
n S
tep
1, a
bi-
nary
vec
tor
codi
ng th
e tw
ove
rsio
ns o
f the
trig
ram
-wor
d pa
ired-
asso
ciat
esta
sk, t
wo
bina
ry v
ecto
rs c
odin
g th
e th
ree
stra
tegy
gro
ups
(con
trol
, sem
antic
elab
orat
ion,
inte
ract
ive
imag
ery)
, and
all
the
cogn
itive
abili
ty p
redi
ctor
s w
ere
ente
red
into
the
equa
tion.
On
Ste
p 2,
the
SP
SS
forw
ard-
incl
usio
n m
etho
d w
as
used
to a
llow
the
indi
vidu
al p
rodu
ct te
rms
carr
ying
the
stra
tegy
gro
up b
yab
ility
inte
ract
ions
to e
nter
if th
eir
cont
ribut
ion
to th
eex
plai
ned
varia
nce
was
sign
ifica
nt a
t the
.05
leve
1.4
The
sam
e an
alys
is w
asap
plie
d to
all
thre
e cr
iteria
from
the
trig
ram
-wor
d pa
ired-
asso
ciat
es ta
sk, t
hat
is, l
og tr
ansf
orm
ed tr
ials
to c
riter
ion
(TW
PA
TT
C),
per
cent
cor
rect
ove
rall
tria
ls (
TW
PA
PC
), a
nd p
er-
cent
cor
rect
on
first
eig
ht tr
ials
(TW
PA
F8P
C).
Ana
lysi
s of
TW
PA
F8P
C e
n-ab
led
dete
rmin
atio
n if
any
pred
icto
r w
as p
artic
ular
ly s
tron
gfo
r th
e in
itial
en-
codi
ng o
f the
trig
ram
-wor
d pa
irs.
TW
PA
TT
C a
nd T
WP
AP
C a
re s
impl
y al
tern
ativ
e m
easu
res
of o
vera
llle
arni
ng. F
or s
impl
icity
, the
res
ults
for
TW
PA
PC
(T
able
3)
are
sum
mar
ized
here
and
then
dis
crep
ant f
indi
ngs
for
TW
PA
TT
C a
re n
oted
.A
s th
e re
gres
sion
sum
mar
y (T
able
3)
show
s, th
ere
wer
ese
vera
l pre
dict
ors
sign
ifica
nt a
t the
.001
leve
l. A
mon
g th
ese
wer
e in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
(IN
CLR
N, s
r =
.255
), w
orki
ng
mem
ory
(AW
MP
C, s
r =
.140
),in
tera
ctiv
e im
ager
y in
stru
ctio
ns (
G1
, sr
=.1
09),
and
sem
antic
ela
bora
tion
inst
ruct
ions
(G
2, s
r =
.106
).V
erba
l ana
logy
solu
tion
(VA
TP
C, s
r =
.082
) an
d ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
(VK
N, s
r =
.078
) w
ere
sign
ifica
ntat
the
.01
leve
l; an
d le
xiea
l-sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
accu
racy
(LS
AC
C, s
r =
.074
) w
as s
igni
fican
t at t
he .0
2 le
vel.
The
res
ults
for
TW
PA
TT
C a
re h
ighl
y si
mila
r w
ith th
e ex
cept
ion
that
the
uniq
ueco
ntrib
utio
nfo
r ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
was
mar
gina
lly s
igni
fican
t (p
< .0
51)
and
the
uniq
ue
cont
ribut
ion
for
LSR
T w
as s
igni
fican
t (sr
=.0
86, p
< .0
05).
The
sig
n of
the
regr
essi
on c
oeffi
cien
t for
LS
RT
indi
cate
s th
at th
isva
riabl
e w
as o
pera
ting
as a
sup
pres
sor
in th
e re
gres
sion
equa
tion.
The
reg
ress
ion
mod
el o
f TW
PA
F8P
C d
iffer
s in
onl
y on
eim
port
ant d
etai
l
(see
Tab
le 3
). V
erba
l kno
wle
dge
inte
ract
ed w
ith s
trat
egy
inst
ruct
ion
in s
uch
a
'Bec
ause
of t
he la
rge
sam
ple
size
and
num
ber
of p
redi
ctor
s,on
ly c
ontr
ibut
ions
that
mee
t or
exce
ed th
e .0
1 le
vel o
f sig
nific
ance
will
he
disc
usse
d in
det
ail.
2t
112
Gen
eneS
oria
l, an
d G
ener
al P
sych
olog
y M
onog
raph
s
a. o..
1:4 0. c6 a.
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04 o.
V E g
CO
O §= -0 g
Es E
113
way
that
stu
dent
s w
ith g
reat
er k
now
ledg
e w
ere
mor
elik
ely
to b
enef
it fr
omst
rate
gy in
stru
ctio
ns (
espe
cial
ly in
stru
ctio
ns to
use
sem
antic
ela
bora
tion)
than
stud
ents
with
less
kno
wle
dge.
Thi
s re
plic
ates
the
Kyl
lone
n et
al.
(198
9)fi
ndin
g.
Rap
id P
rese
ntat
ion
Pair
ed A
ssoc
iate
s
Fina
lly, c
onsi
der
the
anal
ysis
of
the
rapi
d pr
esen
tatio
n w
ord
pair
ed-a
ssoc
iate
sta
sk (
RPP
APC
, see
Tab
le 3
). I
ncid
enta
l lea
rnin
g w
as th
e on
ly p
redi
ctor
that
met
the
.01
leve
l of
sign
ific
ance
(sr
= .2
06);
thou
gh tw
o re
ason
ing
skill
var
-ia
bles
wer
e si
gnif
ican
t at t
he .0
5 le
vel (
VA
TPC
, sr
= .0
74, a
nd A
RIT
HR
ES,
sr =
.067
). T
hese
fin
ding
s su
gges
t tha
t whe
n a
stud
ent i
nten
ds to
lear
n bu
tta
sk d
eman
ds p
reve
nt e
ffec
tive
stra
tegi
c be
havi
or, l
earn
ing
is la
rgel
y a
func
-tio
n of
his
or
her
inci
dent
al le
arni
ng p
rofi
cien
cy a
nd p
erha
ps f
acili
ty a
t rea
-so
ning
.
Ana
lyse
s C
once
rnin
g R
ole
of I
ncid
enta
l Lea
rnin
g
The
se a
naly
ses
indi
cate
d th
at in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
pro
fici
ency
was
the
best
pre
-di
ctor
of
mea
ning
ful a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng. V
erba
l ana
logi
es, v
erba
l kno
wl-
edge
, kno
wle
dge
of m
nem
onic
str
ateg
ies,
and
wor
king
mem
ory
each
con
trib
-ut
ed s
igni
fica
ntly
to th
e pr
edic
tion
equa
tion,
but
thei
r co
ntri
butio
ns w
ere
rela
tivel
y m
eage
r in
com
pari
son.
A s
econ
d se
t of
ques
tions
was
sug
gest
ed b
yth
ese
find
ings
. Fir
st, w
hat w
ould
the
regr
essi
on e
quat
ion
be li
ke w
ithou
t in-
cide
ntal
lear
ning
?Sec
ond,
wha
t com
bina
tion
of v
aria
bles
pre
dict
s in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
and
how
doe
s th
is 'e
quat
ion
diff
er f
rom
that
fou
nd f
or in
tent
iona
lle
arni
ng?
Whe
n in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
is e
xclu
ded
from
the
pred
icto
r se
t, th
e re
gres
-si
on c
oeff
icie
nts
(and
sem
ipar
tial c
orre
latio
ns)
for
verb
al k
now
ledg
e an
d ve
r-ba
l ana
logi
es s
how
an
appr
ecia
ble
incr
ease
in th
e pr
edic
tion
of T
WPA
TI
Can
d T
WPA
PC (
see
Tab
le 4
). T
he b
est p
redi
ctor
of
lear
ning
was
ver
bal a
nal-
ogy
perf
orm
ance
(V
AT
PC, s
r =
.183
for
TW
PAT
TC
, sr
= .1
60 f
orT
WPA
PC, p
< .0
01),
fol
low
ed b
y w
orki
ng m
emor
y (A
WM
PC, s
r =
.143
,
8..1
43, p
< .0
01).
The
con
trib
utio
ns o
f th
e st
rate
gy v
aria
bles
wer
e es
sent
ially
unch
ange
d fr
om th
e pr
evio
us a
naly
sis.
The
se w
ere
follo
wed
by
verb
al k
now
l-ed
ge (
sr =
.096
, .11
9, p
< .0
02),
and
by
LSA
CC
(sr
=.0
90, .
084,
p <
.006
).T
hese
res
ults
sug
gest
that
ver
bal k
now
ledg
e an
d ve
rbal
ana
logi
es w
ould
be th
e be
st p
redi
ctor
s of
inci
dent
al le
arni
ng, a
nd th
ese
pred
ictio
ns w
ere
sup-
:po
rted
by
the
regr
essi
on a
naly
sis
of in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
(se
e T
able
4).
The
re
ow
ere
only
fou
r si
gnif
ican
t pre
dict
ors
of in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
. Ver
bal a
nalo
gy
vso
lutio
n w
as th
e be
st p
redi
ctor
(sr
= .2
44, p
< .0
01),
fol
low
ed b
y ve
rbal
know
ledg
e (s
r =
.133
, p <
.001
). A
sec
ond
reas
onin
g sk
ill v
aria
ble,
ari
th-
9 r)
114
Gen
etic
. Soc
ial.
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
Tim
115
TA
BL
E 4
Reg
ress
ion
Ana
lyse
s of
IN
CI,
RN
and
of
Pair
ed-A
ssoc
iate
Lea
rnin
g E
xclu
ding
INC
I,R
N a
s a
Pred
icto
r
Pre
dict
or
TW
PA
PC
TW
PA
TT
CIN
CLR
N
13t
13r
13
VE
RS
ION
089
2.90
**08
42.
68**
nana
VK
N16
23.
90**
*13
03.
11 *
*17
94.
21**
*A
WM
ST
041
1.17
-042
1.19
062
1.71
AW
MP
C17
94.
68**
*17
8-4
.61*
**01
4.3
7
LSR
T05
41.
45-0
912.
42*
-047
1.22
LSA
CC
106
2.76
**11
22.
89 *
*04
21.
07
ME
CH
CO
MP
045
1.30
-025
.69
032
.87
AR
ITH
RE
S05
81.
54-0
471.
2310
42.
68**
*V
AT
RT
068
1.89
041
1.14
-010
-.27
VA
TP
C21
05.
21**
*-2
415.
91**
*32
07.
75**
*LS
QS
A07
21.
79-0
29.7
001
0.2
3
LSQ
DP
034
.81
087
2.06
*-0
54 -
1.27
RE
SA
CT
V02
5.7
903
21.
0206
62.
07*
GI (
INT
IMA
G)
130
3.61
***
122
3.34
***
nana
G2
(SE
M E
LAB
)12
63.
48**
*10
32.
82**
nana
GI X
VK
Nna
nana
nana
naG
2 X
VK
Nna
nana
nana
na
Fin
al s
tatis
tics
Rea
djus
ted
R.5
88/.5
75.5
76/.5
63.5
54/.5
43F
(k,
714
-k-1
)24
.54*
**23
.06*
**25
.81*
**
Not
e. D
ecim
als
have
bee
n om
itted
from
bet
a co
effic
ient
s. n
a in
dica
tes
that
a v
aria
ble
was
not
appl
icab
le (
not u
sed)
in a
giv
en e
quat
ion
Deg
rees
of f
reed
om c
an b
e co
mpu
ted
usin
g k
as th
enu
mbe
r of
pre
dict
ors
in e
quat
ion
'p <
05
"p01
p -
reas
onin
g, c
hipp
ed in
sig
nific
antly
(sr
=.0
84, p
< .0
1) a
s w
ell.
A.s
mal
l con
trib
utio
n w
as m
ade
by r
esid
ual a
ctiv
atio
n(s
r =
.065
, p <
.05)
.C
onsp
icuo
us in
its
abse
nce
was
wor
king
mem
ory,
who
se s
emip
artia
l cor
re-
latio
n w
as n
ot s
igni
fican
t(p
.50)
. The
se r
esul
ts a
re c
onsi
sten
t with
the
hypo
thes
is th
at in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
is la
rgel
y a
func
tion
of e
xist
ing
know
ledg
ean
d th
e ab
ility
to in
duce
rel
atio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
conc
epts
. The
atte
ntio
nal c
a-pa
city
var
iety
of w
orki
ng m
emor
y do
es n
ot a
ppea
r to
pla
y a
maj
or r
ole
in th
ein
cide
ntal
acq
uisi
tion
of n
ew a
ssoc
iatio
ns, t
houg
h ac
tivat
ion
capa
city
may
do
so.
Ana
lysi
s of
Exp
erim
enta
l Var
iabl
es
For
eac
h of
the
thre
e de
pend
ent v
aria
bles
, int
erac
tive
imag
ery
inst
ruct
ions
resu
lted
in s
light
ly b
ette
r le
arni
ng p
erfo
rman
ce th
an d
id s
eman
tic e
labo
ratio
n
24
(see
Tab
le 1
). H
owev
er, f
ollo
w-u
p t t
ests
indi
cate
d th
at th
ese
diffe
renc
es w
ere
not s
igni
fican
t for
the
two
full-
task
crit
eria
(t =
1.2
5 fo
r T
WP
AT
TC
, t =
.79
for
TW
PA
PC
,df
=72
6). T
he s
eman
tic e
labo
ratio
n ve
rsus
inte
ract
ive
imag
ery
cont
rast
was
sig
nific
ant o
nly
for
TW
PA
F8P
C (
1 =
2.2
1,p
<.0
3),
indi
catin
g a
smal
lbu
t rel
iabl
e ad
vant
age
for
inte
ract
ive
imag
ery
in th
e in
itial
enco
ding
of t
rigra
m-w
ord
pairs
.T
here
was
one
with
in-s
ubje
cts
trea
tmen
tva
riab
le, n
amel
y, th
e m
eani
ng-
fuln
ess
of th
e tr
igra
m s
timul
i. A
s ex
pect
ed, m
eani
ngfu
l stim
uli w
ere
easi
er to
lear
n, F
(1, 6
95)
= 3
59.7
2, s
r =
.360
,p <
.001
for
TW
PA
PC
, F(1
, 695
) =
324.
84, s
r =
.368
,p
<.0
01 fo
r T
WP
AT
TC
.M
eani
ngfu
lnes
s di
d no
t in-
tera
ct w
ith le
arni
ng m
ater
ials
, str
ateg
y tr
aini
ng, o
r w
ith a
ny c
ogni
tive
abili
tyfo
r ov
eral
l lea
rnin
g as
mea
sure
d by
the
two
mai
n de
pend
ent m
easu
res.
The
resu
lts f
or T
WPA
F8PC
wer
e es
sent
ially
the
sam
e; o
nly
a m
ain
effe
ct o
f m
ean-
ingf
ulne
ss w
as f
ound
, F(1
, 695
) =
179
.87,
sr
=.3
07,p
< .0
01.
Path
Mod
els
To
repr
esen
t and
test
the
syst
em o
f re
latio
nshi
ps e
xam
ined
her
e, a
pat
h an
al-
ysis
was
per
form
ed u
sing
the
EQ
S st
ruct
ural
equ
atio
ns p
rogr
am (
Ben
tler,
1985
). R
ecal
l acc
urac
y on
trig
ram
-wor
d pa
ired
-ass
ocia
te ta
sk w
as s
elec
ted
asth
e ul
timat
e de
pend
ent v
aria
ble.
The
exp
erim
enta
l var
iabl
es w
ere
excl
uded
from
this
ana
lysi
s le
avin
g on
ly th
e in
divi
dual
dif
fere
nces
var
iabl
es.5
Of
the
indi
vidu
al d
iffe
renc
es v
aria
bles
, onl
y th
ose
whi
ch h
ad d
emon
stra
ted
sign
ifi-
cant
uni
que
cont
ribu
tions
to th
e re
gres
sion
equ
atio
ns w
ere
reta
ined
for
furt
her
stud
y. O
ne a
dditi
onal
del
etio
n w
as a
rith
met
icre
ason
ing
(AR
ITH
RE
S).
Arit
h-m
etic
rea
soni
ng w
asex
clud
ed f
rom
this
ana
lysi
s be
caus
e no
cau
sal r
ole
had
been
hyp
othe
size
d fo
r th
is v
aria
ble
in th
e pr
evio
us r
egre
ssio
n m
odel
ing.
Ari
thm
etic
rea
soni
ng a
nd m
echa
nica
l com
preh
ensi
on h
ad b
een
incl
uded
inth
e pr
evio
us a
naly
ses
to p
rovi
de e
vide
nce
that
som
ethi
ng u
niqu
e to
ver
bal
anal
ogy
solu
tion
was
pre
dict
ive
of a
ccre
tive
lear
ning
and
not
sim
ply
a ge
neric
reas
onin
g ab
ility
.C
ausa
l mod
elin
g re
quire
s th
e an
alys
t to
spec
ify c
ausa
l hyp
othe
ses
apr
iori
in te
rms
of s
truc
tura
l equ
atio
ns. T
he p
roce
ss b
egin
s by
deci
ding
whi
chva
riab
les
are
depe
nden
t (en
doge
nous
) an
d w
hich
are
inde
pend
ent (
exog
e-no
us).
Ini
tially
, thr
ee v
aria
bles
wer
e co
nsid
ered
as
inde
pend
ent v
aria
bles
inth
e B
entle
r (1
985)
sen
se: v
erba
l kno
wle
dge
(VK
N),
wor
king
mem
ory
capa
c-ity
(A
WM
PC),
and
res
idua
l act
ivat
ion
(RE
SAC
TV
). I
ndep
ende
nt v
aria
bles
are
assu
med
to c
ovar
y w
ithou
t cau
sal r
elat
ions
hip.
Thi
s le
ft v
erba
l ana
logy
'G I
and
02, t
he b
inar
y ve
ctor
s co
ding
str
ateg
y tr
eatm
ent g
roup
can
be
excl
uded
from
this
ana
lysi
s be
caus
e th
ey w
ere
unco
rrel
ated
with
the
indi
vidu
al d
iffer
ence
sva
riabl
es. T
he o
nly
effe
ct o
f the
ir ex
clus
ion
is a
som
ewha
t sm
alle
r m
ultip
le R
for
the
crite
rion.
r
H6
Gen
etic
. Soc
ial.
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
solu
tion
and
LSA
CC
as
depe
nden
t var
iabl
es fo
r w
hich
hyp
othe
ses
had
to b
ege
nera
ted.
In th
is p
artic
ular
Cas
e, s
ome
hypo
thes
es w
ere
avai
labl
e as
the
re-
sult
of th
e re
gres
sion
mod
els
repo
rted
ear
lier
for
TW
PA
PC
and
INC
LRN
.H
ypot
hese
s w
ere
avai
labl
e fo
r ve
rbal
ana
logy
sol
utio
n fr
om r
esea
rch
cond
ucte
d by
Tirr
e (1
983)
. Acc
ordi
ng to
the
theo
ry d
evel
oped
in th
is e
arlie
rw
ork,
ver
bal a
nalo
gy s
olut
ion
reqU
ires
know
ledg
e of
wor
d m
eani
ngs
(VK
N),
care
fuln
ess
in p
roce
ssin
g se
man
tic in
form
atio
n (L
SA
CC
), a
nd s
uffic
ient
wor
king
mem
ory
(AW
MP
C)
to e
xecu
te th
e pr
oces
sing
ste
ps w
hile
mai
ntai
n-in
g ac
tivat
ion
of s
eman
tic in
form
atio
n an
d in
term
edia
te p
rodu
cts
of th
e so
lu-
tion
proc
ess.
Hyp
othe
ses
wer
e so
mew
hat m
ore
diffi
cult
to s
peci
fy fo
r LS
AC
C. E
rror
sm
ay r
esul
t bec
ause
of l
apse
s in
atte
ntio
n. T
hus,
stu
dent
s w
ith le
ss a
ttent
iona
l(o
r w
orki
ng m
emor
y) c
apac
ity m
ight
be
expe
cted
to m
ake
mor
e er
rors
. An-
othe
r po
ssib
ility
is th
at s
tude
nts
with
ver
y lo
w le
vels
of v
erba
l kno
wle
dge
(VK
N)
mak
e m
ore
erro
rs b
ecau
se th
ey d
o no
t rec
ogni
ze c
erta
in w
ords
ap-
pear
ing
in te
st tr
ials
. The
se h
ypot
hese
s co
mpr
ise
Mod
el A
, rep
rese
nted
inF
igur
e 1.
Thr
ee a
dditi
onal
mod
els
mig
ht b
e pr
opos
ed. P
ath
Mod
el B
(se
e F
igur
e2)
is th
e sa
me
as p
ath
Mod
el A
exc
ept t
hat L
SA
CC
is h
ypot
hesi
zed
as a
dete
rmin
ant o
f VK
N. T
his
hypo
thes
is s
tate
s th
at p
eopl
e w
ho c
aref
ully
pro
cess
lexi
cal a
nd s
eman
tic in
form
atio
n ac
quire
mor
e ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
than
thos
ew
ho p
roce
ss s
uch
info
rmat
ion
less
car
eful
ly. T
he th
ird p
ath
mod
el (
C, s
eeF
igur
e 3)
. is
an e
labo
ratio
n of
Mod
el B
that
hyp
othe
size
s a
caus
al r
ole
for
wor
king
mem
ory
(AW
MP
C)
in a
dditi
on to
LS
AC
C in
det
erm
inin
g ho
w m
uch
verb
al k
now
ledg
e pe
ople
acq
uire
. The
four
th a
nd fi
nal m
odel
(D
, Fig
ure
4)as
sum
es th
at L
SA
CC
is n
ot d
eter
min
ed b
y an
y va
riabl
e in
the
syst
em b
utco
varic
s w
ith v
erba
l kno
wle
dge,
wor
king
mem
ory,
and
res
idua
l act
ivat
ion.
The
res
ults
of t
he a
naly
ses
corr
espo
ndin
g to
Mod
els
A, B
, C, a
nd D
are
pres
ente
d in
Fig
ures
I. 2
, 3, a
nd 4
, res
pect
ivel
y. A
s it
turn
s ou
t, tw
o of
the
mod
els
prov
ided
a g
ood
degr
ee o
f fit
to th
e da
ta, a
nd tw
o m
odel
s ca
n be
reje
cted
bec
ause
of s
igni
fican
t res
idua
l cor
rela
tions
. Mod
els
B a
nd C
bot
hre
sulte
d in
sig
nific
ant c
hi-s
quar
ed v
alue
s (x
2 =
29.
9, p
= .0
01; x
2 =
14.
85,
p =
.037
9, r
espe
ctiv
ely)
and
so
may
be
reje
cted
. In
cont
rast
, Mod
els
A a
ndD
bot
h re
sulte
d in
non
sign
ifica
nt c
hi-s
quar
ed v
alue
s (x
2 =
6.1
1, p
= 2
95;
X' =
5.9
6, p
= .2
021
, res
pect
ivel
y).
The
oth
er g
oodn
ess-
of-f
it in
dice
s ar
ehi
ghly
com
para
ble
as w
ell,
leav
ing
no s
tatis
tical
bas
is fo
r ch
oosi
ng b
etw
een
Mod
els
A a
nd D
. Sin
ce th
e on
ly w
ay in
whi
ch th
ese
mod
els
diffe
r is
in th
eir
trea
tmen
t of L
SA
CC
. the
re is
the
cons
olat
ion
that
the
caus
al r
elat
ions
hips
shar
ed b
y th
e tw
o m
odel
s ar
e co
nsis
tent
with
the
data
.
Dis
cuss
ion
As
a w
hole
, the
res
ults
of t
his
stud
y su
gges
t tha
t a s
ubst
antia
l am
ount
(ap
-pr
oxim
atel
y 68
%)
of th
e sy
stem
atic
var
ianc
e in
pai
red-
asso
ciat
es le
arni
ng c
an
Tim
117
rs, N N 0
0 te;
7 OZ
Ln
N.
C1
NN
CO
0 co 1-4
0 0 N
CO N 0
rn M N
0 N
2E
'?G
BE
ST C
OPY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
0 P
""
VKN
(.144/4.00)
(.498/14.92) -0 (.231/6.64)
LSACC V (.092/2.52)R = .365(.204/5.70) IN
RESIDACTV
(.365/10.50)8.V
AWMPC(.247/7.40)
"1(.283/7.71)
(.088/2.80)1
VATPCR = .567
INCLRNR=.533
(.386/11.09)
TWPAPCR=.609
(.317/9.15) A
(.106/2.78)
(.183/5.53)
FIGURE 2. Path Model B, depicting relationships among cognitive variables. Numbers in parentheses indicatebeta coefficient/z statistic. Not shown is correlation among independent variables: r(RESID ACTV, AWMMPC)= .097.
(.144/4.00)
VKNR=.498
-Pi (.231/6.64)
I (.092/2.52)-al (.447/2.47)
2°-(.204/5.70)(.139/3.89)
LSACCR=.365
(.283/7.71)RESIDACTV
INCIRNR=.533
TWPAPCR=.609
(.247/7.40)
(.088/2.80)1
(.386/11.09)
(.317/9.15)
(.365/10.50)P- VATPCR= 567
1 (.106/2.78)
AWMPCI (.183/5.53)
0-
FIGURE 3. Path Model C, depicting relationships among cognitive variables. Numbers in parentheses indicatebeta coefficknth statistic. Not shown is correlation among independent variables: r(RESID ACTV, AWMPC) =
.097.
I211
Ger
tetu
.Soc
ial.(
mW
erle
ralP
sych
olog
ylgo
rlogr
apts
7 0
7
7rn
U 7II
tr
Tim
e12
1
be a
ccou
nted
for
by th
e kn
owle
dge
and
cogn
itive
abi
lity
cons
truc
ts s
ugge
sted
by th
e K
yllo
nen
and
Chr
ista
l (19
88)
fram
ewor
k. T
he fo
llow
ing
abili
ties
Are
sugg
este
d as
pos
sibl
e de
term
inan
ts o
f suc
cess
in a
cqui
ring
mea
ning
ful a
sso-
ciat
ions
: ver
bal k
now
ledg
e, s
trat
egic
kno
wle
dge,
wor
king
mem
ory,
sem
antic
infe
renc
e as
ref
lect
ed in
ana
logi
cal r
easo
ning
, inc
iden
tal l
earn
ing
prof
icie
ncy,
and
lexi
cal/s
eman
tic in
form
atio
n pr
oces
sing
abi
lity
refle
cted
in e
ither
acc
u-ra
cy o
r sp
eed.
The
re w
ere
a fe
w u
nexp
ecte
d re
sults
.F
irst o
f all,
onl
y w
ith th
eT
WP
AF
8PC
(in
itial
eig
ht tr
ials
) le
arni
ng c
riter
ion
wer
e th
e K
yllo
nen
et a
l.(1
989)
str
ateg
y ef
fect
s re
plic
ated
. In
the
Kyl
lone
n et
al.
stud
y, s
trat
egy
inte
r-ac
ted
with
ver
bal k
now
ledg
e so
that
stu
dent
s w
ith m
ore
know
ledg
e ap
pear
edto
ben
efit
mor
e fr
om m
nem
onic
inst
ruct
ions
than
did
stu
dent
s w
ith le
sskn
owle
dge,
thou
gh a
ll su
bjec
ts b
enef
itted
som
e. In
the
pres
ent s
tudy
, thi
sef
fect
was
obt
aine
d on
ly fo
r th
e fir
st e
ight
tria
ls le
arni
ng c
riter
ion
and
was
stro
nger
for
the
sem
antic
ela
bora
tion
stra
tegy
set
. In
the
Kyl
lone
n et
al.
pro-
cedu
re, s
ubje
cts
stud
ied
a lis
t of 1
0 w
ord
pairs
for
a fix
ed p
erio
d of
tim
e,re
spon
ded
to a
type
of c
ued-
reca
ll te
st, a
nd th
en m
oved
on
to a
new
list
. The
first
eig
ht tr
ials
of t
he p
rese
nt s
tudy
's p
roce
dure
wer
e id
entic
al in
ope
ratio
n.O
ne in
terp
reta
tion
of th
ese
findi
ngs
is th
at fo
r yo
ung
adul
ts, s
tude
nts
with
mor
e ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
bene
fit s
oone
r fr
om in
stru
ctio
ns to
use
ela
bora
-tio
n st
rate
gies
than
stu
dent
s w
ith le
ss v
erba
l kno
wle
dge.
Eve
ntua
lly s
tude
nts
at e
ach
poin
t alo
ng th
e ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge
cont
inuu
m b
enef
it fr
om m
nem
onic
inst
ruct
ion,
sug
gest
ing
that
the
less
-kno
wle
dgea
ble
stud
ents
are
lear
ning
tole
arn,
that
is, l
earn
ing
how
to a
pply
the
new
str
ateg
y w
ith p
ract
ice.
Alth
ough
inte
ract
ive
imag
ery
and
sem
antic
ela
bora
tion
inst
ruct
iona
l set
sw
ere
not d
istin
guis
habl
e in
term
s of
inte
ract
ions
with
cog
nitiv
e ab
ility
var
i-ab
les,
this
issu
e de
serv
es fu
rthe
r at
tent
ion
beca
use
vivi
dnes
s of
imag
ery
and
spat
ial-v
isua
lizat
ion
test
s w
ere
not i
nclu
ded
in th
e pr
edic
tor
set.
Inte
rest
ingl
y,ho
wev
er, m
echa
nica
l com
preh
ensi
on s
kill,
whi
ch h
as a
vis
ualiz
atio
n co
mpo
-ne
nt, d
id n
ot in
tera
ct s
igni
fican
tly w
ith in
tera
ctiv
e im
ager
y in
stru
ctio
ns.
A s
econ
d su
rpris
e w
as th
at le
xica
l/sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
spee
d w
as g
en-
eral
ly le
ss p
redi
ctiv
e of
lear
ning
than
lexi
cal/s
eman
tic p
roce
ssin
g ac
cura
cy.
Tes
ts in
this
cat
egor
y w
ere
desi
gned
to b
e re
lativ
ely
easy
for
high
sch
ool
grad
uate
s; e
rror
s w
ere
prob
ably
mor
e of
ten
the
resu
lt of
car
eles
s m
ista
kes
than
of k
now
ledg
e de
ficits
. Thi
s fin
ding
may
sug
gest
that
car
eful
ness
in p
ro-
cess
ing
info
rmat
ion
mig
ht b
e m
ore
impo
rtan
t tha
n sp
eed
whe
n at
tem
ptin
g to
lear
n ne
w a
ssoc
iatio
ns. H
owev
er, p
roce
ssin
g sp
eed
(mea
sure
d he
re a
s re
-sp
onse
tim
e) w
as p
redi
ctiv
e of
tria
ls-t
o-cr
iterio
n; s
o th
e im
port
ance
of p
ro-
cess
ing
spee
d sh
ould
not
yet
be
disc
ount
ed.
The
mos
t int
eres
ting
findi
ngs
of th
e cu
rren
t stu
dy in
volv
e th
e ro
le o
fin
cide
ntal
lear
ning
pro
ficie
ncy
and
sem
antic
infe
renc
e (a
s m
easu
red
by v
erba
lan
alog
ies)
in p
aire
d-as
soci
ates
lear
ning
. The
inci
dent
al le
arni
ng ta
sks
used
inth
is s
tudy
wer
e de
sign
ed to
ref
lect
the
abili
ty to
rec
all s
eman
tic c
orre
late
s
30
122
Gen
etic
. Soc
ial,
and
Gen
eral
Psy
chol
ogy
Mon
ogra
phs
afte
r pr
oces
sing
wor
d pa
irs in
a d
eep,
sem
antic
man
ner
with
no
cons
ciou
sef
fort
to m
emor
ize
them
. Inc
iden
tal r
ecal
l pro
ved
to b
e th
e be
st p
redi
ctor
of
inte
ntio
nal p
aire
d-as
soci
ates
lear
ning
, with
ver
bal a
nalo
gies
clo
se b
ehin
d in
pred
ictiv
enes
s. W
hen
inci
dent
al r
ecal
l was
rem
oved
from
the
pred
icto
r se
t,ve
rbal
ana
logy
sol
utio
n be
cam
e th
e he
st p
redi
ctor
, fol
low
ed b
y w
orki
ng m
em-
ory.
Whe
n in
cide
ntal
rec
all w
as u
sed
as th
e de
pend
ent v
aria
ble,
ver
bal a
nal-
ogy
solu
tion
emer
ged
as th
e be
st p
redi
ctor
, fol
low
ed b
y ve
rbal
kno
wle
dge.
Wor
king
mem
ory
did
not c
ontr
ibut
e di
rect
ly to
the
pred
ictio
n of
inci
dent
alle
arni
ng, s
ugge
stin
g th
at in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
is la
rgel
y an
aut
omat
ic c
onse
-qu
ence
of h
avin
g ac
tivat
ed s
eman
tic r
elat
ions
.T
hese
find
ings
are
gen
eral
ly c
onsi
sten
t with
the
theo
ries
of B
jork
lund
(198
7), K
yllo
nen
et a
l. (1
989)
. and
Roh
wer
(19
80),
but
sug
gest
a s
light
ela
b-or
atio
n. P
aire
d-as
soci
ate
lear
ning
may
hav
e tw
o m
ajor
pro
cess
ing
com
po-
nent
s, o
ne a
utom
atic
and
one
con
trol
led.
The
dat
a su
gges
t tha
t a s
ubst
antia
lpa
rt o
f int
entio
nal a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arni
ng o
ccur
s au
tom
atic
ally
as
a co
nseq
uenc
eof
the
activ
atio
n of
sem
antic
rel
atio
ns in
mem
ory.
Sub
ject
s w
ith m
ore
verb
alkn
owle
dge
shou
ld b
e ex
pect
ed to
est
ablis
h ne
w a
ssoc
iatio
ns m
ore
easi
lybe
caus
e th
ey a
re m
ore
likel
y to
hav
e si
mila
r re
latio
ns a
lread
y en
code
d in
sem
antic
mem
ory.
Wor
king
mem
ory
capa
city
doe
s no
t app
ear
to p
lay
adi
rect
rol
e in
this
type
of p
roce
ssin
g, th
ough
ther
e is
a p
ossi
bilit
y th
at a
cti-
vatio
n ca
paci
ty a
s de
fined
by
Wol
tz (
1988
) is
invo
lved
, giv
en it
s si
gnifi
cant
uniq
ue c
ontr
ibut
ion
to th
e pr
edic
tion
of in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
in th
e pr
esen
tst
udy. T
he c
ontr
olle
d pr
oces
sing
com
pone
nt in
volv
es th
e co
nsci
ous
act o
f con
-st
ruct
ing
mea
ning
ful a
nd m
emor
able
con
nect
ions
bet
wee
n st
imul
i. T
his
issi
mila
r to
the
proc
essi
ng th
at o
ccur
s in
the
verb
al a
nalo
gy s
olut
ion;
that
is,
sem
antic
ela
bora
tion
and
sem
antic
infe
renc
e bo
th in
volv
e re
latio
n co
nstr
uc-
tion.
In fa
ct, o
ne m
ight
sus
pect
that
the
prim
ary
reas
on in
cide
ntal
lear
ning
isbe
tter
than
the
verb
al a
nalo
gy s
olut
ion
as a
pre
dict
or o
f mea
ning
ful a
ssoc
ia-
tive
lear
ning
is th
at th
e fo
rmer
task
sha
res
a cu
ed-r
ecal
l req
uire
men
t with
the
crite
rion.
Wor
king
mem
ory
capa
city
, mor
e sp
ecifi
cally
the
varie
ty d
escr
ibed
as a
ttent
iona
l cap
acity
by
Wol
tz (
1988
), a
ppea
rs to
be
invo
lved
in th
is ty
pe o
fpr
oces
sing
.S
ever
al q
uest
ions
rem
ain
to h
e in
vest
igat
ed m
ore
fully
. Am
ong
thes
e ar
eth
e ro
les
of le
xica
l/sem
antic
pro
cess
ing
spee
d an
d ac
cura
cy in
pai
red-
asso
ciat
e le
arni
ng, t
he r
ole
of m
nem
onic
kno
wle
dge
and
its in
tera
ctio
n w
ithve
rbal
kno
wle
dge.
and
the
role
of s
elf-
know
ledg
e co
ncer
ning
one
's le
arni
ngab
ilitie
s. A
lthou
gh s
ever
al is
sues
aw
ait f
urth
er in
vest
igat
ion,
this
stu
dy s
how
sth
at s
ucce
ss in
pai
red-
asso
ciat
es le
arni
ng c
an b
e pr
edic
ted
with
fair
prec
isio
nby
mea
sure
s of
ver
bal k
now
ledg
e an
d co
gniti
ve a
bilit
ies.
App
roxi
mat
ely
68%
of th
e sy
stem
atic
var
ianc
e in
sim
ple
lear
ning
by
accr
etio
n w
as e
xpla
inab
le b
yth
e co
gniti
ve v
aria
bles
sel
ecte
d, le
avin
g 32
% o
f the
var
ianc
e as
pot
entia
llyun
ique
to th
is fo
rm o
f lea
rnin
g. T
his
obse
rvat
ion
is c
onsi
sten
t with
the
fact
31B
ES
T C
OP
Y A
VA
ILA
BLE
Tin
e12
.
that
ass
ocia
tive
mem
ory
emer
ges
as a
sep
arat
e fa
ctor
in fa
ctor
ana
lyse
s o'
fairl
y hi
gh-le
vel c
ogni
tive
abili
ty te
sts
(e.g
., T
hurs
ton,
193
8).
The
pre
sent
stu
dy d
emon
stra
ted
that
the
Kyl
lone
n an
d C
hris
tal (
1988
fram
ewor
k is
a u
sefu
l heu
ristic
for
stud
ies
of in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
in le
arn-
ing.
Its
usef
ulne
ss m
ight
pro
ve to
be
even
gre
ater
in s
peci
fyin
g pr
edic
tors
foi
mor
e co
mpl
ex ty
pes
of le
arni
ng, e
.g.,
acqu
isiti
on o
f com
pute
r pr
ogra
mm
ing
skill
s, w
hich
pro
babl
y in
clud
e si
mpl
e ac
cret
ive
lear
ning
as
one
of s
ever
a.co
mpo
nent
s. L
AM
P r
esea
rch
is c
urre
ntly
con
cern
ed w
ith th
e st
udy
of in
di-
vidu
al d
iffer
ence
s in
com
plex
ski
ll ac
quis
ition
, and
has
targ
eted
sev
eral
ski
llsre
leva
nt to
the
Air
For
ce fo
r in
vest
igat
ion.
RE
FE
RE
NC
ES
Ach
enba
ch, T
. M. (
1970
). T
he C
AR
T: A
pos
sibl
e al
tern
ativ
e to
gro
up IQ
test
s.Jo
urna
l of E
duca
tiona
l Psy
chol
ogy,
61,
340
-348
.A
lliso
n, R
. B. (
1960
). L
earn
ing
para
met
ers
and
hum
an a
bilit
ies.
Prin
ceto
n, N
J:E
duca
tiona
l Tes
ting
Ser
vice
.A
nder
son,
J. R
. (19
83).
The
arc
hite
ctur
e of
cog
nitio
n. C
ambr
idge
, MA
: Har
vard
,U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss.
Arc
her,
J. E
. (19
60).
A r
e-ev
alua
tion
of th
e m
eani
ngfu
lnes
s of
all
poss
ible
CV
Ctr
igra
ms.
Psy
chol
ogic
al M
onog
raph
s, 7
4, (
10, W
hole
No.
497
).B
adde
ley,
A. D
. (19
68).
A th
ree-
min
ute
reas
onin
g te
st b
ased
on
gram
mat
ical
tran
s-fo
rmat
ion.
Psy
chon
omic
Sci
ence
, 10,
341
-342
.B
adde
ley,
A. D
. (19
83).
Wor
king
mem
ory,
Phi
loso
phic
al tr
ansa
ctio
ns o
f the
Roy
alS
ocie
ty o
f Lon
don,
Ser
ies
B (
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces)
, 302
, 311
-324
.B
adde
ley,
A. D
., &
Hitc
h, G
. (19
74).
Wor
king
mem
ory.
In G
. H. B
ower
(E
d.).
Psy
chol
ogy
of le
arni
ng a
nd m
otiv
atio
n, (
Vol
. 8, p
p. 4
7-89
). N
ew Y
ork:
Aca
dem
icP
ress
Bad
dele
y, A
. D.,
Pap
agno
, C.,
& V
alla
r, G
. (19
88).
Whe
n lo
ng-t
erm
lear
ning
de-
pend
s on
sho
rt-t
erm
sto
rage
. Jou
rnal
of M
emor
y an
d La
ngua
ge, 2
7,58
6-59
5.B
aker
, L.,
& B
row
n, A
. L. (
1984
). M
etac
ogni
tive
skill
s an
d re
adin
g. In
P. D
. Pea
r-so
n (E
d.),
Han
dboo
k of
rea
ding
res
earc
h (p
p. 3
53-3
94).
New
Yor
k: L
ongm
an.
Ben
tler,
P. M
. (19
85).
The
ory
and
impl
emen
tatio
n of
EQ
S: A
str
uctu
ral e
quat
ions
prog
ram
. Los
Ang
eles
, CA
: BM
DP
Sta
tistic
al S
oftw
are.
Bjo
rklu
nd, D
. F. (
1987
). H
ow a
ge c
hang
es in
kno
wle
dge
base
con
trib
ute
to th
e de
-ve
lopm
ent o
f chi
ldre
n's
mem
ory:
An
inte
rpre
tativ
e re
view
. Dev
elop
men
tal R
evie
w,
7, 9
3-13
0.B
row
n, A
. L.,
& D
eLoa
che,
J. S
. (19
78).
Ski
lls, p
lans
, and
sel
f-re
gula
tion.
In R
.S
iegl
er (
Ed.
). C
hild
ren'
s th
inki
ng: W
hat d
evel
ops
(pp.
3-3
5). H
illsd
ale,
Ni:
Erl-
baum
.C
amp,
C. J
., M
arkl
ey, R
. P.,
& K
ram
er, J
. J. (
1983
). N
aive
mne
mon
ics:
Wha
t the
"do-
noth
ing"
con
trol
gro
up d
oes.
Am
eric
an J
ourn
al o
f Psy
chol
ogy,
96,
503
-512
.C
ard,
S. K
., M
oran
, T. P
., &
New
ell,
A. (
1986
). T
he m
odel
hum
an p
roce
ssor
: An
engi
neer
ing
mod
el o
f hum
an p
erfo
rman
ce (
45-1
to 4
5-35
). In
K. R
. Bof
f, L.
Kau
fman
, & J
. P. T
hom
as (
Eds
.), H
andb
ook
of p
erce
ptio
n an
d hu
man
per
form
-an
ce. N
ew Y
ork:
Wile
y.C
arro
ll, J
. B. (
1962
). T
he p
redi
ctio
n of
suc
cess
in in
tens
ive
fore
ign
lang
uage
trai
n-in
g. In
R. G
lase
r (E
d.),
Tra
inin
g re
sear
ch a
nd e
valu
atio
n (p
p. 8
7-13
6). P
itts-
burg
h, P
A: U
nive
rsity
of P
ittsb
urgh
Pre
ss. 3t
124
Gen
etic
, Ser
ial.
and
Gen
eral
Psv
ehol
ogM
onog
raph
s
Cha
ffin,
R.,
& H
emna
nn, D
. J. (
1984
). T
hesi
mila
rity
and
dive
rsity
of s
eman
ticre
latio
ns. M
emor
y an
d C
ogni
tion,
12,
134
-14
1.C
haffi
n. R
., &
Her
rman
n, D
. J. (
1987
).R
elat
ion
elem
ent t
heor
y: A
new
acc
ount
of
repr
esen
tatio
n an
d pr
oces
sing
of s
eman
ticre
latio
ns. I
n D
. S. O
orfe
in &
R. R
.H
offm
an (
Eds
.), M
emor
y an
d le
arni
ng: T
heE
hhin
ghau
s C
ente
nnia
l Con
fere
nce
(pp.
221
-246
). H
ilsda
le, N
J: E
rlhau
m.
Coh
en, J
., &
Coh
en, P
. (19
75).
App
lied
mul
tiple
cor
rela
tionl
reg
ress
ion
anal
ysis
for
the
beha
vior
al s
cien
ces.
Hill
sdal
e, N
J: E
rlbau
m.
Cra
ik, F
. I. M
., &
Loc
khar
t, R
. S. (
1972
).Le
vels
of p
roce
ssin
g: A
fram
ewor
k fo
rm
emor
y re
sear
ch. J
ourn
al o
fVer
bal L
earn
ing
and
Ver
bal B
ehav
ior,
1 1
, 67
1-68
4.
Cra
ik, F
. I. M
., &
Tul
ving
, E. (
1975
). D
epth
of p
roce
ssin
g an
d re
tent
ion
of w
ords
in e
piso
dic
mem
ory.
Jou
rnal
of E
xper
imen
tal
Psy
chol
ogy:
Gen
eral
, 104
. 268
-
294.
Cro
nbac
h, L
. J.,
& S
now
, R. E
. (19
77).
Apt
itude
s an
din
stru
ctio
nal m
etho
ds: H
and-
book
for
rese
arch
on
inte
ract
ions
. New
Yor
k:Ir
ving
ton.
Dan
eman
, M.,
& C
arpe
nter
, P. A
. (19
80).
Indi
vidu
al d
iffer
ence
s in
wor
king
mem
-
ory
and
read
ing.
Jou
rnal
ofV
erba
l Lea
rnin
g an
d V
erba
l Beh
avio
r, 1
9, 4
50-4
66.
Dan
eman
, M.,
& G
reen
, I. (
1986
). In
divi
dual
diffe
renc
es in
com
preh
endi
ng a
ndpr
oduc
ing
wor
ds in
con
text
. Jou
rnal
of M
emor
y an
dLa
ngua
ge, 2
5, 1
-18.
Dep
artm
ent o
f Def
ense
. (19
85).
Tec
hnic
al s
uppl
emen
t to
the
coun
selo
r's m
anua
l for
the
Arm
ed S
ervi
ces
Voc
atio
nal A
ptitu
de B
atte
ryF
orm
-14
. Nor
th C
hica
go, I
L: U
.S.
Mili
tary
Ent
ranc
e P
roce
ssin
g C
omm
and.
Frie
ndly
. M.,
Fra
nklin
, P. E
., H
offm
an, D
., &
Rub
in, D
. C. (
1982
). T
he T
oron
toW
ord
Poo
l: N
orm
s fo
r im
ager
y. c
oncr
eten
ess,
orth
ogra
phic
var
iabl
es, a
nd g
ram
-m
atic
al u
sage
for
1080
wor
ds. B
ehav
ior
Res
earc
hM
etho
ds &
Inst
rum
enta
tion,
14. 3
75-3
99.
Hol
zman
, T. G
., P
elle
grin
o. J
. W.,
& G
lase
r,. R
.(1
982)
. Cog
nitiv
e di
men
sion
s of
num
eric
al r
ule
indu
ctio
n. J
ourn
al o
f Edu
catio
nalP
sych
olog
y, 7
4, 3
63-3
74.
Hol
zman
, T. G
., P
elle
grin
o. J
. W..
& G
lase
r, R
.(1
983)
. Cog
nitiv
e va
riabl
es in
se-
ries
com
plet
ion.
Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tiona
l Psy
chol
ogy,
75, 6
03-6
18.
Hum
phre
ys, L
. G. (
197
6). A
fact
or m
odel
for
rese
arch
on
inte
llige
nce
and
prob
lem
solv
ing.
In L
. B. R
esni
ck (
Ed.
), T
he n
atur
e of
inte
llige
nce
(pp.
329
-339
). H
ills-
dale
. NJ:
Erlh
aum
.H
unda
l, P
. S.,
& H
orn.
J. L
. (19
77).
On
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
shor
t-te
rm le
arn-
ing
and
fluid
and
cry
stal
lized
inte
llige
nce.
App
lied
Psy
chol
ogic
al M
easu
rem
ent,
1. 1
1-21
.H
utte
nloc
her,
J. (
1968
). C
onst
ruct
ing
spat
ial i
mag
es:
A s
trat
egy
in r
easo
ning
. Psy
-ch
olog
ical
Rev
iew
, 75.
550
- -
560.
Kyl
lone
n, P
. C..
& C
hris
tal.
R. E
. (19
88, F
ebru
ary)
.C
ogni
tive
mod
elin
g of
lear
n-
ing
abili
ties.
A s
tatu
s re
port
of L
AM
P(A
FH
RL-
TP
- 87
-66
, AD
-A19
0 67
1).
Bro
oks
AF
T, T
X: M
anpo
wer
and
Per
sonn
elD
ivis
ion,
Air
For
ce H
uman
Re-
sour
ces
Labo
rato
ry.
Kyl
lone
n, P
. C.,
& T
irre,
W. C
. (19
88).
indi
vidu
aldi
ffere
nces
in a
ssoc
iativ
e le
arn-
ing
and
forg
ettin
g. In
telli
genc
e, 1
2, 3
93-4
22.
Kyl
lone
n, P
. C.,
Tirr
e, W
. C.,
& C
hris
tal.
R. E
.(1
989,
Apr
il). K
now
ledg
e an
dpr
oces
sing
spe
ed a
s de
term
inan
ts o
f ass
ocia
tive
lear
ning
. (A
FH
RL
TP
-87-
68,
AD
-A20
7 10
6). B
rook
s A
FB
, TX
: Man
pow
er a
ndP
erso
nnel
Div
isio
n, A
ir F
orce
Hum
an R
esou
rces
Lab
orat
ory.
Labo
uvie
-Vie
t, G
., Le
vin,
J. R
., H
urlb
ut, N
. L.,
&U
rber
g, K
. A. (
1977
). In
pur
-
suit
of th
e el
usiv
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n se
lect
edco
gniti
ve a
bilit
ies
and
lear
ning
.C
onte
mpo
rary
Edu
catio
nal P
sych
olog
y. 3
, 239
-250
.
'43
Tirr
e12
5
Lars
on, G
. E.,
Mer
ritt.
C. R
., &
Will
iam
s, S
. E. (
1988
). In
form
atio
n pr
oces
sing
and
inte
llige
nce:
Som
e im
plic
atio
nsof
task
com
plex
ity. I
ntel
ligen
ce, 1
2, 1
31-
148.
Mas
son,
M. E
. J.,
& M
iller
, J. A
. (19
83).
Wor
king
mem
ory
and
indi
vidu
al d
iffer
-
ence
s in
com
preh
ensi
on a
nd m
emor
yof
text
. Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tiona
lPsy
chol
ogy,
75, 3
14-3
18.
Ols
on, R
. K.,
Klie
g!, R
., D
avid
son,
B.
J., &
Fol
tz, G
. (19
85).
Indi
vidu
alan
d de
-
velo
pmen
tal d
iffer
ence
s in
rea
ding
dis
abili
ty.
In G
. E. M
acK
inno
n &
T. G
. Wal
ler
(Eds
.), R
eadi
ng r
esea
rch:
Adv
ance
s in
theo
ry a
nd p
ract
ice
(Vol
. 4, p
p. 1
-64)
.
Orla
ndo,
FL:
Aca
dem
ic P
ress
.P
ress
ley,
M.,
Levi
n, J
. R.,
& D
elan
ey,
H. D
. (19
82).
The
mne
mon
ic k
eyw
ord
met
hod.
Rev
iew
of E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h,52
, 61-
92.
Ree
, M. J
., M
ullin
s, C
. J.,
Mat
hew
s, J
.J.
, & M
asse
y, R
. H. (
1982
).A
rmed
Ser
-
vice
s V
ocat
iona
l Apt
itude
Bat
tery
: Ite
man
d fa
ctor
ana
lyse
s of
For
ms
8, 9
,and
10
(AF
HR
L-T
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