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ABSTRACT
DOCUMENT RESUME
RE 003 891
The Newspaper in the Classroom: Teaching Aids for
Secondary Schools/ Social Science.Copley Newspapers, San Diego, Calif. Dept. ofEducation.71126p.Copley Newspapers, Department of Education, SchoolPrograms Division, 940 Third Avenue, San Diego, Cal.
92112 ($3.00)
MF-$0.65 HC-$6.58Current Events; *Instructional Aids..; *InstructionalMaterials; Maps; News Media; *Newspapers; ReadingMaterials; *Secondary Trrades; *Social Studies; Social
Studies Units; Teaching Guides; World Affairs
This teaching kit includes two booklets, "Your
Newspaper: An Exciting World at Your Fingertips" and "Teaching Aids
for the social Sciences." Several maps, a list of Copley films and
filmstrips and order blanks, and a selection of current news service
reports which are updated periodically. These materials are all
designed to encourage the use of newspapers in the secondary social
studies classroom. Suggestions are made as to how newspapers can be
resource materials for social studies teachers and students. The
importance of newspapers in reporting historical, political, and
economic events is discussed. Approaches and activities utilizing
newspapers are suggested, and listings for sources of materials
related to newspapers are included. (AI)
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7. E. .,L) OROANIZA F NS ORLFUNUEF ,OREEMENTS WIT THE US Oh A:LOE EDUCATION FURTHER REPRODUCI IONOUTSJDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PER
FSSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER
Dear Soc:al Sciences Teacher:prN.CO Here is the 1971-72 Copley Department of Education
Ur%Newspaper in the Classroom kit developed especially for the social
sciences teacher. Key to the program is the up-to-the-minute
Lai "Copley News Service Reports, " the exciting background package for
social sciences. The pamphlets, which cover each hot spot in the
world, were rewritten to be as current Sept. 1 as your daily newspaper.
Updaiss are published through the year to keep "Copley News Service
Reports" current.The Copley Department of Education is most eager to
help you in any way in the use of the ne ispaper in your classroom.
You will find the program especially va ,ble in special education
classes.Upon request you can obta5 ,ample daily newspapers
without cost for two weeks, one newspaper for every two students in
clas s.
In this kit, developed especially for ae social sciences
teacher, you will find:
1. "Copley News Service Reports".
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2. "Teaching Aids for the Social Sciences," which gives thteacher practical suggestions on using the newspaper togive relevance and to create interest in the various dis-ciplines concerned.
3. A blank "World of News" map which originally was de-signed for bulletin board use in locating areas in the news.This old standby has proved one of the most popular itemsin the secondary kit. Many teachers are using this as aseat map. They feel that students in many classes profitby first identifying and cc lriag in the various countriesof the world before beginning the specific subject matter.Available one for every student.
4 "Your N vspaper: An Exciting World at Your ..:'irgertips, "
a genera._ information booklet which tells what a news-paper is, what L., in it, how to read it, and hov; it servesyou. You can obtain one for each student.
5. A map of San Diego County which was especially drawnfor school use. It is designed to incrase the otudents'understanding of the area's rich historial heritage, itsscier;:ific importance, its geographical features, and itsnatural resources. One for each student may be obtained.
6. A map of Imperial County which boasts the same featuresof the San Diego County map. It is available in class setsto teachers in both counties.
7. A list describing Copley Productions films and filmstripsvailable without charge through the Copley Department
of Education. Films may be requested by mail or telephone.
8. Order blank.
9. Addressed envelope.
Department of EducationCopley Newspapers940 Third AvenueSan Diego, California 92112
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The school and the newspaperare brothers, in knowledge and part-ners ins-the:informing of mankind.
So close is this partnership thatwe cannot a1w4ys be sure is .;_ere thetask of 'the school ends and that ofthe newspaper begins.
- Indeed, there may be no cii.-;,ridingline at all. Perhaps each partner per-forins the same tasks in slightly dif-ferent ways.
In any event, both are a part ofa full edUcation.
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NDALE "s1PitENEWS-POST
N;FEDRO;.NEWS-PlaTtEEZ ,
TORRAN
In. Illinois...AURORA BEACON-NEWS .ELOIN .DAILY COURIER-NEWS.ILLIOORISTATE JOURNAL;
PPRIP4GFIELDSTAPE RE .GISTER,
SpRII4GFIEL15,THE, STATE, JOURNAL-REGISTER,
SPRIt4GFIELDJULIET HERALD-NEWS .
Your Newspaper:What it isWhat's in itHow it serves youHow to read it
How it helps you in school ...Social Studies
2468
11
Science 12
Mathematics 14
English 16
Homemaking 19
Music 19
Athletics 20
Art 20Other ways it helps you 21
tpl.TIL;ht, New:11,11W1';- Dvp1111111 Edilt.;1114)Y1
-PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY-
RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED
BY
\s: jNi
TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING
UNDER AGREEMENTSWITH THE U.S. OFFICE
OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTIONOUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PER-
MISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER.-
k'AI:t'" :44
In a free country, a newspaper is ateller of truth. It tells millions of per-sons what ha3 happened or whatmight happen.
In this way, these millions learnwhat they need to do to keep theircountry strong and free.
In our country, the job of the news-paper is so important that the menwho founded our nation said in theConstitution: Newspapers are to be
free free to tell the truth about any-body or anything. It had to be thisway so that you, too, might alwaysbe, free.
Because one of its jobs is to helpyou stay free, your newspaper is in-terested in you.
You may be too young to vote or toget married, but you are not tooyoung to be a part of your newspaperor for it to be a part of you.
It may have printed somethingabout you when you were born. It isalways eager to know what happensto you and what you think.
You can write to its editor, tellingwhat you believe about any sub-ject of general interest. (Examples:Should schools be kept open 11
months a year? Should your city havemore recreation areas for young per-sons?)
If it's a good letter, your newspaperwill print it so that all the readerscan know what you think.
1
The newspaper is a great manywords-- more than you'll find inmany books. It also prints photo-graphs and drawings and maps.
Why are these words and picturesin the newspaper?
Many are there because they arepart of the story vvii 'eh the newspa-per tries each day to relate: the storyof' everything important or interest-ing that. has happened in your worldin the past 24 hours.
If a house burns a block away from
your home, the fire will be part ofthat story. If a head of governmenthalf a world away is killed, you willknow about it when you read yournewspaper.
And if somebody hits Mars with amissile, you will see the story andits headline in large type on PageOne of your iiewspaper. The largetype will be the editor's way of show-ing you how important he thinks thestory is.
Your newspaper tries to ti,ink of'
all the things you'd like to kl-low and
to include those things:-The st:->ry tH IbiA1-111 g;iine
ywn- uhool H night.t foivc;Jst.
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halls and theaters, and on radio andtelevision.
Advertising, which tells you andyour parents what. things are for sale.
in fact, your newspaper tells youat least a little about almost every-thing.
Some of the things it publisly-2s arenot pleasant. There are, for example,reports of' crimes and disasters. Oftenpersons do not enjoy reading about,them.
Sometimes the newspaper is asked,"Why Co you print stories about thsethings?"
The answer: The newspaper hasthe duty of printing everything thathappens because the leadif:r has aright to know about these things.
In fact, the reader often has a needto know.
If something is suspected of caus-ing cancer, this must be reported.
If burglars have been busy nearyour house. the news should reachyou so you can be on guard.
If the crimes happen too often, itwill be your right and duty as a citi-zen to urge your to do some-thing about i t . You could not do I hisunless your newspaper had broughtyou the facts.
'Fie newspaper tells you tile th ingsyou must know t.o he helthy. to he
, i)e a g-0(,(1 citizen.
I
4
HOW IT SERVES YOU
you've julsti vv i la a. e IA/ spa pt._ i
fOurris yo _
itaforrtairig- i oiraly orie c)t-- tIicfcLir things 3rour raewspaper doesyou_ Let's look_ at a_11 fatir:
Inform_2_ _Acil_Nrise_3. Help.4 t _
1NTotice 17'oliat Clrae i /afar . rrla ScrIhit 3,r IA rie-wspa-per is dci rig (T-a
Plage C:Prie aria o ri marl y other- paIt is tellirag you what happeried aridwhat the people who were part of the
it_If the story- is abo-Lit a c-itia_vrelpolitical debate, a strike or a
irgJLJrTiErit i Gori.ress cir t i tyGouracil -newspaper will printthe retaaarlcs of the pensoris ora both
that riews article, yoi_a_ shouldia'tbe able to tell wlic} ide, if a.ray, theriewspaper itself favors. 111 yot_i'11a_ble to tell is what happened. Goodriewspapers don't force their beliefsara yoli-t by- pLittirag- themstox-ies.
F'uorra this fiAll Luria fair report you_may be able to for yow-self6
which side you favor.But you may feel you'd like the
newspaper's opinion about this ques-tion. That brings us to Point Twoadvise. The newspaper and its editorsand reporters have watched this dis-pute more closely than anyone exceptthe persons actually in it. This closeknowledge may make your newspa-per's opinion worth having.
There's a place where you can findthis opinion. That place is called theeditorial page. The index (or table ofccritents) on Page One may tell youwhere to find this.
The page contains articles callededitorials which tell what the edi-tor or his assistants think aboutproblems affecting the city, the state,the nation, the world in short,about problems affecting you.
It may include an editorial car-toon a drawing which gives thenewspaper's view on some question.There may also be columns by widelyknown writers commenting onthings that are happening in Wash-ington or in the military services oranywhere in the world.
The newspaper's third job is to helpyou. You may be surprised at thenumber of ways in which it does this.
It prints articles telling mothershow to cook new dishes to pleasetheir families.
It tells girls how to be more beauti-ful. Boys may find an article on thesports pages in which a star golfershows them how to hold a driver.
Other articles may tell how to dec-orate a living room, how to make
7
clothing, how to prepare your incometax, how to play bridge or how to takecare of babies.
Certain writers help readers whohave special problems. If a person istroubled by something, he can senda letter about it to one of these writ-ers. The letter and an answer mayappear in the newspaper. In the an-swer, the writer will try to help thereader solve his problem.
Advertising ranks high among theways your newspaper helps you.
Nearly everyone likes to read ad-vertising. And your newspaper ad-vertises just about everything youmight want to buv.
Readers find advertising helpsthem to get the most out of theirbudget.
When you stop to think about it,there are endless ways in which yournewspaper can help you.
And then Point Four: the newspa-per entertains. It prints comic strips,puzzles, columns telling of amusinghappenings in your city, stories aboutodd and interesting facts of the pastor present, interviews with fascinat-ing persons and articles describingnew books, movies, plays and televi-sion programs.
To sum it all tip, this is what anewspaper does for you:
lt tells you what is happening inthe world. It helps you to decidewhich of these things are good andwhich are bad. It aids you in solvingyour problems and in learning howto live better. And, finally, it givesyou pleasure.
I I
What are the things you are seek-ing when you read a newspaper?
First, you want to know at least alittle bit about all that has happenedin the world in the past 24 hours.
Second, you want to know quite alot about some things that especiallyinterest you.
Your newspaper can help you to do
both. All the information is there."Yes," you may say, "I know it's
all there. But this booklet said ear-lier that there are as many words ina newspaper as in a book. Who hastime to read a book every day?"
Almost no one.But a newspaper contains two
kinds of things that will save youtime, so that you can learn somethingabout everything and a lot aboutsome things without spending toolong in reading.
These two things are:1. The headline.2. The lead (pronounced leed).The headline has two jobs:1. It tells you in just a few words
what the article is about. It may say,"Auto Crashes Kill 4 Here" and youknow at once that the article willtell you who the four persons wereand where and how they happened tohave automobile crashes. In otherwords, the headline tells you whetherthis is an article you would be inter-ested in reading.
2. The headline's second jn1 is toshow you how important th, editOrthinks the article is. If the headlineis unusually large (or if the articleappears on Page One), you can be
sure he thini-pieces of new,editor's life wo_ I
hint to you prcNow we con- 2 LJ
the first sentencethree sentences ftthe headline L-Lif sa nutshell, the I
a slightly large:
iC ofday
-1ging;s a g-e lea
e majo:-Ince the=2ws, his)d one.This is-
he 191-- two orartici Just ag.who ..tory inuallv 7._Its it in
leadon our auto cra- h Lory rm,- say:
"Four local pc-rsons died last nightin two automobile crashes, one onthe far south side and one at the east-ern edge of the city. Five personswere injured in the accidents."
This is a summary: it tells in gen-eral what happened and again ithelps you decide whether you wish toread the entire article.
For instance, you may live on thefar south side or on the eastern edgeof the city. In that case, you'll wantto read the entire article to learnwhether your friends or neighborswere involved in the accident.
The headlines and the leads willspeed you through a newspaper inwhatever number of minutes you canspend on it.
When you've finished, you'll knowsomething about every article. Andyou'll have found the articles thatyou want to read all the way through.
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Social StudiesHistory is the story of What has
happened in the past and also whatis happening right now. Students 100years from now may be studyingabout something you read today inyour newspaper.
The difference is this: you're read-ing about it only minutes or hoursaft.-:r it happened. It is still NEWS.And that is why it is so exciting.
PROJECT: Make a scrapbook ofthe most important newspaper stor-ies for several weeks and try o de-cide whether any of them will bementioned in history books 2,000years from now. Give reasons whyyou think your selections will be re-membered in history.
Reading your newspaper is likeseeing what is happening all overthe world.
In one column you may read anarticle about an event in London. Inthe next column, the dateline (theplace from which the article came)may be Hong Kong. You may findthat such places seem less far awayand less strange to you when youread about something which oc-curred there only hours ago.
PROJECT: Make your newspaperbring the places of the world closertogether for you. Clip headlines onthe day's major news. Then put amap of the world on the wall. Thumb-tack each headline to the map besidethe city from which that story came.Do this every day for a week. It willhelp you see where your newspaper
11
"comes from." And it wiL make thosestrange, faraway cities seem morereal.
The newspaper is a daily course insocial studies. By reading it, youlearn how your local government op-erates and what they are doing. Youmay learn, for instance, that yourcity has a mayor and a C.: ity Council;and news articles will tell you whatkinds of tasks they are doing andwhat changes in the city they havedecided on.
PROJECT: Study your newspaperfor several weeks. Clip every storywhich is about your City Council.Then select somebody to report, inhis own words, what the council didduring that period and how the livesof those who live in your city may bechanged by it.
You can follow the activities of anynumber of organizations in this way.Try it with your school board or yourfavorite baseball team.
One of the jobs of newspaper edi-tors is to decide what things theythink are most important. Every daythey receive many times as muchmaterial as they can print, and theymust choose which to use in theirnewspapers.
They must decide which of the ar-ticles are interesting enough to be onPage One. Then they must decidewhich article should get the most im-portant (biggest) headline and whichthe next most important.
sP.ROJECT: Study Page One of your
newspaper today. Try to decide whythe editor rated the storie in the or-der in which he did. Then be yourown editor. Pick the ten most inter-esting events in your school in thelast week and list them in the orderof the importance you think theyhave. Explain to your classmateswhy you've rated them as you have.See whether they agree with you.
We have said the editorial page isthe place for opinions of the editors,of the columnists and of the readersthrough letters to the editor. The edi-torials and the columns and the let-ters may praise, condemn, suggest,interpret or explain.
Editorials are usually written tocontain an introduction, in which anidea is presented; a middle part, inwhich the idea is discussed; and aconclusion, in which an opinion isgiven about the idea.
This opinion frequently tells why,according to the editorial writer,something happened the way it did.
,PROJECT: Read about an event
on the front page of your newspaperand write an editorial about it.
Is this a good event or a bad one?If it is bad, what harm will it bringto your city or your nation? What doyou as an editor think should be doneto correct the harm or to keep eventslike this from happening again?
Asking yourself questions like thisabout everything that happens willnot only make you a good editorialwriter, it will make you a good citi-zen.
As you read your newspaper, youfind certain pieces of news go on fordays sometimes years. Articles inthe newspaper each day tell one morechapter in these continued stories.World War Ii was such a situationit was reported every day in yournewspaper for five years; there werethousands of articles about it.
Some kinds of news start with abang and a big headline. An earth-quake is like that.
Other kinds start small and getbigger. An Atlantic hurricane is oneof these. The first news article maybe a short one, saying simply that ahurricane has been sighted 500 milesfrom land in the Caribbean Sea. Asthe storm nears shore, the daily arti-cle gets bigger. And when the windstrikes land, the story may becomethe biggest one on Page One.suraamlissumestmanatzczainsamszonamozarer.a
PROJECT: Trace some continuingevent in your newspaper for one ormore weeks. Clip the articles aboutit and make a display of them foryour classmates. Show how the arti-cles grew longer or shorter duringthat period and how they moved ontoor off Page One as the event grewmore or less important.
ScienceWe live in a time of fast scientific
progress. Thousands of persons arebusy all day everyday simply learn-ing the things that man has neverknown before about science and med-icine and space.
Your newspaper prints articlesabout these scientific changes anddiscoveries. These things haven't had
IGP 12
time to get into your textbooks yet;they're too new. They'll become apart of tomorrow's textbooks.
PROJECT: Watch your newspaperfor several weeks. Clip every storyalmut scientiqic progress discover-ies, new kinds of satellites, air speedrecords and so on. Then make a re-port to Your class on what a fewweeks have brought in the way ofnew scientific things.
Everybody is interested in theweather. Your newspaper prints theforecast (what the weather is goingto be like in the lutur. and the rec-ords (what the weather was like inthe past).
These records show what the tem-peratures were like yesterdayhowhot it got; how cold it got. They showwhether it rained and how much.They show which way the wind blewand how fast.
PROJECT: Sometimes it's easierto understand a lot of' figures if youmake a graph. Make a graph show-ing the highest temperature everyday for a month. probably find
high temperature fh_;sart,';lay in yo;h:
t \yayCir-1
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1,2=, v:ith
inn thL, da or th(: month.dol f_hc.
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t C C)I&ric1 t.be Iiric ici a _L.N7 clul 1-i T1t hc r critli. liTi 3 0 CI , (--) 1-1 1 1-1 .!ri 1_
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-t..t 1-e NAT e 1-1 4: ct d'vii ci tIiit-r1 (3 t. z_11 ci () /-1 1 EL t 1_1
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Mathematicsa-ui 1-s s "%NI r- 1 ci rtIitis,
and it is bec:orriii--1,-.- -r-ra c>1.-e c)s wE I. e c 1-1, farther o 1_1 1-1 p ,
NAT 1-1 iv ri's,r K i ricE1 s c> f needs for- theengineer-, the scientist, the rnatherna-
E3.-Lrt ci ut i t sc> I ci farrii 1 i _ _ _ s 1_3_ S Ca.
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2N_ .387 1D att irig a_ Nr I' et_ rri ay 'Bemari-v- things, irii-iLiair-kgr, i ticket torie rn iij or- lea. gi_res for s iii c I-1 i hea y
13Lit, of all, it is a_ decimalfraction aria cnie tFiit rric3t inthe 1a-v-e no difficultylandersta_nding_ mcpst boys is tFie_500 stand_ ing cjf i -team that I-1 a s wor-i12 grr1e rid lost 12_
40- P2, c_Ac. the standings ofti irri Eli ".E1_ 1_1 rris c>/-1. s -pc> i t s
f STC ) Li T1 I.e V1/47 S _
i ci 3.7 Ci) 13- it ici / CI:) NV ledge decirria.1Fr; ,ctions ancl for- the sake of 37-c3 /-C13 IT1 C Li r" 1. CD« S i t,37 t,of' each team_ (--) if it wins its ne,c_tgarne arid (1L._) if it loses _
cit--.a_vv- c3f- t a -1--)Lcii rigs c)f--th_e te yrr s V) a_ s y fi g Liof -these sets wi 11 1De iri CI V ric err peek" at_ tornor-row_
Advertisements are a kind of newsnews about what's for sale and how
much it costs. This news is importantbecause prices change. Sometimesyour dollar buys more hamburger,sometimes less. From the ads you canlearn how well your family will beable to feed, clothe and house itselfon the amountof money your parentsearn.
PROJEcT: Pretend you have $6with whicL to feed a family of fourfor one day. Will it be enough?
From the food advertisements inyour newspaper, work out a menuof food items which you might buy.Decide how many pounds of eachthing you'll need and figure out howmuch it will cost. Then add the fig-ures and see whether your $6 will buyenough of these itemsor whetheryou'll have to switch to other, lessexpensive foods.
In this project, you'll learn some-thing about the problems of being amother or father.
nnt.h., WM. wry lo,S, 10,1 ...NA,.
Many of you will earn your livingby making goods or doing services.You will have to decide what priceyou must charge, and you must findbuyers willing to pay that price.
This must be high enough to coveryour costs. It must also pay a profitmoney for you and your arnily to liveon and to save. Otherw'..3e, you won'tbe able to stay in business.
One cost will be that of finding abuyer for your goods or services. Ad-vertising is a way of finding such abuyer. An advertisement tells whatis for sale and where and, in mostinstances, for what price. A certain
15
percentage of those who see the ad-vertisement will want what you haveto sell and will come to buy it fromyou.
Classified advertisements some-times called want ads are a fascin-ating kind of advertising. A classifiedsection probably contains a box tell-ing how much the ads cost, or you cantelephone the newspaper to find out.
PROJECT: As practice for yourpossible future task of selling, pre-tend you have five different items forsale. Look up your newspaper's clas-sified advertising rate per word ardfigure how many words you can buyfor the money you have to spend.Perhaps you can buy, say, 20 wordsevery day for a week.
If so, try to write an inviting ad inthat number of words. Compare yourad with those of your classmates anddecide who has written the one thatwill sell the most items.
-83Z3.5221a:123L.=3=121192::::=383L
Your newspaper contains financialnews; it may have an entire section.
This deals with news of businessesand with the stock market.
The stock market is a place wherepeople buy and sell shares of variousbusinesses. Your parents may ownshares of stock. This means they arepart owners of a company or com-panies.
If so, they read the financial pagefor several reasons:
1. It tells them what's ppeningto the businesses in which they al-ready own shares.
2. It gives them news about otherbusinesses in which they might like
do own shares.,
The directors of one of those busi-nesses may decide to divide the prof-its by voting "a dividend," Thismeans your parents will get somemoney. The financial section mayhave news about that.
This section also will tell them howmuch some of the shares they ownare worth. The market value of acompany's shares may change fromday to day. If it is a well-run com-pany, the value increases. Thatmeans your parents' shares becomeworth more.
So every day your newspaperprints stock market tables. These arelists showing the prices of shares ofstock in many companies.la I,
PROJECT: Imagine that you have$1,000 to invest in stocks. With thissurr, "buy" shares of your favoritecompanies. Then watch the stock ta-bles for a month to see whose sharesgo up or down in price and whose goup or down the most. By multiplyingeach day's price per share by thenumber of shares you "bought," youcan keep track of whether your$1,000 has grown or shrunk.
Whatever the results, you willsense ;4()Ille of the excitement olown-
I)art of this fre.,-enterpriseAmei"a. ------
n
newspaper t ries to be simple.-.:nts to he understoed
e\ yryozle. so it ; Hds hard wordsa,ncl loag sentences.
, greatest writcr,, -\,:ho evertried to do the same thing. The
bett,,i. You aro able to do thiswrite
simply and say exactly what youmeanthe better you will be under-stood in this world. And you must beunderstood to live.
Study several news articles andnote how clearly and briefly thewriter has stated his ideas. See if youcan find unnecessary words in eacharticle.
Note the lead. How many wordsdoes it contain? Twenty? Thirty?Probably no more.
The reporter has learned to writesimply. He can attend any complexevent and then write a clear and c,'.1-cise lead which will tell you a aglance exactly what happened or in-terest you in reading further.
Nearly everything after the leadwill be just details expanding on thatbrief introduction.
1.11 ?NW.
PROJECT: Practice writing shortleads. Have a classmate relate an in-cident that has happened to him.Then see who can write the shortestsentence that tells what happened.The s-sintence mustn't leave out any-thing important and it mustn'tinclude anything unimportant.
Although reporters try to writesimply, newspapers must print ar-ticles --,,ho to. complex subjectsabout.science, medicin, the space age.
These articles sometimes useword: which are not a part of every-day speech. Usually a newspaperusing such a word will try to define it.
Whether it's delined or not, theword can :Jerome a part of yourvocabulary.
From reading the rest (J' the story,
016
C)U C arnC_JC k it up in the dictionary.
_
PRC.:),TF:CYF: Clip several articlesfrom -your neN,vspaper. Read them undmurk eac.!.h NNT ()I'd tha.t i tTIW tC) ()Xi .
NTC)t. how often the neN,vspaper storymukes the meaning of strange wordsc le zi-tr u nd th i tr e g. thens you rgr asp of the iiie.i Li
If in doubt as to the meaning of aword, be sure to check the dictionary.
rì tell your classmates about yournew words the ones that readingthe neNvspaper gave to you.
You noticed earlier that headlinescr-rie in certain shapes and sizes.
There can be only so many lines oftype in a. headline and only SC) manyletters in a. lineyet the headlinemust tell the hurrying reader whatthe story is about or interest -him inreading further.It always does the job, even thoughthre may be hundreds of words inthe story and only four or five in_ thehea.dline. Writing gcbod headlines re-quires great slilL
'Fake this he aduirie for e>cample:Zoo ExpectsOne MillionthVisitor Today
This 1-leacIline 1-ias tFrree limes a,Thiano more than 13 letters and spacesin its lorigest line.
17"ItC:),.TC-r: To develop sKill inhandline words, practice writing aheadline of-this same shape and size.Choose some school event and de-scribe it in three lines of not morethan 13 letters and spaces a line. r-rhe"
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1 8
PROJECT: Interview the personwho sits next to you in class. Keepasking questions till you learnsomething unusual about this per-sonhis hobby, something he hasdone, what happened on a trip hetook. Write a feature story about thisunusual thing. See how interestingyou can make it.
Now that you realize the job isn'teasy, read feature stories in yournewspaper and see what the writershave done to make them hold yourattention.
HomemakingOne of the newspaper's jobs, you
will recall, is to help readers livebetter.
If you are a student in homemak-ing, you will find the newspaperhelps homemakers in several ways.
There are articles on home buying,interior decoration and gardening.There are stories and patterns tohelp you make your own clothing.There are tips on solving everydayhousehold problems. There are in-teresting features on how better tohandle the family budget. The foodarticles and menus, together withthe grocery advertisements, suggestmany interesting meal possibilities.
PROJECT: From the food itemsadvertised in your newspaper for aweek, develop a seven-day menu foryour family.
PROJECT: Clip the recipes con-.tained in your newspaper for one r ers. Include stories about music con-
week; select a single meal. Work outa step-by-step plan for preparingthis meal, listing the time at whichyou will have to do each thing inorder to make it all come out, steam-ing hot and ready to serve, at acertain hour.
MusicYour newbpaper is the mirror of
the music life of your city. It tellsabout the concerts, the ballets, themusical plays that are being pre-sented. It tells you that these eventsare to take place and, after the open-ing night of some of these, its criticstell you what they thought of them.In a sense, they "grade" these activ-ities as a teacher does.
.11.1n 11,Anit
PROJECT: Clip all articles aboutmusic from your newspaper for twoor three weeks. Then group thesearticles by subject, take notes onthem and prepare a 250-word reporton music activities in your city. Dosuch activities go on regularly? Arethey varied? Are the performers out-standing? Would you say that yourcity ranks high or low as a center ofculture?
PROJECT: Attend or listen to sev-eral concerts. Keep a detailed recordof the name of the conductor, theselections played and your reactionto the program. The newspaper car-ries announcements of forthcomingconcerts and special programs.
PROJECT: Make a music scrap-book. Clip from your newspapereverything of interest to music lov-
1 9
ductors, news items about music andreviews of concerts and musicalplays. Your newspaper will publishpictures of performers, stories abouttheir lives and feature articles aboutmusic. All should find their way intoy our scrapbook.
AthleticsYour newspaper hopes you will be
a good student because intelligent,educated men and women will beneeded to keep our nation strong andsuccessful in tomorrow's world.
But you should have a healthybody and the fun of taking part ingames, too.
Your newspaper tries to help youhave that fun.
It prints many columns of sportnews. In these columns, you canlearn much about how games areplayed. You will feel better equippedwhen you try to play these games.
In the comment columns, you'llread about ethics and sportsman-ship. The interviews with great ath-letes often tell how they learned toplay so well.
Your newspaper offers stories ofinterest for you as an athlete in otherplaces beside the sports section.
In the medical column, a physicianmay tell you how to lead the healthylife that will give you an athlete'sbody.
And the food pages contain articleson nutrition, the study of a balanceddiet, the kind you need to be healthyand strong.
-
PROJECT: Check your newspaper
for a month and clip from it everyarticle which would interest an ath-lete. Then make a report to yourclassmates on the rules of health,diet, training, and game skills whichyou found.
- - -
ArtThe newspaper will keep you in-
formed of developments in the fieldof art. Art exhibits are announced,and news concerning other art eventswill appear. Watch for stories aboutrecent discoveries of primitive art(the art of people who lived manyyears ago), the sale of masterpieces,interviews with famous artists andinformation about "modern" art.
There are many examples of art inyour newspaper. There are manyphotographs and drawings. Adver-tisements use lots of drawings.
And of course the comics are a formof art. Notice especially how goodthese drawings must be in the singlepanel cartoons. Everything must betola in one picture.
Another interesting example of artis the editorial page cartoon. Some-times a good editorial cartoon willtell you as much as the editorial,
PROJECT: Find a story in yournewspaper which will be valuable toyour art class. Bring the story toclass for a report.
PROJECT: Look around yourschool for something which mightmake a good cartoon. Draw youridea and let your classmates see it.What were their reactions? Did youget your idea across? It's difficult to
up and draw good cartoons.
20
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I
TEACHING AS FOR THE SOCIAL, SCIENCES
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY-RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTEDBY
C /TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S. OFFICEOF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTIONOUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PER-MISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."
Published by
&Pk NewgpaPolgDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
2 7
1 Qr7n Clnywri prht
CONTENTS
Introduction 000 0 0*
Acknowledgments .......Social Studies . 00 S 0 0 V 0 0 1
Anthropoloav .
Economics 12
Geography. , 0 Al . 18
History 21
Political Science . 0000 26
Sociology . . . . . 30
:NTRODUCTION
Under _ :-.1-___,titution of the United States, the newspaperis as-3 -_red freedom to --iresent the news when and as it happens. In.
_g the resp.=sf_bi_Lides ani obligations implicit in this freedom,the -_- =wspaper prvid-3E a comprehensive service to persons of allages, .1.-.11 educational backgrounds, and all economic levels.
The news-Dape--_- is unique in our society. No other mediumof information even tries to record as many of the innumerable eventsthat are of concern to man; the very nature of other mediums limitsboth their subject n atte:: and audience.
No other edium of mass communication influences orreflects public opinion --nd public concern as much as the newspaper.Directly ot indirect_:, most of what Americans know about world,national, state, and local affairs comes from facts and ideas communi-cated to them by newspapers.
Although a newspaper provides a service, it is also afinancial enterprise wh--ch must make money to stay in business. It isessential that newspapers remain financially independent enterprises,free of all government controls save only those which would preventviolations of the rights and privileges of citizens. It is only throughthiS independence that newspapers can fulfill their role as the citizenswatchdog in society.
In this 20th century, with news being made much fasterthan textbooks can print it, the role of the newspaper as a medium ofinformation has assumed g.t.-ct.t.wr t1on than ever before. If thetextbook is deficient--if it is not up to date--where else may one gobut to the newspaper to bridge this gap?
It is little wonder, then, that educators today have termedthe newspaper a "living textbook" and regularly use it as a part of theircurriculum. They have found that it is an instructional aid which can beused to supplement the teaching of any subject. It has been proved thatit serves as an excellent motivating medium to learning by pointing outthe application of topics that might otherwise seem trivial. It providessome material which will attract most any student, regardless of hisintelligence level, prior interest, or past experience. And, perhapsmost important of all, its use encourages critical and analytical thinking.
With the increased emphasis being placed on inquiry prob-lems in the social sciences, the newspaper becomes an even morevaluable tool. It is ideal as a source for information on a wide rangeof topics.
-2.01
with hisdependenc.reflectstool foi th-E-
Newspape:-of recent 1 --California .used in theand in man
schools am.
social sciences are the study of man and his interactionand social environments and the study of man's inter-
Lvidually and in groups. The newspaper is a mirror whichs actions, and his interactions, and thereby is an excellent
-jal science teacher.
E publication of the Department of Education, Copleythe combined findings concerning the social sciences
7..aper in the Classroom workshops at the University ofAngeles and adds to them methods already successfully
-ols in areas in which Copley newspapers are publishedr school districts in the United States and foreign countries.
work is intended for use in junior and senior high_ivided into the following subject areas:
Social StudiesAnthropologyEconomicsGeographyHistoryPolitical ScienceSociology
The sections have been prepared in such a manner as to'make them suitable for use at any grade level in junior and seniorhigh schools. In the United States History section, for example, thesection is suitable for use at whatever grade level the subject is taught.
I____-)rmation about this booklet and other school servicesof the Depart:ment of Education, Copley Newspapers, may be obtainedfrom any of the following department offices:
---jn the San Diego area940 Third AvenueSan Diego, California 92112
In the Los Angeles area220 East Orange Grove AvenueBurbank, California 91503
In Illinois313 South Sixth StreetSpringfield; Illinois 62701
King Durkee, DirectorDepartment of EducationCopley Newspapers
30
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Department of Education, Copley Newspapers, acknow-ledges the many valuable ideas and techniques provided by teachers whohave attended Newspaper in the Classroom workshops at the Universityof California, Los Angeles. The teachers and their sponsors are:
Sister Mary Adelman, C. PP. S. , San Luis Rey, CaliforniaIvy D. Beaubouef, San Diego, CaliforniaBeverly R. Fisher, El Centro, CaliforniaSister Mary Linus, C. PP. S. , San. Luis Rey, CaliforniaEunice Seltenrich, San Diego, CaliforniaKenneth R. Earp, El Centro, CaliforniaHarriette S. Marshall, San Diego, CaliforniaDawn S. Shulman, San Diego, CaliforniaDudley B. Buck, Imperial Beach, CaliforniaMarion Chambers Ullrich, San Diego, California
The San Diego Union*Evening Tribune*
David Elsworth Alford, Palo Alto, CaliforniaPalo Alto Times
Catharine L. Byrne, Los Angeles, CaliforniaAlhambra Post-Advocate*
Helen V. Fowler, Manhattan Beach, CaliforniaSan Pedro News-Pilot*
Stanley H. Godecke, Bakersfield, CaliforniaThe Bakersfield Californian
James McKee, Portland, OregonThe Portland Oregonian
Mary O'Connell, Carson City, NevadaNeal J. Harrigan, Reno, Nevada
Reno Newspapers, Inc.
J. Mervin Owens, Las Vegas, NevadaThe Las Vegas Review-Journal
Helen Rainey, Baldwin Park, CaliforniaMonrovia News-Post*
Gladys Burnett, Grand Junction, ColoradoEdith L. Stout, Clifton, ColoradoMax Donald Stites, Palisades, Colorado
The Grand Junction Daily Sentinel
Sandra S. Streusand, Houston, TexasThe Houston Press
Joseph C. Tremblay, Spokane, WashingtonThe Spokane Daily Chronicle
Florence Betty Trempe, Burbank, CaliforniaBurbank Daily Review*
Jane H. Watson, Phoenix, ArizonaThe Phoenix Republic and Gazette
Maxine M. Wyers, Topanga, CaliforniaCulver City Star-News
Robert W. Oquist, Tacoma, WashingtonEstelle Grant, Tacoma, WashingtonCharles A. Ptolemy, Tacoma, Washington
Tacoma News Tribune
Ear Tl V. Prebezac, Edmonds, WashingtonSeattle Times
Carl M. Ferre, Farmington, New MexicoFarmington Daily Times
Edward W. Larrigan, Regina, Saskatchewan, CanadaThe Leader Post
Reinette C. Porter, Oroville, CaliforniaChico Enterprise-Record
Garland Sprick, Corvallis, OregonThe Corvallis Gazette Times
Chris Lukens, Kailua, HawaiiHawaii Newspaper Agency
Robert L. Cameron, Kokomo, IndianaKokomo Tribune
Joseph M. Avis, Magna, UtahSalt Lake Tribune
Gene N. Bowen, Healdsburg, CaliforniaSanta Rosa Press Democrat
* A Copley Newspaper
-vi-
32
Although there are many techniques in teaching socialstudies, there are only two methods: (I) inquiry and (2) exposition orIIwe tell the kids."
Inquiry in the clasR-foom should include a balance betweensimulated discovery-learning and directed instruction. It should includea balance among analytic, integrative, and policy modes of studyingsocietal phenomena.
The daily new spaper - -and only the daily newspapersupple-ments itself each day on local, national, and international levels with aconstant stream of new informationupdating, correlating, and addingcompletely new material. Since texts are outdated before they areissued, the newspaper is a necessity in the use of inquiry.
Social studies includes those sciences which study humanrelationships, interaction, and the results of those relationships. Oftenthese are abstract sciences -- sociology, history, political science,geography, anthropology, and economics. The teacher must be able torelate the social sciences to the real, everyday world.
Each teacher must make his own decision as to how he willuse newspapers to supplement and enrich his regular course of study.A wide variety of possibilities exists.
Several years ago the junior high school in Grand Junction,Colorado, burned and most of the textbooks were destroyed. All thesocial studies teachers obtained copies of the daily newspaper -- andcontinued teaching social studies.
A sociology teacher in San Diego says that he has newspapersavailable on the first day of class, since that first week is chaotic andoften it is impossible to begin the lesson plan because of missing texts.He adds that this practice sets the pace for the semester and studentsgain a feeling for what is to follow.
Some teachers plan a unit within the class for the study ofnewspapers. When this is possible, the class can delve thoroughlyinto the operation of a newspaper, its role in society, and its influenceon our country's past, present, and future. When such a unit is notpossible, and when the newspaper is used as a supplement to othermaterials throughout the semester, a brief study of the newspaper itselfstill can be fitted into other units, such as:
I. The financial rosture of a newspaper, its dependenceon advertising for revenue, and its political-economicposition can be studied when dealing with economics.
3
Z. The role of the newspaper in the development of thiscountry can be studied during United States historyclasses.
3. The influence the newspaper wields as "the fourthestate in government" fits naturally into the studyof political science or United States government.
4. The divisions of the newspaper -- sports, women's,advertisement, yout'h -- can be studied during asociology or anthropology class.
Whenever the newspaper is used, teachers have found itespecially valuable in doing research as well as in actual teachingprojects. In many instances, such as a coup d'etat in some country,the newspaper is the only source of reference until years later whenthe event is duly recorded in a textbook.
Many teachers desire to get away from the old idea of"current events." Sociologists are concerned with understanding whatwill be of value to the student long after mere current events have beenforgotten. In this respect the newspaper can accomplish certain educa-tional goals.
1. Helping students develop the habit of reading newspapers.Our form of government is dependent on an informedelectorate, making newspapers indispensable. Thehabit of newspaper reading can develop citizens who canunderstand:
A. Concepts
B . Principle s
C. Forces
D. structure s
E. Processes
2. Helping students become aware of their own part in themaking of history -- that history is not something thathappened only a long time ago, but is in the process ofhappening every day.
3. Showing students the difference between fact and opinion,and how the good newspaper tries to keep the two separate.
4. Giving practice in reading material with which he isdirectly related. The
4teacher should encourage students
3
to read the newspaper:
A. Skeptically
B. Selectively
C. Thoroughly
D. Accurately
E. Questioningly
5. Develop other skills besides reading, including listening,speaking, and thinking.
It would be impossible to list all the possibilities for usingthe newspaper in the social studies classroom, but the following outlineshould give some idea of the scope:
1. Newspapers in the social studies classroom can be usedas a tool to help students become better readers.
A. By introducing them to new terms, names, andconcepts in daily news events
73. By fostering in their thinking and understanding ofnews placement, contrasting opinions, pointsof view, and relationships between opposites
C. By teaching them to read critically and not toaccept every printed word without question
D. By instilling in them the practice of reading thenewspaper habitually
2. Newspapers can be used as supplemental tools in theteaching of social studies.
A. The newspa,per cannot answer every question thestudent asks, but it can illustrate and sgest alter-nates, as w..11 as pose new questions.
B. Textbooks are out of date almost as soon as they areprinted, therefore use of the newspaper to bring intofocus events of an immediate nature can give textsadded depth. An example would be in the study ofthe Vietnam War. Background material on the FrenchoccupF.tion of that area may be available, but no text-book is up-to-date enough to deal with events there inthe past five years.
35 -3.-
3. Newspapers can be used in the social studies classroomto develop better citizens.
A. For more -elan half the high school students thesenior social studies class will be the last academicpreparation he has before becoming a voting citizen.Democracy is fed by a constant flow of informationand ideas, and the American citizen cannot fulfillhis obligation without a grasp of the use of news-papers to keep himself informed of the actions ofhis government.
B. With the newspaper as an added textbook, the highschool student can see that the function of the news-paper is as an unofficial ombudsman for the people.In this sense the press is a function of the processof government.
4. There are many specific projects in which the newspapermay be used as a tool in the social studies class.
A. Cli.ppings
(1) Scranbooks, bulletin boards, news kiosks,photo montages and headline collections canbe projects alone or can bc used in conjunctionwith other projects (such as oral or writtenreports).
B. News items as springboards
(1)
(Z)
Model press conferences, city council, senate,congressional, school board meetings, etc. ,can be suggested by a news story or series.
Game playing, using a news story situation,can provide students with choices faced by thosein power. For example, students can assumethe roles of city school administrators andminority citizens demanding construction of anew college in a ghetto area. In resolving theconflicts, students realize that simplistic solu-tions never solve complex problems.
(3) Using a news story or feature, the students canchoose a semester project, say on one countryor area. Research for the final report, eitherwritten or oral, would be taken from both news-paper files and the public library.
36-4-
(4) A particular issue can be the subject of anewspaper publish d. by the students themselves.If mechanical reproduction is possible, such asmimeographing- the paper can be as small asone or two pages, with news and editorial sections,using the daily news- Aper as a model.
(5) Debates and forums, using issues from thenewspaper, can involve students. The teacher'srole here, of course, is to become well informedprior to the debate to insure a balanced presen-tation.
(6) Outside speakers on the pros and cons of issuescan add dimension to issues reported in thenewspaper. They can be:
a. Experts on issues from the city or stategovernment
b. Newspaper reporters, editors, or columnists
C. Special Projects(1) Maintain a file of news items, on one 'abject or
country, or a comprehensive collecti.. of allnews for a specific period of time.
(2 ) Create a history calendar either of past eventor of current events as they happen. All studentscan be assigned to bring in one event a day. Atthe end of the week the seven most important canbe chosen by the class. After discussion, theycan be pasted, calendar-like, on a bulletin board.
(3) A piece of legislation can be followed through-the legislature in newspaper stories.
(4) Comparison of news coverage between newspapers,television, and radio. What are the special bene-fits of each medium?
(5) List newspaper quotes.(6) Discuss editorial cartoons, then let the students
try creating their own.(7) A list of names and terms can be used on tests.
3 7-5-
(5) A spot news quiz takes on more interest whenstudents drop assigned clippings into a newsbox. Then they draw o...ct another. After ashort study period, each gives an oral reporton the clipping.Bulletin board maps can be correlated to newsclippings or headlines by attaching colored stringto the map location and the clipping.
Assign the news stories after a short lectureon the five Ws and the H (who, what, when, where,why, and how).
Practice writing headlines. This gives theteacher the opportunity to explain the invertedtriangle style of the news story construction andhow the essential facts should be in the leadparagraph.
:1-2) Study advertisements for content, with emphasison how the advertiser attracts the reader. De-vices of advertising can be discussed, as wellas the role of advertising in maintaining a freepress.
(13) Practice skimming. Students can be shown howto read down the middle of a column to increasetheir speed, without losing comprehension. Fewpeople have the time to read all the newspaper,but by learning to skim, the reader can get themost out of his newspaper reading time. A deviceto facilitate skimming is to draw two red linesdown the column a short distance in from bothmargins, thus marking off the center section.Then have students practice reading just betweenthose lines.
(14) Select an important news story and have students,in group discussion, predict the outcome over thenext few weeks or months. This can become aweekly discussion, bringing events up to date andgiving students a chance to modify their ideas asthe situation chang e s
(15) Discussion drawing parallels between currentand past events. After researching, studentsfind that history, while it does not repeat itself,does provide analogie5% past events.
(16) Blackboard qui77es: The teacher ca. put: ori20 names and terms taken from today's newspaperon the board, then give students, acting in teams,a time limit in finding them in the newspaper.Points can be given and tallied at the end of theweek.
(17) Relief maps can be created out of newspape.L-mache to illustrate the typography of an areain the news.
(18) One assignment can be to write letters to theeditor, with an issue in the news as the subject.Students should choose their own points of view,but should substantiate their opinions with fact.They should be encouraged to send their lettersto their hometown newspaper. Even if they arenot published, students can experiment withmaking their statements as concise as possible.Often such letters are published, giving theentire class new interest. Often students don'trealize that anybody is entitled to write to theeditor, and that such letters are often published,.
(19) Crossword puzzles can be worked in groups.Simple crosswordE: can be made up using localplaces and persons' names in state and localgovernment.
No suggestion is made here that such a program may supplanta normal course and an assigned text in social studies. But the teacherwho will venture out on a worthwhile tangent will inspire his students andenable them to gain added understanding.
News doesn't just happen in a prescribed, convenient plan.It happens all the time, and an imaginative teach.:r will take the oppor-tunity to add this dimension of newspaper immediacy in the teaching ofsocial studies.
Anthropology -- the study of man by man -- overlaps allother disciplines.
The proper study of anthropology is the entire spectrum ofhuman behavior, and where else is such a generalized view available butin the daily newspaper? The science itself, by definition and practice,is a way of looking at the variety of ways human beings live, and themodern newspaper brings this information to the student on a daily basis.
Anthropology is involved with at least three questions:
I. What am I ?
2. What are we?
3. How do we interact?
A primary assumption of the science is that a better under-standing of the culture can be had by getting outside it, The task of thesecondary school is not to make little anthropologists out of studentsbut to help them understar,d their own society by seeing others. Themore a student can rediscover of the precepts of anthropology on his own,the more complete will be his understanding.
Anthropology can be broken down into two areas of study:anthropology as history (Physical Anthropology) and as a behavioralscience (Cultural Anthropology). At least five subdivisions exist:physiological anthropology, archeology, anthropological linguistics,ethnology, and social anthropology. All are concerned with events andbehavior of human beings.
Newspapers, too, are concerned with events and behavior.The newspaper is a microcosm of the culture that produces it. It mirrorsthe truths, falsehoods, myths, traditions, and fears of and about thepeople, things, and events that are imvolved in the news.
The newspaper is limited as an anthropological tool only inthat it is produced from within one culture, that is, it is ethnocentristic.
These are SOME of the ways the newspaper can be used asan aid in teaching anthropology:
I. As a daily journal of behavior
2. As a textbook of comparative behavior, both of subcultures(educated/uneducated, affluent/poor, business /labor,black/white) and between ours and other societies
4 0-8-
3, As an instrument for learning own c.uitural tro-dionincludi '-istorical reference, heroes, holidays, etc,
As a vehicle for carrying the student to experiences hemay never have personally, such as going to the moon
5. s a communal diary of the progress of man in copingwith and altering his environment. Of all forms ofanimal life, only man modifies his environment withtool-making, invention, and innovation.
6. As a record of archeological discoveries
Anth,.-opology, more than any other discipline, involves onsite observation by the student, because field circumstances cannot beduplicated in the classroom. However, it is possible to dissect one'sown culture to some extent, as well as our perceptions of other cultures,through the medium of the daily newspaper. Specific projects caninclude:
1. News boards and scrapbooks of clippings can be usedcovering a single country over a specified period oftime or during the relationship between two countriesin time of cultural exchange or strife (a sister-cityprogram, war, a trade agreement, etc. ).
2. A news photo montage showing human reactions to changesin environment can become a semester project in itselfor can be a supplement to clipping projects.
3. News clippings can be springboards for further study.For example, a news feature on undersea explorationcould spin off into a classroom project involving writingto government agencies, demonstrations of underwatersurvival gear, even field trips to sea laboratories.
4, A bulletin board headline collection attached to a map orglobe with colored yarn can be the focus of a simpleproject o7' can supplement other projects using photographsor clippi,. G.
5, Advertisements are good indices of cultural expectationsand taboos. For instance, cosmetic advertisementsreflect the ideal woman or man. In newspapers, thestudents can see how certain sections are geared forcertain audiences, such as the women's pages, sportspages and business section. Advertisements can beclipped, arranged on a board with news stories andfeatures where relationships exist. An example mightbe an ad for skirts along with a wor-Len's cage feature onthe changing hemlines.
41 _9...
6. A running check on vital statistics -- marriages, divorces,births -- can give students insights into how the individualis treated b the legal machinery and tradition of oursociety.
7. The law and propriety frequently require the language ofnews copy to be full of analogy, euphemism and allusion.A one-day project could be to assign three or four studentsto a page of the newspaper. In a given time period theyshould mark certain linguistic techniques they find withcolored markers. Of particular interest to high schoolstudents might be a project to compile a short dictionaryof these terms translated into the current jargon usedamong young people.
8. Interaction of official groups can be studied. For example,a presidential efficiency order can have repercussionsfor months down through channels of government agencies.
9. Obituaries can be broken down to show the whole spectrumof a single individual's life -- birth, youth, schooling,profession, marriage, memberships, military service,and accomplishments.
10. Newspaper comics are a rich source of mythology andhero figures. Who is glorified in comics and who is thevillain? Comics can be arranged with relevant news andfeature stories on a board or in a scrapbook.
11. All sections, but particularly news and women's pages,show how other cultures are imprinted on and modifiedby our own -- from the use of the Greek alphabet infraternity names to the assigning of foreign names tostreets.
12. The newspaper library can provide the student with abetter understanding of how his own culture has evolved.In many cities the newspapers are microfilmed as wellas clipped according to subjects, then cross referenced.At most newspapers back issues of the newspaper may beexamined by the public.
13. Game-and-role playing can give the student a feeling ofhow the other man's shoes feel on his Gwn feet. Usingnewspaper stories as springboards, the students chooseroles, say, in an imminent strike or a border dispute,then resolve the conflict through person-to-person con-frontation.
14. To some extent the newspaper can provide the experience
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of "culture shock." ("Hey! In France a premier can bedeposed if he fails to win a vote of confidence, " or,"Why are they using human labor instead of machinesto build a dam in India? ")
Economic literacy is vital to the survival of the Americansociety. Yet, economic literacy cannot be easily achieved today.
Since the end of World War II the economic choices facingour nation have become more and more complicated. Four main prob-lems have arisen:
1. An increased emphasis on production has increasedconcern about the depletion of raw materials and thedistribution of goods produced.
2. There has been a greater emphasis on the desirabilityof income security.
3. Attitudes have changed toward spending and saving.
4. New theories and proposals have been advanced -- andsome adopted -- for the use of the government's mone-tary and fiscal authority to achieve economic stability.
A high degree of economic sophistication is required to makedecisions in any of these areas. Yet, in the United States where we takepride in our educational system, only 65 percent of high school studentsgraduate. Of the graduates, only 58 percent go on to college. Thus, forthe majority of students, high school is the last place in which they willreceive formal instruction in economics.
Through the daily newspaper the citizen is informed ofeconomic choices the nation as a whole must make. And it is from hisnewspaper that the voter learns of alternatives to and final consequencesof these major decisions.
The newspaper thus is without peer in bridging the gap betweenthe classroom and the world outside. Use of the newspaper in the class-room provides the teacher with a readily accessible supplementary toolin teaching econonlics, and it offers the sty ..ent a source of informationthat can be of great value now and after he leaves school.
Before a student can intelligently understand the economicinformation in the newspaper he first must learn what a newspaper is.He should be informed regarding the following:
1. Types of information
A. News stories -- for information
B. Feature stories -- entertainment and inforn,atikm
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G. Editorials -- opinion, argument, special pleading
D. Special sections -- women's, financial, sports
2. Role of the newspaper in the community
A. Source of information
B. Guardian of the community's rights
C. Champion of the community's needs
D. A marketplace where seller and buyer meet
The teacher can greatly increase the student'E economicand general vocabulary by explaining and emphasizing unfamiliar wordswhich appear in the newspaper.
Individual students or groups might con,-:entrate on specificeconomic problems involving such matters as farm subsidies, ta:riffs,foreign trade, labor, and conservation. Have them save clippings abouttheir areas of study over a period of time and expect them to becomewell informed on independent research for a report to the class on theproblem and on possible solutions.
Studies could be made on how the economy of the nation isaffected by the activities of agencies of government. These agenciescould include:
1. Bureau of Budget
2. Interstate Commerce Commission
3. Securities and Exchange Commission
4. National Labor Relations Board
5. Supreme Court
6. Federal Reserve System
Similar studies could be made on such nongovernmentalorganizations as labor unions, the steel industry, and the farmerscooperatives.
In the newspaper the teacher will find opportunities to relatethe function of our capitalistic system to the news items which illustrateits operation. These news items could include:
1. DivithInd reports of corporations
45
Z. Wage increases and the possibility of an increase inprices
3. How productivity changes affect prices and profits
4. An increase or decrease in business failures as anillustration of the efficiency of the compeL systemwhich weeds out wasteful or inefficient producers
5. The opening of new businesses locally and the formationof new industries on a national scale to fulfill growingneeds
6. O-peration of local, state, ard federal governmentalcontrols within the free enterprise system
Students should be helped to understand that everything thathappens in the country has economic repercussions. They will learnthis by reading and studying newspaper articles about such varied thingsas:
10 Changes in tariffs and the prices of sports cars
Z. Tax increases and the price of gasoline
3. Bad weather and the price of food
4. Population shifts and increases in school taxes
5. Technological inventions and increased unemployment
6. The economic factors underlying social unrest
All sections of the newspaper will provide stories that couldbe utilized in a study of economics. The following list will illustrate theversatility of the newspaper:
1. News Section
A. Reports on governmental activities
(1) Students on special projects could use the itemsfor class discussion.
(2) Discuss with the class the effect the activitymight have on the economy.
(3) Study and analyze charts, maps, and graphs.
(4) Clarify new words or phrases.46
B. Activities of foreign governments and ompanies
(3)
Study effects on U. S. economy.
Have some students specialize in activities ofthe European Common Market and the GeneralAgreement of Tariffs and Trade.
Study effects on international tradt: and invest-ment opportunities.
C. Cultural and social moven-lents with economicimplications
(1) Help students analyze economic forces whichcontributed to these movements.
(2) Study interpretive articles and columns aboutthe movements. Could further developmentsbe accelerated by future economic decisions?
2. Editorial PageA. Study facts given by the editor to justify his editorial
position on economic problems.
B. Compare differing editorials on economic subjects.
C. Analyze cartoons related to economics.
D. Study Letters to the Editor columns for public reaction.Have students write sample letters.
3. Women's Section
A. Study the impact of drastic fashion change on thegarment industry as an example of competition ina free market.
B. Announcements concerning new household productscan be related to the market price or a company'sstr,ck.
C. Teen-age fashions and fads can be related to theinfluence of specific buying groups on the market.This study might be a revelation to many studentswho do not realize to what degree they are influencedby advertising.
D. Handy hints, recipe columns, grooming features,
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entertainment advice can be reflected in the demandfor foods and other products. Stories in this sectionoften are geared to seasonal supplies.
4. Classified Advertising
A. A check of help-wanted columns can disclose whatfields need employees.
B. Job-wanted ads can provide material fol-- a study ofunemployment patterns in the community.
5. Display Advertising
A. Advertising creates demands and provides a market-place where the consumer can exercise freedom ofchoice.
B. New products and services are introduced throughnewspaper advertising.
C. Display advertising can affect purchasing habits,such as installment buying, and can affect retailingtrends, as demcnstrated by an increase in discounthouses and supermarkets.
6. Sports Sectior
A. News stories about sales and trades of professionalplayers and the salaries they receive can be used toillustrate the incentive and reward system of capitalism.
B. Stories on new sports arenas and stadiums can illus-trate the importance of financing and other activitiesin sports.
7. Financial Section
A. Announcements of company reorganizations, mergers,proxy fights, and stock splits can be used to illustratethe operations of corporations.
B. Market averages can be explained and studied formarket trends.
C. The functions of the stock market and the stock andbond re.ports in the newspaper can be explained.
D. Individual students or groups can "buy" stocks,making a daily graph of price fluctuations and
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volume traded. Students can learn how .-tock yieldis figured.
E. Announcements of stock sales by investment bankingfirms can be used in a discussion of how new 1,-,suesare placed on the market.
F. Students should learn the difference between stocksand bonds, including why a person or firm mightprefer one to the other. They should understandthe difference between how bonds are bought andsold and how stocks are traded.
G. Labor news and its impact on business can be studied.Questions on government regulation, antv c.polylaws, minimum wage laws, and open sho. . , right-to-work laws can be developed.
H. Changes in laws covering proprietorships, partner-ships, corporations, monopolies, profit, taxes,depletion, and depreciation allowances can be rioted.
I. New inventions and techniques, awarding of govern-ment contracts, public improvement projects canbe studied for their economic impact.
J. Announcements from foreign countries can providea basis for studying foreign trade, investrn.e....nt oppor-tunities, anC expropriation of foreign holdings. Im-plications of rising levels of expectations in under-developed areas of the world can be noted and studied.
The special focus of geography is on the space that manoccupies on the surface of the earth and how he uses that space. Naturedivided land into geographical units, but man divides land into politicalunits, which can pose more insurmountable barriers to his relationshipswith other men than those created by nature.
The elements, both physical and cultural, which are basicto the study of geography, are constantly changing. The geographyteacher must keep abreast of these changes even though no textbook,reference book, map, or professional journal can present an accurateand current story of the earth. The geographer can find a wealth of
material in the newspaper since it is the only medium that tries erevery significant event in the world over a 24-hour period. The npaper can be a valuable tool not only because it is current, but alsobecause it is readily available and because it is inexpensive.
Where is one Ji the five fundamental facts in every newsstory. In telling where an event is taking place, the newspaper attachesthe reader to the story spacially. Areas about which the student-readerhas learned become mulch more interesting when he reads of them in hisnewspaper, because he finds out that things happening far away canaffect him and his country directly.
The newspaper is its own daily supplement. Events unfoldas continuities, and since the newspaper is concerned with how, who,what, when, why, and where it Las to give spacial information as quicklyand clearly as possible. This involves the use of maps, charts, verballocations, place names, and datelines as well as mention of naturalformations.
Other geographical phenomena are mentioned in newspapers,either in connection with fast-breaking news or as separate storiesfeaturing this as the main topic. Some of these stories are on weather,agriculture, oceanography, water resources, natural disasters, andnatural resources.
A news story can be better understood with knowledge of thegeographic relationships of the countries, states, or cities involved. Theopposite is also true--geography is enriched when keyed to news stories.
Even in the student's own operati ial domain, his community,city, state, and country, there is a gap between what the studei knowsand what really exists. A good news story will pinpoint exactly the loca-tion of an event, to such an extent that a reader can find it on a map.Using this information the student can find the news location and betterunderstand what 1.,.as happened.
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If the event was a traffic accident, the student can see on amap that there is a curve in the road at that point, or a bridge, or thatthe location is an intersection where several strePts converge. Evenin such ordinary news events as a parade, a celebrity's travel route orthe location of a water line can become more interesting when locatedin relation to the reader.
include:Some uses of the newspaper in specific geographic projects
1. Map exercises using news stories as starting pointsFor example, a story about an American companyopening an overseas branch can spur the student tofind out about the country, its population, transportation,natural wealth, and labor resources.
2. Game- and role-playing, with news stories as the focus,can add a dimension of involvement in a news event andthe study of geography. For instance, students chooseroles as officers of the company locating a new factory.Given specific choices of location, transportation, rawmaterials, labor costs, markets, power, and personalpreference, the students face the conflicts of choicewhich real industrialists face in such a situation,
3. Clippings %) £ articles, columns and phographs can bearranged on a board or in a scrapbook, both as individualprojects and aL committee or classroom projects,
4. A kiosk can be made by stacking cardboard boxes, thencovering the sides with clippings and photographs. Aglobe can be placed on top of the kiosk with colored tapeor yarn strung between the globe location of the newsevent and the clipping telling what happened. Such a kioskcan be the focal point of a geography corner where indivi-dual projects are assembled.
5. On individual projects, students should be encouraged towatch their- home newspapers for mention of their projectarea or country, then to use these clippings in researchand illustration for written and verbal reports,.
6. Datelines from foreign lands, weather tables, and shippinglists can be used with a blank world map developed by theCopley Department of Education to teach place names andrelationships. When students report on curreozt evthey should be instructed to pin the clipping along the sideof a blank world map on the bulletin board and then connectstory and the place on the map with yarn or string. Othermembers of t lass who might read the article later
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then could follow the yarn to the place mentioned. Thishas proved very effective with slower students.
7. Students can be as-k-e-d to watch the newspaper for storiesthat illustrate how the diferent physical features ofvarious areas of the earth affect people who live there.
8. The newspaper can be used to demonstrate that asso-ciations do exist on the earth. Stories can be four dshowing that large cities are experiencing problems 'Trgrowth, housing shortages, urban sprawl, and erowdc-,streets while rural areaa are experiencing problemsin the loss of population. Current stories found in thenewspaper then can be related to similar informationin textbc'ks.
9. The field is unlimited in the development of the thinkingand reasoning processes in geography through the helpof the newspaper. Stories about hurricanes, poverty,gold prices, scientific discoveries can lead, through theuse cf inquiry, to further study either in greater depthor in greater breadth.
10. The newspaper offers an excellent medium to demonstratethe importance of the subject matter being taught. Geog-raphy becomes alive in the daily newspaper by making thesubject matter more relative and interesting. Nothingdemonstrates better the advantages of having a broadgeographic background.
11. Only through the newspaper can the latest politicalboundary changes in the world learned. The textbookcannet do the job since it is at least five year:7-7 old. whenit arrj.ves at the school. On the other hand, the newspapertries to cover every significant event everywhere in theworld over the last 24 hours.
The newspaper is a living textbook of history. For thisreason it fits naturally into the study of both American history and worldhistory.
Our republic is dependent upon an informed electorate. Afree press is essential to the democratic way of life, but a free pressof no value unless our citizens read it.
The long-range goal of teaching United States history insecondary schools is to help students become well-informed citizens.Hopefully, these citizens will understand questions of public policy andwill contribute to their solution through the formulatii f a sound publicopinion.
The newspaper can contribute to the students sense of historyby reminding them of their own E.articipation in the history of the future.
Because current affairs is only a part of the work of the UnitedStates history class, the teacher should select or guide the students inthe selection of the current topics for class discussion.
Topics chosen for-discussion should pass three tests:
1. Availability of information
2. Interests of stuc: ents
3. Significance to the local community, the American publicas a whole, and the work].
Suggestions for including a study of current affairs in theUnited States history class are:
1. Incidental treatment -)f news as events occur
2. Weekly current affai:Ts period
Current affairs clubs
4. Extended study of current affai,:s fo:- several days atvaric 3 intervals
5. Incorporation of current affairs into regular coursework
The following suggestions for sp?,cial activities and reportsmight prove helpful, particularly to teachers who have had little experience
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in presenting current affairs:
1. Hold model meetings, such as congressional hearingson a bill, with certain students acting as members ofthe committee or as representatives of special interestgroups,
2. Conduct an end-of-the-year surc-ey of the nation'saffairs, with predictions of developments on importantproblems.
3. Conduct class discussions of significant speeches.
The study of current affairs in relation to United States-historymay lead to the question of the proper handling of controversial issues.Here are sugested methods for the teacher in handling controversialissues:
1. Center attention on facts, making the controversy asecondary pal- of the discussion unless the controversyitself is obviously of prime importance.
2. Present all facts and opinions.
30 Promote discussion rather than argument.
4. The teacher should keep her own expression of opinionto a minimum.
5. Avoid starting the discussion of a controversial subjectunless it can be completed in that period. It is difficultto hold arguments in abeyance for the next day.
Here is a table of correlations to help the teacher rela,ehistorical events to present-day happenings:
1. Immigration to the Displaced persons andnew world refugees
2. Colonial antipathy to Attitude toward teacherGeorge III and school authorities
3. Art: :les of Confederation United Nations
4. Northwest Ordinance Colonial policies in. Africa
5. U. S. Constitution Student council charteror club charter
6. Monroe Doctrine Organization of AmericanStates
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7. Frontier gold discovery Uranium and oil claims
8. Pure food and drug laws Student diet and health
9. Wagner Labor Act Local union organization
These correlations are only indicative of what can be done.Once the idea is grasped, it presents unlimited possibilities for integratingcurrent affairs with United States history content.
Other suggested activities include:
1. Make use oi a historical calendar. Students shouldwatch the newspaper each day for news items directlyrelated to United States history. These gems mightinclude the death of a veteran of the Spanish-AmericanWar, the launching of a Navy vessel named after aperson or incident in the nation's past, articles con-cr,rning events in Un_ed. States history. Such items canbe clipped and brought to class. With a minimum ofdiscussion, the most significant story of each day canbe selected and posted on the calendar. At the end ofeach week, the week's most important story, in thesense of history, can be designated on the calendar with
star or other obvious marking. At the end of eachmonth, the month's most important news report can bedetermined and marked.
Z. News pictures relating to historical events can be placedon the bulletin board.
3. Biographical articles on leaders in United States historyand of present day events can be sought, posted andeventually filed for handy reference during review periods.Obituaries will provide valuable background informationabout important persons in the community and in thenation.
4. Students can be encouraged to watch for artir-les relatingto the United States Constitution, such as court decisions,and these can be brought to class. Such articles will(iemo_istrate the Constitution as a living document.
5, During election campaigns, students can bring in clippingsof speeches by candidates and articles which outline partyplatforms and which discuss important :ssues. These w:11provide opportunities to compare actions by politicalparties with those oj. e ..rlier days.
6. Once or twice during the semester, a model presidential
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press conference can be held, with one class memberacting as Mr. President. A committee of studentsfinds out all it can on the problems facing the President,say, during one week. The press conference is heldbefore the entire class, with a written assignment onwhat transpired.
The newspaper also fits naturally into the study of worldhistory. The content of history is man's own story, and that is the con-tent of the newspaper, too.
Use of your newspaper in a world history course cannot beover-emphasized. Because wurld happeni.qgs occur without regard toprescribed courses of study, world history teachers should be carefulto review cv:.rent events regularly and should not hesitate to break awayfrom a lesson plan to cover significant events as they happen.
Usually, a parallel can be drawn between the topic beingstudied and the current event.
Students should be encouraged to lcarn the background ofcolumnists or foreign correspondents whose stories appear regularly intheir newSpaper. If the students know that certain writers have receivedawards or other recognition, they will fe,.l more confidence in reportswritten by these journalists.
By making liberal use of the daily newspaper, the study ofworld history can be more interesting, and it can become living history.These suggestions will help:
l. Select a group of students to become news experts.They can be responsible for particular topics, and thesecan be followed up and presented on an assigned date.News areas could include:
A. Continents
B. Nations in the news
C. Tension spots
D. World leaders
2. Man in the news. Assign students to collect biographicaloketches .nformation on world figures. This info:7-mation e placed in a scrapbook or. filed for laterclassroom use as reference material.
Have stud rits prepare a newspaper of their own in whichthey give an account of some major event in history.
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For example:
A. Prepare a news report on developments in the FrenchRevolution as it might be reported in modern news-papers.
B. Write a news story covering Columbus' -,oyage anddiscovery of America.
C. Prepare news stories relating to the impact made byhistoric world leaders.
4. Assign students to watch for significant statements madeby important world leaders which they think might becomefamous quotations in years to come.
5. Assign students to bring to class newspaper cartoonsrelating to world history.
6. Organize a current events committee. The committee canmeet weekly to study newspaper clippings and discussnews events. By use of interpretive columns written byauthorities, the teacher can help students recognize thesignificance of events that are transpiring and also drawparallels to be found in history. The committee canreport to the class on an assigned date.
7. Maintain a bulletin board. Students can clip and bringto class newspaper stories relating to topics being studied.When the material is removed from the bulletin board, itcan be filed fcr future reference.
Political Science
(Note: Much of the material in the Economics, History,and Sociology sections of this booklet can be used in the study ofpolitical science. )
The primary goal in using the newspaper in teachingpolitical science is to build, through habitual newspaper reading, arealistic understanding of government. The newspaper helps developconcepts of what government is because it is in newspapers that theendeavors of man and his government are recorded. The study ofpolitical science with newspapers can broaden a student's understand-ing of public policy and help build an informed electorate.
Newspaper reading in political science classes can:
I. Initiate a lasting habit as the student becomes acitizen and voter.
-2. Expand textbook material by .showing government inaction, not as an isolated function of a small groupof leaders, but in relation to all other sectors oflife, including business, education, and commerce.
3. Better prepare students to carry on the ideals onwhich our form of government is founded, and showhim that this form of government is a living, legalentity, capable of flexibility in a constantly changingworld situation.
4. Create an awareness in students of their membershipin all levels of the world communitylocal, state,national, international, and now, universal.
Three questions will help set the stage for profitable useof the newspaper in a class in political science:
1. What is happening in the nation and throughout theworld today?
2. What is the United States today, in relation to its ownpast and in the world community?
3. What is government and how does it work? Thiscategory includes many major news items in any oneissue of the newspaper:
A. How citizens, through their votes, select theirleaders, and how in other countries different
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political solutions operate in selecting leader-ship.
B. Government gives pattern to society.,
C. Institutions help set the tsace for certain actionsof government.
The political science class is the ideal place to explain theunnofficial but vital role newspapers play in the governmental process.The teacher can help students understand the role of the newspaper asthe communicator, translator (of difficult and involved governmentjargon) and interpreter of what government action means. The follow-ing statement by Thomas Jefferson might be read to good effect:
"Were it left to me to decide whether we should have gov-ernments without newspapers or newspapers without government, Ishould not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. But I should meanthat every man should receive those papers and be capable of readingthem."
Here are suggestions for continuous use of the newspaperin the political science class:
1. Devote one day each week or one period a day, tocurrent events.
A. Keep the newspaper in the classroom
B. Make weekly current event sessions varied andinteresting by involving students in discussions.
2. Try to save the last 5 or 10 minutes of daily classtime to cover pertinent news and to conduct newsbulletin board activity.
30 Maintain a bulletin board for current events. Set upcommittees to handle areas of news,, such as: U. S,,government bodies and agencies, United Nations,various security pacts (NATO, SEATO, etc.), othergovernments' operations and their relationships withour own.
4. Make a class scrapbook of newspaper clippings illus-trating textbook studies.
5. Current events can be included on tests.
6. Follow a United States government-related story fort'70 weeks. Then have students prepare a one-page
5
ing these:
summary or five-minute talk on the informationgathered.
70 Compare articles written by several columnists aboutthe same news event.
Discussions in class may also take special forms, includ-
1. Brief presentations concerning an issue made by twoor three students, followed by an open forum.
Z. Conduct model meetings of such groups as:
A. U. S. Senate
B. U. N. Assembly
C. European Economic Community (EuropeanCommon Market)
30 Hold a model presidential press conference, withseveral students acting as reporters. Afterwards, awritten report on the conference can be assigned tothe entire class.
4. Discussions of important national and internationalnews stories as they occur, including:
A. Tension spots.
B. Elections.
C. Death of the ruler of a nation.
D. Birth of new nation.
5. During a particularly interesting news period, say acity election, have the class visit a meeting of thecity council. After the visit, students can use thedaily newspaper as a model for creating their ownnewspaper on the issue. The student newspaper couldbe a simple mimeographed page or two, divided intoa news section and an editorial section.
6. As an individual assignment, have students write theirown editorials from a news story. At the same timeshow them the relationship between one day's newsand the next day's editorials as they appear in thenewspaper. 60
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The study of current events in a political science classmay lead to the question of handling controversial issues. In deter-mining if the issue will add to the class' comprehension of politicalscience, the teacher should ask himself the following questions:
1. Is the issue suitable for study by a group with thematurity level of this class?
2. Is there enough information available so that studentsmay draw balanced conclusions? (Here, visitorsexpert in given areas can be invited to speak on thepros and cons of an issue. )
3. Is the topic one on which the teacher is well informedor can become sufficiently informed to insure a bal-anced presentation?
4. Is the issue one of continuing significance?
5. Does the study of the issue contribute to the objectivesof the course?
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Sociology
In an age when the science of earth and space has acceler-ated the study of man's relationship to his environment, it is becomingincreasingly important for man to study his relationship with his fellowman.
Sociology approaches this problem in two ways:
1. Studying man's individual development.
2. Studying man's actions and problems within groups.
The newspaper is a natural medium through which to teachsociology. Sociology is a categorical discipline; that is, it confinesitself to statements about what is, not what ought to be. Similarly,the newspaper makes its presentation on a "what is" basis. But itadds an "ought-to-be" section and labels it the editorial page. There-fore, newspapers will provide an exciting enrichment to a sociologyclass.
The immediate goal of-Sociology, as a pure science, is theacquisition of knowledge about human society. Sociology is not apractice, but an attempt to understand. As a science, sociology isnecessarily silent about questions of value; it cannot decide the direc-tions in which society ought to go, and it makes no recommendationson matters of social policy. With this in mind, newspapers arevaluable tools in keeping this type of course from becoming a seriesof dry presentations oi rehashes of textbook materials.
The following techniques are general activities which couldbe carried on throughout the entire course. They could also be usedon a smaller scale of two or three weeks duration.
These techniques might be used:
1. List ten social problems (such as adult and juvenilecrime, narcotics addiction, alcoholism, metalhealth and institutions, care of the handicapped) andthen assign student committees to keep logs for onemonth on newspaper features and news stories deal-ing w-.1.th these problems. At the end of the month,the various committees in a panel discussion wouldreport their findings and encourage class discussionon the problems.
2. Assign students to clip from the newspaper storieson how various individuals seek to solve the sameparticular problem. Discuss if and how these
62
individuals could have benefited from the manycounseling featu:res found in the newspaper.
3. Bring in newspaper opinion polls. Discuss the sub-ject matter of the polls and the steps taken to obtainthe results.
4,, Assign groups to follow the activities of a socialagencyfederal, state and/or local--and report onthese agencies periodically.
Because the topics of juvenile crime and drug addictionare foremost in the minds of the public today, Techthque No. 1 isemphasized in the following paragraphs. Textbook materials on thesesubjects are obsolescent even as the books are written. Properlyused, the newspaper can provide the difference between a course thatis living and dynamic or a course that is dull and unrneaningful to thestudents.
Use of the newspaper to study narcotics addic-Uon and themisuse of dangerous drugs could be handled in this manner:
1. Use a current series on narcotics on the misuse ofdangerous drugs from the newspaper. Have thestudents circle the vocabulary words used that per-tain to drugs and addicts. Then assign a group ofstudents, fou-t. or five, to look up the definitions asa lead-in to discussion.
2. Assign another group to research the psychologicalreasons why a person becomes adcicted to drugs.By using the newspaper, the students may verifytheir findings thraugh individual cases cited.
3. Have another group research how drug addicts aretreated medically for a cure in their community.Use the-newspaper to find public opinion on cure-clinic s and public attitudes toward the cured and re-formed addict.
4. Another group could prepare a sketch in which thevarious people concerned with drug addicts and theircure are interviewing an addict. Emphasize questionsthat are of general interest. Obtain information thatwould aid the general public, as a newspaper reporterwould do.
5. Use the newspaper to cite cases in the students' owncoxmnunity of the use of both narcotics and dangerousdrugs. The reality of the situation becomes more
-31-
apparent as they pinpoint atta0_,,epall, 0where problems occur. 11-1 ttb .search brings it "home whe ore arld eliminatesthe view that "it will never ,e0 II'qapr
6. Assign research for current s liser arrestsand pusher arrests.
7. Assign research to find cutt_,t CCIS...tsZ (yr stip') r tin gthe narcotics habit, the coat 'fo'r CL1-1-1-11a4-tiie addict aswell as the cost of legal trd r,er arrest.
4.esaF-
8. The sociological impact is at. roof of it inpthe newspaper. Stories call elrio onal re-action of families and frientisl':
A; ed,9. Summarize with the class th ,roble tying111
in all the information uncov.Z.;,3 tIZL sv70us classgroups.
Use of the newspaper in thehandled in a similar manner. Becauseappears to be a general lack of respectbehavior, the background for this studyto the sociology teacher.
it 71kile crime can becm ort there
foralAly tef:0t. :teept.ades and1;'
jar interestmiaht e
Justice Tom C. Clark, former ksyocitt: J\istice of theU. S. Supreme Court, emphasizes the need to help re-kindle a respect for law by removing the iglI"L'i_aoce'-bki 4.els a majorpart in the lack of favorable attitudes towal.ti't117e lauw. ducati.onAge, 1967, Justice Clark says, "Our prob4rri ° fk,ittre to teachour people democracy as written in our funei,xt_trights, rather than individua3 riotrespect ;1'0'r 1.0x"0,)4,1 obedience toconstituted authority. o to We must teach to obey thelaw but to also understand it. We have too 11;057- tu`k.y.-;17110 do neither."
A study at a San Diego area elebtarY q,x,.,01 disclosedthat most students not only were unfamiliaz..rio. i;ors concerningjuveniles but also with such statutes as one triwajciPg 4: k'crirrie to bepresent where marijuana is being used.
In teaching respect for the law -tke oesr"r!bi4er is valuablebecause it is current. In addition to carryil,' iisan in con-flict with law, it also carries special featn1;es positiveapproach to the problem. These include etor:s ilaw thecourts operate and articles on safety conce1-`13.g ra_tc).. vehicles andbicycles. By keeping well informed through'ttLe isx''"tsper, the studentcan follow the development and change in laA,v,
Some suggestions for the study cviii.srellile irrle
6_12_
1. For a two-week period, clip stories telling aboutcrimes which have been committed.
2. Assign a group of students to look up such definitionsas felony and misdemeanor. Classify the crimesaccordingly.
3- Ask them to narrow the crimes found in the news-paper to those of juvenile crimes. Review the lawthat makes a particular act reported in the newspaperstory a crime. If the reason for the law is obscure,encourage discussion on why it originated.
4. Discuss how the crime could have been avoided. En-courage discussion by exploring details.
5. Keep a running account from tile first report of acrime to the final outcome of one delinquent as storiesabout his case appear in the newspaper.
6. Assign research on city, state, and national statisticson this particular crime.
7. If in the discussion students show objection to a cer-tain law, explain the democratic process available tochange it.
8. Use examples found in the newspaper on results ofsocial behavior.
Various opinion polls, series on contemporary socialproblems, and news stories relative to social problems further thestudents ability to relate their textbook learning to what is actuallyoccuring in the world in which they live.
The opinion poll (Technique No. 3) is a tool of soeologicalresearch. Students can, use the newspaper both as a source of learn-ing what the poll reveals and how such polls are conducted. Sincenewspaper polls are current, they have more interest for studentsthan does much material used in textbooks. A section of the bulletinboard might be used to post these polls. Short essay-type paragraphsabout the conclusions reached by the polls can be used to stimulatediscussions on the subject matter.
The activities of a social agency (Technique No. 4) mayinclude studies of adoptIon agencies, foster home plan, rehabilitationcenters, geriatric care, psychiatric and psychological counseling,occupational training, aid to families with dependent children, budgetcounseling, and legal counseling. By following the stories about acertain agency, they will learn why it is needed, if they feel it should
65-33-
be publicly supported, if its impact on the co=iunity is sufficient, ifthe techthques as applied by the agency and learned in school actuallyare effective. Editorials and letters to the editor give the class theattitudes of ,%e public toward the agencies.
Armed with such information found in the various news-paper studies, the sociology student may see what his generationmust emphasize and what research must be done to improve man'sindividual development and man's actions within groups.
66
CNS Bureausand special correspondents:BostonHartfordNew HavenNew YorkPhiladelphiaCape Kennedy, Fla.Miami, Fla.ChicagoNew OrleansOklahoma CityAustin, Tex.Amarillo Tex.PhoenixTucson.-Seattle
:Springfield, HI:St Louis
:San Francisco ,
Los Angeles- _-
Sacramento,. Calif.Fairbanks. AlaskaAnchorage, AlaskaJuneau, AlaskaHonoluluHollywoodWashington .
johannesburg,South AfricaCopenhagen, Denmark
New Delhi, India_ Nairobi, KenyaOttawa, CanadaVa ncouver,'.Ca nada
-.Toronto, CanadaMontreal;'Canada-Manila, The-PhilippinesMadrid,Spain .Bonn, West GdrmanySaigon;South VietnamNicosia,-CYprusGeneia,tSwitzerland
Beirut, LebanonHaifa;lsradiGlasgow:ScotlandTokyo,jananBangkok, ThailandSeoul,Korea-Ka rachi; PakistanVienna; Austria'Oolornbo-,:Ce309-9
-Taipei,TaiWan-Hong Kong,
. Salisbury,RhodesiaParis;FranceAnkara;Xurkey .
Istanbul, Turkey .='Lusaka; Zambia-DardSSalearn; Tanzania=Perfh;"AustralieLondon; EnglandStockholm; -Sweden.-Singabbre',Romd;;Italy.:;,-;Aucklaiid,-!NeWZOland:Melbourne;.Balgrade. YugoSlaV.ia-':Athens, Greece;.:.:
: Gaberones,.BOts*aJerusalein; Israel
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_
IntroductionIt is a difficult even frustrating task trying to
keep up with world events, which change even whilewe are asleep.
One medium does this for us, fully reporting every24 hours what has-happened around the globe.
This medium is the daily newspaper-- The, newspaper is a daily chronicle of history, tell-
ing:not only-what is happening, but Why. The-storiesnot only examine news 'events in full detail, but arewritten to be UriderstOod--Eyen so, the- Complexity of these events : bothforeign and: doniestiC.--. requires additional' knowl-edge on the part:Of the reader for-full understanding.The More basie information he has on any partienlarsubject, the More he will gain from reading articles inhis ,newspaper in that subject.
But how. does -a reader acquire this backgroundknOwledge;'eSpecialfyif he may-spend only a limitedamount or time pUrsiiing :
One way is to have it condenSed and presented byexPerts on acontinuing, umto-date basis.
And that is the purpose of thiy,series of COPLEYNEWS-SERVICE REPORTS:pamphlets.
The -article's are pablished .:bY:the Copley News-papers Department ofrEdileation;and were preParedin cooperation With the WOrldWide --neWs-:gatheringorganization, Copley NeWs Service. TheJnformation,compiled frorn reportS. by CNS bureak:aiiefS-andcorrespondentS2 on, the sections-, of :the world- theycover, are designed to 'provide backgrOund informa-don on those areaS: - : . .
Additionally, _a section on maPs his been includedto help in tracing the geographical develoninentiCtit-lined:in the articles. A separate marithe pamphlet On THE WAR IN VIETNAM, WhichshOWs keY, areaS, towns, routes; ete.' Which: figureproininently in 'the news from the ernbattled South-eastAsia area. - .
As- eVents in particular parts of the World demand,.riewr -articles and-niaps Will be prepared and Will be:made available...:]_ -
;The:a:1'461es are, not 'Meant:to:be and cannot be a...subititute for the'-reinl.*P6TEACe.of reading a news--
PaPekiT4eii,;,-51P make newspperreaclingmore mean-ingfiiL .
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY.RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTEDBY
TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE U.S OFFICEOF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTIONOUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER
The Conquest of Space
The year was 1961 and the words were PresidentJohn F. Kennedy's:
"I believe that this nation should commit itself toachieving the goal, before this decade is out, oflanding a man on the moon and returning himsafely to earth."
Eight years later, on July 20, 1969, Neil Arm-strong, 38, an American astronaut, climbed downthe nine rungs of a Lunar Module ladder and took astep on the moon. He was 225,000 miles from Earth.
"That's one small step for man," Armstrongsaid, "one giant leap for mankind."
And so man had done the impossible. He reachedother worlds, he opened up the universe, he turnedthe page to a new era.
Twenty minutes after Armstrong's first step, asecond American astronaut, Edwin E. "Buzz"Aldrin, followed onto the moon's surface. The twomen spent approximately two hours on the lunarsurface, collected 48 pounds of stones and dirt forscientific study, photographed lunar material andset up scientific equipment that remained aftertheir departure.
Flag and Plaque LeftThey also left behind a 3-by-5 foot nylon flag of
the United States and a plaque which read:"Here Men From The Planet EarthFirst Set Foot Upon The MoonJuly 1969, A. D.We Came In Peace For All Mankind."
The plaque bears the names of Armstrong,Aldrin, astronaut Michael Collins, who orbited thecommand spacecraft 69 miles above while hiscompanions walked on the moon's surface, andPresident Richard M. Nixon.
A telephone call, perhaps man's most historic,was completed from President Nixon in his WhiteHouse office to the two astronauts standing on themoon.
The flight went without a hitch. Meanwhile, earthwas held in a sort of "moon madness."
An estimated 600 million persons roughly one-sixth of the world's population watched on livetelevision as Armstrong and Aldrin took their firststeps on the moon. Millions more from Com-munist lands in Eastern Europe to nations.deep inAfrica listened to radio accounts or saw delayedTV broadcasts of the event.
Even Russia where all news is subject tocensorship broke precedent to carry a livetelecast of the astronauts' return. In what seemed
9-71
to be a new warmth in Soviet-U. S. relations,President Nikolai V. Podgorny cabledcongratulations ot President Nixon.
So, the names of the first moon explorers go intohistory with those of Columbus, Magellan and theothers who opened new paths of achievement formankind.
Russian Flight FirstThe decade that ended with this American space
triumph began when Maj. Yuri Gagarin of theSoviet Union became the first human in space onApril 12, 1961.
It took that challenge, on the heels of Russia'slaunching the first man-made satellite, Sputnik I,in 1957, to get the U. S. program under way. It wasin 1961 that the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA) was created and theUnited States was on the path to the moon.
The program started slowly. There have beenfailures, disappointments and tragedy. But asAmerican scientific and technological know-howgained momentum, so did the program.
Here are the highlights of America's threephases of manned space exploration the Mer-cury, Gemini and Apollo programs.
MERCURY: May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard Jr.is the first American into space with a 15 minute up-and-down suborbital flight.
Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn Jr. is the firstAmerican to orbit the Earth.
GEMINI: March 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom andJohn W. Young complete the first American two-man space flight.
June 3-7, 1965 Edward H. White II on a flightwith James A. McDivitt becomes the firstAmerican to walk in space.
Dec. 4 to 18, 1965 Frank Borman and James A.Lovell Jr. in Gemini 7 meet with Walter M. SchirraJr. and Thomas P. Stafford in Gemini 6 for the firstsuccessful space rendezvous in man's history.
March 16-17, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong and DavidR. Scott in Gemini 8 connect with an unmannedsatellite, the first linkup between two spacecraft.
APOLLO: Oct. 11-22, 1968 -- Schirra, Donn F.Eisele and Walter Cunningham in Apollo 7 com-plete the first American three-man flight.
Dec. 21-27, 1968 Borman, Lovell and William A.Anders orbit the moon in Apollo 8, the first manned
6 9 .:1) Copia( NewgPaPe4DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
spacecraft to fly out beyond Earth's gravity.March 3-13, 1969 McDivitt, Russell L. Sch-
weickart and Scott, in Apollo 9, test the lunarlanding craft in another flight beyond Earth'sgravity.
May 18-26, 1969 Stafford, Eugene A. Cernanand Young complete, in Apollo 10, man's first flightclose to the moon.
July 16-24, 1969 Armstrong and Aldrin ac-complish a safe landing on the moon and return toEarth with Collins in Apollo 11.
Nov. 14-24, 1969 Charles ("Pete") Conrad Jr.and Alan Bean land on the moon's surface whileRichard Gordon Jr. orbits in the Apollo 12 com-mand module
They left five experiments on the lunar surface,powered by a million-dollar nuclear generator, thefirst atomic powerplant in space. Some of the lunartests have amazed scientists, including seismicresponses in the moon that don't follow knownprinciples and high magnetic activity.
Although Apollo 12 was marred by petty troublesfrom lightning striking it during liftoff to Bean'shead being cut by a falling camera during therough splashdown, the flight was considered anoverwhelming success.
So successful, in fact, that observers andastronauts began to feel complacent and secureabout the safety of American space flights.
There were complaints that Americans saw theApollo 13 moon shot as a "rerun" and that itstelevision broadcasts were upstaged by a golftournament, an auto race and a baseball game.
The astronauts themselves were taking theflights more and more lightly, and tried to think upnew "firsts " the Apollo 12 crew gave a humorousfirst space press conference, and Lovel reported heate the first space hot dog with catsup in the earlystages of the Apollo 13 flight.
Spaceship ImperiledThen disaster struck. Two days after the April 11
liftoff, when the Apollo 13 craft was in the grasp ofthe moon's gravity, a fuel cell filled with liquidoxygen exploded.
The crippled ship, already 205,000 miles fromEarth, looped around the moon, used a portion of itsmeager power supply to set an Earth-bound course,and headed homeward.
While people all over the world held their breath,astronauts Lovell, Fred W. Haise Jr. and John L.Swigert Jr. depended on the frail lunar module forprecious supplies of oxygen, water and power.
Just before they entered Earth's atmosphere fortheir successful April 17 splashdown, they dumpedthe lunar module which had saved their lives andrelied on three storage batteries in the commandmodule for power.
The cause of the explosion, which ripped away a13-foot high section of the spaceship's side, waslater determined to be poor tank design combinedwith the application of too much voltage to a pair oftiny thermostatic switches in the tank beforetakeoff.
In the long days of uncertainty, nations aroundthe world offered whatever help they could. Eventhe USSR said it was standing by with rescue ships.
This was the most serious emergency to occur inAmerican space flights, although it was the 14thtime in 24 flights that U. S. astronauts had to takecorrective action to save a mission.
Apollo 14, America's third manned lunarmission, in February 1971, was declared an un-conditional success. The three astronauts, StuartA. Roosa, Edgar A. Mitchell and Shepard, returnedsafely to earth with a valuable cargo of pictures,rocks and soil for further scientific study.
However, a faulty docking mechanism whichrefused to lock the command and lunar modulestogether early in the flight threatened to abort themission until the crew, after five tries, secured thecraft. Officials said this action, possible only withthe presence of the astronauts, confirmed the valueof manned space flights over unmanned missions.
Three Astronauts Killed In FireThe biggest tragedy in the American program
occurred when three U. S. astronauts were trainingon a launch pad at Cape Kennedy in January, 1967.A fire, feeding on a pure oxygen atmosphere,flashed through the command module and killedGrissom, White and Roger Chaffee.
It took nearly two years and $800 million after thefire before the U. S. was ready to send up its nextastronauts.
Despite their early lead in the space race, Russiaalso has suffered tragedies in its program, thelatest being the deaths in June, 1971 of threecosmonauts as they were about to land on earthafter a record 24 days aloft. This was the fourthdeath suffered during Soviet space flights, andcreated uncertainty about the future of the Sovietprogram.
It wasn't an easy, effortless triumph for the U. S.to reach the moon before the Russians.
To catch up with Russia, NASA drew up anemergency plan on a wartime-like scale anddecided to use American industry, not the govern-ment itself.
It required the work of half a million people, in all50 states, and the combined resources of 20,000American business firms. New factories were built,test centers constructed and launch facilitieserected using the skills of thousands of scientistsand technicians.
There was little hesitation in moving aheadtoward the moon once the labor force was secured.Included in that force was Dr. Wernher von Braun,developer of the early Redstone and Jupiterrockets and one of the key people who helped theU. S. reach space leadership.
The cost of the Apollo program was estimatedafter the first moon landing at $24 billion anaverage of $472 for every American family.
But competition from Russia was intense.In late 1969, the Russians had three craft with a
Utal of seven cosmonauts in an orbit 135 miles
above the Earth at one time. Presumably this feat,more men in space at once than ever before, was inpreparation for a manned Earth-orbiting platform.
The Russians also have sent up an impressivenumber of weather satellites, communication aidsand planetary probes, including the first to suc-cessfully inspect Venus.
They also sent up the first cosmonette, ValentinaTereshkova, in 1963, and have five femalecosmonauts out of their field of 100. The U. S. has 59astronauts, all male.
Although the Americans were the first to land onthe moon the results of any "race" for spacesupremacy are still uncertain. The Russians areaiming for different and equally spectaculartriumphs in space including space stations andsettlements on other planets. And though thepersistence of Soviet secrecy as contrasted withthe complete TV coverage of the U. S. programmakes difficult a detailed comparison of USSRspace activities with those of the United States,observers feel that manned interplanetary flight inthe 1970s and 1980s is not beyond Soviet technicalcapabilities.
Communist China, meanwhile, stepped into thespace race in April 1970, with the launching of abeeping satellite about twice the size of Russia'ssputnik. Some observers feel the only reason thisunderdeveloped nation, with its numerous internaldifficulties, would send up a satellite is for purposesof spying or weaponry.
Goddard Was PioneerMan's concept of using rockets to achieve flights
in space began with Robert Goddard, an Americanphysicist who started thinking along those linesduring World War I. He pioneered the use of liquid-propellant rockets which were developed to areasonably high state by the Germans in theirresearch and development leading to the V-2 andother rocket weapons used in World War II. Theserockets were developed further by both the UnitedStates and Russia mostly for ballistic missiles andonly more recently for spacecraft.
Not all of the American space program involvedmanned flights.
Presently, American unmanned spacecraft havereached a high level of utility and sophistication.Nimbus weather satellites have given weathermena better chance of being right; Surveyor has landedon the moon, dug into the surface, and closelyphotographed the lunar terrain; Orbiter hasmapped the moon with photos; Voyager is probingthe mysteries of Mars and Venus.
Five rocket systems have been used from thetime Shepard made the initial Mercury IIIsuborbital flight in 1961 to the spectacular Arm-strong-Collins-Aldrin moon landing of July, 1969.
It was the Redstone rocket, lengthened andmated with solid-fuel upper stages whichbecame the Jupiter C that in 1958 launchedExplorer 1, the first U. S. satellite. Modified again,it became the Redstone-Mercury, and in 1961 liftedShepard and Grissom in suborbital flight paths.
The Atlas, sometimes described as theworkhorse of rocketry because of its extremeaccuracy, reliability and versatility, launched fourof the manned Mercury orbital flights JohnGlenn, Scott Carpenter and Wally Schirra in 1962and Gordon Cooper in 1963.
The Titan 2 rocket, a modified Air Force in-tercontinental ballistic missile, began its mannedflights in 1965 when it sent Grissom and Young, on athree-orbit mission. The Titan 2 continued to serveto 1966, throughout the Gemini program.
The Saturn I rocket, used for the early mannedApuilo flights, grew out of the Redstone and Jupiterboosters. It had, however, many times more thrustbecause its engines are operated in clusters. Therocket, with a total thrust of 1,590,000 pounds,scored 10 successes in as many launchings up to1965 when its research and development programwas phased out.
Saturn I's first stage, given additional thrust,became the first stage of the uprated Saturn andit demonstrated that the clustering of engines wasfeasible.
Saturn 5 DevelopmentThe Saturn 5, the "moon rocket," was developed
in late 1967. Its 7,500,000-pound thrust was the onethat helped blast U. S. astronauts to the moon. It isa three-stage rocket and, when fully fueled andtopped with three complex Apollo components,weighs more than six million pounds as much asa large destToyer. The Saturn 5 stands 363 feet high,taller than the length of a football field. Its first-stage engine produces enough power to orbit all theprevious space craft launched by the United States.
When the rocket was initially tested at CapeKennedy it produced one of the loudest noiseshistory ever recorded. Scientists said only twonatural events on record ever produced strongerairwaves than the Saturn 5 the eruption of theKrakotoa Volcano in the East Indies in 1883 and thefall of the Great Siberian Meteorite in 1908.
The Saturn 5's Apollo components include theApollo command module, the craft in which theastronauts rode to the moon and back; a servicemodule that contains a 21,500-pound thrust enginethat propelled the astronauts off the moon's sur-face; and the peculiar looking lunar module whichthe space explorers used to descend to the moon.
So, now that the "great goal" the landing onthe moon has been achieved, the naturalquestion is what benefits, geological and otherwise,have been achieved by the mission and will beachieved by further explorations of the moon.
Samples of lunar soil and dust returned to Earthon Apollo 12 differ markedly from those broughtback by the first lunar explorers. The second groupis of different composition, lighter colored, andmany rocks are glass coated.
Findings have caused many scientists to altertheir views that the moon has always been a cold,dead body. Some scientists think that perhaps themoon's great deserts were created by lava spewed
7 kom a molten interior and later covered with rock
dust and glass beads that probably fell like raindrops.
It is generally believed that the moon is about 4.6billion years old, the same as the universe ingeneral. Some scientists believe that the moon andEarth were bombarded by numerous large objectsabout 3.5 billion years ago.
Philosophies about formation of the moon vary.Some feel it was part of the Earth, wrenched fromwhat is now the Pacific Ocean. Others feel it wasformed at the same time as Earth, and othersbelieve it was a wandering body caught in Earth'sgravity.
But some facts now are known. It possesses somematerials that do not occur naturally on Earth.There is no definite sign that life has ever existedthere and there is no sign of any water on the moon.
No chances are taken that our moon explorersmight bring back to earth a minute moon organismthat could cause a catastrophic plague. As soon asthe spacemen splash down to earth they becomesubject to elaborate isolation and precautionarytechniques. They are placed in quarantine for 21days and have comprehensive medical checksregularly to see that no slow-acting organisms areinfecting their systems.
However, pressure is being applied to stopquarantining the astronauts. Many feel it has beenproven there are no infectious organisms on themoon.
Reach Into SpaceThe U. S. conquest of the moon is only the start of
what will be further far-reaching space ad-ventures.
Only three more lunar missions are scheduled forApollo astronauts with the last sometime in late1972. Starting with the July Apollo 15 flight, all thelast flights will carry battery-powered automobilesto enable the crews to travel on the moon. Thevehicles have a range of 50 miles and a top speed ofnine miles an hour.
In addition, NASA engineers are alreadyworking on plans for moon colonies inhabited by asmany as 50 to 100 persons, perhaps possible by thelatter part of the century.
Astronauts on future lunar missions will installincreasingly complicated devices on the moon, tohelp determine the moon's structure, temperatureand environment over a long period of time
Dr. Thomas 0. Paine, administrator of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration,said one of NASA's major priorities will be to findout how effectively man can exist in a weightless,space-station atmosphere and carry out usefulwork in orbit over an extended period of time
To that end, the U. S. plans to send up an earth-orbifing space station, Skylab, in 1973. Although thefirst space station will have a three-man crew, alarger station which would support 12 men isplanned for 1975. Fifty-man stations are plannedfor the 1980s.
A reuseable space shuttle which would take offfrom Earth like a rocket and land like a jet at a
conventional airstrip should be ready for testing inthe mid 1970s.
Although the next logical target for mannedflight is Mars and the U. S. plans a Mars landingbefore the century is out, attention is being focusednow on unmanned exploratory vehicles.
Mariner space probes have sent remarkablepictures of Mars to Earth, taken with long andshort range television cameras. The probes alsosent devices to measure the Martian atmosphereand temperatures.
The pictures, transmitted to Earth by radio"dots," were about 500 times better than anysnapped through the best telescopes on Earth. Theyshowed clear details of craters and other land-marks as small as 900 feet across.
Increased knowledge of the Martian environmentand surface will be gained by evaluation of datafrom the fall rendezvous of America's Mariner 9and Russia's Mars 2 and 3 unmanned missions toMars.
In 1973, plans call for a third pair of unmannedspacecraft to be sent aloft to make gentle landingson the planet,..exaore for signs of life and providemeasurement of surface conditions.
And this, scientists say, to determine, once andfor all, whether life exists there and, if so, whatkind is the main reason for landing on Mars.
A program to land men on Mars would cost atleast $5 billion a year, officials say, and couldbecome the main target of those who want todeemphasize the entire U. S. space effort after theApollo project ends.
A methodical exploration of the more distantplanets, scientists predict, will be undertaken withunmanned spacecraft.
'Grand Tours' PlannedIn addition, unmanned "grand tours" past
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto areplanned for the latter part of the decade. Theplanets are only lined up to make that possible onceevery 179 years, and such flights can be madebetween 1976 and 1980.
The testing of the first nuclear-propulsion spacevehicle is planned by the U. S. for 1978.
Despite the success of many aspects of the Apolloprogram, there have been many critics who havequestioned spending $36.5 billion on America'sspace program, money which might otherwisehave gone toward the solution of domesticproblems and NASA's budget has been cutdrastically over the last five years. Next year $2.7billion less will be available than NASA got in 1966.
NASA administrator Paine justifies a vigorousspace program this way: "We simply can't hold upall progress in art, in literature, in science andexploration until we solve all the problems ofm ankind.
"New technology programs like the spaceprogram create new wealth which, in turn, gives us016)ability to distribute the wealth more broadlyviihein our society to help meet some of our welfareand poverty problems.
The War in Vietnam
The worldwide conflict between the free worldand communism still focuses in Southeast Asiaafter nearly a decade of bloody fighting.
Here, U. S. and South Vietnamese armed forces(with some additional help) have been fighting toinsure South Vietnam's right of political self-determination.
Facing them are the Viet Cong a south Viet-namese Communist rebel guerrilla army whichcontrols much of the territory of South Vietnamand regular troops from Communist North Viet-nam, which directs the aggression.
The Communists, with strong support from Chinaand the Russian bloc, have proclaimed it a "war ofnational liberation," insisting that the SouthVietnamese National Liberation Front, thepolitical arm of the Viet Cong, represents the neworder for mankind and should be a pattern for theunderdeveloped countries in the world.
These emerging countries, in turn, are verymuch aware of the issue and can be expected to bestrongly influenced by the outcome.
French ControlRoots of the present conflict go back to 1859, when
France seized Saigon and began to spread controlover the Indochinese peninsula.
A surge of nationalism, spurred by the newdoctrine of communism, began shortly after WorldWar I. Periodic rebellions against French rulebroke out over demands for more self-government,with Communists playing a prominent part in therevolutionary activities.
In 1940, France fell to the German onslaught andJapan occupied Indochina, administering itthrough the Vichy French regime. In early 1945,with the war plainly lost, Japan sponsored an in-dependent Vietnamese state under Bao Dal, last ofVietnam's emperors.
In South China, however, another organization,the Communist-backed Viet Minh (League forVietnamese Independence) was preparing to seizepower in Vietnam.
At its head was a 54-year-old Bolshevik, Ho ChiMinh, who was returning to his Vietnam homelandafter 33 years of serving the Communist movementin Paris, London, Moscow and China.
In the fall of 1945, Bao Dai gave way as the VietMinh proclaimed a republic and marched intoHanoi. France recognized the new regime as in-dependent, but with strong ties to France, and also
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set up a separate French-controlled governmentfor the southern half of the country.
Under one French-Viet Minh agreement, Frenchtroops were allowed in parts of North Vietnam.However, disputes arose over the degree of selfgovernment the north would have and over thestatus of the more closely controlled south.Sporadic military pressure against the Frenchcontinued throughout the country, as the opposedpoints of view made compromise impossible.
Finally, Ho's Viet Minh forces took to the jungleto begin the bloody eight-year war which ended in1954 after the defeat of the French at Dien BienPhu. In a cease-fire arranged at an internationalconference in Geneva, Vietnam was divided at the17th Parallel, with the north going to Ho and southto Bao Dai. In 1955, a republic was proclaimed inthe south with Ngo Dinh Diem as president.
Under Ho, North Vietnam became a full-fledgedCommunist state, exercising total control over itspeople and iron rule of all facets of life. Economicgrowth has been slow and the standards of livingmiserably low.
Under Diem, a strong nationalist and anti-Communist, South Vietnam started showingeconomic gains and general progress.
However, new insurgency started in the south in1957, and by 1959 the Viet Cong, aided and directedby North Vietnam, had emerged as a powerfulCommunist guerrilla force controlling large partsof the country outside the cities.
Unrest mounted as Diem took increasingly harshrepression measures. Finally, after massiveprotests led by Buddhist monks and students, Diemwas overthrown and killed in a military coup in1963.
U. S. Becomes Major InfluenceThere followed a succession of government
coups, with the Viet Cong making further progressas South Vietnam's generals occupied themselveswith political battles rather than military affairs.
As the situation worsened, the United Statesbecame more and more involved militarily.
This involvement actually started during WorldWar II, when Office of Strategic Service teamsparachuted into occupied Indochina to help against
72 CoPlat NewgrDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
the Japanese. After the Korean War, Americabegan a massive economic aid program to build upthe area against the threat of communism.
With the withdrawal of the French after theGeneva Agreements, the United States became thedominant foreign power in Vietnam, taking overthe job of providing military assistance and adviceto the new government of South Vietnam.
This first consisted of a few hundred men whowere sent at the request of South Vietnam and whowere authorized to be there under the GenevaAgreements' terms. Their job was to reorganizethe South Vietnamese army.
However, as the Viet Cong increased militaryaction, the United States added to its militaryassistance group, and from the handful of adviserswho formerly accompanied South Vietnamesetroops to combat and who rarely engaged in theactual fighting, the conflict became a full-scalewar.
A new phase started in August 1964, when twoU. S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin reported theyhad been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedoboats. The United States retaliated by bombingshore installations in North Vietnam.
Viet Cong Aitacks IncreaseIn February 1965, with mounting Viet Cong
terrorist attacks against American installations inSouth Vietnam, the United States began air raidsagainst military targets in the north, which con-tinued and were intensified.
In March 1965, the first U. S. combat troops, 3,500Marines, arrived in South Vietnam to protect theairbase at Da Nang. Since then the scope of the warhas broadened dramatically.
Approximately 540,000 U. S. fighting men were inVietnam at peak strength in mid-1969. Thousandsmore manned the naval and Air Force units basedoffshore or in other countries in the area. However,by mid-1971 U. S. troop strength was cut to 233,000.
The United States, a partner in defense treatieswith 43 nations, has received little military help inthe struggle.
Many countries in Latin America, Europe andthe Middle East feel the war in Asia is too remoteand does not endanger them. In addition to this lackof concern, some U. S. allies have expressed doubtthat American policy toward the current situationin Southeast Asia is correct and question the U. S.right to be there.
This contrasts with the Korean War when formalUnited Nations action made intervention legal andwhen some 15 other countries sent more than 40,000troops to fight beside Americans and SouthKoreans.
The main anti-Communist shield in SoutheastAsia is the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization(SEATO). Its members are the United States,Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, thePhilippines, Pakistan and Thailand.
Organized in 1954, the pact is considered thebasic collective defense system in Southeast Asia in
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which members, on invitation, move to the aid of acountry under attack.
The former French Indochinese countriesVietnam, Cambodia and Laos were forbidden bythe Geneva Agreements of 1954 to join any treaties,but their defense is guaranteed under the SEATOpact.
A joint statement by Thailand and the UnitedStates in 1962 says that the American obligationdoes not depend on agreement oi all treatymembers. This extension of the U. S. obligation hasbeen accepted by a majority of SEATO members.
However, the treaty never has been invoked bySouth Vietnam because of policy differencesamong several of the members.
SEATO has no standing military force underunified command and serious internal conflicts onpolicies and interests have hindered its ef-fectiveness as a unified defense pact.
In addition to defensive military action, however,the alliance is pledged to economic and socialprogress in Southeast Asia. Headquarters is inBangkok, Thailand.
During the peak of the fighting, South Koreaprovided the largest fighting force about 48,000men, to help the allies, with smaller commitmentsfrom Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines andThailand. Following the U. S. troops withdrawals,however, these nations also reduced their forces inVietnam.
The war presented unprecedented difficulties forthe U. S. fighting men. The hot, humid weather isone of these factors. The terrain, with its swampsand jungles, is another.
In addition to the marshy Mekwag Delta and thesavannah-type coastal country, South Vietnam alsocontains jungle rain forests around Saigon andforested mountains in the interior. The country ismostly hot and wet, with the humidity and insectlife of the subtropics, but with some bitter coldnights in the uPlands.
Different Type of WarAnd the character of the war itself is unlike
anything previously experienced. There is no front,few military objectives and much of the groundfighting is in the form of guerrilla action, with theCommunists usually avoiding commitment of largeunits to full-scale battles.
Instead, booby-traps in the form of explosives,poisoned stakes and similar materials are left inthe path of advancing allied forces. Years ofcontrol of most of the countryside enabled the VietCong to build vast systems of tunnels and trenches,which are used as headquarters and supply storagepoints and from which ambushes are launchedagainst the allies.
In addition, it is difficult to distinguish theenemy.
There is no racial difference between the Viet-namese on either side, and the Viet Cong oftenmingle unnoticed with the peasants and villagers.These, in turn, intimidated by years of terrorism bythe Communists, hide the identity and whereabouts
of the enemy, who return freely to areas seized andsupposedly cleared by friendly troops.
There have beer. numerous acts of violence inVietnam apart from armed engagements betweenViet Cong and friendly forces' troops.
They have ranged from assassinations to kid-napings and from harassment to wholesaleslaughter in villages. They have included themurder of thousands of village and district of-ficials, virtually depopulating many areas of theirnatural leaders.
Hundreds of villages and hamlets have beendestroyed, homes, hospitals and schools burned,communications wrecked, irrigation projectsdynamited and acres of crops ruined or seized tofeed the guerrilla forces.
U. S. forces were accused of atrocities in late1969, when a letter by a former GI was made publicwhich reported a massacre in the South Viet-namese hamlet of My Lai. A historical precedentwas set as the United States began prosecuting itsown soldiers. More than two dozen officers andenlisted men have been tried.
Although the majority have been cleared of thecharges, Lt. William L. Caney Jr. was found guilty.The trial of his company commander, Capt. ErnestL. Medina, followed Ca lley's testimony that he wasfollowing Medina's orders in the 1968 militaryoperation. Brig. Gen. John W. Donaldson becamethe first U. S. general to be charged with a warcrime in 70 years in June 1971, when he too wasaccused of murdering civilians in Vietnam.
Allies Control AirThe allies have had excellent communications,
complete control of the air and overwhelmingsuperiority in manpower and equipment. Thewidespread use of heliocopters to move combattroops as well as for supply and rescue operationsalso has given the allies unexcelled mobility. Thenature of the fighting has minimized these militaryadvantages, however.
Reinforcements from North Vietnam and sup-plies from China and Russia move from Hanoi tothe Viet Cong by the two Ho Chi Minh Trails. Theyrun from North Vietnam through southeasternLaos and northeastern Cambodia, entering SouthVietnam at several points.
Porters or coolies operate on the "zone system"along the Ho Chi Minh Trails, moving supplies fromone end of their zone to the other, where anotherteam of porters takes over.
The trails are interwoven networks which includewell-camouflaged all-weather roads on somestretches. Not only trucks, but half-tracks and eventanks move along the trails.
Even as U. S. planes repeatedly bomb thesetrails, new paths are hacked out of the jungle,permitting some infiltration of food, men and warsupplies into South Vietnam.
Bombing against three-quarters of the country ofNorth Vietnam, including the capital of Hanoi, wasstopped by the United States in 1968, at tinbeginning of Paris peace talks.
Previously, bombing of North Vietnam washalted for 37 days, starting on Christmas Eve, 1965,while a U. S. peace effort was pushed. That 'andother pauses also allowed the Communists to buildup troops and supplies for renewed aggression atstronger levels.
Another bombing halt, called by PresidentJohnson as he left office, sharply curtailed alliedbombings of North Vietnam until April 1970. At thattime in conjunction with an allied drive intoCambodia large bombing raids were conductedon missile sites and supply depots in the north.Bombings continued through early 1971 as U. S.jets attacked northern missile sites in a series of"protective reactions."
The total tonnage of bombs dropped in SoutheastAsia now equals more than twice that droppedduring World War II and the Korean conflictcombined.
In March 1971 the Red Chinese reiterated theirpledge to support Hanoi should it be considerednecessary, though direct intervention is believedunlikely. North Vietnam has accepted largeamounts of Chinese arms and ammunition, but alsohas received aid from other nations of the Com-munist bloc, including antiaircraft missiles and jetfighters from Russia.
The nation of 22 million also receives about $1billion a year from its allies to bolster an economydevastated by U. S. bombing, and manufacturingand storage facilities only recently are beingrebuilt after being destroyed or moved to places ofconcealment during earlier raids. Hanoi also hasbeen pressing a vast resettlement program,transferring large segments of the populace fromthe congested Red River delta to the heavilyforested highlands, in order to open up thousandsmore acres of farmland.
But despite these efforts, recent agriculturalprogress and the rationing of most consumer goods
including rice the nation depends heavily onRed Chinese and Russian foodstuffs.
Whereas South Vietnam is expected to beginexporting rice again before the end of 1972, thenorth is still far from becoming self-sufficient inrice production.
Hanoi's determination to reunify Vietnam undernorthern control, in fact, draws much strengthfrom the fact that the north always has been poorand has relied on the southern "rice bowl's" sur-plus of that staple Asian food.
Delta Good Food ProducerThe Mekong Delta country and coastal areas
farther north in South Vietnam are good foodproducers. Tropical fruits and many vegetablesalso are produced. Cash crops include rubber, teaand coffee.
The vast majority of the nearly 800,000 familieswho lived as tenant farmers in the delta area in 1968are now owner-cultivators. In addition, nearlythree-fifths of the cultivated land there is expectedto have been redistributed by the end of 1972.
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Nevertheless, the economy of the south is farfrom healthy.
Aware that the government in South Vietnamfaces major economic problems, American of-ficials realize that a major cut in U. S. aid would bea disaster the economy having become almostwholly dep9ndent on the American dollar.
Although not much can be done about small-scalecorruption traditional in district governmentU. S. officials are pressing ahead with efforts tohalt major corruption which delivers a largeamount of U. S. supplies to the Viet Cong and in-cludes padded payrolls and kickbacks.
U. S. post exchanges are well stocked withgroceries, cigarettes, beer and other items whichturn up in the Saigon black market.
Cement, steel, drainage tiles and aluminumroofing paid for by the United States wind up inCommunist fortifications, field hospitals andcamps. Radios that assist Red communications,steel pipe converted by terrorists to mortar barrelsor for the outer shells of bombs and American-financed medicines and drugs which save the livesof wounded Viet Cong are stolen from docks by VietCong agents or sold through clearly open channelsto the Viet Cong.
Huge Black MarketHuge black markets in U. S. currency and
commodities flourish, and it has been estimatedthat as much as 20 per cent of the cargo passingthrough the port of Saigon is stolen. Much of thismaterial later finds its way into the hands of theViet Cong.
Dangerous drugs, including heroin, arebecoming an increasing problem. The lucrativesale of the narcotics lures corrupt Vietnameseofficials and businessmen, who sell the drugs toU. S. servicemen. The underground trade con-tinues despite U. S. efforts to eliminate it.
Government income from the United States,averaging more than $300 million a year ineconomic aid alone, now far exceeds the total ofother national revenues. This, combined with thelarge sums American troops are spending in SouthVietnam, puts tremendous inflationary pressure onthe economy.
After averaging an increase of about 30 per centduring the past few years, the rate of inflation washeld to about 20 per cent in 1971, however.
Inflation as well as vast differences between thestandard of living within the domestic economy andthe pay of the U. S. soldier have caused prices tosoar in the metropolitan areas. Most of theresidents of Saigon, once referred to as the "Parisof the Orient," cannot afford luxury items.
The 22 million population of South Vietnam isdiverse, though generally originating, like mostSoutheast Asian peoples, in South China about 4,000years ago.
The majority, particularly those living in thedelta country and the coastal strip, are farmerswith an average per capita income of little more.' 8than $100.
In the mountains dwell several hundred thousandMontagnards, who are organized in a number oftribal groupings. They are hardy, independentpeople, with little love for their lowland neighbors,whether Communist or not.
More than a million Chinese also inhabit thecountry, living mostly in the cities and engaging inbusiness and banking.
Further diversity is provided by the religions.Taoism is the basic religious philosophy of the
country, but about 80 per cent of the people confessto be Buddhists and about 10 per cent Catholics.Ancestor-worship also is traditionally practiced.
Discord has been frequent between Buddhism,with its ancient center at Hue, and Catholicism,stemming from French-influenced Saigon. TheBuddhists feel resentment against the Catholicminority which, because of the foothold gainedunder French colonialism, wields powerdisproportionate to its size. A large part of thearmy's officer corps is Catholic, as are most of thenation's journalists and leading merchants. And,while the Roman Catholics represent about 10 percent of the population, nearly 50 per cent of thesenators are Catholic.
However, most of the activity of the religioussects has been directed against the variousgovernments and intended to establish or maintainpolitical power.
The Buddhists, in particular, have stagedfrequent demonstrations against the militarygovernments. However, though the Buddhistsconstitute a powerful political movement, they aresharply divided among themselves on how toachieve their political goals and struggle for poweramong themselves.
Stronghold of the so-called "militant" Buddhistsis Hue, in the northern part of South Vietnam.Natives of the Mekong Delta claim their own brandof Buddhism and are distrustful of the activistmonks from the north.
Bu ddhis t AppealThe over-all appeal of the Buddhists is to
nationalism. They want power in order to reasserttheir national sovereignty, and they oppose themilitary governments as being dictatorial andrepressive to Buddhism. They aim at restorationby free elections of a civilian government whichwill set up a stable, prosperous nation guided byBuddhist principles.
Aiding this campaign by the Buddhist leadershipis the fact that the people have an ingraineddistrust of their central government, which longhas been noted for corruption and despotism.
In 1966, however, a constituent assembly waselected which drew up a constitution for SouthVietnam and which was favored by 80 per cent ofthe registered voters despite a largely illiterateelectorate and a wave of violence spread by op-ponents of the election.
The 117-article constitution provides for amodified presidential system of government with a
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strong, bicameral legislature and an independentjudiciary.
This government has a lower house ofrepresentatives elected to four-year terms in directand secret ballots from constituencies. The upperhouse has a smaller number of senators, chosen bydirect and secret ballot in nationwide, at-largeelections for six-year terms.
The president and vice president, also chosen innationwide elections, must be natives of Vietnamand must run on the same ticket. Also, militarymen elected to office must suspend military af-filiations.
The election of the constituent assembly whichformed the constitution and led the governmentelections was seen as a victory for democracy andpolitical unity in itself, as it was vigorously opposedby both Viet Cong and the militant Buddhists.
In 1968, the election of President Nguyen VanThieu and Vice President Nguyen Cao Ky, bothmilitary men, was protested by opposition forces,which charged irregularities in the voting. But thenew government was formed without incident,marking the start of a representative form ofgovernment which replaced a succession of dic-tatorial and autocratic rulers.
The second presidential election since the for-mation of the constitution, in the fall of 1971, wasregarded as a test of the progress of democracy inSouth Vietnam.
By requiring that all presidential candidates filepetitions signed by a large number of members ofthe Congress, Thieu greatly limited his number ofopponents. Retired Gen. Duong Van Minh, a peacecandidate who led the 1963 coup, attracted Buddhistsupport in the three-way race with Ky.
The election of a truly representative govern-ment in South Vietnam remains a challenge. Thenation has no tradition of free elections and the vastmajority of the people is rural. Many are illiterateand do not comprehend the role of a nationalgovernment which they believe doesn't affectthem.
It is difficult to determine what percentage of thepeople really live within the government sphere.Estimations of the extent of Saigon's authorityvary from control over 65 per cent of the people to94 per cent. In June 1971 it was estimated that theViet Cong still had at least 200,000 military and non-military personnel in the south.
Pacification Program ContinuesOne of Thieu's major efforts was a "pacification
program" designed to unify the country underSaigon control by suppressing the Viet Cong andpromoting unity and development in the coun-tryside. Directed by the Civil Operations and RuralDevelopment Support (CORDS), the programincludes special teams of South Viehaamese andU. S. personnel who are sent into areas previouslycleared of Viet Cong.
First the teams try to provide 2 ,iefense for thehamlets so the peasants no longei . :errorized bythe Viet Cong. Then they try to find out what the7
9
people really need and help provide it. Some of theprojects are developing crops, building schools andhospitals and beginning rural electrificationprograms. The teams also are trying to establish acivil administration and replace officials who arecorrupt and uncaring.
The government's current emphasis is onupgrading the authority of the village, thetraditional unit of local government in Vietnam.The Vietnamese village consists of from six to 10hamlets and the village chief exerts the authority.
As part of village-upgrading the government isnot only advocating free election of village councilsbut has embarked on a program of putting at thedisposal of each village the fmancial means tobring about economic development. Unfortunately,however, because of corrupt leadership supplies,including building materials, frequently disappear.
One favorable result of the program is the im-provement of the police force, both in quality andnumber. The police force and local militia com-bined total over one million people.
Nevertheless, the success of the pacificationprogram is still uncertain, as English-speakingU. S. teams, charged with determining the internalsecurity of the villages, are unable to do so ac-curately.
But, as South Vietnam struggles to solve its in-ternal problems, the war continues and morenations increasingly become involved.
Laotian CampaignFollowing a steady increase of North Vietnamese
troops in the Laotian panhandle, the South Viet-namese army (ARVN) invaded Laos in March,1971. U. S. planes stepped up the bombing of Ho ChiMinh trails and other Communist supply routesthere and provided air support for the groundtroops. Despite heavy losses, officials termed thecampaign successful, claiming the move haddelayed another Hanoi offensive for at least sixmonths.
The United States gives Laos $250 million a yearin military aid, and supports 5,000 Thai mer-cenaries there as well. In June 1971 the UnitedStates reiterated a previous pledge to protect Laosagainst takeover by the North Vietnamese.
U. S. troops in Thailand, which once numberedmore than 5,000, are being cut back as some of theU. S. air bases there are closed down. Americanwarplanes continue to fly from Thai fields to bombthe Laos corridor, which houses the Ho Chi MinhTrails, and run rescue operations for downed U. S.pilots.
American counter-insurgency experts continueto advise Thai officials as Communist activitywithin Thai borders increases.
Following the March 1970 overthrow of left-leaning Prince Norodom Sihanouk in Cambodia,U. S. troops were sent in to destroy Communistbase camps and sanctuaries and to disrupt theenemy's supply system.
The more than 20,000 U. S. troops were joined bytwice that number of South Vietnamese. Coupled
with the Cambodian drive, U. S. planes stagedmassive raids against North Vietnam in retaliationfor antiaircraft attacks on unarmed U. S. recon-naissance planes.
When the U. S. troops pulled out by the promisedJuly 1 date, more than 11,000 of the enemy weredead, and more than 22,000 weapons had beenseized. About 39,000 South Vietnamese troopsremained in Cambodia
Although many disputed the success of theCambodian mission, U. S. officials pronounced it avictory. The net effect of the move is considered tobe a buying of time while the Communists rebuildtheir capabilities, during which the pacificationprogram will be pressed and the "Vietnamization"process can gain speed.
Vietnamization is the process in which the U. S.combat role in Vietnam is being transferred to the1.1 million men in South Vietnam's regular armedforces. U. S. military advisors are training SouthVietnamese ground forces in logistics and supportactivities with the eventual goal in mind of makingthe South Vietnamese militarily selfsufficient.
The training of the South Vietnamese air force isbased on the assumption that the war will winddown. U. S. military advisors, while trying to turnthe air force into one of the largest in the world,also are sharply limiting its tactical and strategiccap abilities.
Because Vietnamization of the helicopter corpsand the air force is running far behind that of thenaval and ground forces, allied troops still are verydependent on U. S. air support. However, theVietnamese navy is expected to be self-sufficientby mid-1972.
The success of the Vietnamization process hasyet to be determined. It is generally believed thatalthough South Vietnamese ground troopssustained heavy losses during their recent driveinto Laos, they also demonstrated a relatively highground combat ability.
U. S. Troop WithdrawalsAs the United States abandons a major ground
combat role, 14,500 troops are being withdrawnmonthly from Vietnam. Many of the 184,000 U. S.troops expected to be left in Vietnam by December1971 are airmen. Plans call for only residual U. S.combat forces and military advisors to remain inVietnam by the end of 1972.
Anti-war sentiment in the United States un-doubtedly has helped speed troop withdrawals.Anti-war protests, which once were limited touniversity campuses, now have been taken up byother groups, including the U. S. Congress. Severalattempts have been made to legislate acts whichwould force President Nixon to set a deadline forU. S. troop withdrawal from Vietnam.
Another controversy over the war was raisedwhen a few major U. S. newspapers obtained andprinted portions of top secret "Pentagon Papers"which concern U. S. involvement in the war duringthe Kennedy and Johnson administrations. Thepapers revealed secret U. S. operations in NorthVietnam and Laos as early as 1961 andacknowledged U. S. encouragement of the 1963coup in South Vietnam.
In a major national address on July 15, 1971,President Nixon paved the way for speculation onthe increasing possibilities of peace in Vietnam byannouncing he would visit Premier Chou En-lai inPeking before mid-1972.
The peace talks between the United States andNorth Vietnam, which began in Paris in 1968, havebeen extremely unsuccessful.
The Communists have demanded from the outsetthat the United States and its allies withdraw theirforces from South Vietnam unconditionally, andthat the United States dispose of the elected legalgovernment in South Vietnam and install acoalition government in its place.
A major proposal by President Nixon inNovember 1970 which called for the mutual with-drawal of all foreign troops was flatly rejected. Inturn, the United States found some aspects of a July1971 proposal by Hanoi "clearly unacceptable." Inthat proposal Hanoi offered for the first time torelease U. S. prisoners-of-war in phases as alliedtroops are withdrawn.
The United States repeated its unwillingness todispose of the legal government and replace it witha coalition government and refused to completelywithdraw until Saigon has a reasonable chance ofdefending itself. However, the Saigon governmentlater offered a plan for a cease-fire and electionsleading to reunification of the two zones, whichmay provide a basis for constructive negotiations.
The estimated cost to the United States of theIndochina war in 1971 alone is $15.8 billion. About54,000 men have died in the war since 1954.
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Western Europe
America's heritage stems largely from WesternEurope.
The two areas share a common culture.Democratic institutions have developed alongsimilar lines.
The common threat of communism serves as afurther tie, bringing the free world allies into amilitary alliance the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO).
Original members of the treaty, signed in April1949, were the United States, Britain, Canada,France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark,Portugal, Italy, Iceland, Luxemburg and Norway.Greece, Turkey and West Germany becamemembers later.Purely defensive in nature, NATO wasestablished to counter the threat of a Russia whichafter World War II had seized nearly 400,000 squaremiles of territory containing 90 million people andwhich seemed bent on taking over Europe. Thisthreat was sharply pointed up by Russia's blockadeof Berlin in 1948-49, shocking the Western nationsinto the realization that they had to rebuild theirmilitary forces, largely demobilized after the war,to counter Soviet strength.
Provide for DefenseU. S. obiectives in joining in the alliance were to
provide for the collective defense of the war-devastated European nations, while building uptheir economic and political structures.
These objectives were achieved.Politically stable, Western Europe stands firmly
on its own feet. There have been no further Com-munist territorial gains in the NATO area, andpooling of the members' military strength in effectmoved the U. S. defense frontier to the Iron Cur-tain. The alliance also enabled West Germany togrow in cooperation with its ex-enemies andprovided a shield behind which Europe becamemore prosperous than ever.
In 1966, national differences drasticallythreatened NATO's continued existence as an ef-fective military and political force when formerFrench President Charles de Gaulle pulled Franceout of NATO and decided to build an independentnuclear striking force.
Lines of communication and supply were revisedand NATO headquarters was moved from Franceto Belgium. In February 1971, three months afterthe death of De Gaulle, the French were back onspeaking terms with NATO, including its military
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headquarters. They are actively negotiating torejoin the vital telecommunications system ofNATO.
Although the United States has borne most ofNATO's costs in men and money, other membernations are complaining about the expense.
Behind such actions is the increasing feeling ofEuropeans that Russia's internal difficulties andthe feud with Red China make war unlikely, andthat decreased military tensions would improvetrade relations with the East European Red bloc.
De Gaulle had also stirred up problems in WestEurope's trade structure the highly successfulEuropean Economic Community (EEC), orCommon Market.
Consisting of France, West Germany, Italy, theNetherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg, theCommon Market is an economic union in whichtariffs are reduced or eliminated among themember nations, who establish common tariffs onoutside goods.
Trade among the member nations has increased256 per cent in the past 10 years, a much fastergrowth rate than the 87 per cent expansion in totalworld trade in the same period. The CommonMarket's industrial production is up 70 per centfrom 1958, twice the United Kingdom's growth andonly slightly less than the U. S. increase.
The present French president, Georges Pom-pidou, may help ease one issue affecting the EEC'spotential Britain's long struggle for entry intothe bloc, a move consistently blocked by De Gaulle.
England's Prospects BrightIn June 1971, Britain and the six Common Market
nations came to terms on Britain's admission totheEEC. Although Prime Minister Edward Heath hasexperienced some difficulty selling the idea to theBritish public and Parliament, the expectedparliamentary approval in October would makeBritain an official EEC member on Jan. 1, 1973.
The EEC-British agreement also cleared the wayfor negotiations with Norway, Denmark andIreland, contingent upon Britain's final decesion.
The remaining major issues in Britain's 10-yearbid for membership were resolved when thenegotiators put together a package that included
8 1 ") !Vamp/2mDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
concessions to Britain's trade with New Zealand,the amount of Britain's first codtributions to thejoint Common Market budget and help for Britishcoastal fishermen and hill farmers.
No one would doubt that Eurom art's CommonAgriculture Policy (CAP) is in disarray. It is themost divisive issue among the six nations and themost complicated one in regard to admittingBritain.
The agriculture problem centers on the fact thatthe market sets prices at artificially high levels andguarantees to buy up farm surpluses of key com-modities. But, meanwhile, some of the food is thehighest priced in the world and it is food which is byno means in short supply.
To support the prices, each Eurom art country isforced to pay a share of the CAP and it is the payingof these prices and the setting of price levels thatresults in constant squabbles among the member'iations.
Pompidou has stipulated that he wants subsidiesto French farmers to be continued, a major sourceof concern to membership foes in Britain, Europe'sbiggest food importer.
So, British entry brings up both problems andopportunities but the problems are solvable and theopportunity to use British entry to sort out andeliminate defects in the Common Market areoverwhelmingly in the interest of Europe.
Other European Trade GroupDespite past EEC rebuffs, Britain is lined in a
vital trade group to some of its neighbors on thecontinent by the European Free Trade Association(EFTA), formed in 1959 by Britain, Denmark,Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria and Por-tugal. Finland became an associate member in1961.Essentially, the EFTA was set up as a coun-terweight to, and possible partner of, the CommonMarket.
The technical difference between the two is thatthe EEC requires that all members have the sametariffs against the goods of non-members, while theEFTA allows members to fix their own tariffsagainst non-members. Also, the EFTA involvesonly industrial goods, thus avoiding manyproblems the Common Market had overagricultural policies.
Commerce among the 100 million people of itsmembers has more than doubled since the in-ception of EFTA, and it became totally tariff-freeJan. 1, 1967, some 18 months ahead of the programof the EEC.
However, the EFTA's largest nation, Britain,gets the least benefit from the organization, andstill looks to EEC membership as it flounders in thegrip of economic woes.
The basic problem is that exports long havelagged behind imports, creating huge deficits inBritain's balance of payments. This, in turn, cutdeeply into reserves of gold and currency.
To combat this, the government devalued the
consumer credit, raised sales and income taxesand instituted slashes in government spending.
After six years of political and economic dif-ficulty, the Labor government of Harold Wilsonwas voted out in upset June 1970 elections. Heath,the new Conservative prime minister, is taking adifferent tack in solving British problems.
He inherited an unstable economy, in whichinflation was dammed up rather than corrected.Foreign debt, which the Wilson administrationboasted it had cut, apparently was just delayed.
Strikes plague the economy, , and Heath is ex-pected to enact anti-strike legislation. In favor offree enterprise, Heath is also expected to cut taxesto produce managerial incentives and reducegovernment intervention in industry.
Heath also will allow British troops to stay in thePersian Gulf and Malaysia if the governmentsthere request it and will retain forces east of Suez,both of which are changes from the Wilson policy.
Arms sales to South Africa are expected to beresumed and sanctions against minority white-runRhodesia, which declared its independence in 1969,will slowly lessen.
Racial, Religious ProblemsRacial troubles also have increased. Non-whites
numbered in the hundreds 15 years ago, but nownumber 2 per cent of the United Kingdom's 56million population.
Another internal problem is fighting between theProtestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland,which occurs sporadically and in which peoplehave been killed.
The issue is six Irish counties which chose toremain under British control after World War I. Ofthe 1% million population, two-thirds are Protes-tant. The Irish Catholics want civil rights and wishto join the Irish republic to the south.
In France, De Gaulle had led his nation into anumber of diplomatic and economic byways in hisinsistence on an independent France with a majorrole in world affairs.
De Gaulle resigned in 1969 when his popularitybegan falling after the country faced a series ofwork strikes and student uprisings. However, hisarrogant, autocratic leadership gave France thestability and political influence it had not known foryears. He increased political ties with Russia andEastern Europe, recognized Red China and, bymeans of economic aid, smoothed over the bitter,stormy relations with former colony Algeria.
Now, under Pompidou, foreign policy has beendowngraded in French priorities. Pursuit of"greatness abroad" takes second place to pressingsocial and economic problems at home.
One dramatic shift was Pompidou's decision todevalue the franc 12.5 per cent. The devaluation,consistently opposed by De Gaulle, was followed byother actions in an effort to check the outflow ofFrench gold and currency reserves and to curbinflation.
A strict austerity program was adopted, in-
pound in 1967, and ordered a wage-price freeze, cut 82cluding a freeze on prices, promise of sharp
government cuts, restrictions on credit forbusinessmen and consumers, cutting of subsidies tonationalized industries and establishment of taxincentives to encourage private industry.
The economic measures worked well witheconomic and political confidence in the Pompidougovernment restored.
In international affairs, French-U. S. relationshave generally improved under the Pompidouregime. France clings to De Gaulle's Mideaststrategy, maintaining an embargo on jets orderedand paid for by Israel.
In West Germany, former Berlin Mayor WillyBrandt was chosen chancellor succeeding KurtGeorg Kiesinger. The election of Brandt, a SocialDemocrat, ended 20 years of rule by the ChristianDemocratic Union and was achieved by a coalitionwith the small Free Democratic Party headed byWalter Scheel, who was named foreign minister.
On the domestic front, the new regime revaluedthe mark, increasing its value from 25 U. S. cents toa little more than 27, a raise of about 9 per cent. InMay 1971, the mark was freed from its official rateof 3.66 to find its own parity against the dollar.Though the German economy still is booming, theaction means that German goods will cost more toforeign buyers and may have the effect of slowingthe economy somewhat.
Unification TroublesThe most haunting problem in West Germany is
reunification with its Eastern Zone, which is undertight Russian control and contains the vital city ofBerlin. The Berlin Wall, erected by the Com-munists between the Soviet and Western sectors, iskept under heavy guard.
Brandt is extremely interested in unification andhas made overtures to the East Europe Com-munists. The USSR is also wooing West Germany,which has passed all competitors to become theleading trading partner of the Soviet Union in theWest.
His friendship with East Europe apparently isnot favored by his countrymen, because his partygot little support in elections in three Germanstates in June 1970.
Under Brandt, the West Germans are nowdominating the Common Market. The effect of theFrench and German power changes seems to bethat now the German chancellor is charting thecourse for Europe's future.
Though firmly aligned with the West, theScandinavian countries are not interested inEuropean political unity nor even in Nordicintegration. Instead, they guard their nationalsovereignties jealously from each other, as well asfrom the non-Nordic nations to the south.
Scandinavia also bears a reputation as a highlySocialist area, with social welfare programs whichcushion citizens' basic difficulties like unem-
, ployment, disability, medical costs and poverty inold age.
In recent years, however, the governments havebeen content just to maintain the basic structure of .
social welfare while encouraging private economicgrowth. Government costs (and taxes) havecontinued to mount, though, and Socialist govern-ments have experienced several setbacks.
Sweden, with one of the highest living standardsin the world outside North America, is a full-fledged welfare state, with a complete system ofsocial security which provides for material welfarefrom cradle to grave.
Yet the country currently has problems stem-ming from this system and from its prosperity,including a labor shortage, high wages and taxesand soaring inflation.
A new leader was named in Sweden in October1969, when Olof Palme, 42, took over as SocialDemocrat Party head and premier to succeed TageErlander, 68, who retired. Palme, formerlyeducation minister, is highly intelligent, forcefuland articulate and is immensely popular with hiscountrymen. He also is one of Sweden's severestand most outspoken critics of the U. S. policy inVietnam.
In Norway, the coalition government collapsed inMarch 1971 when confidential information con-cerning the country's bid to enter the EuropeanCommon Market was disclosed. An ensuing disputeforced Prime Minister Per Borten's resignationand the formation of a new cabinet by TrygveBratteli, head of the Labor Party.
Norway's economy has boomed since the in-ception of the EFTA, but also is in a slight inflationpinch. Social welfare costs are high and thegovernment has initiated a tax-supported socialsecurity pension program. Unemployment is lowand the economy is healthy.
Denmark, with its tradifional dependence onagricultural and livestock industries, is more at-tracted to the rest of Europe than are the otherScandinavian nations and would gain the mostfrom membership in the Common Market, with itshigh farm supports and crop export subsidies. Thecountry is prosperous, however, though inflation isa problem.
Finland Linked to RedsFinland is closely linked to the Soviet bloc, which
accounts for 25 per cent of its trade.In March 1971, there was a cabinet crisis due to a
dispute over wage and price policies with thepowerful Communist People's Democratic Unionwhich demanded a price freeze. Later, the Com-munist Party withdrew from the broadly basedcoalition government after five years of par-ticipation.
The government has been hinting at generalelections to provide a new political base and tobring the Communist party back into Finnishpolitics.
Politically, the country must walk a thin linebetween the Western bloc and Russia, whichdirectly influences its government.
The Netherlands, with a thriving economy andrising living standards, also is plagued by the
8 groblems common to so much of West Europe. For
one, the rapidly expanding population faces anacute housing shortage. Also, the economy hasshown an increasingly inflationary trend, and thegovernment instituted a planned income policy,imposing controls on wages and prices, restrainingbank credits and rising interest rates.
Little Belgium, long the stronghold of Europeanunity programs, is having national unity problemsas friction between Flemish and Walloon (French-speaking) Belgians has provoked an activesecession campaign.
Economically, the seizure of Belgian-controlledmining property in the Congo dealt a heavy blow tosteel and mining interests, though some companieshave formed agreements with Congo interests.Failure to modernize traditional industries also hashurt the economy, although the most urgent need isto reform the public-finance system, where freespending has created a growing deficit.
Even in stable Switzerland, inflation is causingworry, and bankers have cut back on easy credit.
A nation where women still are denied the vote onnational matters, Switzerland has a constitutionalprovision for neutrality, though it is an activesupporter of Western democratic ideals.
In the little Alpine republic of Austria, business isbooming. Though the country wants to switch fromthe EFTA to the EEC, the economy has had asteady yearly growth rate and there is nearly fullemployment. Public investments in power, roadand school projects are an urgent need for thenation of over seven million.
Neutrality was imposed on Austria by the peacetreaty under which Russia withdrew its occupationforces after World War II, but the country hasremained largely Western in outlook.
Italy is a NATO ally, but probably has been leastaffected by its difficulties, having always lookedupon the pact as sort of an Italian-Americanarrangement, with the chief protection comingfrom the NATO naval force in the Mediterranean.
With the largest Communist Party in WesternEurope (1.6 million), the Italian political situationis in constant turmoil, under the guidance of a left-center coalition.
In its most recent crises, Premier MarianoRumor resigned temporarily in February 1970, sohe could form a new coalition government from thefour divergent leading parties. This coalition fellapart in July.
A month later, former Treasury Minister EmilioColombo was sworn in as premier. The only readilyapparent change in the 32nd post-Fascist govern-ment is a new premier.
In addition, elections were held in which Com-munists won control of three of the country's 15regional governments. The country is plagued withan inflated economy, frequent strikes and lowmorale.
Ostracized by most of the Western world sincethe bloody civil war of 1936-39 and the subsequentregime's links to the Axis nations of World War II,Spain is making increasing efforts to return to thefree world community of nations. The government
has been dominated for three decades byGeneralissimo Francisco Franco.
A sweeping reshuffle of cabinet and subcabinetposts in late 1969 resulted in a reform governmentdominated by youth, mostly moderate and leaningtoward the West.
Many of the replacements are members orsympathizers of Opus Dei, an international layRoman Catholic group which had bickered foryears with the fascist-style Falange group.
In addition, Franco has officially named PrinceJuan Carlos, the grandson of Spain's last king andprince of Spain, his legal successor and heir to thevacant throne of Spain, though not the actual chiefof state.
Neighboring Portugal, already closely linked tothe West by NATO and EFTA, shows someeconomic gains and industrial progress, but lagsbehind many of the other European nations.However, inflation is no problem, and the lowprices have brought a surge in tourism.
Despite political upheavals, Greece, the only non-Communist nation in Eastern Europe is anotherstaunch NATO ally.
It currently is controlled by the military, whicharrested large numbers of Communists, Com-munist sympathizers and political leaders andimposed sharp restrictions on the people.
Meanwhile, the military-backed government hasreached the threshold of respectability, with aneconomic revival, increased American investment,and a growing tourist trade.
One long-standing problem the dispute withTurkey over Cyprus remains a thorn in the sideof Greece.
Fighting broke out between the Greek andTurkish communities on the independentlygoverned Mediterranean island in 1964.
The minority Turkish Cypriots claimed thatrights guaranteed them under a binational con-stitution were being eroded. The Greek Cypriots,led by the island's president, Archbishop Makarios,charged that the Turks used their constitutionalsafeguards to block needed legislation.
With the issue threatening to expand into a warbetween key NATO members Greece and Turkey, aUnited Nations peace force was established andhas maintained an uneasy truce.
Turkey Is Vital NATO LinkAlthough situated in the Middle East, Turkey's
geographic position makes it a vital link in theNATO defense line.
The pro-West government of Premier SuleymanDemirel resigned in March 1971 under pressurefrom the military. The new premier, Nihat Erim,has been given 12 months to forge a workablecoalition from often feuding political factions whilesatisfying demands by the generals for promptaction in a program of social, economic andpolitical reforms.
The new government plans to continue Turkey'sclose friendship with the United States as well as
8ig.proving its relationship with the Soviet Union.
Eastern Europe
Behind the Iron Curtain which separates themfrom the rest of the continent, 104 million peoplelive as virtual prisoners in the Russian Communistsatellites of Eastern Europe.
Similar conditions prevail in Albania, whose Redregime has rejected Soviet leadership in favor ofthe revolutionary Communist doctrine of the RedChinese.
East Europe's other Communist-run nation,Yugoslavia, follows an independent path, onewhich is much more liberal and more closely linkedto the Western world.
In the Soviet block, persons trying to escape tothe West risk death or reprisals against theirfamilies. People's revolts in Poland, East Ger-many, Hungary, and, more recently,Czechoslovakia have been suppressed by bruteRussian force.
Threat of this force is evidenced by the presencein the East European satellites of about 30 Russiandivisions under conditions of the Warsaw Pact awarning that Soviet control can be invoked if thebloc nations become too restive.
This military affiance was triggered by WestGermany's entry into the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization in 1955, and was intended as theCommunist nations' counterpart to NATO. Originalmembers were Russia, Albania, Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Polandand Romania. Albania, however, was excluded in1961 after its split with Russia in the Sino-Sovietdispute.
Satellites' Reliance QuestionableUnlike NATO, which is jointly directed by
member nations, the Warsaw Pact is under ab-solute Soviet military control, with Russian officersin key positions in all the top echelons_
In terms of manpower, the Warsaw Pact over-shadows NATO, with the 30 Russian and approxi-mately 70 satellite divisions in Eastern Europe.Total armed forces of the six satellite nations areestimated at more than a million, mostly groundtroops. Weapons are standardized to conform toSoviet models, but Russia keeps control of allnuclear warheads for rockets.
Despite unquestioned general fear of a strongWest Germany, Russia cannot put full reliance inthe satellites' cooperation. Political disunityamong the various national armies is a major9-71
weakness. Also, the new feelings of political andeconomic independence create an increasingresentment of Soviet military dominance.
The basic function of the organization originallywas to regularize military relations among thesatellites, create an overseeing military authoritywhich would be unaffected by the national bordersand gain financial support for the expense ofmaintaining Soviet forces in Eastern Europe.
Today the satellites are very different as theypursue more nationalistic courses of action, andRussia's hold on them is weakening.
Increasingly they are demanding more controlover their national affairs. Despite restrictions,contacts with the West are increasing. Traderelations have been established with the West, andeven Western music, art and fashion oncefrowned on as too frivolous for the Communiststates are gaining popularity.
Economic RevolutiorOne of the keys to the upsurge of nationalism is
the economic revolution which is taking placethroughout the Communist bloc, including Russia.
Centralized planning and management are min-imized, and decisions are being made morefrequently at the local level.
The element of competition is coming into play,and the law of supply and demand, with an em-phasis on profits rather than production, isbecoming more accepted. Wages are rising, andnew emphasis on the cost-price ratio could mean abreak for consumers.
At the heart of the Communist bloc economic sys-tem is the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance(Comecon). The Reds' counterpart to the EuropeanCommon Market, Comecon was designed to in-tegrate the Eastern European economy underRussian control, but it never has achieved itspurpose.
Members of Comecon include the Soviet Union,Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rom ania, Bulgaria, E astGermany, Hungary and Mongolia. Albania, thougha member, does not participate in council ac-tivities, and Yugoslavia has observer status, buttakes an active part in the organization.
8 5 SD CON kigidgrDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Never very effective, mounting complaintsagainst Russian control and exploitation and in-creasing rel-lization of the inadequacy of the oldMarxist economic theories now have pulledComecon apart. Instead of supranational planning,Moscow has had to institute a series of bilateralagreements with the satellite nations, as economicreforms have made these countries even moreconscious of their national identities.
Two of the big issues creating the dissension inComecon have been over the division of laboramong countries and the struggle and confusionover prices at which goods and services are ex-changed.
The division of labor meant that membercountries would specialize in the goods andmaterials they were best fitted to produce. Underthis plan, Czechoslovakia, East Germany andPoland were to keep their economies gearedprimarily to industrial production, while Hungary,Bulgaria and Romania were to continue primarilyas agricultural nations.
However, this worked to the benefit of neithergroup.
The agricultural countries felt they were beingdenied the opportunity to achieve industrial self-sufficiency and were being forced to take inferior(and often more costly) machinery from theirindustrial partners than they could have obtainedfrom the West if they had been permitted toproduce goods to offer in return.
Industrial Nations Also DissatisfiedThe industrial nations felt their products were
being greatly undervalued, and also looked forWestern trade outlets.
Romania cut loose first, in 1963, when it rejectedthe idea of being a breadbasket for the satellite blocand decided to develop its economy along more in-dustrial lines, stepping up its business with theWest. Other bloc nations have followed, seeking toexpand their capital resources where they thinkthey can be of most benefit.
On the issue of prices, set in Moscow, the SovietUnion has plundered the satellites, charging themwell over world price for raw materials and payingless for finished products than could be obtained onthe free market.
Also, differing factors in fixing prices in eachcountry caused wide discrepancies under an ar-bitrary price-fixing system. The setup also failed toreflect exchange rates between individualcurrencies, and a country could find itself buyingthe same product from one member at one priceand from another member at another.
So the Soviet Union has had to allow the localComm unist regimes c on side r a ble latitude incharting their own economic courses, in the hope ofpreventing a wholesale breakaway. Subsequenteconomic practices, which emphasize individualinitiative and require some public support, arestirring ideas of political reform.
Leading the way is Yugoslavia, whose PresidentTito was the first Communist bloc leader to defyg6
Moscow when he rejected then-Soviet PremierJoseph Stalin's brand of communism in 1948.
In return, Yugoslavia lost Soviet aid and had tolook to the West for financial support. This Westerninfluence hastened the development of economicliberalism, with decentralization of state controland encouragement of private enterprise.
An international investment company which willmake loans to Yugoslav enterprises for the purposeof developing export-oriented manufacturingfacilities has been set up. Members representAmerican, West European, Japanese and Yugoslavbanks.
This marks the first institutionalized joint ven-ture between capitalist and Socialist financialenterprises, and as such is considered a major stepforward in East-West business cooperation.
Yugoslavia also signed a three-year trade agree-ment with the European Common Market thusopening their domestic market to foreign competi-tion.
Price controls are being progressively removed,and a new network of "business banks" has beenset up to augment the government banks, financenew enterprises and make a profit.
Private Industries and FarmingPrivate industries can be set up, and farming is
almost entirely in private hands. Farmers buyWestern machinery, and the standard of living isrising.
Travel within and outside the country is per-mitted, and 10 per cent of Yugoslav workers havejobs in Western Europe, sending and bringing backhard currency into the country's economy.However, Belgrade, the capital city, has become"closed" to workers with little education, toprevent disastrous overcrowding and unem-ployment trends.
Tourists get a warm greeting no visa isrequired for Westerners and every luxury hotelhas a gambling casino to bring hard foreigncurrency into the country.
Remaining a dedicated Communist and dictator,Tito has improved relations with the Soviet blocwhile putting an end to a 12-year quarrel withCommunist China. Yugoslavia has sent an am-bassador there and made trading agreements withthe Red giant.
Tito still follows his own brand of communism,charting a path With the neutralist bloc of nations inwhich he has become a leader and setting anexample which may prove to be the wave of thefuture in Communist-dominated East Europe ifnot Russia itself.
He set up a 15-man "executive bureau" to serveas a collective leadership for Yugoslavia. Titoexpects this bureau to succeed him when he yieldspower, and has made it clear that he expects eachof the 15 to defend the ruggedly individualistic rolethat he has created for Yugoslavia, even if it meanscontinuing friction with the USSR.
Little Albania, Communist China's lone Euro-pean ally, is breaking out of its self-imposed isola-
(Th
tion, and for the first time in years, is seekingimproved relations with its Balkan neighbors andwith Western countries.
t Having just established a diplomatic relationswith Belgium, Albania is expected to do the sameshortly with The Netherlands. Earlier, diplomaticties were set up with Denmark and Switzerland.Diplomatic feelers also have been aimed at otherWestern countries.
The mountainous country of two million people isthe last outpost of pure Salinism on the Europeancontinent, and is the only European Communistcountry to back Red China in its ideological battlewith Russia.
The nation is currently Europe's most backwardeconomically, with a diminishing standard of liv-ing, hunger and disease fueling a growing resent-ment against the harshness and poverty of life.
Tourists are seldom permitted in the country,and the border is tightly guarded to prevent theflight of refugees. The Soviet satellites, meanwhile,remain a cluster of discordant nations.
Significant of the growing rebellion against theold-line Communist rule was a shift of power inCzechoslovakia in January, 1968.
Antonin Novotny, a Moscow-picked Czech, wasousted by liberal Communist leaders and replacedwith Alexander Dubcek, a Slovak Communist, asfirst party secretary. The country is 65 per centCzech and 30 per cent Slovak, with Slovakia anautonomous region.
Although Dubcek tried to hold the line for com-munism and not anger the Russians, the newregime relaxed press and radio censorship. A waveof nationalism flourished, and Czechoslovaksbegan to talk of holding free elections.
Russian Forces Take OverThe liberalizing trend incurred Russian anger
until, in August 1968, Soviet troops invadedCzechoslovakia and took Dubcek and otherreformist leaders in custody.
In massive government and party purges, vir-tually every Dubcek-style liberal has now beenreplaced. Many have defected and lost theirCzechoslovak citizenship. Dubcek himself was firstexcluded from the party's ruling committee, thenfrom the federal assembly, then, with other topleaders, ousted from the Communist Party.
Russian-groomed Gustav Husak took over andnow clamps down on any measure suspected ofbeing reform politics, under the so-called BrezhnevDoctrine by which the Russians reaffirmed theircontrol over the satellite nations.
The borders were closed to travel and numerousCzechoslovaks defected to the West. Censorship ofthe press was restored. Czechoslovak workers,asking "Why work for the Russians?", instituted amassive work slowdown. The economy is dragging.
Many liberal market-oriented economic reforms,as well as trade with the West, have been stifled.
Propaganda programs against the United Statesand other Western nations have been instituted,and a treaty was signed which binds
Czechoslovakia to a joint foreign policy with theKremlin, and which promises military aid if theSoviet Union is attacked on any front.
The Russians claim the 1968 takeover was at therequest of "party and government leaders" to savecommunism in Czechoslovakia and preserve theirEastern bloc defense system against "coun-terrevolutionaries."
The invasion was condemned by Westernnations, by nonaligned nations, by Yugoslavia andRomania and by powerful Communist parties inFrance and Italy. The dispute was taken to theUnited Nations.
Czechoslovaks continue to fight for their reformmovement, and antagonism toward the Russiantroops still occupying their country is high.
Hungary Shows Liberal InfluencesIn Hungary, where four divisions of Soviet troops
still remain as a result of the 1956 revolt, there aresigns of growing liberal influences.
Widespread economic reform has been institutedto head off internal trouble and to develop moreforeign trade. Wages have increased 20 per cent inthree years.
The basic aim is to get the economy movingforward by persuading factories to produce what isneeded and what they can sell rather than have thestate decide such questions arbitrarily.
Hungary grants many firms the right to engagedirectly in import and export trade. The regimewants to allow the greatest possible freedom toimport badly needed machinery and manufac-turing equipment. With a strong interest in foreigntrade, Hungary is trying to adjust domestic pricerelations to those prevailing in the world markets,as Yugoslavia has done.
Hungary has also introduced a graduated profit-sharing system, considered one of the mostsignificant of the Communist country's incentivemeasures. Under the program, profits aredistributed according to categories: topmanagement, middle management and high-levelprofessional and technical personnel and all otherworkers and employes.
Previously the profits were distributed on a percapita basis with little or no difference betweenindividual shares.
Rebellion EndingSome freedom of speech and the press exists, and
tourism is permitted to some extent because of theadvantages of Western currency. Visitors,however, are carefully screened before beingallowed entry. Clothing is as plentiful as in the Westand entertainment flourishes.
However, Cezchoslovak and Romanian behaviorhave caused the USSR to clamp down tightly onHungarian foreign affairs.
After eight years, Romania's dramatic drive forindependence from Russian control is coming to anend. Reasons for Romania's rapprochement with
871ussia are not certain. But many analysts say they
include the failure of an attempt to build a Western-style economy, a realization that Romania needsMoscow and growing unrest at home.
Early in 1970, the Romanian economy wasgroaning. President of Romania and CommunistParty Leader Nicolae Ceausescu had acceptedloans from the West in the belief that Western aidwould modernize his economy quickly enough toenable him to produce world-class goods and payoff the loans.
When the loans started to come due, Romanianindustry still lagged far behind the West and therewas too little money to pay the bills.
Also, 1970 began with a major economic disasterwhen heavy floods damaged 2.1 million acres offarmland, leaving more than 250,000 personshomeless. It was the worst flood in the nation'shistory. China sent $20 million in aid and Americasent $10 million. This helped, but the flood costRomania more than $1 billion. There was only onecountry likely to send that amount and that countryRussia only chipped in a token $100,000.
At the height of the flood, the Soviet Union at-tempted to use the economic distress of its stronglyindependent-minded neighbor to force the leadersin Bucharest to retreat from their insistence on fullsovereignty and full independence.
But at that point, the Romanians stood firm,refusing even to join the new Investment Bankformed by Moscow and its East Europeansatellites.
Romania's slow slide back toward Communistcooperation is visible on nearly every front of lifethere. The nation has even begun cooperation againwith the Warsaw Pact and has signed long-delayed"friendship treaties" with other Communistnations.
During Romania's bid for economic in-dependence, Russia had applied a mild economicsqueeze, but basically bided its time, believingevents would bring the Romanians around.
Bulgaria also has had clashes between Com-munist conservatives (or hard-liners) and liberals,and many Stalinists have been removed frompower. However, the party leaders still rule with aniron hand, and the country is the most closely in-tegrated of all the bloc nations with Russia,depending to a great extent on Russian trade andcredit.
However, the need for change has been obvious tomost Bulgarians, and economic reform em-phasizing individual initiative and profit-makinghave been started.
Spectacular ResultsResults of this reform have been spectacular.
Once considered the most backward of the EastEurope Soviet bloc, Bulgaria has become thepacesetter in the rapidly rising trade between theWest Europe Common Market and the Red group.
This reflects the boom in Bulgarian exports ofmeats, fruits, vegetables and other food productsexpressed to principal West European markets in asteady stream of heavy refrigerated trucks. Hardcurrency earnings have, in turn, been used for the
importation of badly needed machinery, mostlyoriented toward agriculture, for the realization ofBulgaria's industralization plans. Pricing still isunder central control, but price reforms are beingintroduced.
The trend toward liberalism actually started inPoland in 1956 with an uprising aimed at obtainingeconomic changes. Russia, in the wake of its bloodysuppression of the Hungarian revolt, permitted thePoles to institute a more national role in their af-fairs, including plans which tended toward localautonomy and a market-based economy. However,the economy is still bogged down with centralizedplanning and not enough local authority.
Agricultural collectivism was abandoned, andabout 85 per cent of the farms are privately run.Small workshops and retail shops are permitted.Closer cultural contacts are maintained with theWest.
Party Conflict Slows ProgressThe wave of criticism of Poland's creaking
bureaucracy and discredited economic systemcontinues to grow. This is the continuing aftermathof the violence and strikes that forced a change inthe Communist leadership of the nation and areversal of government food price increases earlythis year.
The 1970 strikes are over, but workers' meetingsin the factories throughout the country continue toecho complaints about pay, working conditions andliving standards.
Apart from costly emergency measures,however, the new leadership of Communist partyChief Edward Gierek is still searching for long-range answers to the nation's dilemma: How toreorganize the management of the falteringeconomy without giving up the principle of cen-tralized control.
Under the old regime of Communist Party bossWladyslaw Gomulka, about 30,000 Jews wereforced to leave Poland, either through loss of job orparty position. However, the new regime is quietlypassing the word in Jewish exile circles that Polandwould welcome the return of any of those who wishto come back.
In East Germany, reforms leading toward moreof a supply-and-demand economy with less controlfrom Communist Party officials have created anear-boom situation. The East German standard ofliving is the highest of any Soviet satellite, and thecountry generally is considered to be ahead of theSoviet Union in industrial technology.
However, ever-present Soviet troops keep a closewatch on the country, and the economy is gearedalmost completely to the Russian bloc althoughthe retreat from old-style Communist economicslargely is cited as the reason for the advancedindustrial development.
The long-time leadership of Communist Partyboss Walter Ulbricht ended in May 1971 when ErichHonecker took over as First Secretary. AnotherStalinist-type ruler, he keeps East Germany under
Alice-state rule.
USSR
Stretching across two continents from the NorthPacific to the Baltic Sea, the Union of SovietSocialist Republics (USSR) is the largest countryin the world in area, occupying one-sixth of theearth's surface.
Comprised of more than 8.5 million square milesof territory in the northern part of Asia and theeastern half of Europe, the USSR is almost 21/2times the size of the United States.
Nearly 242 million people live in this vast land,making it the third most populous nation in theworld, after Communist China and India. And morethan 170 separate ethnic groups are represented inthis populace.
Federation of RepublicsThe USSR is a federation made up of 15 union
republics, all governed from the Kremlin, ancientcitadel of the czars in the Russian capital ofMoscow.
From this traditional seat of authority, theleaders of the Communist Party exercise authorityover all facets of Soviet life.
Through a huge bureaucracy they run thegovernment, control the Red Army, direct thepolice, supervise education, industry andagriculture and plan the production and regulatethe consumption of the nation.
Originally a small, conspiratorial party ofworkers and peasants, the Soviet Union's Com-munist Party membership has become a broad-based organization which includes all segments ofthe population.
In actual figures, the party's approximately 13.5million members represent less than 6 per cent ofthe population. However, membership in the YoungCommunist League numbers an additional 23million.
The party operates through a government setupsimilar in theory to that of the Westerndemocracies, but with no checks and balances andwith no independent authority. Party membershipis the main avenue to positions of real authority inthe Soviet system, and party members are ex-pected to carry out faithfully the policies set by theleaders.
Through this all-pervasive organization, strictcontrol of the populace is maintained by a rigid setof laws.
Political opposition is not permitted, and thereare sharp restrictions on travel abroad. Press andradio are state-controlled, and even entertainmentis under state supervision.9-71
Religious practice is discouraged by the Com-munist Party, although religion, as well as thespread of anti-religious propaganda, is permittedby the Soviet constitution.
Free speech, once not tolerated, is making gains.Censorship of incoming news from foreignpublications and broadcasts has been relaxedconsiderably. And except for the CommunistParty, some public criticism of Soviet institutionsand policies is permitted.
At the head of the monolithic political structureare Leonid I. Brezhnev, first secretary of theCommunist Party, and Alexei Kosygin, thepremier.
They took over after the surprise ouster in Oc-tober 1964 of Nikita S. Khrushchev, who formerlyheld both jobs and had been in power for more than10 years.
Often at odds with his colleagues, Khrushchevwas blamed for Soviet agricultural failures andaccused of "hairbrained scheming" in his centralplanning.
But many believe his public dispute with RedChina contributed most to his downfall. What wasan "ideological split" under the Khrushchevregime, however, has become full-fledged bitterhostility and constitutes the Soviet government'sbiggest worry.
Skirmishes Along BorderCenter of the dispute is Russia's more cautious
approach of limited dealings with the West, whileChina calls for militant world revolution. TheChinese attacks have grown in tone and intensity tothe point where Russia now is regarded as anenemy, a defector from the Communist causewhose policies aid what the Chinese term the"imperialist" aims of the West.
The ancient rivalry over lands among the 4,500-mile Soviet-Chinese border, scene of many battlesin the past, has stirred new armed skirmishes, andboth nations now maintain constant militaryvigilance in the area. China's development ofatomic weapons also has increased Russia'sconcern, not only of full-scale conflict between thetwo countries but that China might be tempted into
k.t CON kleog9ai2m8 9 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
military action elsewhere which would bring on aglobal atomic war.
Russian policy toward other countries it bordersis not as aggressive as its stand against theChinese.
Six Iron Curtain countries operate under theSoviet thumb, and are kept aligned with Com-munist views. Efforts by these governments toliberalize themselves and loosen their economicand military ties to the Soviet Union are quashed bythe Russians; the takeover of Czechoslovakia in1968 served as an example to other Iron Curtaincountries and also allowed the Russians to fortifytheir westward-facing lines.
But while the Russians try to keep their restivesatellites under control, they still are plagued byinternal problems, chief of which are those in-volving the economy.
Consumer-oriented industry and agriculturaldevelopment have been sacrificed for emphasis onscience, space technology and the militaryestablishment.
Although it is the second largest industrialproducer, with an annual output roughly equal tohalf that of the United States, the Soviet Unionranks 25th in per capita gross national product.
And while many workers have enough money tobuy consumer goods, such as automobiles andrefrigerators, these goods are in short supply,costly and of poor quality. The workers save theirmoney, with an estimated one-fifth of total ear-nings sitting idle in savings accounts.
Black market items, sometimes many times theretail costs, sell readily because of their immediateavailability.
Housing Is A ProblemHousing is in short supply, though the govern-
ment has launched a massive building program.Also, construction often is poor and buildingsdeteriorate rapidly. Rent is cheap, but thedesperate shortage of living space makes forunhealthily crowded conditions for most citydwellers.
Now, however, the people are becoming morerestless and more aware of the outside world andthe freedom it offers. They want more of the goodthings of life more goods and better housing.
To meet these demands, the Soviet planners havehad to adopt a more consumer-oriented outlook.And here detailed central planning has proved to bea dismal failure.
The realization of the advantages of the forces ofsupply and demand has been accompanied by anincentive system of bonuses and profit-sharing formanagers and workers. In addition, detailedcentral controls over production have beenrelaxed, with local plant managers assuming moreresponsibility.
Although these reforms have met stiff resistancefrom many top officials, many observers feel theyare the first steps toward a reversal of the detailedcentralized planning which marked the first 50years of Russian Communism and the beginning ofthe country's development of a market economy.
Although nearly half the population works onfarms, Russia cannot feed herself. Agriculturalmethods are primitive, machinery inadequate, andthe centralized planning system cannot matchneeds with capabilities. Big grain deals with theUnited States, Canada, and other Western coun-tries have had to augment meager crops.
Russia also faces other social ills, such as anincreased crime rate, a soaring divorce rate(partially due to more liberal laws), drunkenessand alcoholism. An estimated one-sixth of all retailspending goes for drink, and the government hastaken a strong stand against it.
Success in EducationOne area in which the Soviet Union has achieved
preeminent success is in education.Universal compulsory education was introduced
in 1930, and it is provided free, a system which hasreduced illiteracy from 75 per cent when theBolsheviks took over in 1917 to about 1 per centtoday. The system itself, also, has shown greatgains, particularly in science and engineering.
Although their curriculums mostly are mappedout for them, students recently have been givenmore freedom of choice in selection of their sub-jects.
However, Russia's continuing internal troublesforce it to modify its role in world affairs
The Soviet Union generally has maintained ananti-West "hard line" foreign policy. This includescontinued support of North Vietnam and of theNational Liberation Front (Viet Cong), en-couragement of "national liberation movements"and a rather narrow interpretation of peacefulcoexistence.
However, deep involvement is being cautiouslyavoided, though great quantities of supplies arebeing supplied to Hanoi.
The investment in Cuba is being continued, butthere is mounting evidence that the Soviet leadersconsider it an unprofitable endeavor, and venturesinto Africa have accomplished little in relation totheir cost.
In the Middle East, Russia has moved stronglyinto the picture, however, sending vast quantitiesof arms to some Arab leaders, along with sizablenumbers of military advisers. Great projects, likethe Aswan Dam in Egypt, also have been un-dertaken in an attempt to spread Soviet influenceover the strategic area.
The Soviet Mediterranean fleet grew to morethan 60 ships in 1969, and non-Communist countriesare keeping a wary eye on the possible reopening ofthe Suez Canal, with its tremendous military andeconomic advantages for the Russians.
In spite of generally anti-West foreign policy andcompetition in the space race, however, someUSSR relationships with the West have softened.
Russia is opening its borders more and more totourists, and Russian jetliners now carry visitorswithin its borders.
Cultural exchange programs and telegraph...communications also have been implemented with
BUeountries outside the Communist bloc.
Middle East
Ever since its biblical identification as the birth-place of man, the Middle East has played a vitalif often confusing role in world affairs.
It is the bridge between the modern culture ofEurope (and the Western world) and the ancienttraditions of the Far East.
Yet the Middle East, the cradle of Christianity,has developed a religion of its own the Moslem(Mohammedan) faith. Of all the world's religions,only Christianity has more adherents.
And Israel, the national state of the Jewish reli-gion, is located in this area. The Hebrews of biblicalfame once dominated the entire Mideast.
Much of World's OilMuch of the land is desert. But beneath the sands
lies much of the world's supply of oil, all-importantto the modern technology.
The area is strategically vital to the Westbecause a foothold there would give the Com-munists command over the Persian Gulf, the RedSea, the Suez Canal and much of the MediterraneanSea. It also would imperil oil supplies to the West.
Two main forces are at work in this ever-shiftingand turbulent area.
Foremost is the clash between the Arabs and theJewish state of Israel. The other is the conflict be-tween modern Arab socialism and the feudaltraditions of the ancient kingdoms.
But the 25 Arab countries not only have a widespectrum of governments. The 115 million peoplespeak five different dialects of Arabic and observehalf a dozen religions, although most are Moslem.They are united in one common feeling hatredfor the Jews.
The Arabs deny the legal existence of Israel,saying it is their territory, and have sworn to drivethe Jews out.
And three times in 25 years massive warfare hasbroken out over the issue.
Rise of ZionismHostilities in the Mideast are as old as the history
of mankind. But the modern phase dates from therise of the Zionist movement for a Jewish homelandin Palestine. The movement's historical base wasancient Jewish occupation for centuries of the area,including the former capital, Jerusalem, with itsholy places sacred to Christian, Jew and Moslem.
Started at the end of the 19th Century, the Zionistdrive brought waves of Jewish immigrants. TheBalfour Declaration adopted by the British govern-9-71
ment in 1917 promised the Jews a homeland inPalestine, without disturbing the rights of theArabs in the area.
The Arabs, however, swore to protect the land.No further official action was taken until 1947,
when the United Nations voted to partition the HolyLand into an Arab and a Jewish state, makingJerusalem an international city. In 1948, theRepublic of Israel officially came into being, withthe new state taking control of the New City inJerusalem and Jordan holding the Old City.
This sparked immediate military action by theArabs, who were decisively defeated by Israel.However, the Arabs instituted a policy of boycottand blockade against Israel, closed the Suez Canalto its ships and engaged in intermittent borderraids, terrorism and sabotage. Egypt alsoblockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, cutting off access toIsrael's key southern port at Elath.
Arabs Routed AgainIn 1956, Israel again routed the Arabs, backed
this time by Britain and France followingnationalization of the Suez Canal by United ArabRepublic President Gamal Abdel Nasser. A U.N.peace-keeping force ww- then set up along theIsrael-Egypt border.
Conflict erupted again in 1967 after mounting warpreparations, a demand by Nasser for withdrawalof U.N. forces and his resumption of the blockadeof the Gulf of Aqaba, cutting off 90 per cent ofIsrael's oil supplies and other vital shipping.
Fighting broke out June 5, when Israel launchedfull-scale air and ground attacks against Egypt,Syria and Jordan, where forces from Iraq alsowere involved. In six days, the Arabs had beenrouted, their air forces destroyed on the ground,their tanks destroyed or captured, and their armiesripped to shreds. The Jews had taken control ofEgypt's Sinai Desert and seized the Egyptian-runGaza Strip.
Jerusalem and Bethlehem were in Israeli hands,along with the rest of Jordan's territory west of theJordan River, and Syria had lost a strategic strip ofterritory adjoining the northern end of Israel andrunning between the Lebanon and Jordan borders.
The United States formulated a peace plan which
91 .kt CoPlaf klewgPatmgDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
would require Egypt and Jordan to accept Israel'ssovereignty and Israel to withdraw from territoriesit has occupied since the 1967 war.
An agreement among Israel, Jordan and Egypt,calling for an end to fighting and military buildups,began Aug. 7, 1970, while negotiators from the threecountries met at the United Nations to discuss last-ing peace. This and subsequent efforts for realpeace have failed, however, although the cease-firealong the Suez Canal has continued.
On one issue reopening the Suez Canal, theEgyptians insist on the right to put a military forcez cross the canal; the Israelis say absolutely not.Also, Israel won't agree to hand back all of theSinai Desert and most of the other conquered Arablands; the Arabs won't agree to a general settle-ment without those conditions.
Refugee Problem WorsensIsraeli retention of the conquered areas (with
their Arab populations), meanwhile, merely makesmore virulent the long-festering issue of the Arabrefugees (estimated at more than a million) wholeft Palestine before or after the Jewish state wasdeclared and whose militant leadership was in-strumental in stirring up the conflict.
The Palestinian refugees have organized severalgroups of commandos who engage in guerrillaraids on Israel.
The Lebanese government, to preserve itsneutral stance, has taken military action againstsome of these guerrillas, despite i3itter objectionsby many Lebanese citizens who see the Jewish na-tion as a dangerous threat.
Syria, Iraq, Algeria, Libya, and Jordan also ex-pressed strong disapproval of the Lebanese actionand offered military aid to the guerrillas.
In Jordan, King Hussein also has had to contendwith irate Palestinian refugees in Jordan who con-stitute a virtual state within a state. His authorityalso was challenged by his militant neighbors,Syria and Iraq, and in September, 1970, civil warbroke out in the country, taking 20,000 lives. Thenine-day conflict failed to resolve any basic prob-lems, however.
In Egypt, meanwhile, the Arab world was dealt astaggering blow by the death of President GamalAbdel Nasser, who died of a heart attack Sept. 28,1970. The Egyptian leader and elder statesman ofthe Arab world had defied Arab extremists bystating his willingness to end the Arab-Israeli con-flict. At the same time, he had tried to prevent Arabfrom fighting Arab by attempting to mediate sev-eral disputes between rival rulers.
Anwar Sadat, vice president under Nasser,pledged to continue Nasser's policies and was over-whelmingly confirmed as president in a generalelection.
Following in Nasser's footsteps toward the uni-fication of the Arab world, Sadat also announcedplans for a political merger of Egypt, Libya andSudan. The heads of the three countries, whichlater were joined by Syria, said their nations are"equipped to be the nucleus for the unity of Arab 9 2hope, action and future."
The new nation would have a combined area ofabout two million square miles, giving the SovietUnion, already entrenched in Egypt, an expandedsphere of influence in the Mideast that would in-clude a source (Libya) of oil essential to much ofthe industry in key Western European countries.
On the one side of the dispute which has blockedArab unity is the Socialist-inclined blocprimarily Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Algeria led bySadat.
Opposing these "revolutionary" movements arethe traditional Arab regimes, mostly monarchies,chiefly represented by Saudi Arabia, Jordan,Morocco, Libya and Kuwait, and spearheaded bySaudi Arabia's King Faisal.
A flashpoint in the struggle between the Arabantagonists has been the southern fringe of theArabian Peninsula, where the former British pro-tectorate of Aden won its independence andbecame the People's Republic of Southern Yemenin November 1967.
Before departing, the British turned over controlto the leftist Arab Nationalist Movement, winnerover Arab rivals in fighting before independence.
The new nation is friendly to Egypt and the SovietUnion, which has supplied jets and pilots as well ashelping develop Southern Yemen. The Brilish fearthey will lose all use of their former military basein Aden, the capital city.
Yemen and Southern Yemen both have continualdisputes with neighboring Saudi Arabia, and haveindicated their governments will merge in thefuture.
Russia continues to supply arms to the Socialist-leaning bloc, especially Egypt, and has virtuallyrebuilt the military strength lost in the 1967 war.Other contributions of food and industrial creditare being made by the USSR.
Moscow is building the nearly completed AswanHigh Dam, designed to harness the Nile River andincrease Egypt's productivity. The Soviets alsohave arranged a $150 million loan to Syria forconstruction of an irrigation and power dam on theEuphrates River.
Military Bases SoughtRussia's interest in the Middle East's great oil-
producing areas has been obvious for years. Forexample, Russia's Mediterranean fleet has morethan 60 vessels and is trying to establish a navalfoothold in the Persian Gulf.
The Russians also want to establish air, navaland ordnance bases in key Arab countries.
Moscow's interests in the area seem to be notmerely political and strategic but also economic.
Russian control of Mideast oil-producing areasand vital communications, such as the Suez Canal,Bab el Mandeb Straits and the Persian Gulf, forexample, would help Russia's foreseen petroleumshortage and halt Western Europe's supply.
And from a geographical point of view, the -Persian Gulf is much closer to existing Sovietrefineries in the Caspian and Black Sea areas thanare Russia's Arctic-Siberian oil fields. If theRussians could gain a foothold in the Persian Gulf
region, transportation costs by ship or pipelinewould be much lower, and only minor adjustmentsto their existing refining facilities would berequired.
Israel, with a population of about three million, issurrounded by Arab nations. And with nearly half amillion non-Jews within its borders, whose rate ofreproduction is much higher than that of the Jews,the country faces serious internal difficulties.
The outside threat also is great; if Israel shouldlose a subsequent war, the nation would not surviveto fight another one.
With a military force only about one-fifth the sizeof its neighbors, the Israelis still were able to defeattheir foes because of a great superiority inequipment, organization and general fightingability, with great stress on mobility. Also, thenation stays on a constant alert, with a well-trained, well-armed reserve in which young menand women serve for two years with an additionalone month of military training yearly.
The 1967 war barely broke the economy's stride,but the economy of Israel was not without troublesbefore the fight.
Immigration had slowed to a trickle, unem-ployment was high, construction was at a standstilland foreign trade and budget deficits weremounting.
With the war, huge private loans poured in fromabroad and immense stores of war booty (includinghalf of Egypt's oil fields) were seized.
Renewed immigration, full employment and eco-nomic growth also have resulted from the war, butthe country's hopes still have not been fulfilled.
Efforts are being made by the government ofPremier Go lda Mier to curb the 12.5 per centgrowth rate to 7 to 8 per cent, to reduce inflationand create a more stable economy.
France, long a prime target of Arab nationalists,sought to regain lost influence in the Arab world bytightening an existing embargo on arms to Israp'and agreeing to sell more than 100 warplanes toLibya.
However, Israel remains confident of continuingU.S. logistical support despite a current gap inarms shipments. The last F-4 Phantom fighter-bomber of a 50-plane sale was delivered by the U. S.in June 1971, but an Israeli request for morePhantoms and a $200,000 grant is still unanswered.
The Arab Mideast remains a welter of discordantnations, a turbulent and contradictory area.
Rule is mostly despotic, ranging from the old-style absolute monarchs to the latter-day Socialistleaders. Gleaming new buildings rise besidetraditional mud hut homes of the peasants, as oilrevenues have put immense wealth into the handsof some of the rulers, whose subjects live mostly inthe abject poverty which has been their lot throughthe centuries.
Egypt, Jordan and Syria emerged from the 1967war with their economies in shambles.
Egypt, already dependent on outside aid to feedthe nation, closed the Suez Canal, their biggestrevenue-producer, in a move which has hurt Egand Russia most.
Tourism revenues also have been lost, as havethe Sinai oil fields. Wheat long has been imported.
Country Deeply in DebtMilitary expenditures, the emphasis on in-
dustrialization, and socialization of the factories,banks, transport and trade already had put thecountry deeply in debt, while loan defaults hadruined Egypt's international credit. Meanwhile,agriculture has been neglected, and little of thesmall farm yield even finds it way into the market.
Nasser's dictatorial rule had recorded somegains in education, public health and home-building, but most of these advances have benefitedonly the urban dwellers, and few peasants live orwork much differently than they did formerly.
Jordan also lost its only significant source of in-come in the Israeli conflict the money spent bytourists in the Holy Land.
With no oil, few resources and a populatioi .swollen with Palestine refugees, Jordan's chieffinancial backing had been a small British subsidyand U.S. military and economic aid. The nation hadbeen considered firmly in the Western camp andallied with the traditional Arab regimes in theMideast's factional dispute.
Although now also tied to the Egyptian-Sovietcamp, both Jordan and Lebanon have a moremoderate view toward Israel.
Syria Not as Hard HitSyria took less of a beating than Egypt and
Jordan and managed to salvage much of itsmilitary material. But its Socialist economy wasfeeble before the war, with 66 per cent of its budgetgoing te the Russian-equipped military forces, anda continuing power struggle effectively snags mostprospects for development.
Run by the military after a series of coups, Syriais the stronghold of the Baath (Renaissance) Party,which advocates militant socialism, but with homerule. Strongly left-wing, the regime forbidspolitical opposition and holds the state above theindividual. Despite its close ties with Russia, Syriadirects its attention entirely toward Mideastproblems.
Neighboring Iraq is also beset by coups andpolitical turmoil, having had 14 governments since1959.
The leftist Baathist party, in power since 1968, isclosely aligned with the Soviet Union. In its briefreign, scores of people accused of U.S. and Israeliespionage have been executed.
Another internal problem of the economically un-derdeveloped nation was a nine-year war with theKurdish tribesmen, about 1.5 million people withtheir own language and culture. However, Iraq hasagreed to give the Kurds self-rule, and this movecould free 20,000 Iraqi troops for combat dutyagainst Israel.
Lebanon, the financial and resort hub of theMiddle East, felt the postwar pinch severely as thetourists stayed away and economic woes disruptedthe financial centers. The country is a democracy
and has been pro-Western, but U.S. influence hasdwindled considerably as the Lebanese build upSoviet ties along with other Arab nations.
Less directly affected by the war's outcome wasEgypt's main Arab rival, Saudi Arabia, which isjust beginning to feel the winds of change and stilladheres mostly to its centuries-old customs andtraditions.
Despite immense revenues as the world's fifthlargest oil producer, the largest peninsula state iseconomically backward and progresses slowly.Illiterate Bedouin herdsmen make up about a thirdof the population, and many other Saudis live inmud-brick huts, growing dates, grain andvegetables in the manner of their forefathers.
Oil Money Helping P eopleHowever, Faisal increasingly is putting his oil
money to use for the people. Hospitals, schools,housing projects and factories are beginning tomake their appearance.
With little of the police-state atmosphere found insome Arab countries, there is not much unrest andFaisal governs benevolently as an absolutemonarch.
An $800 million integrated radar and air defensehas been installed by Britain to help protect SaudiArabia. The system now includes 90 planes in-cluding 40 combat aircraft.
Perhaps the most fabulous country in the world istiny Kuwait, nestled in a remote corner of theArabian Peninsula bordering on the Persian Gulf.
Twenty years ago the little sheikdom was a mud-walled village of some 100,000 impoverished Arabs.Now, a modern metropolis rises above the sands,with tall office buildings, glittering neon signs andsix-lane highways crisscrossing the city.
This is the result of the discovery of oil, of whichKuwait is the world's seventh largest producer.With a population of under one million, Kuwait'sper capita income of $3,490 is the second largest inthe world.
Free Medical CareMedical care and education are free, and both
are lavishly provided. Telephone service also isfree, and water and electricity are sold at bargainrates. No one pays taxes, and the parliamentarygovernment either subsidizes or employs most ofKuwait's citizens.
Abu Dhabi, one of seven small independentsheikdoms called the Trucial States, also faces thePersian Gulf and enjoys an oil boom which gives itthe highest per capita income in the world (the U.S.ranks third).
The Trucial States and two other Persian Gulfkingdoms, Bahrain and Qatar, have beennegotiating unsuccessfully over the formation of afederation to take over when Britain withdrawsfrom the area at the end of 1971. That is the yearthose states are scheduled to lose their treaty
relationships with Britain, which included militaryprotection and conduct of foreign affairs.
The shiekdoms are faced with possible attemptsby Saudi Arabia, Iran and Arab nationalists to stepinto the vacuum.
Muscat and Oman, a larger state on the south-west corner of the Arabian Peninsula, is anothercountry whose hope is in oil. Ruled by an autocraticsultan who has fought change, the country beganexporting oil recently.
Muscat and Oman received British military aidand may become a new target of anti-Westernaction, compounding its problems of poverty,threats from Southern Yemen and a dispute withSaudi Arabia.
Two other large Mideast nations, Iran andTurkey, have been strong Western allies, butrecently have shown considerable interest in betterrelations with their giant Communist neighbor,Russia. Though Moslem, they are non-Arab nationsand stay generally removed from the politicalturmoil in the area.
Iran, once called Persia, is a kingdom of 28million which exports oil and other minerals. Itlooks south at the turbulent Arab world with ap-prehension, worried that some militant Arabs mayfill the vacuum created by British withdrawal fromthe Persian Gulf and upset its oil productionprograms.
Iran has taken advantage of the Suez Canalclosing by installing an automated oil storage andtransport system, making the use of huge super-tankers which travel around Africa more practicalthan using the canal.
The Soviets have invested heavily in Iran, includ-ing expansion of the Russian-built steel mill atIsfahan, the addition of a $160 million lead and zincplant, development of oil reserves and expansion ofa rail network.
In 1967, Russia and Iran made a $100 billion mili-tary agreement, and Russia has played an increas-ingly large part in the development of Iranianindustry.
Iran also has signed an agreement with four ma-jor international firms covering the first stage ofone of the boldest national self-development pro-grams undertaken by a country its size.
The 30,000-square-mile development area bor-dering the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz andthe Gulf of Oman, will include electric power in-stallations, a shipyard, heavy industry, water de-salinization, agriculture, food processing plants,tourism and the creation of entirely new cities.
The African Arab countries Algeria, Tunisia,Libya and Morocco also have not been an in-tegral part of the Mideast scene, though the Israeliwar served to tighten the bonds with their Mideastbrothers. Though they share in many other Mideastplans and ambitions, the African Arabs, with closerties to Europe and the West, tend to concentratemore on their own national policies and on relationswithin their own bloc.
9 4
AfricaAbout 350 million people inhabit that vast jigsaw
puzzle of countries which make up the Africancontinent.
Some 42 national flags fly there and more than700 languages are spoken. Under one flag, 100different tongues may be heard, as a multitude ofwidely varying tribal groups mingle in unrelatedareas unaware of nation or border.
From the towering Watusi to the squat pygmy,Africa is a hodgepodge of tribes and races, all withtheir own traditions, customs, beliefs and taboos.Skin shades range from white through yellow andbrown to deep black.
Bantus Adapt to City LifeOne of the largest groups is the Bantu, traditional
farmers bound together by a common language,but little else. Unlike most African Negroes, someBantus have adapted well to life in the moderncities.
The Nilotes, a tall, slender people living near thehead of the White Nile River, include the Watusi,many of whom stand well over seven feet andwhose size makes them excellent runners andjumpers.
Shy and seldom even seen by white men, thepygmies are nomadic hunters living in the tropicalrain forests of the Congo. They are well-proportioned people, but seldom taller than 41/2feet.
Several groups of Caucasians, relatives oftravelers who settled on the continent at differenttimes, call Africa home and themselves Africans.
Both Arabs and Berbers range from people withlight skin and fair hair to those with dark brownskin and black, curly hair. Descendants of invadersfrom the Middle East, the Arabs have establishedthe Islamic religion and Arabic language overlarge portions of Africa chiefly the northernsection. The Berbers have lived in the region of theAtlas Mountains since history has been recorded.
Nomadic tribes of Bedouins and Tuaregs live inthe Sahara Desert area and are known for theirfleet horses and flowing robes.
In some areas of eastern and southeasternAfrica, Asians, whose ancestors generally camefrom India and Southeast Asia in the 1800s, form animportant part of the society.
With one-fifth of the world's land area, Africa isrich in natural resources.
Nearly all the world's diamonds come fromAfrican mines, and gold, cobalt, chromium,uranium, copper and phosphate are found in largesupply.
Colonial rulers in Africa did little to industrialize
9-71
the countries, but developed mining extensively. Asa result, many of the new African nations are poorin the means to develop their rich supply of rawm aterials.
The vast natural wealth on the "Dark Continent"has attracted some financial support from NorthAmerica and Europe, but the uneven distribution ofthese resources, with some African nations almost
entirely lacking in them, has further hindered theover-all industrial development of Africa.
African agriculture supplies three-fourths of theworld's palm oil and peanuts, two-thirds of theworld's supply of sisal and more than three-fifths ofthe world's cocoa. Other important agriculturalexports include bananas, cotton, coffee, dates,olives, rubber, tea and tobacco.
New Farming TechniquesAlthough many farmers use the primitive
methods of their ancestors to work the land, someare beginning to utilize modern techniques ofagriculture, including mechanization, land con-servation and scientific land use.
However, most of the continent is arid or semi-arid and suffers from a continual water shortage.Much of the remaining area is extremely wet andover-watered.
The continent also is disease-ridden, with mosttribal Africans lacking a balanced diet, beingunaware of the elementary principles of hygieneand sanitation and out of reach of hospitals, doctorsand modern drugs.
Compounding the situation is the high illiteracyrate about 80 per cent which makes it difficultfor government agencies to communicate with thepeople in matters of health, safety and education.
Despite Africa's recent and continuingemergence from colonial to national status, most ofthe states are not nations but a collection of tribes,and tribal loyalties take precedence over nationalallegiance.
Of the Africans working in the modern cities,some cut themselves off completely from theirtribes, but most return regularly to participate inthe tribal practices and customs.
It is this tribalism, as well as the black man'sstruggle for freedom from white rule, which keepsthe continent in constant turmoil.
Both Russia and Communist China are at-tempting to influence African countries, although
9 5 1 MallgriffigDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
the Chinese are more overt in demonstrating theiradmitted "master plan" for the resource-ladenDark Continent.
In addition to aiding north African Arabic nationsand 48 per cent of all Russian aid since 1954 has
gone to Arab countries the USSR is also aiding 15of the 18 nations in sub-Sahara Africa.
Russia is supplying arms to the Sudan andSomalia, and in Zambia is involved in buildingthermal power stations, roads, and providing drugsand medical personnel. Russia is also matchingRed China in arms payments to Tanzania.
The USSR has even set up diplomatic relationswith Botswana, a blzren country with a strategiclocation near Africa's southern tip.
Chinese influence in Africa centers aroundTanzania and Zambia, where it is firmly en-trenched. The Chinese also supply aid to Burundi,Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), Mali andGuinea.
In addition to aid, they supply arms to blackfreedom fighters who are seeking to overthrowwhite regimes in Mozambique, Angola, SouthAfrica and Rhodesia.
This black-white conflict, with its potential forsavage race warfare, is ever-present in SouthernAfrica.
Rhodesia Declares IndependenceIn Rhodesia, a crisis was provoked in 1965 when
Ian Smith, the prime minister, declared thecolony's independence from Britain. The 250,000whites are outnumbered 20 to 1 by the nearly fivemillion blacks they rule.
After the declaration, Britain and other nationsimposed economic restrictions. Some Africannations demanded British military intervention,and threatenad force thomselves. The UnitedNations imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesiain 1968.
But in spite of the boycotts, the countryflourished declaring itself a republic in March1970, with the new government dominated by thewhites.
The gross national product increased 10 per centin 1969. Industry and building are expanding, andimmigration is increasing. Jobs are plentiful.
Only the tobacco industry, a major crop beforethe boycotts cut exports, is floundering. Butagriculture is becoming diversified, and thetobacco industry is kept alive by fmed-quotagovernment buying.
It is clear that the country, which had 300,000tourists last year, is relatively self-sufficient andwill continue to survive.
The black population, however, is growing muchmore rapidly than the white, and many wonder howmuch longer the whites can retain power.
Although economically tied to Rhodesia, neigh-boring Zambia has tried to comply with the U. N.boycott.
Zambia is black-run and doesn't want to binditself too closely to the white-run southe-n states.President Kenneth Katmda has warned that con-
tinuation of the present racial situation willproduce a "holocaust."
In lessening its dependence on the white-Africaneconomies, Zambia has stepped up trade with theU. S., Britain, Japan, Germany and East Africa.
However, it is also exchanging copper miningmethods with Russia. Zambia is the third largestproducer of copper in the world, and this metalprovides 60 per cent of the country's income.
The copper industry was nationalized in 1969 topreserve the country's political structure, which istorn by tribal disputes.
The industry also is the beneficiary of a $300million railroad being built by the Red Chinesefrom that nation to Tanzania on the Indian Ocean, adistance of 1,000 miles.
Black guerrilla action against white rulers also ispresent in Angola and Zambian neighborMozambique.
Mozambique Linked to RhodesiaMozambique, in the grip of a lengthy guerrilla
battle against Portuguese rule, sees its economicand political future linked closely to that ofRhodesia.
Poverty and disease are inheritant, with forcedlabor widespread and political rights limited.
Angola, another Portuguese-run nation and richin natural resources, is maintaining its politicalstructure despite the guerrilla pressure.
Portuguese Guinea, the third Portuguese Africancountry, is also threatened by guerrillas but thegovernment is not faring well. Reports indicatethat two-thirds of the country is under guerrillacontrol.
Rebels have not been successful in the white-runUnion of South Africa, where the governmentmaintains a strict racial separation (apartheid)policy. This policy also has been extended to theterritory of South-West Africa, where South Africacontrols the government despite a United Nationsresolution declaring the territory to be a U. N.responsibility.
In June 1971, the International Court of Justiceruled that South Africa should immediately end itsillegal occupation of the mineral-rich territory, butthe ruling was rejected by South Africa.
South Africa also dominates the new black-runnations of Botswana and Lesotho (formerlyBechuanaland and Basutoland), which areeconomically dependent on their giant neighbor.
Botswana is a poorly endowed and landlockedcountry, basing its economy on a small export ofcattle. It needs South Africa's friendship to surviveas an independent state, but in contrast to its neigh-bor has a completely multiracial society.
Lesotho, almost totally lacking in naturalresources, relies heavily on outside revenue forsurvival, and much of the economy of this tinyAfrican nation in the heart of South Africa isdependent on money sent home by native workerswho labor in South African gold mines.
. Another tiny South African neighbor, Swaziland,9 eceived its independence from Britain in 1968.
Malawi, a nation of nearly 4.5 million thatbecame independent from Britain in 1964, was thefirst black African country to establish diplomaticrelations with South Africa, and also maintainscordial relations and commerce with Rhodesia andPortugal.
Sharing borders with Rhodesia and Mozambique,Malawi is the target of Red subversion attemptsfrom another neighbor, Tanzania. Malawi, almostentirely dependent on British economic aid forsurvival, takes an independent col:-.1 war stand,though its premier has been pro-Western.
This controversial leader, Dr. Hastings KamuzuBanda, consistently has supported policies he feelsbenefit Malawi rather than those based on pan-African or non-African ideology.
Burundi expelled its large Red Chinese missionfor political meddling, but tribal feuding there andin nearby Rwanda has taken thousands of lives.The two countries, smallest in Africa, also havehad border disputes.
Economic CooperationThree of the east African nations joined together
in December 1967 for economic cooperation. Thenew East Africa Community's founding memberswere Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.
In eastern Africa, Tanzania bases its foreignpolicy on the concept of nonalignment with anymajor power bloc. The country includes a tinyisland, Zanzibar, located 20 miles off-coast in theIndian Ocean.
Under the leadership of President Julius K.Nyerere, Tanzania seeks a great expansion ofagricultural production and income which allworkers will share equally.
Nyerere welcomes all aid from countries whichhe regards as being interested in helping the far-mer and worker, including the Soviet Union andCommunist China Considerable assistance alsohas been given by Western countries, particularlyBritain and the United States.
In January 1971, while President Milton Obotewas away at a Commonwealth conference,leadership of Uganda was taken over in a militarycoup under the leadership of Gen. Idi Amin.
The ousted leader had forged a dictatorialSocialist regime from a country which was a patch-work of feudal kingdoms when it became in-dependent of Britain in 1963.
Following the adoption in late 1969 of the Com-mon Man's Charter, Obote announced that the statewould take over nearly all industry and commerce.He banned all opposition parties and declaredstrikes illegal.
Neighboring Kenya suffers from tribal clashestouched off in 1969 when Tom Mboya, the economicminister and a member of the Luo tribe, wasassassinated by a member of the Kikuyu tribe.
President Jomo Kenyatta, a Kikuyu, has bannedthe Luo-dominated opposition party and jailed itsleaders.
However, the economy of the country, bolsteredby tourism, remains fairly stable.
One major difficulty is the 120,000 Kenyaresidents descended from an Indian labor forcebrought to Africa while Kenya was a British colony.
Kenya has started a policy of "Africanization" ofjobs, which dictates that citizens get jobs beforenon-citizens. Since many of these Asians holdBritish citizenship, the effect is an economicsqueeze where their jobs are being taken byAfricans.
The problems of this unwanted group are com-pounded by England's refusal to admit more than asmall percentage of them inside its borders eachyear, because of immigration quotas, and many ofthe formerly affluent group are becomingdestitute.
Somalia is under a military regime following a1969 coup, the first such action in the nation's nine-year history as a free country. The move came aweek after President Abdirashid Ali Shermarkewas assassinated, and promised to renew thenationalist cry to a greater Somalia, which couldrevive border fighting with neighboring Ethiopiaand Kenya over land claimed by Somalia. Sher-marke had followed a more moderate course,aimed at cooperation among the three countries.
The strategically-located country is the recipientof more foreign aid than any other African country.Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and western Europeancountries aid Somalia as well as Russia, China andthe U. S. The country remains poor, however.
The U. S. provides considerable aid to Ethiopia,the oldest independent state in Africa. And U. S. aidto the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kin-shasa) totaled $375 million by the end of 1968.
U. S. Aid Provides Big BoostU. S. aid to the Congo augmented already ex-
cellent foreign relations, and helped set thatcountry's economy back in order.
The Congo's economy was highly developed priorto its gaining independence from Belgium in 1960.Seven years of turmoil followed, however, and theAfrican nation is just recovering from the strain.
The government, under Gen. Joseph Mobutu, isstable, travel is safe and conditions are improvingthroughout the country.
The Congo entered into an economic cooperationagreement with Chad and the Central AfricanRepublic in 1968. The agreement has not sub-stantially helped Chad, however, which is the siteof a Vietnamese-type war being waged againstrebels by the French. Chad is one of the poorestAfrican nations.
In western Africa, Nigeria, the continent's mostpopulous nation (62 million) and the most advancedin black Africa, faces the problems of rebuilding acounfry torn by 31 months of civil war.
Nigeria's bitter fight to retain secessionist Biafraended in January 1970 when Biafra signed asurrender statement.
Estimates placed the death toll as high as twoillion in the tribal conflict, a large number ofhom were children who died of malnutrition.
The war stemmed from the massacre ofthousands of Ibo tribesmen by a rival tribe in 1966,following an unsuccessful Ibo coup a few monthsbefore.
The Ibos, an educated resourceful group scat-tered throughout the country in Mgh-paying jobs,fled to the eastern region of Nigeria, which theyproclaimed the secessionary state of Biafra. Warbroke out in June 1967. Now Nigeria must rebuild.
It has solid resources and a diversified economy,however, and in its population are more trainedand educated professionals than even the Congohad in its early days of independence.
Oil is the primary natural resource, withproduction of two million barrels a day akticipatedsoon, which would put it in the league of the MiddleEast oil producers.
Elections in GhanaIn Ghana, the military leaders who threw out
leftist dictator Kwame Nkrumah in 1966, drew up aconstitution, held free elections and restoreddemocracy. Voting was calm and orderly andresulted in a resounding victory of Dr. Kofi Busia,who is noted for his honesty and modesty.
His greatest problem is Ghana's external debt of$800 million, bequeathed by the Nkrumah regime.When Nkrumah took over in 1957 he had $560million surplus.
Guinea is under the Communist-style rule ofPresident Sekou Toure, and receives considerableamounts of aid from the USSR and Red China, aswell as the U. S. Although a very poor nation, it hasstrong economic potential because of its mineralwealth.
Toure welcomed the deposed Nkrumah, con-tinuing to recognize him as Ghana's president andnaming him co-president of Guinea after the 1966coup in Ghana. This caused considerable concernin the Ivory Coast and Upper Volta, whoseterritories lie between Guinea and Ghana.
The Ivory Coast is prosperous, stable andWestern-oriented. Upper Volta, which exists undera military regime, is experiencing slow economicimprovement, although it is considerably poorerthan its southern neighbor.
Dahomey is under a three-man army directorate,following a coup in late 1969. The military juntafirst announced elections, but later suspended themto avoid civil war in the strife-ridden country.
In May 1968, filly Sierra Leone became the firstmodern black African country ruled by a militaryjunta to revert to civilian government. Less than 10days after assuming power in the third militarycoup in 13 months, Sierra Leone's National InterimCouncil permitted Siaka Probyn Stevens to besworn in as prime minister. Elections were held in1969 and a cabinet was appointed.
The Congo Republic (Brazzaville) sides stronglywith the Communists. Mali, under military rule, isfriendly with the Communists but maintainsrelations with the United States.
The Sudan, the continent's largest nation, wastaken over in a 1969 bloodless coup by the leftist
regime of Maj. Gen. Gafaar al-Nirneiry, head ofthe revolutionary council that seized power.
In an early move, al-Nimeiry granted autonomyto three rebellious southern Sudanese provinceswhere the black African population has been tryingto free itself from the predominantly Arab north.
The military regime has promised a solution tothe decade-long rebellion by the African tribes inthe southern Sudan, and pledged to be even morepan-Arab and anti-Israeli than Sudanese govern-ments in the past.
Although a poverty-stricken nation, the Sudanhas a bountiful supply of fertile land. The govern-ment has made overtures to Russia, which hasoffered arms and military training.
The leftist mood and anti-Israeli stance of thenew government insures little chance for anyresumption of diplomatic relations with the UnitedStates. The Sudan broke relations after the Arab-Israeli war in 1967.
Africa's all-Arab nations occupy the northernpart of the continent, sharing great chunks of theSahara Desert. They generally regard black Africawith haughty disdain, feeling closer in spirit totheir Moslem brothers in the Middle East.
A bloodless coup by a group of young militaryofficers in 1969 deposed King Idris I of Libya andadded other difficulties to U. S. foreign policy. Thenew regime, emphasizing Arab nationalism andArab solidarity, evicted U. S. personnel fromAmerica's last major military foothold in Africa,Wheelus Air Force base in June 1970.
Western oilmen also are apprehensive about atakeover of the oil industry, which has broughtprosperity to the formerly impoverished nation.The new leaders also take a much harder linetoward Israel than previously had been in effect.
Three-Nation AllianceLibya, the Sudan and Egypt entered into the
"Tripartite Alliance" in 1969, which conspicuouslyomitted Algeria.
Algeria, which was receiving massive Russianaid and military equipment, seems to be coolingtoward those Arab states and the Russians in favorof Western attention and help in developing itsresources.
French aid now is far greater than Russian, andthe Algerian attitude toward the United States,with whom it broke relations in 1967, seems to bewarming.
Algeria and Morocco ended years of borderdisputes by signing a friendship treaty. Morocco,as well as Tunisia, is a conservative, Western-oriented country.
Morocco lies only eight miles across the Strait ofGibralter, Africa's closest approach to Europe.
Formerly a constitutional monarchy, rioting anda crumbling economy caused King Hassan tosuspend the constitution and take over absolute Irule. The state of emergency was ended in 1970 withthe adoption in a national referendum of a newconstitution providing for a modified form ofgriamentary government.
Far East
The once-remote Far East has been tightly linkedto the rest of the world with the modern eliminationof time and distance barriers.
The heart of Asia is Communist China, formallyproclaimed the People's Republic of China in 1949.
It was then a country economically andpolitically disrupted by a generation of conflict andwar. The weary populace was ready for a change.The Communists promised to restore order andbring freedom and prosperity to the country.
About 20 million Communist Party members setup rigid controls for about 780 million other Chinesebehind the Bamboo Curtain, nearly one-fourth ofthe Earthrs population.
They centralized all authority and imposed atotalitarian administration which demandedcomplete devotion to and compliance with therevolutionary doctrine of Communist PartyChairman Mao Tse-tung.
Early in 1966 a long, widespread purge of so-called "anti-party" persons brought on the ousteror downgrading of leading intellectuals andcultural leaders who had been accused of ex-pressing doubts or criticism about the direction thecountry was going.
Red Guards Spread TerrorLater that year the "cultural revolution" took a
new turn as thousands of Peking teen-agers callingthemselves the Red Guards took over the city,launching a terrorist-type drive throughout thecountry intended to destroy all "foreign" conceptsas well as China's old culture, customs, habits andideas, and to replace them with those which followexactly the Mao doctrine.
The cultural revolution took on a more menacingaspect in 1967 as China proved its increasing tech-nical maturity by exploding a nuclear bomb.
As the cultural revolution drew to a close at theend of the decade, violence subsided and politicalstability returned. In an attempt to avoidduplicating the top-heavy bureaucracy of theSoviet Union, the government was decentralizedand some decision-making power was granted tolocal officials. For the first time even factoryworkers were given a voice in plant procedures.
With a surplus of workers and a deficiency ofnatural resources, men are employed to carry outtasks which machines would do in a more in-dustrialized society. As a result, industrial outputrose 15 per cent in 1970.
Nevertheless, about 80 per cent of the nation's9-71
people live in rural areas where much emphasiswas placed on increasing agricultural production.The "people's commune" system of farming wasaltered to increase individual incentive, andharvests reached an all-time high in 1970. Morerecently vast water control and irrigation projectshave been completed.
People Well Fed, HousedAlthough the country is still termed un-
derdeveloped and the annual per capita income isless than $150, the people are increasingly well fed,housed and clothed and are provided with almostfree medical care.
A new era of "Ping Pong diplomacy" began earlyin 1971 as Premier Chou En-lai welcomed the firstAmerican delegation to Red China since 1949: aU. S. table tennis team accompanied by newsmen.Almost simultaneously U. S. trade embargoes onsome products were lifted.
A few months later, President Nixon announcedhe would visit Peking.
Also, many nations, including Canada, Italy andChile, had recognized Peking as the true govern-ment of mainland China in anticipation of China'sadmission to the United Nations.
The question of Communist China's admission tothe United Nations, though gaining increasingacceptance, has always run into the same problem
the fact that neither Taiwan (a Security Councilmember) nor the mainland regime would agree tothe presence of the other in the world body.
The United States has consistently supported thegovernment of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek,ruler of Taiwan since his government was drivenfrom the mainland in 1950. Massive U. S. aidtotaling more than $4 billion helped the countrygain a firm economic foothold and strengthenedChiang's military until 1965. In that year Taiwanvoluntarily gave up official U. S. economic aid,accepted only rednced military aid, and now ex-tends aid to other nations.
Despite the fact that Taiwan has the secondgreatest population density in the world, industrialgrowth has been rapid, outstripping evenagriculture as a money-earner. Per capita income
99 copiegNewspatmgDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
is $250 and nearly 85 per cent of the people areliterate.
A U. S. pledge to defend the island remains adeterrent to the Communist Chinese, who havethreatened to "liberate" the island. TheNationalists also have pledged to return to themainland, but the idea of the use of force has nearlysubsided.
Laos Wracked By ConflictThe strategic little kingdom of Laos, which
borders on every nation of the Indochinesepeninsula, is in the center of an extensive com-munist-versus-democracy conflict.
Though officially a democracy with a king ashead of state, the government of Laos is made up ofa coalition of neutralists, Communist Pathet Laoand royalists, and presided over by neutralistPremier Prince Souvanna Phouma. However, thenation is wracked by conflict among the threefactions, and the Pathet Lao, backed by more than67,000 regular North Vietnamese troops, controlsmore than half the country.
It is generally acknowledged that the poorlytrained, poorly equipped 50,000-man regularLaotian army, even aided by Thai forces and U. S.bombing raids, would be no match for the NorthVietnamese forces if the Communists should decideon a military takeover.
Long the scene of strife, Laos was threatenedwith full-scale Communist invasion in 1961. TheUnited States began advising and equipping theLaotian army, and Russia started airlifting sup-plies to the Communist side.
A 1962 conference in Geneva then attempted toend the crisis by making Laos "neutral," withpower divided among the three blocs, and orderingthe withdrawal of all foreign troops.
Peace Efforts CollapseThe action did shift the main struggle in In-
dochina from Laos to Vietnam, but the attempt tomaintain peace through the negotiated settlementquickly collapsed. North Vietnam has increased itsregular army forces many times, making thecountry in effect a partitioned nation. About 85 percent of Laos' three million people are undergovernment control, however, as refugees continueto flee the areas of Red rule.
The country's economy is dominated byagriculture, principally rice production, and barteris the principal method of exchange in this leastdeveloped country of Southeast Asia. Gold andopium smuggling are important activities outsidethe official economy. The country's main prop isforeign aid, mostly from the United States.
To the south, Cambodia became a trouble spotwhen pro-Red Prince Norodom Sihanouk wasousted by the Cambodian Parliament March 18,1970, following an internal dispute over NorthVietnamese and Viet Cong military forces whowere using Cambodian border provinces as sanc-tuaries.
Leadership of the country was taken over by Gen.
Lon Nol, premier and chief of the 35,000-man army,and Prince Sirik Matak, first deputy premier and arelative of Sihanouk. Both men are considered to bemuch more "rightest" and favorable to the Westthan the left-leaning Sihanouk, who now resides inChina.
Although a naturally rich country, Cambodiarelies heavily on agriculture and can ill-afford thelosses of a prolonged war. About 88 per cent of thecountry's 7.1 million people are involved inagriculture, which provides only 40 per cent of thegross national product. Rice and rubber are themain exports.
Thailand, only nation in the area which neverwas under colonial rule, has a real sense andbackground of nationhood. Its king is a unifyingforce, though the country long has been ruled by amilitary dictatorship.
Sturdy Middle ClassThailand has a sturdy middle class and an ef-
ficient career civil service. Suppression of op-position political groups, including Communists,helps the nation of more than 36 million stay firmlyin the Western camp.
However, the country is a target of aggression bythe Chinese Communists, and Red infiltration intothe northeast and southern parts of Thailand isincreasing in a pattern of terrorist activities,propaganda and subversion similar to that used bythe Reds early in the campaigns against SouthVietnam and Laos. Historically neglected by thegovernment, the poorer northeast rural areas havebeen the chief Red targets.
Backed by U. S. funds, Thailand is also givingmilitary aid to fight communism in Vietnam, Laosand Cambodia.
Thailand has little heavy industry, andagriculture occupies about 80 per cent of thepopulation. As one of the world's leading riceproducers, it is very sensitive to any decline intrade markets and is attempting to diversify itsagriculture.
Meanwhile heavy expenditures for defense haveslowed down other development programs as thecountry faces a serious economic slowdown.
Burma, largest of the nations in the area, wonindependence from Britain in 1948, choosing also toleave the British Commonwealth. Outbreak bysome of the wide variety of racial groups earlyplagued the government, and in 1962 armed forceschief Gen. Ne Win took control of the country.
Since then it has been run on an extremeSocialist-style basis, with most civil libertiessuppressed and all industry, trade and banking inthe hands of the government policies which havemade a shambles of the formerly prosperouscountry's economy.
However, the Ne Win government has expandedprimary education and basic health services, andthe disparity between rich and poor has beennarrowed somewhat.
Ne Win's regime is strongly anti-Communist andaggressively combats Red guerrillas, though the
Burmese strongman recently renewed relationswith Peking. A policy of extreme political isolationand neutrality has been put in effect, and touristtrade has been cut off.
Is The area, however, threatens to be anotherhotspot in the Communist drive, as Red China hasincreased the assistance it is giving the ruralguerrillas. Less than half the country actually iscontrolled from the capital of Rangoon, and thepossibility of "another Vietnam" is very real.
Malaysia, formed under British sponsorship in1963 from the British colonies of Singapore, Sabah,Sarawak and the independent Federation ofMalaya, has been a trouble spot ever since.
Intended as an anti-Communist shield, it firstcame under attack from Indonesian guerrillas untilthe shift of power in Indonesia.
Parliamentary Government RestoredParliamentary government was restored only
recently after 21 months of emergency rule, whichwas declared during racial violence in 1969. Theconfrontation between the Malays and the coun-try's Chinese (who make up 40 per cent ofMalaysia's 11 million population) resulted inhundreds of deaths, homes and shops in ruinsand a widening gap of hafted.
The Malays were fighting for more economiccontrol of Malaysia, whose urban centers boast thehighest level of living in Southeast Asia. Theproblem of equitable distribution of wealth nowrests on the shoulders of Abdul Razak, who wasappointed to succeed the former prime minister of13 years, Abdul Rahman.
The federation suffered a severe blow whenSingapore, with its overwhelming Chinese majorityand where the British have maintained a greatnaval base, seceded six years ago. This deprivedthe new nation of its key port (fourth largest in theworld), business and financial base and, with one-quarter of Malaysia's people, its population center.Singapore is very prosperous, with a per capitaincome nearly twice Malaysia's.
Relations between Malaysia and the Philippineshave been troubled periodically since the Philip-pines claimed Sabah (North Borneo) in 1962.
The Philippines is one of the few Asian nationswhich elects its governments. It became in-dependent of the U. S. in 1946, but has not lived upto its high potential.
The privileged elite dominate politics and theeconomy: 90 per centof the wealth is reported to bein the hands of 10 per cent of the people.
Corruption, unemployment, a populationgrowing faster than the growth rate and dissentfrom student, lalx:r and farm groups are some ofthe problems facing President Ferdinand Marcos,now in his second term.
Indonesian Crisis Cools Off
million people, Indonesia is the sixth largest nationin the world, and its half-million-man army makesit the greatest potential power in Asia afterCommunist China. It also is one of the richestcountries in the world in terms of natural resour-ces.
However, the late Sukarno's one-man rule, his so-called "guided democracy," brought economicchaos to the country. Nationalization of foreignindustry and antagonism toward the West, com-bined with increasingly close relations with RedChina, created a growing hostility with the freeworld. Sukarno also cut his country off fromWestern economic aid and quit the United Nations.
Communists failed in an attempt to seize thegovernment in October of 196.5, and a military-backed regime took over, stripping Sukarno of hispowers. In the accompanying violence, anestimated 400,000 Communist Party members,including most of its top officials, were killed.
Strongly anti-Communist, the new regime underPresident Suharto has repaired relations withmany Western nations and has resumed mem-bership in the United Nations.
The new government keeps a tight check onanything threatening security, and high level of-ficials are often arrested.
Private enterprise has replaced state socialism,and tourists are welcome. The raging inflation hasbeen halted, but the average per capita incomeremains under $100. Birth control programs arenow underway in an attempt to reduce the coun-try's whopping population growth rate of 2.8 percent a year, which continues to underminegovernment plans for raising the standard of livingof Indonesia's people, among the poorest in Asia.
Averaging $600 million in foreign aid a year,Indonesia also has accumulated massive foreigndebts.
Parliamentary elections held in summer of 1971the first in 16 years indicated mass support for
Suharto's government. Charges of unfair electionprocedures tarnished the victory somewhat,however.
In Central Asia, the Communist Chinese, whoostensibly have ruled Tibet for 21 years, are en-countering increasing resistance from Tibetanguerrillas. Sporadic fighting also breaks out bet-ween India and Pakistan in Kashmir, where anuneasy truce line divides the fertile northern valleyin two, with India ruling the larger portion.
Wedged between Pakistan and the Soviet Unionis landlocked Afghanistan, which tries to stay out ofthe East-West struggle. Underdeveloped, thisagricultural nation 99 per cent Moslem usesboth Soviet and U. S. aid, as well as help from RedChina, to build up its primitive economy.
Pakistan, divided politically, racially andgeographically by 1000 miles of hostile Hindu India,is united only by a common religionIslam.
Another former hotspot which has cooled con- Recent civil strife which killed thousands of Eastsiderably is Indonesia, where Communist-leaning Pakistanis pointed up further the differencesprevious president Sukarno had led his nation down between the two portions of the country. President
an erratic path in world affairs. With more than 120in rohammed Yahya Khan ordered the national`-'
. .
army of mostly West Pakistanis into the East tocrush a Bengali separatist movement there inMarch, 1971. The Bengalis have traditionallyclaimed that small, densely populated EastPakistan has held up its end of thefinancial burden,but receives its fair share of neither nationalrevenue nor political control.
The rebellion, led by Sheik Mujibur Rahman,head of the nationalistic, pro-American AwamiLeague, was harshly repressed as crops andvillages were burned and sweeping martial lawswere instigated. Daily skirmishes continue.
As a result of the insurgency, Yahya Khandisqualified many members of the Awami League,who recently had won more than half the seats inthe National Assembly during the first directgeneral elections since the country's foundation in1947. He also appointed a committee to draft a newconstitution.
War Follows Natural DisasterThe war followed on the heels of one of the worst
natural disasters in history a cyclone with hugetidal waves which struck late in 1970, washing awaynearly hz.lf a million people from the heavilypopulated Ganges delta. The effectiveness of themassive international aid which poured into thearea to help refugees suffering from hunger,cholera and typhoid was greatly reduced by in-ternal political squabbles, thereby compoundingthe disaster.
The fact that it took Pakistan only 35 days tostatistically replace the lives that were lostdramatizes another characteristic Asian problem:a high population growth rate.
In the meantime, the economy is in a shambles;only 20 per cent of the people are literate; and morethan six million people mainly Irmdus havefled to India, which officially supports thesecessionists. Yahya Khan has stated Pakistan willnot hesitate to go to war with India if the refugeesare not permitted to return freely.
Already over-populated with more than 550million people, India could not deal adequately withthe refugees. Lack of food and housing andsanitation facilities, combined with the outbreak ofcholera brought death to many in West BengaL
India itself suffers from high illiteracy, unem-ployment, underemployment and troublesomereligious and language differences. The populationincreases by about 14 million annually, while theper capita income remains at about $80.
But technical advances have helped India takegreat strides in agriculture. Its "green revo-lution," using new technology and the profit in-centive for farmers, has helped doub!e foodproduction over the last 10 years. Even so, the foodsupply continues to grow at about 2 per cent an-nually, while the population increases by 2.5 percent. 1
With large amounts of foreign aid, India has beenable to undertake large development projects andhas constructed new factories and automobileassembly plants in recent years. India's industry in1971 was down 3.5 per cent over 1970, however.Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi's "progressivesocialism" received a vote of confidence in March,1971, when her New Congress Party got more thantwo-thirds of the seats in Parliament.
Japanese Economy BoomingAs the world's third largest economic unit, Japan
now is not only stable economically and socially,but politically as well. Within a few years, Japanhas become the fastest growing industrial power inthe world, trailing only the United States and theSoviet Union in terms of industrial production.
With a constitution which bans war (a conditionimposed by the United States after World-War II),Japan has left defense and political problemslargely up to the United States, concentrating in-stead on its economic buildup.
Prime Minister Eisaku Sato and President Nixonsigned an over all agreement calling for thereversion of Okinawa to Japan by 1972 in June,1971. The reversion had become a political issuewhich earlier had provided much popular supportfor Sato. But many Japanese who fear the dangerand expense of a military buildup later voicedopposition to one of the conditions of theagreement: that Japan agree to assume respon-sibility for the immediate defense of Okinawa.
The war between Communist North Korea andRed China against the United States and otherU. N. allies left Korea divided by an uneasy truceline running along the 38th Paralk:l. To maintainthe truce, combined U. S. and Korean troops inSouth Korea still protect the border againstfrequent infiltration attempts from Russian-controlled North Korea. A total of 20,000 U. S.troops recently was withdrawn, however.
Following intermittent political unrest, SouthKorea has established a democratic governmentruling by consent of the governed and is carryingout social reforms.
Massive U. S. aid has helped put the nation on athriving economic footing, with trade agreementsthroughout the world and an expected annualgrowth of more than 8 per cent during the next fewyears.
North Korea, the richer of the two countries inindustry and natural resources when it was sealedoff in 1954, also has made remarkaNe economicdevelopment. About 70 per cent of its gross nationalproduct comes from industry and its rich mineralresources. It is having agricultural success as well,but consumer goods are scarce and the standard of
still provides only the basic necessities forcountry's 14 million people.
Australia and New Zealand
Australia and New Zealand are a paradox inhistory.
Situated under the vast Asian continent, they aregeographically in the Far East, yet wholly Westernin their Christian culture and democratictraditions.
A sturdy, carefree people descended from toughEuropean stock, mainly British, they are notusually given to worry. Their people 12.5 millionin Australia and 2.9 million in New Zealand baskin a sunny climate and enjoy a high standard ofliving.
In both countries, the outlook is bright, with littlepolitical unrest, no racial violence and fewdemonstrations. Social distinctions are scorned,and the people work together in a sort of pioneerspirit.
But with the advance of communism in SoutheastAsia, both countries feel the shadow of Red Chinalengthening in their direction, acutely aware thatthey stand in the direct path of Communist ex-pansion and that their underpopulated lands makea compelling target for Communist leaders ofabout two billion poverty-stricken Asians.
Australia was the last continent to be discovered,the Dutch making the first reported landing, in1606. Following the explorations of Australia andNew Zealand by Capt. James Cook about 1770,Britain formally claimed both territories.
First Settlement a Penal ColonyAustralia's first settlement was founded in 1788
as a penal colony for criminals from Britain. Thispractice was suspended in 1839, and Australiagained increasing self-government until 1901, whenit became a commonwealth within the largerBritish Commonwealth of Nations.
New Zealand, formally annexed by Britain in1840, achieved dominion status within the BritishCommonwealth in 1907.
So, tied by their common roots to the West butgeographically part of the East, they must lookboth ways.
The United States is committed to the defense ofthese two South Pacific nations through theAustralia-New Zealand-United States (ANZUS)pact. It also is joined with them, Britain, France,Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand in theSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).
Relations between the United States andAustralia also stress bilateral cooperation ini 0 3various atomic energy fields.
Australia (and to a large extent New Zealand)consistently has stood by the Western democraciesin times of crisis, providing forces in World Wars Iand II, the Berlin airlift and the Korean War. Bothnations also helped Britain for many years in thedefense of Malaysia, seeing active service againstChinese Red and Indonesian guerrillas.
And both now have contributed forces to theVietnam conflict.
In Australia, a party dispute over the coantry'sVietnam policies caused a change in leadership.Prime Minister John G. Gorton was ousted in a voteof no confidence by the Liberal Party. He wasreplaced by the former foreign minister, WilliamMcMahon.
The new leadership will make no difference in theconservative, pro-American policy maintainedsince the present coalition came to power in 1949.
McMahon stated, however, that about 1,000 of the7,000 Australian troops will be withdrawn fromVietnam in late 1971.
New Zealand also sent a token force of 500 men toVietnam despite the fact that its greater depen-dence on Britain gave precedence to its militarycommitment in Malaysia. Here, too, the action metwith some public opposition, and the governmenthopes to withdraw all troops in 1971.
Larger Defense ShareThe Australian government, in particular, has
made clear that it intends to assume a larger shareof the security burden in the Far East as Britainwithdraws its forces, and Australian defensespending has been rising faster than the grossnational product.
Additionally, the countries mare and more arerealizing that the United States is their bestprotection against Red aggression in the area. Bothbuy U. S. military equipment, with the U. S. sup-plying more than 50 per cent of Australia's militaryequipment for the next five years, and Australiaprovides a number of bases for U. S. space andmilitary projects.
Australia's military defense was a major issue inelections held in late 1969, in which the Liberal-Country Parties coalition was returned to power by
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CON Nem'grimligDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
a narrow margin. The coalition held a recordmajority prior to the election.
Despite their ties to Western foreign policy andtheir status as British Commonwealth members,an increasing amount of the two nations' trade iswith other countries in the Far East.
This is partly due to Britain's financial plight andto its effort to get into the European CommonMarket, which would cost Australia and NewZealand their favored trade relationship withEngland, and partly that they are growing moreaware that they have to accept a greater leadershiprole in Asia.
Australia, for example, sells much of its wheat toCommunist China, although no items considered of"strategic importance" go to the Communistcountry, and Japan has replaced Britain asAustralia's biggest trading partner.
One of the world's largest growers of wheat andoats, Australia is a nation of large farms and cattleand sheep ranches (called stations).
But while agriculture continues to provide thelargest share of Australia's export income, theeconomic emphasis since World War II has been onindustrial expansion, and far more people nowwork in factories and offices than on the land. Anddespite their pioneer image, more than half thepeople live in the six capital cities. Australia has asteady growth rate, and is now one of the mostpolitically stable and industrially advanced nationsin Southeast Asia.
Rich Mineral DepositsEnough high-grade iron ore and bauxite deposits
have been located to supply the counfry's tradingpartners for centuries, and Australia is one of themajor prodticers of uranium. Most of the newmoney for this development is coming from U. S.industries, which have poured in several billiondollars.
Unlike its neighbor, with its vast desert areas,New Zealand is primarily a grazing country,heavily forested and mountainous. Numerousrushing streams give the country potential for agreat volume of hydro-electric power.
It also has recorded a large trade gain in recentyears, based on ita livestock rather than on in-dustrialization. The country has a balance ofpayments problem, however.
Meat, wool and dairy products account for morethan 90 per cent of the export trade, and since morethan half of this is to Britain there has been anincreasing drive to develop more foreign markets.F4hery products are prime export possibilities.
Tourism also has significant economicpossibilities. New Zealand is a striking land,boasting sunny beaches, glaciers, lush farms,tropical forests and imposing mountain ranges.The hunting and ashing are superb.
Tourism also is a rapidly growing industry inAustralia, whcre the friendly people, sunny
environment for overseas visitors.In addition, Australia, cut off for millions of
years from the world's other land areas is azoological showcase and attracts many touristsinterested in its unusual flora and fauna.
Not only has its island isolation permitted theindependent development of many animals notfound elsewhere, but the absence of most naturalpredators like the great carnivorous cat and dogspecies has allowed these strange animals tomaintain their existence and thrive sinceAustralia's earliest days as a continent.
Perhaps the best known of Australia's unusualwildlife, the bounding kangaroo and the gentlekoala like about half of the country's animalsare marsupials, or mammals which carry theiryoung in pouches.
Large Immigration ProblemsWith vast areas of wild and partly unexplored
land, both countries have large immigrationprograms. Until recently, they both accepted onlywhites as settlers, fearing a population inundationif Asians were permitted unrestricted access.
However, Australia lately has moderated thispolicy as European prosperity and labor shortagescut sharply into the normal immigration quota, andsome Asians, Eurasians, skilled workers andstateless persons have been allowed to apply formigrant permits.
Transportation is subsidized for acceptableimmigrants, and this. with the high level of op-portunity, has provided incentive to attract morethan 180,000 to Australia each year.
New Zealand still bars all but a few non-whitesfrom permanent settlement, though many therebelieve some Asians should be admitted in 7.riew ofthe labor shortage.
Both countries admit large numbers of students,who are not permitted citizenship.
Education for residents is free and compulsory,with several universities in each country.
Australia also has a number of social welfareprograms.
Pension acts, for example, provide for Paymentsof war, old age and invalid pensions, and also coverthe blind, the unemployed, victims of tuberculosisand, in come cases, dependents of former soldiers.
A maternity allowance is paid for every childborn in Australia, and Social Security for childrenincludes child endowment payments for childrenunder 16.
The two nations also have native populations oftheir own.
Australia's approximately 50,000 aborigines areconsidered the most primitive people on earth.Some have been able to adapt to modern society,however, and have become civilized and educated.
New Zealand's more than 200,000 Maoris arelighter skinned and much more advanced. They /Th.belong to the Polynesian race and have similarities .._)in history, language, music and legends with the
weather and fine beaches provide a relaxed holidayi 0 41:lawaiians.
South AmericaSouth America, twice the size of the United States
and with vast potential riches, is struggling tocatch up with the rest of the Western world.
It is ã11 area of p-treme contrasts.Ultramodern office buildings are rising in the
busy, modern cities. New lactories, well-stockedstores and well-paved highways testify to economicprogress.
Yet most of the people never have enough to eat.Per capita income is little more than $400 a year,compared with $3,980 in the United States.
Most of the countries have been independent forwell over a century. Yet governments still are oftenchanged by coup rather than by election_ There isintense nationalism and pride among theinhabitants. But there is little real confidence incountries or mutual trust between individuals.
All these qualities show up in the instability of theeconomies and governments, in , education andpolitics.
Rich in Natural ResourcesThe continent is rich in natural resources,
however.There is abundant oil and some of the world's
largest deposits of iron and copper. Other in-dustrial metals such as lead and zinc are found, aswell as gold, silver, diamonds and emeralds. Thearea also contains the world's largest forests, andthe hydroelectric power potential is perhaps theworld's greatest
Still, South America lags further and furtherbehind as it battles the continuing problems ofinflation, declining markets, bad crop years andoutmoded policies.
The vast, impenetrable jungles that cover ,muchof the northern portion of the continent and the highmountains that run the length of South Americaform natural barriers, hindering communicationand commerce.
Although modern European culture prevails insome of the countries, such as Argentina and Chile,Indians still remain a large unassimilated body ofthe population, living apart and speaking only theirown languages. Bolivia and Peru, for example,have Indian majorities.
In addition, South America's population of about190 million is increasing at a rate of nearly 3 percent a year. Slowly growing economies in many ofthe countries barely keep up with the needs of theirincreasing masses, and little money is available toinvest in development projects.
With acute political and economic stresses,Communists and other leftists have moved in to
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form a pervasive current of unrest. Acts ofterrorism are frequent in some cities. The kid-naping of government officials and foreigndiplomats in order to achieve political ends, in-cluding the release of political prisoners, hasbecome common practice for some groups.
Revolutionary activities throughout the continenthave increased since Fidel Castro's Cuba gavesocialism a stepping stone to the mainland. Theuniversities are focal points of revolutionary ac-tivity even though guerrilla leader and folk-heroErnesto Che Guevara failed in a bid te bring aCastro-style revolution to Bolivia in 1967. He wassubsequently captured and executed by theBolivian army.
It became evident that urgent action was neededto combat the poverty, disease and illiteracy of thegreat mass of people. Social reforms have beeninitiated and attempts at political stability havebeen increased.
Under various programs, including the Alliancefor Progress in which the United States pledgesfunds, mostly loans, to nations seeking to facilitatesocial, economic and political development,schools and roads have been built and new in-dustries established. Once-unskilled peasants havebeen hired in factories, and universities are of-fering credit for agricultural, scientific andtechnical courses.
United States aid to Latin America has reachedmore than $11 billion since the inception of theprogram. Total current U. S. investment in LatinAmerica amounts to approximately $13 billion.
Loans Tied to PurchasesHowever, more than 90 per cent of U. S. loans to
Latin America were tied to purchases of U. S.goods that could be had cheaper elsewhere. Inaddition, the United States has allotted LatinAmerica a decreasing portion of its market overthe last decade, currently maintaining a tradesurplus of more than $100 million with its southernneighbors. Recent U. S. legislation has loweredtariffs on some goods it imports from LatinAmerica, however.
Increasingly complex problems have resultedfrom the inability of the United States and LatinAmerican nations to define a territorial sea limitwhich is mutually acceptable. The U. S. govern-
t CON Newspapa105DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
ment, which recognizes a 12-mile limit, has refusedto accept the 200-mile limit set by Ecuador, Peru,Chile and Brazil.
In what was considered a rebuff to the UnitedStates, the Organization of American Statesrecently decided to investigate Ecuadoriancharges of U. S. "economic aggression" and theimposition of U. S. sanctions on Ecuador instead ofconsidering U. S. complaints regarding the seizureof U. S. fishing vessels by Ecuador.
Since 1960 into the present decade programs havebeen started to combat the continent's massiveilliteracy. The 3umber of teachers trained in-creased by 122 per cent, and the number of doctorsby 50 per cent. Electric power production rose from60 to 100 billion kilowatt hours and half a millionmiles of new roads were built. But the greatmajority of the approximately 283 million people ofLatin America have received little benefit fromthese changes, so still other action is being taken.
Economic Integration ProjectsTwo economic integration projects, in the An-
dean and River Plate areas, are currently underway. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay andUruguay have begun work together to developcommunication, power production and tran-sportation facilities in the 1 5 million-square-mileRiver Plate basin that includes all or, part of thefive countries. A similar program Of economiccooperation has been initiated by the Andeannations of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador andPeru. Both projects, though still in the talkingstages, are promising.
Meanwhile, the older and more ambitious LatinAmerican Free Trade Association, composed of 10South American nations and Mexico, has ex-perienced difficulties in attaining its goal oflowering trade barriers between members. LAFTAhas bogged down because of fear that it will benefitonly the economically strongest counties andbecause most countries are reluctant to give uptariff protection for some of their domestic in-dustries.
The South American continent is occupied by 11independent nations Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay,Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela and the colonies ofFrench Guiana and Surinam (Dutch Guiana).
Although naturally a very rich country of greatcattle and wheat producers, Argentina has beenplagued by political and economic instability aswell as government inefficiency.
Following several months of large-scale laborstrikes and rioting, Gen. Alejandro AgustinLanusse, commander-in-chief of the Argentinearmed forces, assumed power in March, 1971, afterousting President Roberto Levingston. He hadhelped put Levingston in power via a military coupless than 10 months before. Soon after hisinauguration Lanusse declared several measuresin an attempt to bolster the economy and restoresome political freedom to the country's 23 millionpeople. 106
He reversed provisions of a 1966 law whichbanned elections and political parties, includIng theinfluential "Peronistas," followers of the exiledformer dictator Juan Peron. The popular dictator,who ruled from 1943-1955, gathered a largefollowing, especially among labor. The Peronistasstill are the largest single political force in thecounfry and hope to -.;In the election Lanussescheduled for 1973.
Lanusse also granted a 19 per cent pay raise forworkers in order to counterbalance the high rate ofinflation more than 20 per cent in 1970. Hedeclared alternate "beefless" weeks in order toincrease the amount of meat available for export.(Agricultural and livestock products traditionallyaccount for 90 per cent of Argentina's exportearnings.)
In contrast to Argentina which boasts over 90 percent literacy, only 32 per cent of Bolivia's 4.3million people are literate.
Probably the most backward country in LatinAmerica, Bolivia has experienced 186 coups d'etatin its 145-year history. The most recent occurredwhen leftist Gen. Juan Jose Torres took thepresidency from right-wing military leaders whohad just ousted Gen. Alfredo Ovando.
Strong anti-U. S. sentiment in some sectors of thepopulation is characterized by student violence, thepresence of Cuban revolutionaries in the moreremote areas and the expulsion of the Peace Corps.
Although Torres has promised to make Bolivia"a Socialist republic," his failure to meet theconflicting demands of leftist students, miners andpeasants has weakened his popular support.
Lacking in natural resources and an outlet to thesea, about three-fourths of Bolivia's income isderived from its tin mines. However, restiveminers, featherbedding and corrupt managementhave long made the mines a losing proposition, asevidenced by the large national debt. .
Brazilian Economy StrongIn Brazil, the military-led revolution that toppled
left-leaning President Joao Goulart in 1964 con-tinues in power. Gen. Emilio Garrastazu Medici,now president, has concentrated on the economicgrowth of his country at the cost of political andpersonal liberties.
Brazil's growth rate, 9 per cent in 1970, is thehighest in Latin America. Inflation has decreased,a massive $1 billion housing program is planned for1971, and innovative education projects withcompulsory vocational training are being in-
stituted.But Brazil is not without problems. Many of the
nation's 92.2 million people are disenchanted withMedici's paternalistic government and itswidespread censorship, severe limitation of per-sonal freedoms and thousands of political arrests.Terrorism, especially in the form of kidnapings byleftists and murders by a clandestine group calledthe Death Squad (possibly composed of police-'men), is also present.
The first freely elected Marxist head of state,President Salvador Allende of Chile, wasinaugurated November 3, 1970.
Allende, a founder of the Chilean Socialist Party,was supported by a coalition of leftists and cameout on top in the primarily three-candidate racewith 36 per cent of the votes. Under the constitution,however, the congress must choose between thetwo top candidates if none receives a majority ofvotes. With the support of the Christian Democrats
the centrist party of incumbent Eduardo FreiAllende's election was confirmed by Congress.
The assassination of two public figures since theelection of Allende marks an interruption of a longtradition of adherence to democratic procedurequite unique in Latin America. Although debatable,the death of army commander Rene Schneider inOctober was attributed to rightists and that offormer Interior Minister Edmundo Perez Zujovicto radical leftists.
Chile's Socialism ConstitutionalAllende has promised to retain all constitutional
rights for Chile's nearly 10 million highly literatepeople. He has used legal means to implementsocialism, often by accelerating the pace ofprograms instigated by Frei and earlier ad-ministrations.
A constitutional amendment permitting thenationalization of the holdings of three major U. S.copper companies was passed by a Congress inwhich declared Allende supporters are in theminority. U. S. interests in Chile's copper industry,including Kennecott's El Teniente, the world'slargest copper mine, are valued at more than $600million.
Whereas Frei's land-reform program boggeddown in high costs and red tape, Allende reducedthe maximum, acreage for farms exempt fromexpropriation from 200 to 80, expropriating morethan 500 farms during his first six months in office.In some cases peasants have seized lands beforeexpropriation and before the government has beenable to establish collective farms.
The government also has initiated housing andpublic investment programs and allotted a 40-60per cent pay raise for the average worker. As aresult of government spending, Allende facescontinuing inflation, a drop in foreign exchangereserves and a rise in unemployment to 8 per cent.
Nationwide municipal elections held in April,1971, indicate an increase in support for the ad-ministration, with Allende-supported candidatesreceiving nearly half the votes.
Especially since Allende officially recognizedCuba and Red China, the United States hasmaintained "cool and correct" relations with Chile,during its experiment with the compatabilityof democracy and socialism.
The administration of Colombia's PresidentMisael Pastrana Borrero, a Conservative, will bethe last under the National Front system that datesback to 1958 when Liberals and Conservativ*agreed to alternate power to heal the natiodlii 7
political ills. One of Pastrana's major efforts isdirected at the cities in a sweeping urban reformproject.
But his attention also is focused on rural areaswhere, as in all Latin American countries, extremeneed and political pressures combine to urgeagrarian reform. A million Colombian peasantfamilies who depend on agriculture to feedthemselves are without sufficient land to providesubsistence. Over 350 farms were seized during thefirst half of 1971 by increasingly educated peasantswho are beginning to demand change.
On the other hand, the small five-acre parcelsoften distributed in agrarian reform programs donot make efficient use of the land. Favorablecompetition with highly industrialized nations anddependence on agriculture to provide large por-tions of national revenue necessitate the main-tenance of large mechanized farms to insuregreater harvests.
The problem becomes aggravated in countrieslike Colombia, where 30 per cent of the grossnational product is derived from agriculture. Thealready unstable economy suffers from highunemployment, a chronic balance of paymentsshortage and violent fluctuation in the price ofcoffee, which accounts for nearly 70 per cent of thecountry's export earnings.
Ecuador's aging President Jose Maria VelascoIbarra, South America's "great demogogue,"closed his country's congress and courts and tookdictatorial powers for himself in 1970. Unhesithfingin his use of force to put down popular protests,Velasco has grown dependent on the armed forces'good will to remain in power.
Velasco, who has been president four timesbefore and ousted three times, successfully quelleda bloodless military coup in March, 1971. He alsocalled for elections when his term expires in mid-1972, but is known for his failure to keep promises.
Ecuador's Budget BalancedAlthough Ecuador's budget was balanced for the
first time in history in 1971, the country faces thesame economic problems experienced by mostLatin American nations. These problems arecompounded by a large percentage of Indians, whohave yet to be assimilated into the economy.
Paraguay has been ruled under the dictatorshipof Gen. Alfredo Stroessner since 1959. Before hetook over, it was a chaotic nation which had arecord of 35 presidents in this century and was stillreeling from a civil war which forced 300,000 intoexile.
Until mid-1969 he seemed to be steering thecountry toward democracy. Since then, however,Stroessner has become more repressive as con-ditions in his country have worsened. The economy,previously stable but never healthy, has developedproblems as trade has dropped, deficits aregrowing and the once-solid currency facesdevaluation.
In addition, the government of this RomanCatholic state has had a deep split with the church,
which opposes the censorship, corruption, policebrutality and low pay for the mass of the populationthat characterize Stroessner's regime. Stroes-sner, in retaliation has harshly repressed churchfunctions.
Under Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado, Peru has asupernationalistic leader who has surroundedhimself with leftist-leaning advisers. After an-nouncing that all large landholdings are to be ex-propriated and converted into collectve farmsincluding those of a number of U. S. citizens hedeclared that all foreign investment will be limitedto 33 per cent after the initial investment has beenrecovered. Another decree called for workers toshare in 10 per cent of their companies' annualpretax profits.
Peru's Andean country has been shackled withsoaring inflation, drought, financial crises andeconomic stagnation and budgetary deficits.Despite massive foreign aid from all over theworld, Peru is still recuperating from thedevastating earthquake of May 31, 1970 which tookmore than 50,000 lives.
In October, 1970, a state-owned mining companycalled Minero-Peru was created with an initialcapital of $250 million. A few months later aEuropean consortium tentatively agreed to investin Peru's mining industry. Realization of thisagreement is uncertain, however.
Former newspaper editor Jorge Pacheco Arecois Uruguay's second president since abandoning itsunwieldy nine-man national council form ofgovernment in 1966.
Working against Uruguay's good agriculturalland and mechanization, a population more than 90per cent literate, a mild climate and adequateroads and water, is a massive government welfaresystem. The government also employs more than athird of the nation's workers, which is crushing theeconomy and strangling initiative. Anti-inflationary measures have been instituted tocombat large rises in the cost of living.
Prominent Officials KidnapedThe kidnaping of prominent officials and large-
scale bank robberies have been used as terrorisdcactivities with only limited success by a Marxist-inspired leftist group called the Tupamaros. Arecohas repeatedly refused to negotiate with theterrorists, using increasingly repressive measuresin an attempt to eliminate them. The United Statesreaffirmed its support of Areco's policy by refusingto negotiate with the group for the return of U. S.soil expert Claude Fly, who was released in March,1971, after seven months in captivity.
Uruguay's long tradition of democracy recentlycame to the fore when a congressional commissionrefused to permit Areco to close down a Tupamarosnewspaper.
The terrorism continues, however, as the grouphopes for the election of a more tolerant presidentin November, 1971.
The considerable leftist terrorism prevalent inVenezuela in recent years abated somewhat in1971.
Since the relatively peaceful election in 1968 ofRafael Caldera, a veteran polidcian and memberof the Social Christian Party, in the closest electionin Latin American history, the political tone ofVenezuela has become increasingly nationalisticand leftist.
Indicative of the country's mood is a recentlaw calling for the nationalization of all oilproperties by 1984. The world's largest petroleumexporter, Venezuela has the highest per capitaincome in Latin America almost $900 a year.
Riches Poorly DistributedYet the industry, which provides 70 per cent of all
government income, employs only 24,000 people. Asa result, the high income is poorly distributed andabout one-third of the people are not fed, housed, oreducated adequately. So while domestic industryand agriculture continue to grow and inflation isnegligible, =employment is high.
New, possibly very rich, oil deposits are at stakein an area involved in a border dispute betweenColombia z:nd Venezuela.
Underpopulated and undeveloped, FrenchGuiana has been in French hands since 1626, ser-ving mainly as a penal colony (Devil's Island) until1945, with an unsavory reputation of cruelty,disease and death. A part of- metropolitan Francesince 1946, it is showing some gains, but greatnatural obstacles, particularly the Amazon junglewhich covers most of its territory, still hinderconstruction and industry.
Nearby Surinam, traded by the British to theDutch in 1667 for Manhattan Island, has had virtualcontrol over its internal affairs since 1954.
With a population composed of Dutch, East In-dians, Africans, Indonesians, Chinese and nativeIdians, Surinam has skipped the phase of militantnationalism so prevalent in the Latin Americanarea and provides a politically kable bastion ofdemocracy. Unemployment is virtuallynonexistent and most urban residents read andwrite at least one language.
Guyana, a former colony on the northeasternshoulder of South America, became independent in1966, but still faces the problems which contributedto a troubled colonial history as British Guiana.
Chief of these is the bitter racial division betweenthe East Indians, who form nearly half of thecountry's 735,000 population, and the more than210,000 Negroes.
Serious efforts to eliminate this racialdiscrimination have been made by Prime MinisterForbes Burham, a British-educated Negro lawyer.His chief opposition is headed by ex-Premier Dr.Cheddi Jagan, an East Indian dentist, educated inthe United States and a self-proclaimed Com-munist.
Racial strife is also present in neighboringCaribbean islands, such as Trinidad-Tobago.Negroes who in many cases have political power,oe seeking economic control, which is often in
10 bands of racial minorities.
Central America
Six nations and a colony occupy the narrowCentral America isthmus which divides theWestern Hemisphere. About 14 million people livein this area, comprised of Guatemala, El Salvador,Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama andBritish Honduras.
In order to present a united front for commercewith larger nations and to boost trade amongthemselves, five of the little countries bandedtogether in 1961 in what was hailed as their mostsignificant advance since they declared their in-depencence from Spain in 1821: the CentralAmerican Common Market (CACM).
Growth Rate IncreasesIn the early years of the CACM, intraregional
trade among Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador,Costa Rica and Nicaragua greatly increased, andthe area's average growth rate rose to 6.5 per centyearly. Tariffs were reduced, eliminating chargeson about 95 per cent of all goods the five countriestraded with each other. Common tariffs were alsoestablished on other imports, bringing an un-precedented burst of activity to the area_
Where once these nations exported mostlybananas, coffee, cotton and sugar and importedmanufactured goods, they began making manyitems themselves. A Central American Bank wasset up, providing loans for economic expansion.Local and foreign investors established hundreds offactories, producing a variety of light-industrygoods and jobs to =employed workers.
Multinational development projects were un-dertaken, with plans for integrated networks ofroads, telecommunications and electric power.Health, education and labor programs also wereset up.
Intense nationalism, unsettled disputes andunilateral actions altering trade agreementsweakened the CACM in the latter part of the decadehowever. The "Soccer War," a vicious conflictwhich erupted following a series of soccer matchesbetween Honduras and El Salvador, virtuallyparalized the CACM in mid-1969. Two years laterfighting continued along the border, despite theestablishment of a demilitarized zone.
Finally, in January, 1971, Honduras virtuallywithdrew from the CACM, claiming the agreement
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had benefitted the other nations at its expense.Honduras sustained an estimated $38 million in-traregional trade deficit in 1970 alone, whileGuatemala and El Salvador accumulated largesurpluses. Costa Rica and Nicaragua also sufferedtrade deficits, and Costa Rica has indicated it isrestricting imports from the other market mem-bers. Recently four of the nations launched anexperimental reform program. Should it fail, theCACM would almost certainly collapse.
President Ramon Ernesto Cruz stated thatHonduras would be willing to negotiate a return tothe CACM if it makes concessions to the poornation, however. The election of a liberal presidentof El Salvador in 1972 could help patch up Hon-duran-Salvadorean relations and hasten the returnof Honduras to the CACM.
But Costa Rica and Guatemala, which does morethan a quarter of its intraregional trade withHonduras, have already sent emissaries to EasternEurope in search of new trade markets.
In the meantime Central America's populationincreases by 3.4 per cent each year, necessitatingnew investment and diversified sources of income.
Probably the most backward of the CentralAmerican nations, Honduras has had 136revolutions in its 149-year history. In 1971, for thefirst time in nearly 40 years, Hondurans electedtheir president, veteran politician Ramon E. Cruz.
Economy LaggingAfter an initial spurt of growth following the
establishment of the CACM, the nation's economyhas lagged. The exportation of bananas whichstill account for 40 per cent of all export earningshas slackened in recent years. The average percapita income is only $253, as contrasted with $3,980for the United States. Although some foreigncapital has entered the country, Honduras stillneeds better public administration to spur diver-sification programs and better conditions for thecountry's 2.7 million people, 55 per cent of whomare illiterate.
109Cop leAr Newgpapig
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Guatemala, which in 1954 was the first nation tooverthrow a Communist regime, is constantlythreatened by terrorist actions of opposing ex-tremist groups. It is estimated that 700 people werekilled just during the first 10 months of the state ofsiege which President Carlos Arana Osoriodeclared in November, 1970 to deal with theproblem. Castroite leftists have been heldresponsible for the assassination and kidnaping ofgovernment officials, businessmen and numerousfore. gn ambassadors, often demanding thegovernment release prisoners in exchange forhostages. Dozens of murders of universityprofessors, students and liberals have been at-tributed to equally active rightist groups.
Meanwhile the government is working under afive-year economic development program in anattempt to improve conditions for Guatemala's fivemillion people, more than half of whom are Indian,illiterate and live in extreme poverty in ruralareas. The program includes plans to makeeducation relevant to rural needs, landredistribution for peasants, industrial andagricultural diversification.
Somozas Rule in NicaraguaPresident Anastasio Somoza, whose family has
ruled Nicaragua's two million people since the mid1930s, has announced that a three-man junta,composed of two of Somoza's Liberal Partymembers and one representative of the Con-servative Party, will rule for two years when histerm expires in 1972.
In the first half of the 1960s, Nicaragua'seconomy grew to an average 8 per cent annualgrowth. In recent years, however, the economicboom has faltered. Somoza claims his country hasincurred heavy trade deficits and lost substantialrevenues as a result of CACM membership.
In addition to the economic slump, Somoza hasbeen confronted with renewed activity from left-wing guerrillas and extremely active politicalopposition. However, a well-disciplined NationalGuard poses a deterrent to leftist undergroundactivities. Nicaragua received more per capitaforeign aid than most Latin American countriesduring the 1960s, including nearly $140 million fromthe United States.
El Salvador has become the most highly in-dustrialized CACM nation in recent years, withindustry and agriculture each producing about aquarter of the gross national product.
Its population density of about 400 to the squaremile in this nation of 3.4 million is one of the highestin the Americas, however, and about 40,000 newjobs are needed each year just to offset the annualpopulation growth of 3.4 per cent.
Despite rapid industriaization, these jobs havenot been provided. The Salvadorean peasants,fewer than half of whom are literate, have oftenmigrated to less crowded countries with greater
many feel that the subsequent return ofSalvadoreans to their native land will presentproblems to the labor forces of both countries.
Democracy has taken firmest hold in Costa Rica,where successive governments have implementeda social reform program pioneered more than 10years ago.
The nation prides itself on its high (85 per cent)literacy rate and its many schools. More than 30per cent of the budget is spent on education. Thereare no national military forces as such.
However, Jose "Don Pepe" Figueres Ferrer,elected president in 1970, faces problems becausethe budget has been running on a deficit for years.The national debt is more than double that of anyother Central American country and taxes are thehighest. Nonetheless, its per capita income of $431annually is the highest and most evenly distributedin Central America.
Restoration of private banking has been sought toease the financial crisis, but the pressure of a high(3.8 per cent) birth rate poses long-term problemsfor the nation's economy. Costa Rica offers sub-stantial possibilities for agriculture and livestockproduction, but growth has been slow and morestress on agricultural diversification is needed.
The southernmost of the nations, Panama did notjoin the CACM when it first was set up, consideringitself distinct from the others because of the specialrelationship created by the U. S.-controlled CanalZone which divides the country.
Panama is a country torn by almost continuouspolitical strife. The country's 1.5 million people arenow ruled by Brig. Gen. Omar Torrijos, com-mander of the national guard.
About 25 per cent of the nation's gross nationalproduct is derived from the Canal Zone. Bananas,produced and sold by the United Fruit Co., remainthe largest single export. With an extensivegovernment public works program, backed bydeficit spendh4 nd foreign loans, businessmenare showing increased confidence in the militaryregime.
New Canal RecommendedEarly in 1971, a U. S. government study group
recommended the construction of a new $2.9 billionsea-level canal a few miles west of the presentcanal which is becoming obsolete.
British Honduras, self-governing since 1964, isnot a part of the social and economic life of the restof Central America. Highly literate, the English-speaking area is scheduled for independence withinthe British Commonwealth, but a long-standingclaim to the territory by Guatemala clouds thefuture of the 120,000 inhabitants.
Chiefly dependent on sugar and citrus, goodgrowth possibilities are predicted for BritishHonduras if agricultural exports can be diversifiedand expanded, commercial fishing developed andthe once-prosperous timber industry revived. A
opportunity. balmy climate and ideal fishing and water sportIt was the settling of Salvadoreans in Honduras conditions make large-scale tourism a bright
which formed the backbone of the Soccer War, anal riossibility as a future income-producer.
Central America
Six nations and a colony occupy the narrowCentral America isthmus which divides theWestern Hemisphere. About 14 million people livein this area, comprised of Guatemala, El Salvador,Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama andBritish Honduras.
In order to present a united front for commercewith larger nations and to boost trade amongthemselves, five of the little countries bandedtogether in 1961 in what was hailed as their mostsignificant advance since they declared their in-depencence from Spain in 1821: the CentralAmerican Common Market (CACM).
Growth Rate IncreasesIn the early years of the CACM, intraregional
trade among Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador,Costa Rica and Nicaragua greatly increased, andthe area's average growth rate rose to 6.5 per centyearly. Tariffs were reduced, eliminating chargeson about 95 per cent of all goods the five countriestraded with each other. Common tariffs were alsoestablished on other imports, bringing an un-precedented burst of activity to the area.
Where once these nations exported mostlybananas, coffee, cotton and sugar and importedmanufactured goods, they began making manyitems themselves. A Central American Bank wasset up, providing loans for economic expansion.Local and foreign investors established hundreds offactories, producing a variety of light-industrygoods and jobs to unemployed workers.
Multinational development projects were un-dertaken, with plans for integrated networks ofroads, telecommunications and electric power.Health, education and labor programs also wereset up.
Intense nationalism, unsettled disputes andunilateral actions altering trade agreementsweakened the CACM in the latter part of the decadehowever. The "Soccer War," a vicious conflictwhich erupted following a series of soccer matchesbetween Honduras and El Salvador, virtuallyparalized the CACM in mid-1969. Two years laterfighting continued along the border, despite theestablishment of a demilitarized zone.
Finally, in January, 1971, Honduras virtuallywithdrew from the CACM, claiming the agreement
9-71
had benefitted the other nations at its expense.Honduras sustained an estimated $38 million in-traregional trade deficit in 1970 alone, whileGuatemala and El Salvador accumulated largesurpluses. Costa Rica and Nicaragua also sufferedtrade deficits, and Costa Rica has indicated it isrestricting imports from the other market mem-bers. Recently four of the nations launched anexperimental reform program. Should it fail, theCACM would ahnost certainly collapse.
President Ramon Ernesto Cruz stated thatHonduras would be willing to negotiate a return tothe CACM if it makes concessions to the poornation, however. The election of a liberal presidentof El Salvador in 1972 could help patch up Hon-duran-Salvadorean relations and hasten the returnof Honduras to the CACM.
But Costa Rica and Guatemala, which does morethan a quarter of its intraregional trade withHonduras, have already sent emissaries to EasternEurope in search of new trade markets.
In the meantime Central America's populationincreases by 3.4 per cent each year, necessitatingnew investment and diversified sources of income.
Probably the most backward of the CentralAmerican nations, Honduras has had 136revolutions in its 149-year history. In 1971, for thefirst time in nearly 40 years, Hondurans electedtheir president, veteran politician Ramon E. Cruz.
Economy LaggingAfter an initial spurt of growth following the
establishment of the CACM, the nation's economyhas lagged. The exportation of bananas whichstill account for 40 per cent of all export earningshas slackened in recent years. The average percapita income is only $253, as contrasted with $3,980for the TJnited States. Although some foreigncapital has entered the country, Honduras stillneeds better public administration to spur diver-sification programs and better conditions for thecountry's 2.7 million people, 55 per cent of whomare illiterate.
ill coat NewspapkgDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Guatemala, which in 1954 was the first nation tooverthrow a Cmmunist regime, is constantlythreatened by terrorist actions of opposing ex-tremist groups. It is estimated that 700 people werekilled just during the first 10 months of the state ofsiege which President Carlos Arana Osoriodeclared in November, 1970 to deal with theproblem. Castroite leftists have been heldresponsible for the assassination and kidnaping ofgovernment officials, businessmen and numerousforeign ambassadors, often demanding thegovernment release prisoners in exchange forhostages. Dozens of murders of universityprofesrors, students and liberals have been at-tributed to equally active rightist groups.
Meanwhile the government is working under afive-year economic development program in anattempt to improve conditions for Guatemala's fivemillion people, more than half of whom are Indian,illiterate and live in extreme poverty in ruralareas. The program includes plans to makeeducation relevant to rural needs, landredistribution for peasants, industrial andagricultural diversification.
Somozas Rule in NicaraguaPresident Anastasio Somoza, whose family has
ruled Nicaragua's two million people since the mid1930s, has announced that a three-man junta,composed of two of Somoza's Liberal Partymembers and one representative of the Con-servative Party, will rule for two years when histerm expires in 1972.
In the first half of the 1960s, Nicaragua'seconomy grew to an average 8 per cent annualgrowth. In recent years, however, the economicboom has faltered. Somoza claims his country hasincurred heavy trade deficits and lost substantialrevenues as a result of CACM membership.
In addition to the economic slump, Somoza hasbeen confronted with renewed activity from left-wing guerrillas and extremely active politicalopposition. However, a well-disciplined NationalGuard poses a deterrent to leftist undergroundactivities. Nicaragua received more per capitaforeign aid than most Latin American countriesduring the 1960s, including nearly $140 million fromthe United States.
El Salvador has become the most highly in-dustrialized CACM nation in recent years, withindustry and agriculture each producing about aquarter of the gross national product.
Its population density of about 400 to the squaremile in this nation of 3.4 million is one of the highestin the Americas, however, and about 40,000 newjobs are needed each year just to offset the annualpopulation growth of 3.4 per cent.
Despite rapid industriaization, these jobs havenot been provided. The Salvadorean peasants,fewer than half of whom are literate, have oftenmigrated to less crowded countries with greateropportunity.
It was the settling of Salvadoreans in Honduraswhich formed the backbone of the Soccer War, and
many feel that the subsequent return ofSalvadoreans to their native land will presentproblems to the labor forces of both countries.
Democracy has taken firmest hold in Costa Rica,where successive governments have implementeda social reform program pioneered more than 10years ago.
The nation prides itself on its high (85 per cent)literacy rate and its many schools. More than 30per cent of the budget is spent on education. Thereare no national military forces as such.
However, Jose "Don Pepe" Figueres Ferrer,elected president in 1970, faces problems becausethe budget has been running on a deficit for years.The national debt is more than double that of anyother Central American country and taxes are thehighest. Nonetheless, its per capita income of $431annually is the highest and most everdy distributedin Central America.
Restoration of private banking has been sought toease the financial crisis, but the pressure of a high(3.8 per cent) birth rate poses long-term problemsfor the nation's economy. Costa Rica offers sub-stantial possibilities for agriculture and livestockproduction, but growth has been slow and morestress on agricultural diversification is needed.
The southernmost of the nations, Panama did notjoin the CACM when it first was set up, consideringitself distinct from the others because of the specialrelationship created by the U. S.-controlled CanalZone which divides the country.
Panama is a country torn by almost continuouspolitical strife. The country's 1.5 million people arenow ruled by Brig. Gen. Omar Torrijos, com-mander of the national guard.
About 25 per cent of the nation's gross nationalproduct is derived from the Canal Zone. Bananas,produced and sold by the United Fruit Co., remainthe largest single export. With an extensivegovernment public works program, backed bydeficit spending and foreign loans, businessmenare showing increased confidence in the militaryregime.
New Canal RecommendedEarly in 1971, a U. S. government study group
recommended the construction of a new $2.9 billionsea-level canal a few miles west of the presentcanal which is becoming obsolete.
British Honduras, self-governing since 1964, isnot a part of the social and economic life of the restof Central America. Highly literate, the English-speaking area is scheduled for independence withinthe British Commonwealth, but a long-standingclaim to the territory by Guatemala clouds thefuture of the 120,000 inhabitants.
Chiefly dependent on sugar and citrus, goodgrowth possibilities are predicted for BritishHonduras if agricultural exports can be diversifiedand expanded, commercial fishing developed andthe once-prosperous timber industry revived. Abalmy climate and ideal fishing and water sportconditions make large-scale tourism a bright
rssibility as a future income-producer.
f,11.
I s- The Caribbean
The Caribbean is the United States' "front yard"facing Latin America.
It also is the spot where the history of the whiteman in Latin America begins. Here the first whitesettlement was founded by Christopher Columbuson a large island which he named La Isla Espanola(corrupted to Hispaniola). Close to it he haddiscovered an even bigger island Cuba.
The two islands have played, and continue toplay, a large role in hemisphere happenings.
Cuba gained independence from Spain with U. S.help during the Spanish-American War of 1898, andthe U. S. military rule which lasted until 1902provided great benefits for the islanders. Ad-ministration was reformed, and civil service andeducational systems were established. Publicworks were developed. Sanitation was installed andyellow fever eradicated.
Castro Ousted BatistaInsurrection, violence and a series of dic-
tatorships followed, culminating in the harsh,repressive regime of Fulgencio Batista.
Vowing to return democracy to the island, ayoung leftist named Fidel Castro led a guerrillawar against Batista, toppling his government in1959. After assuming power, however, heproclaimed himself a Marxist-Leninist andestablished the first openly Socialist nation in theWestern Hemisphere.
Thousands of people fled as he turned allprivately owned businesses over to the state anddeclared he would conscript labor to work on statefarms.
In April, 1961, anti-Castro Cubans, trained andassisted by the United States, invaded the 760-mile-long island at the Bay of Pigs. The venture failedwhen the United States did not provide the fullmilitary aid necessary, and the exiles were killedor captured.
In 1962 a crisis developed over Russian in-stallation on Cuba of missile sites equipped withrockets capable of hitting any target in the UnitedStates. The late President Kennedy ordered a navalquarantine of the island and told the Russians toremove their missiles, which they did.
Although Castro does not align himself politicallywith Moscow, Cuba is economically dependentupon the Soviet Union and increases its debt to thelarger country by more than $1 million daily.
Cuba is basically a one-crop country sugaraccounting for fully 80 per cent of its foreign ex-9-71
change earnings. In 1970, Castro staked Cuba'seconomy and his own reputation on the country'sability to harvest 10 million tons of sugar. Althoughthe yield that year was a record-breaking 8.5million tons, it was declared a failure by Castro andhad a disruptive effect on the rest of the economy.
As a result, Castro lowered the goal for the 1971harvest to seven million tons and declared loafing acrime punishable by six months to two years hardlabor.
The establishment of socialism in Cuba has haddiverse effects on the country. More than a quarterof the 8.5 million population is in school and theilliteracy rate is plunging. Families are assuredfree medical care and many, especially peasants,are receiving higher salaries. Due to the strictrationing of most foods, consumer goods and evenelectricity, however, they find little to buy withtheir new earnings.
Early in 1971, Castro received a letter signed by60 world-renowned intellectuals protesting histreatment of Heberto Padilla, a young Communistpoet who was arrested in Havana after allegedlywriting anti-Castro literature. About the sametime, Castro refused to allow the International RedCross to enter Cuba to investigate charges ofcruelty to political prisoners.
Cuba was ousted from the Organization ofAmerican States after an appeal by the UnitedStates in 1962, but recently official displeasuretoward the country has been easing somewhat. Thenewly elected Socialist government of Chile, forexample, officially reopened diplomatic relationswith Castro in 1970, and Mexico never severed itsdiplomatic ties with the island nation.
Hispaniola Government ToppledWorld attention also has been drawn to Cuba's
Caribbean companion island of Hispaniola, par-ticularly to the eastern two-thirds occupied by theDominican Republic.
Revolt toppled the government April 24, 1965, asmilitary leaders representing loyalist and rebelelements vied for power. Taking advantage of theconfusion, Communists, mostly organized andtrained in Cuba, moved in to take control.
However, acting promptly to prevent establish-
!SD CAPIN Nawgi'atmg113 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
ment of another hemisphere Communist state,President Johnson ordered U. S. troops into thecountry to restore order and halt bloodshed. Aninter-American peace force made up of U. S.,Brazilian, Costa Rican, Nicaraguan, Honduran andParaguayan troops was set up by the OAS tomaintain a truce between loyalist and rebel forces.
A peaceful formula finally was reached, pavingthe way for elections June 1, 1966, in which formerPresident Joaquin Balaguer was an easy winner.The administration was further strengthened whenBalaguer's Reformist Party scored heavily, andsurprisingly, in 1968 municipal elections. Balaguerwas reelected to the presidency by a large marginin 1970.
The result has been a strong rebuff forBalaguer's chief rival for power, former PresidentJuan Bosch, who returned to the republic after aperiod of self-exile in Spain. Now a proponent of adictatorship with popular support, Bosch remains amajor figure in his country's politics.
The Dominican Republic has a long history ofviolence since it won independence from Spain in1821 and then freedom from the yoke of neighboringHaiti in 1844. Revolution tore the country until U. S.Marines landed there in 1916, intervening overdebts owed U. S. and European creditors by thecountry. The United States withdrew in 1924,leaving behind a disciplined Dominican army.
U. S. Helps ReconstructionFrom it emerged an ambitious soldier named
Rafael Trujillo, who cfained power and imposed aniron-handed, ruthl: ..:s dictatorship on the countryuntil his assassination in 1961. A new regime underBosch, an intellectual, promised better things, buthe was overthrown because of alleged Communistinfiltration. It was attempts to re-establish Boschwhich brought on the 1965 coup.
Much criticism of the United States was voiced inLatin America and elsewhere for sending troopsinto the Dominican Republic. As a result of thisprecedent, however, Communist leadersthroughout the hemisphere are on notice that theyface the possibility of military intervention if theyattempt unlawful takeovers of government.
Since the revolt, also, the United States hassupplied money and technicians to help withreconstruction, particularly the agrarian reformprogram considered vital to the country's future.This would diversify agricultural production andcut the dependence on sugar, once the backbone ofthe economy but now a glut on the market.
While the outlook for the Dominican Republicstill is not clear and much remains to be done torebuild the country politically and economically,the U. S. troops intervention blocked a Red seizureof power, halted violence and gave the Dominicansthe opportunity to choose their leaders with ballots
not bullets.Haiti, which shares Hisnaniola island with the
Dominican Republic, was the first (1804) nation in
Since then its fortunes have steadily sagged, andwhat was once the most rewarding of France'soverseas possessions now is the sick nation of theAm erica s .
Per capita income of the country averages about$80 a year lowest in the hemisphere and lifeexpectancy is only abnut 50 years. Illiteracy is 90per cent, also highest in the hemisphere. French isthe official language, but most of the natives speakCreole, a dialect.
At least 80 per cent of the Haitian preschool andschoolage children suffer from malnutrition insome degree; half die before the age of 5. The risingbirth rate compounds the problem for a populationwhich already averages 430 persons to the squaremile second in the hemisphere only to Trinidad-Tob a go .
Natural factors contribute greatly to Haiti'sabject poverty.
Two-thirds of the Maryland-size country ismountainous and only about 2.2 million acres ofland are arable. Water is in short supply, aild sincethe climate is semiarid, much irrigation is needed
something which requires more technical andfinancial resources than are available withoutoutside assistance.
Frequent hurricanes p:.,se an additional menaceby regularly ruining much of the coffee crop, whichaccounts for about half of Haiti's meager exportrevenues.
For 14 years, however, the major impediment toHaiti's progress was the bloody, tyrannical rule ofits dictator, Dr. Francois Duvalier. First elected in1957 (after seven presidents had held power in lessthan a year), he subsequently declared himselfpresident for life. He lived in the capital city ofPort-au-Prince in a white palace guarded by tanks,antiaircraft guns and cannons until his death inApril, 1971.
"Papa Doe," as he was called, used a com-bination of murder, terror and voodoo mysticism towield unshakeable control over his five millionsubjects, most of whom are direct descendants ofblack African slaves brought in by the French.
Young Duvalier Named SuccessorBefore his death, he had his 20-year-old playboy
son, Jean-Claude, named his successor aspresident for life.
The direction the young dictator's governmentwill take is still uncertain, as he has yet to establishhimself firmly in his father's place. Other nationswait to see if an open struggle for power will takeplace among Duvalier family members, army andgovernment officials and leaders of the TontonMacoute, the old dictator's personal Gestapo.
A change in government policy could result inincreased U. S. investment and aid and contributeto tourism. Although direct U. S. aid to the poverty-stricken nation has been cut off since 1963 following f-reports of Haitian corruption and graft, U. S. in-vestment has increased because of special tax
Latin America to gain independence. exemptons recently offered to foreign industry.
Mexico
Mexico is a leader among Latin Americancountries in terms of political., economic and socialprogress.
Elected presidents have succeeded each other inorderly fashion since the 1930s. Mexican electionsare not characterized by the violence of many LatinAmerican elections, and the army does not getitself involved in politics.
Economically, Meyico is the envy of other LatinAmerican countries, with an annual real growth of6.8 per cent for the last decade.
This sustained economic growth reflects achange from a primary-production economy basedon agriculture and mining to one becoming in-creasingly industrialized and self-sufficient.Spurring this along have been a vigorous privateenterprise sector and a government policy whichhas made economic development a major nationalobjective
Public InvestmentPublic investment in roads, irrigation projects,
electrification, railroads and communication hascreated a solid and broad base capable of sup-porting a broad range of industrial activities.
This has enabled the nation's thriving industry todiversify into everything from petrochemicals totextiles, eleci.ronics and automobiles, and it issteadily increasing its production of steel and oil.
Foreign businessmen show increasing interest inMexico, and the U. S. investment has surpassed $1billion. Tourism also brings in over $1 billionyearly.
And while some of the more highly developedcountries flounder in various fiscal crises, Mexico'smonetary unit, the peso, is one of the world's morestable currencies, showing no fluctuation in dollarvalue since 1954.
Modern Mexico was born in the 1910 revolution,when the landless peasants rose up against thegreat landlords, and the country's political foun-dation since has been its agrarian reform program,under which land is given in small parcels to thepeasants.
Yet the agrarian population poses a great ob-stacle to Mexico's progress, and the lot of thefarmers, comprising about half the nation's 52million population, is a weak spot in the otherwisebooming economy.
Sugar, cotton and coffee are Mexico's top exportitems worldwide, however.
While periodic increases in the minimum wage'9-71
law and a new profit-sharing law fatten paychecksfor factory workers, most farmers earn about $125a year, about one-fourth of the national average.
Some 25 per cent of these farmers customarily donot drink milk or eat meat, eggs or fish. One-thirdof rural schoolage children are not in school, andthe dropout rate is 98 per cent.
The government, recognizing the problem, istaking urgent action to improve rural development.New roads and housing are being built, electricaland irrigafion projects are being undertaken andlow-interest loans are being made available tosmall farmers.
Peasants from drought-stricken northern states,where land is no longer available for redistribution,are being relocated in the tropical, sparselypopulated areas of the Yucatan peninsula.
Technical assistance is offered in the form offertilizers aid anplication methods, pest anddisease control, improved seeds and instruction inthe proper use of irrigation water.
With a literacy rate of about 70 per cent, morethan 10 million Mexicans still cannot read or write.Of these, over one million are Indians who can'tspeak Spanish, the country's national language.
However, an intensive program has been laun-ched by the government in the rural areas toprovide adult education for the farmers and toprepare their children for admission to ruralschools.
Education ExpandingAlso, educational facilities are growing rapidly to
meet the great expansion in enrollments at publicinstitutions, and education is the largest singlebudget item, with an allotment more than twicethat for the military.
As in all Latin American countries, Mexico istroubled with rapid population growth. Its rate of3.5 per cent is so high the population could doubleitself in 20 years.
The infant mortality rate is triple that of theUnited States. The use of birth control measures isbecoming somewhat more accepted in the 96 percent Roman Catholic country, even though thegovernment prohibits dissemination of birthcontrol information.
115 Coplaf MetogroeugDEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Mexico's whole history is an account of deter-mination and dynamic action.
After 300 years of rule by Spain, which conqueredthe native Aztecs in 1519-21, the Mexicans revoltedin 1810, winning independence in 1821.
A half-century of turbulence followed, withgovernments falling on an average of every ninemonths. Mel-.11co lost Texas in 1836 and the rest of itsholdings in what now is the U. S. West and South-west after defeat in the 1846-48 war with the UnitedStates.
Social reforms were begun by Benito Juarez, anIndian patriot, who became president in 1858, but aFrench invasion in 1862 installed a puppet govern-ment, with Maximilian of Austria as emperor.Maximilian was overthrown and executed byJuarez, who again became president in 1867.
The country came under the dictatorship ofPorfirio Diaz (1877-80 and 1884-1911) until therevolution, which started 20 years of constantturmoil, with military factions battling for power.The economy was wrecked, and more than amillion lives were lost in the conflict.
National Coalition FormedFinally, the warring generals formed a national
coalition, the Party of Revolutionary Institutions(PRI), and this one-party organization has ruledever since.
Peasants and workers who were followers of theindividual generals quickly came under the PRIbanner, and as new social groups emerged in-dustrialists, professionals, intellectuals they alsowere brought into the party's fold. Military rulegradually gave way under this one-party system,until in 1946 Mexico began electing presidents whowere civilians, not generals.
The PRI now claims a membership of more thaneight million, and though it generally overseesmost facets of Mexican life, unquestioned progressand stability have been achieved, and individualfreedom and action show continuing gains.
Shortly before the 1970 elections the voting agewas lowered from 21 to 18, expanding the number ofeligible voters by three million.
Communism exists in MexiCo, but the Com-munist Party as snch is weak. More significant isthe growing Marxist party, the Socialist PopularParty. It has less influence in labor than ineducation, but has had some success in stirringunrest and violence among the poverty-riddenfarmers.
Early in 1971, a number of students were arrestedand charged with participating in a Socialist plot totopple the government. The students, whooriginally left Mexico to study at a Moscowuniversity, 7 were trained ir guerrilla waneAreat a camp in Communist North Korea. They weremembers of an organization called theRevolutionary Action Movement.
As a result of the incident, Mexico expelled fiveSoviet diplomats and dee., nred its unwillingness tocontinue to grant asylum to political refugees fromother countries.
The principal party to the right of the PRI is thePartido de Accion Nacional (PAN), which has hadlimited success in running candidates.
Like his predecessors, President LuisEcheverria is firmly committed to carrying out theideals of the 1910 revolution developing Mexicofor Mexicans with government and private capital,including foreign capital so long as outside in-vestors respect Mexican laws.
Though some U. S. businessmen have expresselconcern over Mexico's policy of "Mexicanization'of most business investments (requiring at least 51per cent ownership by Mexicans), Mexico's biggestbuyer and supplier is the United States, whichaccounts for over half of its southern neighbor'sforeign trade.
This economic dependence on the United Statesalways has irked Mexicans, and they havewelcomed chances to broaden their country's tradepattern. Japan and Wn.:-.A Germany have extensivebusiness interests in Mexico, and there is sortietrading with Communist countries , prim arily salesof wheat and cotton_
Mexico's own businessmen, helped by govern"ment subsidies and small-business loans, also areincreasingly embarking on an international tradeand economic expansion program.
One promising outlet is the Central Ameri-can Common Market, which is being eagerlYwooed by businessmen and government officialS.
In international Politics, Mexico takes an in-dependent stand, upholding policies of self-determination and nonintervention, thoughremaining a staunch supporter of the Organizationof American States.
Relations between the United States and Mexicoalso are on a cordial basis.
One touchy issue, arising from the proximity of asub-developed nation to a super-developed natioll,has yet to be settled between the two. Mexico hasset up border industrial zones with special lowtariff regulations in order to attract jobs for hun-dreds of its under-employed. U. S. industrY,an2dous to take advantage of low-wage Mexicanlabor market, has established more than 200 plantsacross the border.
U. S. Labor Groups ProtestVarious U. S. labor groups have protested the
tariff regulations which permit the plants tooperate, claiming the practice contributes tounemployment at home. The same charges werefiled against the laws which permit Mexican"green card workers" to commute to work in the
United States.The two countries are still working together in a
program of border inspection called OperationCooperation aimed at controlling the smuggling of
narcotics.A policy agreement which ended decades of
disputes was signed in August, 1970, when.
Presidents Nixon and Diaz Ordaz set theternational border once andfor all at the center line
lief the meandering Rio Grande River.
Canada
Canada is the world's second largest nation,trailing only the Soviet Union. It also is one of themost active members of the group of Free Worldnations.
Inhabiting this great land is a population onlyabout one-tenth the size of that of the United States,with most of the 21.4 million Canadians livingaround the big cities like Toronto, Montreal, Ot-tawa and Vancouver. For the entire country, thisaverages about six persons to the square mile,compared with about 55 in the United States. Andsince most of these large centers lie within a 200-mile belt along the U. S.-Canadian border, thecitizens of the two countries have a great deal incommon.
However, the Canadian character and outlookstem from a distinctive historical and socialbackground, which has given the nation a way oflife peculiarly its own.
One example is the ethnic makeup of the country.
French-English FrictionAbout six million Canadians are of French an-
cestry, and more than half of those speak onlyFrench. About 11 million Canadians trace theirnational heritage to Britain, and speak onlyEnglish. Friction between French-and English-speaking Canadians has at times created seriouscrises which threatened to split the nation.
The problem actually goes back some two cen-turies, when England defeated French forces inCanada and took control of the territory.
At that time the population of Canada was almostentirely French, but in the next few decadesthousands of British colonists arrived. In 1867 theBritish North American Act created the Dominionof Canada, linking Quebec, where most French-Canadians live, with the other existing provinces ina confederation.
French-Canadians since have complained thatthey have been exploited and treated as inferiorsby the English-Canadian majority.
The French-Canadians began demanding a newconstitution to recognize the separate Frenchidentity, language and culture. In recent yea7s,Quebec Province has become the scene ofnationalist terrorism, and many of its inhabitantsdemand that it secede altogether and become anindependent state.
Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeaueven has had trouble visiting Quebec, his homeprovince, because of threats by radical separatists.
Separationist feeling also occurs in Manitoba,Saskatchewan and Alberta, the western "prairieprovinces" where much wheat is grown. Ratherthan being based on ethnic problems, thewesterners want separation because they feel otherCanadians and the federal government don't careabout their problems.
The separationist problem was brought to a peakin October 1970 when Canadians suddenly foundthemselves living in a war-emergency atmosphere
brought about by Trudeau's hard-hitting reac-tion to kidnapings, assassination of Quebec LaborMinister Pierre Laporte and demonstrations.
Police were given power to make searches andarrests without warrants, seizing more than 250persons across Canada. Response to the govern-ment's decision to suspend civil rights in the crisiswon strong support at home, and approval also waswidespread among Canada's neighbors.
In Quebec, French-Canadians make up 80 percent of the province's population, but control only10 per cent of the economy. Many feel that if theeconomic disparity in Quebec lessened, theseparationist movement there would diminish.
In 1968, in an effort to heal the nationalistic rift, aCommission of Bilingualism and Biculturism wascreated to study the problem. In 1969 Canadasigned into law legislation making the federalgovernment officially bilingual. This gives equallanguage rights to Canada's French-speakingminority and sets up bilingual districts whereFrench-speaking persons will have the right totrial, to consult federal officials and to apply forjobs all in French.
Elections Support UnityElections held in Quebec in April 1970, in which
separatism was the key issue, supported theposition of a unified Canada taken by the victoriousFederalist Liberal Party.
In the international field, Canada, long a nationalentity within the British Commonwealth, firstbegan moving forcefully in the world scene on itsown after World War IL
Since 1945, the basis of its foreign policy has beensupport of the United Nations.
117Cokklewgpat200
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATTON
Traditionally, Canada stressed its ties with theCommonwealth, the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO) and the Americas. The firsttwo gave Canada a chance to function in worldaffairs and in commerce without completedependence on the United States.
Trudeau, however, has instituted a shift inCanada's defense policies to an emphasis placedfirmly in the national interest.
As a result, Canada's NATO forces in Europe,once 10,000 strong, are being cut almost in half andthe country will end its nuclear role by 1972.
This is also part of an effort to hold the line ondefense spending. Canada's armed forces, whichnumbered 120,000 four years ago, are being cut to80,000. In the past, Canada's forces have been usedin many world trouble spots for peace-keepingoperations, such as Cyprus and the Congo.
In the Americas, however, there is an acuteawareness by Canadians that their defense isbound up with that of the United States, that theyultimately are under U. S. nuclear protection.
The two countries, in fact, have a PermanentJoint Defense Committee under which has been setup the North American Air Defense Command(NORAD) and the joint network of Distant EarlyWarning (DEW) radar installations.
Blessed with tremendous natural wealth,Canadians, by hard work and skillful technologyhave been exploiting their rich opportunities at anever-increasing pace in recent years, achieving astandard of living which compares favorably withthat of the United States.
The spectacular growth of Canadian manufac-turing, particularly since World War II haschanged the nation from a rural agrarian societyinto one which is primarily industrial and urban inch ar a cter.
However, large U. S. investments have con-tributed greatly to this prosperity, with 60 per centof Canadian industry financed by Americancapital, and the Canadians are ever-conscious ofthe proximity and powerful influence of their greatsouthern neighbor.
More trade, in fact, flows between the twocountries some $9 billion each way in 1968 thanbetween any other two countries.
The U. S. provides 70 per cent of Canadianforeign trade, and 6,090 industrial and commerciulcompanies in Canada ar,: owned or controlled byAmerican interests.
Joint ProjectsIn addition, there is already an excl ange of
hydro-electric power across the border; and the twocountries are now discussing possible sharing ofwater and energy resources, such as oil, gas andcoal.
Canadians generally acknowledge the need ofU. S. money, but many fear that U. S. economic-domination may lead to U. S. political dominat-on.Legislation has been sought by Canadian"nationalists" to cut U. S. participation in industryand encourage local ownership. 11
As one of the world's great wheat-growingcountries, Canada also has asserted its economicindependence by selling wheat to Russia, Com-munist China and other Red nations.
However, Russia defaulted on a wheat-buyingcontract which expired in 1969, costing Canadaabout $200 to $300 million.
Canadian External Affairs Minister MitchellSharp says the main motivation for the Canadianmove for links with Peking are not simply to fur-ther trade but to promote world peace and developCanada's status as a Pacific nation.
While Canada has refused to recognize Peking'ssovereignty over The Republic of China (Taiwan),it does support seating of Red China in the UnitedNations and has agreed to sever relations withTaiwan.
One Canadian measure which the United Statesformally rejected was the extension in May 1970 ofCanada's territorial seas from three to 12 miles.Canada also created a 100-mile zone where shipsmust conform to its pollution controls or be barredfrom the area.
These moves, regarded by the U. S. as attemptsat "Arctic sovereignty," are important because ofthe Northwest Passage which the Canadians couldcontrol.
Domestically, Canada has had its share ofproblems, with politics perhaps the most seriousafter the French-English issue.
Also, unemployment among French-Canadianswho have moved from farms to cities in recentyears runs at a rate of almost 10 per cent. Overall,the jobless rate was 6.2 per cent in January 1971and is steadily climbing.
The federal government long has been in thehands of the two major political parties theLiberals and the Conservatives.
Governments Lacked MajorityHowever, not since 1958 had the electors returned
a majority government at Ottawa, and the minorityproblem in the House of Commons meant that thegovernments of retired Prime Ministers JohnDiefenbaker and Lester B. Pearson could bedefeated any time all the opposition groups gottogether.
The result was Via governments had to becautious in presenting legislation, and every itemof business had to be assessed on its chance ofgetting through Parliament, leading to partisa-bickering and neglect of vital Lusiness.
However, with the retirement in April 1968 ofLiberal Party leader Pearson as prime minister,the reins of office fell to Trudeau, a French-Canadian uitellectual and sportsman.
Trudeau quickly got dissolution of Parliament,zud in a subsequent general election won a clearvictory.
His government has faced difficulties with ahousing shortage, inflation, rising prices and highunemployment. Th,_ government has insauteddirect credit controls. and has set up a commissionIto set wage and price guidelines.0
Maps of the World
Time and distance barriers have almost vanished inthis age of instant communications, supersonic flight,even space travel.
Events in places once remote from the civilizedworld now appear on our television screens as theyare happening. Our troops leave for a war half a worldaway and are in the battle area in a matter of hours.Satellites peering at weather conditions in onehemisphere spot danger signals for another part ofthe world, and man is flying to the moon, from wherethe earth takes on the appearance of a global map inthe sic.
As tne world shrinks, events in other parts of theworld take on increasing meaning, and deeper under-standing of news reports riona these areas is necessarynot only for governments but for individual citizens.
One way to foster this understanding is by the use ofmaps. These reveal quickly and graphically one coun-try's geographic relationship to another, the relativesize of a nation's territory, the isolation of a city fromthe sea, from a border or from another city.
It is easily seen on a map, for example, how eventsin Cuba might affect the United States, Mexico orHaiti because of those countries' proximity to Castro'sisland.
A map's lines qui-kly 17dicate problems a countrys ,ich as Lesotho m_ght have because of its landlockedposition inside South Africa. West Berlin's situationin East Germany also can appreciated more readilywith the help of a map.
In this section are several esrecially drawn mapsshr.,wing areas discussed in the text of the accompany-ing series of pamphlets.
Students of international affairs in those areas will
9-0
find the map of Africa, the Middle East and European invaluable aid.
For one thing, the map brings to graphic orderchanging boundaries and names of the nearly 50 na-tions and dependencies in Africa's.huge jigsaw puzzle.
Also, the strategic importance of the MediterraneanSea, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf is illustrated bythe map, as is the geographic scheme of the SovietUnion's expansion of communism into Europe and theMiddle East.
The Southeast Asia map shows the huge expanse ofCommunist China as it looms over its southern neigh-bors. The lesser-known island nations of that area arerepresented on this map, which also points up the rolegreat ocean bodies have had in isolating Oceania fromthe rest of the world in the past.
The special significance of Canada and Latin Amer-ica to the United States is made clear by the map ofLatin America and part of North America.
If technology has made the world an interde-pendent community of men, then it has made tileWestern Hemisphere an intimate neighborhood, ant!the map clearly indicates why this is the case.
It also suggests the geographic importance of theLatin American Big Three Mexico, which separatc'sCentral America from the United States; Brazil, whichshares borders with all south American nations ex-cept Ecuador and Chile, alld Argentina, made formida-ble by its wide expanses of accessible land and itstemperate climate away from the tropics.
119
Coplat Newvat200DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
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FILMS FOR THE SCHOOLS
These Copley Productions films and filmRtrips have been selected be-cause of their proven value to the schools. All the materials are in color.They are 16 mm. with sound on the film, except for number 1 which has35 mm. filmstrips with sound on 33 I /3 rpm records. The films are loanedwithout charge through the Copley Newspapers Department of Education.
1. "Newspapers in the Classroom." This ser";es of four filmstrips wasspecially -produced for the elementary school. The first presents thehistory of printing; the second concerns the use of newspapers in theclassroom; the third details the importance of newspapers in ourso:iety; and the fourth is a comprehensive tour of a newspaper plant.Total time for the four films is 38 minutes.
2. "From Type to Paper." A cartoon figure narrates this short history ofprinting, which concludes with the modern rotary press. 29 minutes.
3 "Tribune Deadline." A day in the life of a newspaper. The work of nearlyeveryone at a newspaper is seen. 21 minutes.
4. "Newspaper Retail Advertising." Portrays skills required and servicesoffered by this important department. 11 minutes.
5. "What Greater Challenge." Many of the challenging career oppor-mitiesoffered by a newspaper are portrayed by this th-arnatic 9-minute film.
6. "An Invitation To Better Newspapers." Recommended for high schooljournalism classes, it provides specific informaticn on page makeup.The 25-minute film clearly explains the four basic rules and presentsnumerous examples of attractive editorial, sr,orts and front pages.
7. :LA.14ra- . "Go Young persons seeking careers tell their philosophies,conflicts, and desires. Full of thought provoking comment, this newfilm is limited to high school use. 29 minutes.
8. "The Most Important Corner." This fihn traces San Diego's recentgrowth in indastry, education, business, recreation and population inbeautiful color photography. 28 minutes.
9. "The San Diego Zoo." Many of the exhibits at our world famous zooare seen. The childrens' zoo, flight cages and many other attractionsare covered in this 23-minute, 16 mm. film.
10.. "Scientific Safari. " Recommended for science classes, the film documentsthe gathering of cardiovascular data from baboons in Kenya. The placingof instrumental back-packs on the baboons and the resultant studies arephotogra?hed against majestic scenery. 12 minutes.
11. "Expedition: Borneo, Land of the Sleeping Giant." Capture of a rareProboscis Monkey for the San Diego Zoo. Includes zoo scenes.13 minutes. 126
