DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 241 775 CE 038 579

AUTHOR Gentry, CurtisTITLE Small Scale Beekeeping. Appropriate Technologies for

Development. Manual M:17.INSTITUTION Peace Corps, Washington, DC. Information Collection

and Exchange Div.PUB DATE Dec 82CONTRACT 81-043-1028NOTE 222p.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE. MF01/PC09 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Agricultural,Education; *Agricultural Production;

Agricultural Skills; *Animal Husbandry; AnnotatedBibliographies; Developing Nations; Diseases;Entomology; Equipment Utilization; *ExtensionEducation; Guidelines; Pesticides; Pests;Postsecondary Education; Rural Areas; *RuralDevelopment; Rural Education; Volunteers; VolunteerTraining

IDENTIFIERS *Beekeeping; Bees

ABSTRACTThis manual is designed to assist Peace Corps

'Polunteers in the development and implementation of small-scale`beekeeping programs as a tool for development.-Addressed in theindividual chapters are bees and humans; project planning; the typesand habits of bees; the essence of beekeeping; bee spase.andbeehives; intermediate technology beekeeping; high-tech beekeeping;hive products; and diseases, pests, and, insecticides. Appendixes tothe manual include an annotated bibliography,, hive plans, equipmentplans, a list of uses for beeswax, directions-lbr making anartificial swarm, and a transparency master detailing honeybeeanatoly.t(MN)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document. ,*

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nirmatramv COLLECTION & wicE

Peace Cbrps' Information Cbllection & Exchange (ICE) wasestablished so that the strategies and technologies devel-oped by Peace Corps Vblunteers, their co-workers, and theircounterparts could.temade available to the wide range ofdevelopment organizations and individual workers who mightfind them useful. Training guides, curricula, lesson plans,project reports, manuals and other Peace Cbrps-generatedmaterials developed in,the field are collected and reviewed.Sore axe reprinted "as is"; others provide a source of fieldbased iitforma for the production of manuals or for re-search In ar program areas. Materials that you sub-mit to the Information Gollection & Exchange thus becomepart of the Peace Clorps' larprocotribution to development.

Information about ICE publications and services is availablethrough:

Peace CorpsInformation Collection & ExchangeOffice of Training and Program Support806 Connecticut Avenue,,N.W.Washington, D.C. 20526

Add your experience to the ICE Resource Center. Send ma-1terials that you've prepared so that we can share themwith others working in the development field. Your tech-nical insights serve as the basis for the generation ofICE manuals, reprints and resource packets, and alsoensure that ICE is providing the most updated, innovativeprotaemrsolving techniquevand information available toyou and your fellow development workers.

Peace Corps3

SrIALL ;CALE BEEKEEPIrG

c

by

Cu:tis Gentry

illustrated by

Stacey Leslie

Peace4CorpsInformation Collection and Exchange

Manual M!--17December 1982September 1995

4

BeekeepingD,2comDcr 1982

Prepared for the Peace Corps byCurtis Gentryunder Contract No. 81 -043 -1028

Available throughPeace Corps Inform tiou Collection and Exchange806 Connecticut Av nue. N.W.Washington, D.C. '1525

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Acknowledgements

The ideas of many people went into thismanual. Tht: exact source of many of these ideasis lost as they came from beekeepers in manyplaces with whom I've worked or whose writingsI've read. Thanks to all these friends andteachers.

The care and patience of many people alsowent into the manual. For all their help intyping, editing, proofing, laying out, andcommenting, I thank:

Mark ColemanJean CummingsLiz DavidsonCalvina DupreValerie Flynn de VillaDonna FrelickShannon GreenMary Lou HaagSharon HagenMarie Kabelitz'Rob KingsolverJohn OliverFay ReillyJose VillaDr. Lucas Villa

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Table of Contents

About This Manual

Acknowledgements

Preface

Chapter

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iv

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1 Bees and Humans 1Beekilling, Bee-having, Beekeeping;why Develop Beekeeping?

7 Project Planning !11Beekeeping as an Integrated Activity;Beekeeping as an Educational Activity;Beekeeping as a Cooperative Activity.

3 Bee Basics 19Types of Bee:.; Climate and Beekeeping;Life Cycle of the Honey Bee; The Castes;Resource Needs of the Colony;Swarming, Supersedure, and Absconding.

4 The Essence of Beekeeping 45Management Schemes.

5 The Bee Space and Beehives 59The Bee Space; Types of Hives.

Intermediate Technology Beekeeping 69Why?; Some Considerations before Starting;Getting Started - The Hives;Getting Started - The Apiary;Getting Started - Equipment;Getting Started - Bees;Management Practices.

7 High-tech Beekeeping 131Inputs and Possibilities;Problems in Small-scale Development.

8 Hive Products 147Honey; Beeswax; Pollen; Bee Brood; Others.

9 Diseases, Pests, and insecticides 161

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Appendix

A Resources and Bibliography 179

B Hive .Plans189

c Equipment Plans197

D Uses for Beeswax 207

E Making an Artificial Swarm 211.

F Honey Bee Anatomy 213

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Preface

This is a Manual for getting started with small-scale beekeeping development projects. The intentionis to provide an overview of beekeeping and itspossibilities as a tool for development.

No attempt is made to duplicate technicalinformation given in other readily available resourceson beekeeping. The idea is to provide ail orientationto the realities of small-scale development beekeeping.Once oriented to these realities, you should be ableto adapt more technical material to the situation inyour community.

There are intermediate levels of beekeepingtechnology which can be self-sustaining using onlylocal resources. Information on this scale ofbeekeeping is hard to find. Much of it is presentedin a technical form in beekeeping journals. Thismanual offers a guide to these intermediate technologybeekeeping systems and methods.

The reality of most small-farmer situations makes"high-tech" beekeeping unv.able. High-tech beekeepingis well covered in other r dily-available sources.Therefore, this guide does of cover this scale of(beekeeping in detail. High-tech beekeeping is covered'here to point out its possibilities as an ultimate'development goal.-The problems that often arise whentrying to carry on high-tech beekeeping where inputsare difficult to obtain are also discussed. For moredetails, an annotated list of sources is given inAppendix A.

A bee-human relationship exists throughout theworld, except in the arctic and the extensive desertregions. In many regions, this relationship is carriedon at a low level of technology and understanding ofbees. This guide provides the information necessaryto assess the local level of the bee-human relationshipand to determine an appropriate beekeeping technologyfor your area.

Bees and Humans

Interest in bees started with the hunting androbbing of wild colonies in hollow cavities in treesor rocks. Until the refining of sugar cane developedin the 19th century, ,honey was the only sweeteningagent widely available. It was prized not only asfood, but for its uses in folk medicine.

People have observed and studied bees with theobject of increasing the production of hive productsand making it easier to gather them. Bees have alsointrigued many people because of their Zlighly socialnature. Analogies have often been proposed between thesociality of bees and humans.

The accumulated knowledge on bees allows themodern beekeeper to manage them. The beekeeper cangather hive products with an ease and efficiency fargreater than the honey hunter or gatherer.

Although humans have learned much about bees andhow to keep them, the bee itself has-not changed.Unlike most of the animals and plants used inagriculture, the honey bee of today is the same as itwas thousands of years ago. In short, humans have notdomesticated the honey bee.

The bee is still essentially a wild animal.People can keep bees and manage them for greaterproduction, but control over bee genetics and behaviorhas not been achieved to the same degree as withdomesticated animals and plants.

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Bee-killing, Bee-having, Beekeeping:

The scope for development

There are three basic stages in the historicaldevelopment of the bee-human relationship. These arebee-killing, bee-having, and beekeeping. Modernbeekeeping is the most developed stage. The most basicstage, or bee-killing, is still common in some partsof the world.

sages iN The Bee- i-kitqNfzelATioNI*iP

bee-KiiWn9 bee-leRying-->beeleepin9(bees Killed) (bees rylirtiineel) (bees frond)

Bee-killing is the killing of the bees in acolony so that the combs containing honey and brood(larval and pupal stages) can be taken. left withouthoney stores or brood, any surviving bees are doomed.Honey hunters usually regret having to kill the colony,but they know of no other way to-obtain honey or wax.

Wild bee colonies are common in,many regions ofthe world, and the gathering of honey from thesecolonies is an occasional activity for many localfarmers. This often occurs when trees containing teecolonies are felled during the clearing of forest andbush for planting crops. .Honey hunters or gatherersusually use fire to kill the bees. They are thoughtto be responsible for many bush fires in some areas.

The honey obtained is used for householdconsumption or marketed locally. It is often of verylow quality as it is mixed with bits of old comb,brood, and ashes. Even so, there is a ready localmarket for honey in most regions. In some areas, honeyis fermented either alone or with palm wine to make analcoholic drink. Honey is also used blPsome groups asmedicine.

3

The brood is sometimes eaten by children and isconsidered a treat. The 30 per cent protein content

iof the brood is a bonus in their diet. However, sincebrood is only available when wild colonies aregathered, it is not a significant nutritional factor.

The value of the beeswax is often unknown wherebee-killing is practiceck it is usually thrown away orused for fuel.

Bee-killing, or honey hunting, is a traditionalactivity in many regions of Africa and Asia. In mostother regions of the world it is an incidentalactivity. It is often not considered worth the effo&as,easier ways of getting hive products ate used. '

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A variation on bee-killing is traditional insome regions of Africa.Straw containers or claypots are hung in trees toattract wild colonies.After the'colony has beenin the container forsufficient time to havebuilt up honey stores,the container is lowered,the bees killed, and thehive products taken.Even though the bees -areattracted to a man-madecontainer, this is stillbee-killing.

.4 (-

Bee-having is an intermediate step between, bee-killing and beekeeping. In bee-having, bees are housedin hollowed 'sections of tree trunks, clay pots, gourdi,bark hives, or straw-and-mud containers. Combs arefixed to the containers which allows for littleinspection and no manipulation (management) of thecolony. Combs containing honey are removedperiodically, and those containing brood are left. Thewax is recognized as having value and is used locallyor sold.

hives

In bee-having the farmer provides protection tothe bee colony in return for periodic harvests of honeyand wax. The idea is to maintainthe colody for futureharvests instead of destroying it for a one-timeharvest.

Both bee-killing and bee-having are carried onwith very little understanding of the biology of thebee. It is root uncommon to find bee-having amongfarmers who ,have -relatively sophisticated equipmentAich allows for management of their colonies. Theyremain bee-havers because they lack ,the training tomake optimum use of their equipment.

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Beekeeping implies the manipulation of a beecolony; it is predicated on some understanding of thebee. Management practices can be relatively simple, 'low-level technologies or fairly complicatedprocedures, using more sophisticated equipment.Beekeeping can be lucrative at any levelof technology,but the level used should mesh with the lOcai culturaland economic reality.

JleArge. eqLipmert cgn

be useoi for beereepoig.

oft

POkion6rRar.44 Hive rt-TB1-1moveR)bleeFr4nle hive moveable -comb hive

Relative to most other agricultural pursuits,"high-tech" beekeeping is a soft technology. Theequipment inputs needed to carry out high-techbeekeeping can be made on a local level in most placesin the world. Tha lifliting factor is the human one oflack of knowledge to profitably utilize relativelyexpensive equipment..

* * * * * *. * * * *

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"Development" should be definedwithin cultural and economic realities.Observing the local bee-humanrelationship--whether bee-killing,' -bee-having or beekeeping--provides anunderstanding of the context withinwhich any beekeeping development effortmust be directed.

These developmental stages areoften discuSsed as distinct periods.However, in reality, like anydevelopment, the development of the bee-human relationship is a continuum.

A well-directed development effortshould recognize the place on thecontinuum where the target programstarts, mld thus set realistic goals foradvancing toward "development".

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Why Develop Beekeeping?

Beekeeping is an activity that fits well with theconcept of small-scale agricultural development. Itis a labor-intensive undertaking which can be easilyintegrated into larger agricultural or forestryprojects. Bees not only aid in the pollination of somecrops used in such projects, but they make use ofotherwiseunused"resources - nectar and pollen.

As a bee-human relationship already exists in mostregions of the world, the objective of any beekeepingdevelopment effort is to introduce new and moreefficient methods. The bee resource already exists;the objective is better utilization of,this resource.

All the inputs necessary for carrying out abeekeeping venture can be made locally. Smokers,protective clothing, veils, and hives can be made bylocal tinsmiths, tailors, carpenters, or baketmakers.Thus, a beekeeping project can create work and incomefor these people.

A small beekeeping project can be profitable fromthe beginning. After a project is started andexpertise is gained, it is easy for a beekeeper toincrease the.'number of hives. A dependence on outside,resources or inputs is not necessary to do this. Beesfeed themselves from the existing nectar and pollen .

resources of the area by foraging far beyond the smallamount of land on which the hives are located.

Beekeeping is a family undertaking. Although.. working with bees is an-activity that is easily doneby women, in most cultural s%ptings it is usuallyconsidered a man's task. While men work directly withthe bees, women are Often involved in preparing thehoney for market and n the actual marketing.

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Small farmers usually consider -honey a cash'cropinstead of a product for home consumption. Honey hasa high cash value relative to its weight and bulk.Properly stored, it is essentially a non-perishableproduct. It is economical and easy to transport.These characteristics make honey an attractive crop forsmall-scale and often isolated producers.

While in most areas, there is a ready local marketfor honey, this' is not always true for beeswax. Insome areas it may be necessary to create a market forthe wax.

Beeswax is an easily-gtored, non-perishableproduct. It is used some areas by local craftsmenand artisans such as lost wax metal (usually brass)casters, wax printers and batikers of cloth, tannersaxd leather workers, and candle makers. Beeswax canalso easily be used in the making,. of wood polishes.

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In areas of the world where the beekeepingindustry is well-developed, there are markets forpollen and propolisAtree resin gathered. by bees foruse in the hive). While these may be potentialproducts for a beekeeping venture, they are notfeasible for beginning projects. Production of pollenis relatively difficult, and there are lew localmarketing outlets for these products in most, areas.

Another product of beekeeping is bees themselves.Once beekeeping becomes established, a market developsfor bees. some beekeepers can supply bees to otherswho want to start beekeeping.

While there are ready international markets foFbee products such as honey and beeswaX, any developmenteffort should aim first for local markets. A beginningproject does not produce in sufficient quantity torherit seeking an iinternational market.

Developing a local market for bee products\insulates local producers from fluctuating worldprices, and provides an accessible market for smallOxoducers.

bee5vd,x

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Beekeeping is an activity which fits well withthe philosophy of small-scale development. There isa great,potential for developing beekeeping in manyareas.

Beekeeping can:

supply an additional non-perishable foodfor rural people.

provide -'cash crops for rural people -honey and wax.

be a means of gainfu work when the farmeris not involved in planting staple crops`.

create 'work for local craftsmen who makeequipment.

increase the production of other cropssuch as peanuts, coffee, and citrusthrough better pollination. Insectpollination is important for manycultivated plants.

Beekeeping is a family activity which has thefollowing advantages over other types of agriculture:

It needs a relatively small investment.

It uses little land and the quality of theland is not important.

It is a flexible activity for both sexesof any age.

It can be carried on as a productivesecondary activity with low leveltechnology, or as a primary undertakingwith more complicated techniques.

Beekeeping does not comtete for resourceswith other types of agriculture - thenectar and pollen of plints are a truebonus.

Project Planning

The first step in planning a beekeeping project isto become familiar with the bee-human relationship inyour area. Talk with those in the area who areinvolved with bees. Accompany them when they work withbees.

If yo4 have no experience working with bees, it ispossible to learn a lot by working with local bee-killers, bee-havers, or beekeepers. By knowing howthey work, you can make suggestions for improvementwith more credibility, and it will be easier to adaptan appropriate beekeeping technology to the area.

Also, you ihould.get through a couple of stingingincidents before committing yourself to beekeeping.Bee stings are an integral part of beekeeping. Abeekeeper has to deal with them.

Once you become familiar with the local, bee -humanrelationship, ideas for introducing improved methodsshould be formulated. Whom to work with? Whatequipment to use? where to market hive products?

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If Ir011are just beginning with bees you wouldprobably be better off working with just one or twoindividuals in the area. By selecting farmers who havethe respect of their peers and have good contacts inthe community, your efforts will be multiplied.Keeping bees yourself'and using methods different fromthose used in the area is a step_in the rightdirection. Word will get out, and sooner or later youwill be talking with your friends and gighbors aboutbeekeeping.

Always start beekeeping with at least two hives.This gives an opportunity to compare the progress.between a number of hives, and more importantly, itallows the project to continue should one colony dieout. Also, management aimed towards an Apiary insteadof individual hives can be stressed.

In planning a project, .set realistic goals. Asmall project which succeeds is more meaningful thana large one which is attempted but fails.

Change is slow. It must start with an idea. Thesuccessful presentation of an idea is a realisticexpectation for introducing improved methods to thebee -human relationship in some areas.

The equipment to be used in a project depends on.the local situation. You should assess theavailability of needed inputs as well as the technicalaid available in choosing what type or types of hiveequipment, are appropriate.

Identifying people in an area who can.makebeekeeping equipment and getting it made can be successin, itself. It can require a lot of patience tocoordinate getting the equipment together.

Local outlets for marketing. are available for hiveproducts in most areas. Check for those people who arealready using honey or beeswax. Often, they are eagerfor a steady supply of a good quality product. If notalready using honey, local bakers and candy makers area potential market. Check also with those who mayprovide potential markets for beeswax (see Chapter 8,Beeswax).

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Beekeeping as an Integrated Activity

Beekeeping is an activity which meshes well withother agricultural and rural development projects,.Regional development projects also offer possibilitiesof implementing beekeeping ventures.

Certain crops planted in such projects can yieldhoney for the beekeeper as well as benefit from the.pollination activities of the bees. Beekeeping canprovide additional income to small farmers who plantthese crops or have their bees nearby.

The following crops are known to benefit frominsect pollination. Those marked with an asterisk arealso good nectar sources for honey bees.

henequensisaltungcashewteapapaya*coconut*coffee*squashpumpkincucumberoil palm*litchicitrus*apples*avocadoclover*melonswatermelonspeachesblackberriessesamesunflowers*'soybeans (some varieties)*alfalfa

.4,

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Plants benefit from insect pollination by anincreased seed set. This results in increased seedproduction and better quality fruits. Honey bees arebeneficial as pollinators in those areas where naturalinsect pollinators are lacking or are insufficient topollinate large areas devoted' to a single crop.(Remember though, honey bees.are not attracted to allcrops.)

(For more information on the pollinationrequirements and the attractiveness of specific cropsto honey bees see Appendix A.)

People involved in forestry projects are ofteninterested in beekeeping. Beekeeping is an income-yielding undertaking based on a forest resource, yetit is not destrUctive to that resource. Someone whois earning an irwome from beekeeping quickly becomesan advocate for preserving the forest resource.Beekeeping also lessens the likelihood of brush firesbeing set by honey hunters when they burn bees out ofa wild colony.

Tree species used in reforestation efforts whichare also good bee forage can be instrumental in theestablishment of a beekeeping industry. Beekeeping isa part of the utilization of a multi-purpose forestresource.

woode(AS

-forestry

foodFE C -FPiNCT- --- crops

-c-orNe crops

inteateed Achvite

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The following trees which are used for otherpurposes such as firewood, shelter belts, and shadealso secrete sufficient nectar to produce yie1.4sofhoney in some regions. As nectar secretionqidependent on many factors (climate, weather, and 'soil),a tree may not be a good nectar producer.OmmOk.introduced, into a new region. . Cheek to sideaf, treespecies is a good nectar producer under Vik:idonditionswhich it will be growing before advocating its use asa nectar source for bees.

Acacia spp.

Albizia Zebbek

Avicennia spp.

Calliandra calothyrus

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Eucalyptus citriodora

Eucalyptus globulus

Gliricidia sepium

GMelina.arborea

Grevillea robusta

Guazuma

lnga vera

Pithec'ellobium dulce

Prosopis juliflora

Rhizophora spp.

Syzygium cumini

(For more information on planting trees see PC.Program and Training Journal - Manual Series Number 5,Reforestation in Arid.Lands. This is available fromthe PC Office 51 TEEriiII3n Collection and Exchange.)

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Beekeeping as an Educational Activity

Vocational and agricultural'training centers andrural teacher training institutes make good sites tomount beekeeping projects. The trainees can have amultiplier effect in introducing beekeeping at thevillage level and the centers themselves serve asexcellent demonstration sites.

Beekeeping is also a ,00d school or youth groupproject. Students and. me,ers of youth gioups are thefarmers of the future. They.are receptive to new ideasand' methods and can be helpful in conveying these totheir parents,

A demonstration apiary at a school not onlyprovides a good educational opportunity, it can alsoprovide some revenu.

(Lesson Plans for Beekeeping,'PC Reprint SeriesNumber R32 available from the PC Office of InfatacitionCollection and Exchange, is useful for teachers.,)

Exhibits of bees, equipment, and hive products inregional fairs and meetings also serve to promotebeekeeping and honey sales. . Demonstrations actuallyworking with colonies can help counter many popularfears of bees. An especially attention-getting -

demonstration is making an artificial swarm and thenrehiving it (Appendix E).

A glass-sided observation'hive can create a lot ofenthusiasm for bees. It affords a chance to study thebees at their hive activities, thus it is a greateducational tool. Since such a small hive often needsclose attention and care to maintain, it gives manyopportunities for teaching the management needs andpractices'of the colony. (See Appendix B for plans ofan observation hive.)

AN 085ErtvaTOO l+RG

,Erritance

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Beekeeping as a Cooperative Activity

Beekeeping. also works well in cooperatives. Manycooperatives have beekeeping projects as part of theiractivities. In some coops, beekeeping is the soleactivity. These coops supply needed inputs, access totechnical aid, and markets for honey and beeswax. Insome cases, beekeeping coops have been very successful.

(For more information on the organization andfunctioning of coops see PC Information Collection andExchange Resource Packet P-5, Cooperatives, and ReprintR-14, Guidelines for Development of a Home Industry.)

Funding for beekeeping projects can be sought fromthe types of institutions mentioned above. Manymissions and private donor agencies involved in small-scale agricultural. projects are often interested in,beekeeping.

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Records Of your.experiencesr-bothsuccesses and failures--in setting-upbeekeeping, projects are important'for olher0who may want to start projects. A project )report left behind whed you leave will serveto'encourage further development of'beekeeping. Your report should includesources .of bees.and eguiplent as. well as.information on those who are involv9d inbeekeeping in the area.

The information that you gather. aboutbeekeeping in your area is valuable.., -Timespent on preparing a report will allow /yourinformation to continue to be useful.

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Types of Bees

Bee Basics-

There are many different species of bees.. Mostbees are solitary, but some are social. These livetogether in colonies with a diVision of labor among theindividuals.

The habit of visiting flowers makes all beesimportant as pollinating agents. All bees gthernectar and pollen from flowers, but only a few of thesocial bees store the nectar as honey. Ofe the beesthat store honey, there are even fewer "species thatstore it in sufficient quantity to make the effort ofharvesting the honey worthwhile.

Although some "stingless" bees are robbed of theirhoney in tropical regions, bees of the genus Apis,the true honey-bees, are the major producers ofhoneyand other hive products. Apis mellifera, the westernhive bee, has been introduced into most regions of theworld for use in beekeeping.

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Stingless bees

in tropical regions, some species of stinglessbees - notably Tri ona and Hell ona - are robbed oftheir honey. All of these bees mad their nestsinside cavities' Even though these bees do not sting,they defend their colony by biting the intruder. Somesecrete irritati.hg substances along with the bite.

The brood Comb of stingless bees is one cell thickand usually horizontal. These bees store honey inthimble-sized wax honey pots placed around the broodarea of the nest. In some areas, these stingless beesare kept in gourds, clay poti, or hollowed logs. Honeyis harvested by opening the nest cavity and removingthe honey pots: The yield is very low, and marketingit is worthwhile only on a local level. Such honey is-often highly prized locally for medicinal use.

Honey port of Nli212s1

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Mr

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The Mayas of Central America developed a system ofkeeping one species of Melipona in log:hives. Honeywas important in their religious celebrations, and they Ihad special festivals and rituals to assure good honeyharvests. This is the only case in the world where abee culture developed with a non-Apis species of bee.Such meliponiculture still survives in regions ofCentral America. Yields of 10-12 kg/year are maximumwith these bees.

toy4r) bee symbol.

Since stingless bees use a different type of neststructure for honey storage and brood, improved methodsfor keeping these bees are limited in theireffectiveness for increasing production. This, coupledwith low yields, makes the keeping of these beeseconomically feasible only for home honey consumption.

Apis: The true honey bee

There are four species in the bee gsnus Apis --three ;.:hich are native, to Asia and on'ewhich is nativeto the Euro-African region. Allof these are similarin appearance, though there are size and colordifferences. All build vertical combs that are twocells thick.

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side view of comb Seciial

The giant or rock honey bee (Apis dorsata) and thelittle honey bee (A. florea) are found IHKiii. Bothof these bees build aRHUre-comb, exposed nest. Nestsare often seen hanging from branches of trees, roofs,or ceilings. The adult bees hang in curtains aroundthe nest to control nest conditions. Brood and honeystores are in the same comb - the brood in the lowersection and the honey in the upper section.

In some areas, methods,have been devised forremoving the honey section of the comb and reattachingthe brood area; thus bee-having is practiced with thesebees. The yields are-often high enough (especiallywith A. dorsata) to make the effort well worthwhile forthe farmer.

No methods of keeping either of these bees areknown which are better than those currently practiced.The behavior of both species is unpredictable, and theywill not'live inside a hive. The giant honey bee isespecially defensive of its nest. Therefore, there islittle potential for development in the management Ofeither species, though there is often potential forimproving the quality of the honey by using more carein, processing.

Two other species of Apis (mellifera and cerana)normally build multi-comb nests in enclosed caViiiii.These bees can be kept in hives, and methods have beendevised to allow for a more rational utilization oftheir potential. It is with these two species that apotential for beekeeping development exists.

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The'western hive bee (Mkt 'Dalliers) is native towestern Asia, Europe, and Aftica7Si7iis tremendousvariation in this bee across its range, and at leasttwenty different sub-species or "races" are recognized,broadly, divided into European and African-groups.Several races of this bee are considered especiallydesirable for beekeeping.

Fiw

hone? frultr+ion-Crentieness--1JA tendency to swIrmLow ferldenCY11, 41L1/50r)C1C4rn on combs when colony is worred-13T5e,se resfst4nt-Liiite use of prcfoli5

brood-re:1ring during &Ariel periods-11, conserve stares

European races of the western hive bee have beenintroduced into most parts of the world, including theAmericas, Australia, and Asia. This bee has beenstudied intensely from both a strict biological and abeekeeping viewpoint. Under good-conditions, desirableraces build large colonies and produce large surplusesof honey. Yields of 100skg/year or better are possibleunder optimum conditions.

The western honey bee offers a great potential forbeekeeping development. In addition to high honeyyields, its ability to survive under a wide range ofconditions and its availability due to pastintroductions or to native populations arecharacteristics which have made this bee popular forbeekeeping. For these reasons too, the focus of thismanual is on the western hive bee.

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The eastern or Indian hive bee (Apia cerana,formerly A. indica) is native to Asia. Beekeepingdeveloped with this bee in different regions of Asia,since it can be easily hived in man-made containers.Honey yields of up to 15-20 kg/year are obtained insome areas, but the average is much lower:

There is a lot of variation in the eastern hivebee across its range, and little, work has been donetoward selecting more desirable strains from abeekeeping point of view. Techniques of beekeepingwith this bee are.similar to thos used with thewestern hive bee, though the hives used are smaller.

Development of small-scale beekeeping with theeastern hive bee deserves attention in its native area.Although yields are considerably lower than wih thewestern hive bee, this bee has the advantage of beingwell adapted to the area. It is more resistant to someof the disease and pest problems found in the area.Therefore, it is better able to survive under theminimal-management conditions which often characterizebeekeeping at the small-farmer level.

In recent years, there has been an effort in Asiato replace the eastern honey bee with European racesof the western honey bee. This has been successfulonly in temperate regions and only for larg2-scale,capital-intensive operations where the technology isavailable to control disease and parasite problems ofthe European races. For a small-scale developmenteffort in this area, consider the likely beekeeping,conditions in choosing a species.

In any small-scale beekeeping developmenteffort, the existing bee resource of the area

project is far riskier than it is worth.should be used. Importing bees for such a

4..

33

25

The importation of bees is often fraught withproblems. Importing bees fora small-scale projectoften makes the people psychologically dependent uponthe outside source. They do not realize that there isa locally available bee resource, nor are theymotivated to make use of it.

Imported bees often are not adapted to the areasinto which they are introduced. This is especiallytrue of introductions of.temperate European races intotropical areas.

Importing bees also risks the introduction ofexotic-bee diseases and parasites. Tragic cases ofthis have occurred in recent years in Europe and SouthAmerica with the introduction of Varroa, a mite -

parasite of the honey bee.

The most notable problem of the unguardedimportation of bees occurred in Brazil in 1956. Abeekeeping industry based on European races of thewestern bee was well-established in many areas oftemperate South America. African bees were importedinto Brazil in an attempt to establish an industry insome of the more tropical regions. Some of these'beesaccidentally escaped and became established. They havecontinued to expand their range in the tropicallowlands, and in most cases they have actuallysupplanted the existing European bees..

The establishment of African bees in tropicalAmerica has caused a great disruption of the beekeepingindustry. The African bee is noted for itsdefensiveness and unpredictability. These arecharacteristics considered undesirable from abeekeeper's point of view. In some cases nearbypersons and farm animals have been stung to death.Adjusting to the increased number of stinging incidentsand to the difficulty of managing this bee has beendifficult for beekeepers. It is usually necessary tomove hives away from inhabited areas when the beesbecome "Africanized" by interbreeding with wildcolonies.

As the African bee is'adapted to live in tropical-regions, wild colonies become common once the bee movesinto an area. This is a benefit to small farmers whowant to startbeekeeping since it provides a cheapsource of bees. The African bee also responds less. tomanagement operations than does the European bee; itis often more amenable to low-management beekeeping.(See Appendix A for a resource on the nature ofbeekeeping with the African bee.)

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*26

Climate and Beekeeping

To understand the relationship of climate tobeekeeping, it is useful first to understand twoconcepts related to bees and their environment. Theseare the nectar flow.and the honey flow. Althoughbeekeepers often speak of these as being the same, theyare different, though similar, concepts.

The nectar flow is totally a function ofplants. It refers to both the quantity and the quality(amount of dissolved sugars) of the nectar' secreted bythe plant. The nectar flow in an area at a given time.is dependent upon the Species of plants present and theweather factors affecting those plants. Climatic andedaphic (soil) factors determine the flora of an areaand thus the potential nectar flow. Rainfall,temperature, and sunlight affect the plants and thusdetermine the Actual nectar flow.

Some plant species secrete very little if anynectar, while others secrete copious amounts. 'Thequality, or sugar content, of nectar also varies amongthe different plant species. Weather also has aneffect on quality. High rainfall promotes nectarsecretion, but such nectar is often very low in sugarcontent.

For most plant species, the conditions promotingoptimum nectar flow are adequate rainfall previous toflowering and dry, sunny conditions during theflowering period. The timing and relative amount ofrainy and dry, sunny periods vary from year to year;thus the nectar flow can be highly variable. Someplant species are less affected by weather patternsthan others. These plants can be depended upon forgood nectar flows every year. Other plants are verysensitive to weather patterns. These plants may giveexcellent flows during some years and no flow duringothers.

27

The honey flow is a function.of the bee-plantrelatiOnship., It is the use of the nectar flow by thehoney bee colony. While the beekeeper can do littleto affect the nectar flow, good colony management isimportant to insure good honey flows. Strong coloniesare needed at the time of the maximum nectar flow tomaximize the honey flow.

Weather conditions are also a factor in the honeyflow. ;Good flying weather for the foragers during agood nectar flow is necessary for a good honey flow.

0E71

weervher nedpr-Row

bees

hone,/ 41aN

28

The optimum areas of the world in terms ofpotential honey flows are areas of deciduous forest inthe wet/dry tropics. Such areas have a long dry seasonwhich allows bee colonies to build up their strengthto peak population to take advantage of the maximumnectar flow. The flora of these areas is alsoparticularly rich in melliferous (bee-attracting)plants. The dry, sunny period after the rainy seasonpromotes a good nectar flow and provides good foragingweather. These areas can support large apiaries of upto 100 colonies with optimum yields of up to 150kg/colony/year.

Areas with continuous cool and cloudy or rainyconditions are poorly suited for beekeeping. Nectaris usually of poor quality, and the bees have littlegood weather to forage in these regions. Of course,large desert regions are precluded from permanentbeekeeping, even though good bee pasture may be presentthere for short periods during the year.

Not all plants are attractive to bees. Themelliferous flora varies widely within any majorclimatic zone. Natural factors affect the environment.and sometimes people can alter the suitability of aregion for beekeeping by their land use patterns oragricultural practices. Cutting down large areas ofsuitable bee forage and devoting these areas tomonoculture can destroy a good bee area if theintroduced crop is a poor resource for bees.

Conversely, the bee pasture of an area can beimproved if marginal melliferous plants are replacedwith good nectar- and pollen-producing plants. It isseldom economically feasible to make. large plantingssolely for improving the bee pasture, though the beepasture of an area can be improved by selecting goodmelliferous plants for other primary purposes such asreforestation, windbreaks, cover crops, firewood crops,or forage crops for livestock.

37.

Beekeeping can be carried'on profitably under awide range of nectar and honey flow conditions. Theseconditions figure more in determining the size and tof a profitable beekeeping operation rather thandetermining the profitability per se. There are mareas that would not be practical for a large-scbeekeeping venture, but would be highly suited for asmall-scale project.

The planning of a small-scale beekeeping projectshould not put too much emphasis on bee flora. Thegoal of most such projects is to introduce improvedmethods into an existing bee-human relationship. Ifa bee-human relationship already exists, and the beesare producing honey, it is far more practical to assumethat a bee pasture exists. It is a waste of resourcesto emphasize studying the region's bee flora inbeginning a small-scale project.

The identification of bee flora is an integralpart of the beekeeper's knowledge which is built with'experience. A special study is not needed. It willbe learned when there are beekeepers to observe it.The first step is to make beekeepers.

.T

30

Life Cycle of the Honey BeeThe honey be is an insect with complete

metamorphosis. This means that there are four distinctstages in the life cycle - egg, larva, pupa, and adult.

509

lArvg

Fupa

39

31(

The first three stages develop in. cells in thecomb, and are collectively referred to as the brood.Eggs and larvae are in open cells and are cared for byadult workers. These stages are called the open orunsealed brood.

Once the eg4 hatches, the workers continually feedthe developing larva. When the larva nears the end ofthe larval period, it engorges on food provided by the sworkers, and the workers.seal the cell. This is knownas,the capped or sealed brood.

After the cell is sealed, the larva changes intothe pupal stage. There is no feeding during thisperiod. The pupa develops into the Adult form, whichemerges on its own from the cell.

Ptipe (cell caps removed)

40

32

The Castes

The honey bee is a social insect with threedifferent types of individuals or castes in thecolony --queens, drones and workerl. Each caste hasits special. function in the colony. The queen andworkers 'are female, the drones 'are male.

k

Each caste has a different developmental time andis reared in a distinct type of cell. The -

developmental time of the queen,416 days, is theshortett. She is reared in a specially constructedroyal-or queen cell.' Queen cells appear similar topeanut shells which hang from the surface of the comb.They can be located along the edges of the comb or .

within the comb area. The colony constructs queencells when there is a need to rear queens, though cellsare - sometimes started and then. abandoned. These arecalled false queen cups. .

The developing queen larva is always surrounded-byroyal jelly, a special, highly - nutritious fOod producedby head glands of the workers. This feeding scheme,called massive provisioning, is unique to the queen andcontinues throughout her entire developmental period.

All young larvae of less than two days are fedwith royal jelly by the massiveprovisioning scheme.After the second day, worker larvae are graduallyswitched to a.progressive feeding scheme where they arefed with a mixture of royal' jelly, honey and pollen.with progressive feeding, the larvae are fedperiodically, thus food.is not always available tothem. The different feeding-schemes determine thecaste of the adult bee. Thus any female egg or larvaless than two days old has the potential to becomeeither a queen or a_ worker.

Workers are reared in the same type of cell thatis used to store honey and pollen. This type of cellmakes up the majority of the comb in the colony.

41

33

The size of the cells of naturally built (i.e.without embossed foundation) worker comb is useful fordistinguishing between species and some races of Apiscommonly keptin hives. The distance across 4ten cellsof comb built by the eastern hive bee (A. cerana) inthe Philippines averages 4.1 clp, and in southern India,the distance is 4.3-4.4 cm. The African races of thewestern hive bee build comb with measurements of4.7-4.9 cm across ten cells, while the distance in combconstructed by common European races is 5.2-5.0 cm.

;

The cappings on sealed worker celld are opaque and'flat. The adult worker emerges from the cell 21 daysafter the egg is laid:

The developmental period,of drones is 23 days.Drones are reared in cells of the same shape as workercells only larger. Drone cells are sealed with dome-shaped,cappings.

(The following chart summarizes the developmentalperiods, starting at the time thb egg is laid. Thefigures given can vary a day or so, depending on.thetype (species and/or race) of honey bee, the weatherconditions, or the time of year.

develo men -ev,ents (cilts)wooer Veen dropt

egg hcIrcile6 4ter 3 3 3

cell te-, sealed *ter 9 8 loemerge5 .4P1-er Zl 16 24

42

34

The queen is the only female that is completelydeveloped sexually. This is a'result of a total dietof royal jelly during a deveIopmental period.. She isdistinguished by her long, sInder appearance, due tothe full development of 'the ovaries in her abdomen.Shb has a sting without barbs. In the colony, she'isfound in the area of the brood nest.

Approximately five ays after emerging from herb51'cell, the virgin queen egins to take a series of

mating flights. She takes a number of such flightsover a period of two to three days, and may mate withten or more different drones. The sperm is stored ina special organ, thespermatheca, and the queen nevermates again after this period.

About five days after taking her mating flights,the queen begins to lay. During favoiable periods agood queen can lay more than 1500 eggs per day.Factors which affect egg laying are the weather, thenectar and pollen flows, the size of the queen, and thecondition 'of the colony. The number of eggs laidvaries with the annual cycle as available resources of .

nectar and pollen vary. Large amounts of incomingresources stimulate workers to give the queen morefood, which in turn stimulates her to lay more eggs.

Several of the queenis glands produce a complex ofcompounds called the queen substance. It isdistributed throughout the colony by workers that carefor the queen and pass it on to other workers.

The queen substance is a combination ofpheromones, chemical compounds which serve to controlthe behavior of other individuals of the same species.Pheromones produced by the queen and by the otherindividuals of the colony serve to harmonize colonybehavior.

Normally, there is only one queen per colony,though sometimes two queens are present when the oldqueen is being superseded. 9

The queen can live for up to four years, but inthe tropics, where the yearly laying period is longer,the queen does not live as long. Older queens do nothave the laying capacity of younger queens, thereforeyoung, vigorous queens are preferred by beekeepers. Inintensive beekeeping, queens are replaced about everytwo years.

43

Wortw Queen

Drones, the males of the colony, are producedfrom unfertilized eggs. (The queen can control whetheror not the egg is fertilized as she lays it.)

The body of the drone is larger than that of theworker or queen. The eyes are large and coverpractically the-whole head. The end of the abdomen isblunt and is covered with a tuft of small hairs.

Drones cannot sting. As the sting is a modifiedstructure of the female genitalia, drones do not havestings. They also do not have any of the structuresnecessary to collect nectar and pollen.

A strong colony can have about 300 drones. Butduring periods when resources are scarce, the workersrun the drones out of the colony. They die as, -theycannot fend for themselves.

The sole function of the drones is to fertilizethe queen. The mating of honey bees takes place in theair away from the colony. When the weather is good,mature drones leave the colony during the afternOon andcongregate in certain areas where they wait for virginqueens to fly by.

Drones sometimes to colonies that have avirgin queen. Such col nies will accept drones fromother colonies and willdtolerate a large dronepopulation while the queen is a virgin. However, aftera queen mates, the workers run many of the drones outof the colony.

44

Workers are females which are not fullydeveloped sexually. They do the work of the colony andmaintain it in good condition. Workers have specialstructures and organs which are associated with theduties they perform.

Strvciu!re 01) Rin'atrcFron

-heqct ,91ancis ,front of the -prcducehez0 roqai -Food

4noi rr,3e11?

PI

-w4x glands -vinder 1-heabdomen

vce

-odor siwlicis -nesp-- upper -ffej4,1*1.0

-hip of -f-h e orrent-4-Feqt7doftren bees When

4-he coiony,d it-vr-bed

-4nd tip of The -defend The->oci red abdomen colony

i4rict

-he44ct -941tersnectar

I on9 -fircys

hcneystoryqch

-pollen comb,press Arad-1"SKet'

--ent4n3e1 .red -qrries r-

of esoph49vs and water

-hirt1 le95 . -comb potter)from Thebociti pressinto pellets)and c4rry

the hive.4Iso used -'oqrrY propoli5

37

The tasks that the adult workers. perform change asthey age. This is correlated with the physiologicaldevelopment of various glands. However, this schemeis not absolutely fixed; workers can change tasks tomeet the needs of the colony.

*Ws after emesence-2, -clqn cells

warm +henest-

3-5 feed older 14r-v4e wel-h honeyand pollen

co--10 -feed Younger 1.4r-qe productsof +he held94ncis

I 1 -18 -ripen nectar,produce w4x4nolcoo5frvc1- comb

Iasi<

19-21

zaf

9urui .11(.1 yen--fiqte The hive-f.Ke exercise nclorrent4fion flf9iTtsto le4rri to -Ply grriloccite the hive

forage for nech4rpollen, wqiepropoi is

46

38

The life span of worker adults varies greatly withthe time of year. During periods when the colony isrelatively inactive (dearth periods), workers may livethree months or more, but when the colony is active;tew,workers live for as long as six weeks. Duringthese active periods, about three weeks are spent asa hive bee and the remainder as a forager. The lifespan of workers of trbpical races of the western hivebee and the eastern hive bee is shorter.

When a colony has become queenless and there areno young larvae or female eggs from which to rear a newqueen, laying workers can develop. The ovaries of someworkers in the colony develop because of the absenceof queen substance, and they start to lay eggs. Sinceworkers, do not have the body structure or behaviornecessary to be fertilized, all of the eggs areunfertilized and thus produce drones.

Laying workers can be suspected in a colony ifthere is an excessive number of drones present. Closeexamination of broad comb can verify this. Workercells that contain drone brood (i.e. worker cellscapped with a domed cap) and cells that contain anumber of eggs of varying sizes laid in 'a haphazardfashion confirm the presence of laying workers. A goodqueen lays only one egg per cell which is placed in thecenter of the base of the cell.

eggs V5. \AforKer_J4id eggs

471-

1111

39

Resource Needs of the ColonyForaging workers fly up to three kilometers from

the colony to collect the resources needed by thecolony. Of'course, it is better if there are abundantresources closer to the colony. Bees will fly furtherthan three kilometers, but this is often energyinefficient.

The four substances collected.by foragers for thecolony are:

nectarpollenpropoliswater

Nectar ,; is a sugary secretion of plants. It iscommonly secreted by nectaries associated with theflowers, thbugh some plants have nectaries located onleaves or stems. Nectar is 70% to 80% water. 'Higherpercentages of water are found during rainy periods.The remainder is sugar and trace amounts of otherorganic compounds. Nectar is the carbohydrate orenergy component in the diet of the bee.

Foragers take the nectar from the nectaries andcarry it back to the hive in their honey stomachs.When they return to the colony, they pass the nectarto younger workers who ripen it into honey and storeit in cells.

The nectar-ripening process involves evaporatingthe water content down to less than 19 percent andadding a small. amount of enzymes. The workers do thisby continually regurgitating droplets of nectar fromtheir honey stomachs and extending the droplets fromtheir proboscises. Increasing the surface area of thedroplets in this way hastens evaporation. The actionalso mixes in enzymes which break down the complexsugars of the nectar into simple sugars.

Bees sometimes collect honeydew, a sugarysecretion of certain insects which feed on plant sap.Honeydew is acceptable to the bees as food, but honeyproduced from it is dark and strong-tasting. Suchhoney is usually considered inferior in quality.Honeydew is more commonly collected by bees intemperate climates.

48

40

41 the hive, the honey is always stored above andaround the brood area of the nest. Adult bees feed onthe honey, and mix it with pollen to feed older workerand drone larvae. Most colonies produce more honeythan they need during good honey.flows. This extrahoney can be harvested. With management, the amountof extra honey can be increased. Simply removing honeystores from the colony stimulates it to produce morehoney if the floral resources are available.

Pollen is a.powdery substance produced by themale organs of fldwers. It contains the sperm cell ofthe plants. Bees aid in transferring pollen from plantto plant. Such pollinating agents are very importantfor the cross-pollination of many plants.

Many agricultural crops are dependent on insectcross-pollination for successful seed set. These/plants are often self-sterile and need to be pollinatedwith pollen from other plants. Such crops can benefitgreatly when they are flowering by having bees nearby.

When foragers visit flowers, pollen sticks to thefine, plumose (feather-like) hairs which cover thebody. Periodically, the worker removes the pollen fromthe hairs using the pollen comb,. a structure on thehind legs. Then she forms the pollen into smallpellets with the pollen press, and sticks it into thepollen basket to carry it back to the hive. The pollenpress and basket are also on the hind legs.

poi leo pellet"

Pollen is used to feed older brood and is alsoeaten in large quantities by nurse bees who are'producing royal jelly from the head glands. It is theprotein, vitamin and mineral component in the bee diet.

Pollen is stored in cells immediately surroundingthe brood nest where it is readily available forfeeding brood and for consumption by the nurse bees.A complex of yeasts in the pollen acts to preserve itin a process similar to ensilaged hay.

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41

Propolis is a resinous s stance collected fromplants. It is found around woun s on plants andsometimes around buds. Bees use .t to seal smallcracks and holes in the colony, fo reinforcing andrepairing old comb, and for coverin dead animals inthe colony which are too big to be removed.

Propolis contains chemicals call d turpines whichact to limit bacterial and fungal gro Thereforeit serves to help control bacteria and fungi in thecolony environment. It is collected by foragers andcarried to.the hive in the pollen baskets.

Water is mixed with honey before the bees eat itor feed it to the brood. Bees also use water to coolthe hive on hot days. When itas hot, many foragersare busy collecting water. The water is placed insmall droplets around the hive, and air currents areset up by bees which stand in the colony and fan theirwings. The colony temperature is lowered byevaporative cooling.

Water is carried to the colony in the honeystomachs of the foragers. A nearby source of freshwater is helpful to a bee colony. This minimizes theeffort needed to satisfy the water requirements of thehive, and allows the colony to devote more effort toforaging for nectar and pollen. If no natural sourcesof water are available nearby, the beekeeper can profitby providing a water supply in the apiary.

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in

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42

Swarming, Supersedure, and Absconding

Swarming is natural colony division orreproduction. When a colony has reached a large sizeand there are abundant resources available, the workerswill construct queen cells. These queen cells or swarmcells are usually located around the edges of tbe comb.

A few days before the first virgin queen emerges,the old queen leaves the colony followed by part of theworkers and drones. The queen usually lands neatby andthe other bees cluster around her. Scouts leave fromthe cluster in search of suitable nesting sites.Within a few days, the cluster usually leaves and movesto a site where it establishes a permanent nest.

The first queen that emerges in the old colonysearches out other queen cells and destroys them. Iftwo or more queens emerge at the same time, they willfight until one kills the other.

Sometimes, if the colony still has a largepopulation, a recently emetged queen will leave thecolony with a number of workers instead of destroyingthe other queen cells. This is called an afterswarm.It is similar to the original swarm except it issmaller and the queen is a virgin. A colony sometimesafterswarms several times.

Supersedure is queen replacement without colonydivision. If the old queen begins to fail, workerswill construct queen cells to rear a replacement.These supersedure cells are usually located on the faceareas of the comb. The old queen does not leave thecolony in supersedure. The new queen mates, returnsto the colony, and begins to lay.

After supersedure, it is not uncommon to find boththe old queen and the new queen together in the samecolony: They are *ot competing, therefore theytolerate each othe . The old queen can bedistinguished by h tittered wings and her abdomen,which is worn of hairs. She dies soon after the newqueen has started laying.

51

f

st!sedure.J t

wew coi-ooi51.-Te

5v44rrn ceils Ore on the edge of -E. he comb.Supersedure cells c4re Oh +he .P.ce of -I-he comb.

Absconding is the abandonment of a nest site bya colony. It is usually due to excessive disturbanceof the .colony by predators or beekeepers, or todiminishing resources in an area. Absconding is morecommon in tropical species and races of the honey bee.

1

52 c 1

This background information on the basics ofhoney bee biology is necessary in order tounderstand the nature of beekeeping and theprinciples of hive management. Optimum hive,ewanagement can only be achieved with a good

understanding of bee biology. Your knowledge of- bee biology will never stop growing once you start

working with bees. As with everything else,experience is the best teacher.

Helping' beginning beekeepers to build aknowledge of bee biology is often a slow anddifficult process in development projects.

'Abstract discussions, lectures, and extensionmaterial often mean nothing to persons whoselearning has not been geared to such media. Theyneed to see the thing for themselves. Actualdemonstration is often the most effective teachingmethod in these situations.

Questioning and listening on the part of theteacher are also important. You need to learn howbees and their relationship' with the environmentare viewed by the target group of a bee project.

r You need, to learn what the target group alreadyknows.

Folk wisdomon bees is based on the bee-environment relationship as it is perceived andobserved by those in the community. Often suchfolk wisdom is correct vis-a-vis bee biology eventhough the fancy words are lacking.

By finding out the local folk wisdom on bees,the person trying to teach improved beekeepingmethods can reinforce what is correct and seek tochange what is misunderstood. Seeking tounderstand and respecting the local folk wisdomwill greatly increase your credibility.

The Essence of Beekeeping*

Beekeeping follows seasonal cycles. This isimportant for beekeepers to understand. In tropicalregions, it is more difficult to note the seasonalcycles since there is no period when the colony istotally inactive.

The yearly colony cycle can be broken into threeperiods: build-up, honey flow, and dearth. Intemperate regions, these periods are usually well-defined, with only one of each period per year. In thetropics and subtropics, however, the periods arevariable, and more than one of each can occur in ayearly colony cycle.

* Part of this material is adapted with permissionfriom The essence of beekeeping, presented in note formby S.C. world, vol. 60: pp 140-142. 1979.

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6

46

The flowering of plants, and, more importantly,nectar flows', are influenced by seasonal weather,*',patterns. The honey bee colony responds.to thesechanges. When resources of both pollen and nectar areplentiful, the colony is stimulated to rine more broodand thus the colony population increases. Whenresources are low, brood-rearing decreases, and thecolony population- decreases.

501,1)-UP Pe ODD

Rouen ti r--- r brood refiring colony populqtionTesourc 5 ihc else Incre4ses IricreggeS

pecjaTI-1- FeRrop

pollen find nec4-qr--- brood reb4ifin9 colony popo4fibriresources decreake cleci9e45e5 decreoe5

Both pollen and nectar are necessary to stimulatebrood - rearing. If only one is available, the colony'reduces brood-rearing and stores the incoming resource.Stored providions are'used to maintain brood-rearing,.but 'they do not stimulate increased brood-rearing.

-For a high level of brood-rearing, a largequantity of incoming resources is needed. Dependingon /oncoming resources,the workers vary the amount offood given the queen. This determines her egg-layingrate. workers also eat eggs or young larvae to controlthe amount of brood reared in times of reducedresources.

Colonies with small populations emphabize broodrearing over honey storage. Such colonies tend to usemost of their incoming resources to produce bees andto build comb. They have a high brood-to-adult-beeratio; therefore many adult bees are needed in the hiveto care for the brood and maintain the brood nesttemperature.

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47

As colonies grow in population, the ratio of broodto adults decreases. After a certain point of -population growth (about 40,000 with European beesunder temperate conditions), the rate at which thequeen lays eggs also decreases. More bees are, freedfrom duties in the hive to become foragers. The colonythen shifts its emphasis to honey storage.

Beekeeping includes understanding the seasonalcolony cycle and managing the colonies in such awayas to obtain a large adult colony population tocoincide with the major nectar flow in an area.Success in this results in the maximum honey flow forthe beekeeper.

bur Ici-vp honeyflow dqr+11

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48

By having the maximum adult population during thetime of the major nectar flow, the beekeeper can takebest advantage of the flow. ,However, such conditionsare also prime for swarming. A colony that swarms justbefore a major_nectar flow usually produces no surplushoney on that flew._ Rather, as the colony populationis lowered by swarming, the colony uses the flow torebuild its population. Therefore good beekeepingcalls for maintaining colonies in potential swarmingcondition, yet controlling swarming through managementpractices. It is impossible to prevent all swarming,but with management it can be minimized or controlled.

deg1-4-1-71'

Strong colonies are also important tor beekeeperswho are interested in using their colonies to pollinatecertain crops. For this, it is desirable to havecolonies that are strong yet still building up theirpopulation toward its peak when the crop is in bloom.As there is a lot of brood-rearing in such colonies,there is a big demand in the colony for pollen.Therefore the bees will be more likely to visit thedesired crop.

* * * * * * * * * *

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49

Nectar flows are generally more predictable intemperate regions. There is usually one main flow ofa sequence of plant sources which lasts-for severalweeks, normally in late spring and early summer.

In tropical and subtropical regions there is oftenone main flow with several lesser flows. The beekeeperis primaiily interested in the main flow, which oftenfollows the heavy rainy period, or may come after theinitial rains following a long dry period. However,it is harder to predict flows in these regions. Thebeginning and end of rainy periods is often highlyvariable from year to year.

The relative unpredictability of nectar flows inthe tropics and subtropics makes it more difficult forthe beekeeper to prepare the colonies.

aiu It- 1\t>eepeon

*low ,lesser/ -Pico

vp+ime

honey -How dearth

To achieve maximum honey flow, colonies shouldbuild up before the main nectar flow, not during it.Colonies that build up their peak population on themain nectar flow usually produce little surplus honeyfor the beekeeper. Since it takes about six weeks foran egg to develop into a foraging adult, thepreparation of colony populations for a main flow muststart six to eight weeks beforehand.

* * * * * * * * *

58

SO

In temperate regions the dearth period isassociated with cold and a total absence of resourcesfor the bee colony. The bees form a tight winter

.cluster to conserve metabolic heat, and pass the periodliving from stores in the hive. Bro9A-rearing usuallyceases for a period.

In warm climates there is never an absoluteabsence of resources, and there is some suitable flyingweather for the bees throughout the year. The dearthperiod in these regions is often associated with heavyrainy periods when there is less flowering, nectarquality is low (low sugar content), and flying weatheris poor. Pollen resources are sometimes plentiful

` during nectar dearths. Brood - rearing is reduced duringdearth periods,dbut it seldom ceases in strong coloniesin the tropics and subtropics. 1/4,

The different character of the dearth period is amajor difference between beekeeping in temperateregions and that in warmer regions. During dearthperiods in the tropics and subtropics, the colonyremains active.

* * * * * * * * * *

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51

Management Schemes

Honey bei colony growth and well-being aredependent upon:

the queen's capacity to lay eggs;

the supporting worker population's ability tomaintain favorable temperatures in the broodnest and to feed the brood (i.e. size and agestructure of worker population);

avai)4$ility of nectar (or honey stores duringthe dearth period) and pollen;

space in the proper section of the'hive forexpansion of the brood nest and storage ofhoney.*

Management schemes in beekeeping have theobjective of enhancing or improving upon these factors.The level of sophistication of a beekeeping operationdetermines the extent to which management operationscan affect these factors.

In high-tech beekeeping, genetically-selectedqueens can be used, colonies can be fed sugar syrup andpollen supplements, and colonies can be movedseasonally to follow nectar flows (migratorybeekeeping). Such inputs and schemes are often notavailable for a small-scale beekeeping venture or theyare impractical because of cost.

For small farmers, the most practical managementschemes are those that do not call for expensiveinputs. Labor is usually the cheapest input availableto these beekeepers. Management aimed at ensuringsufficient stores for the colony and providing properspace is only dependent on labor input.

Management practices which ensure sufficient honeystores in the hive for the dearth period only call forrecognizing its importance. No extra effort or laboris required. However, this is probably the mostneglected aspect of bee management (thus the mostcostly). The beekeeper is all too often the worstenemy of the bees.

*Productive management of honey bee colonies, C.G.Farrar, American Bee Journir, vol. 108, nos. 3-10.1968 .

pew

52

The temptation to remove all of the honey at theend of the honey flow period is often too great for thebeekeeper. Removing and selling honey often givesimmediate gains; leaving it on the colony for the bees'use during the dearth periods is an investment in thefuture, or a deferred gain.

A sufficient amount of honey left on a colony forthe dearth period assures that it will survive theperiod and be in good shape at the beginning of thenext build-up period. Without sufficient stores, the

-) colony may starve to death or may become so weak thatit succumbs to predators.

Beekeeping which neglects this aspect ofmanagement 'could be called "accordion" beekeeping. Thebeekeeper spends each build-up and honey flow periodin increasing the number of colonies only to lose mostof them in the following dearth period. The accordionbeekeeper goes back and forth between a large numberand a small number of colonies.

The other management scheme most practical tosmall-scale beekeeping ventures is hive manipulation.This is management to increase or reduce space in thecolony when and where it is needed.

Not only does the colony need extra space to storehoney during the flow, but space is also needed toexpand the brood nest during the build-up period. Thebees themselves expand the area for the brood nest byusing the pollen and honey aground the periphery of thebrood area. This frees these cells for the queen tolay in, but expanding the brood nest in this manner isa slow process for the colony and can restrict thelaying of the queen. When this happens, the colony issaid to be "honey-bound" as the brood nest is boundedor restricted by honey. A- honey-bound brood nest isa major factor in stimulating swarming.

By exchanging the combs filled with honey on theedge of the brood nest with empty combs, the beekeepercan alleviate the honey-bound condition more quicklythan the bees themselves can. This gives the queenmore room to lay, and tilt colony builds up to a highpopulation faster.

6.1

53

During the dearth period, on the other hand, thecolony needs less space since the bee population isdecreasing. The beekeeper should remove the unusedspace or combs in the hive. This compacts the colonyand permits the bees to defend the colony betteragainst predators.

In manipulating the hive to create or reducespace, it is important to remember that good beekeepinginvolves understanding the yearly colony cycle andcarrying out management operations at the right' time.A given hive manipulation made at the appropriate timein the cycle can be foolproof in giving the desiredresults. The same manipulation made at theinappropriate time is often doomed to failure.

sod, beetmulz

of colonesof oc tee cycle 4.,- mert

0,115

ni.4)a-mwrnhoneyflow

(beekeeping.

appropriate time to make hive manipulations growsout of beekeeping experience. It is the art of

Understanding the colony cycle and the

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54

There are three basic,s.management problems thatbeekeepers face in any situation. These aref----.

determining when the main nectar flow occurs;

building up colony populations, in preparationfor the main nectar flow;

deciding what to do with colonies during thepost-flow (or dearth) periods.

Determining when the main nectar flow occurs isbased on experience in an area. It calls for thebeekeeper to observe the bees and their environment.Recognizing the main nectar flow is an outgrowth of agood understanding of bees and their relationship withtheir environment.

The following are aids to determining when themain nectar flow occurs. Most are not one-time thingsto be done before starting in beekeeping, but areongoing observations to be made as one practicesbeekeeping.

Make surveys to identify the major nectar andpollen plants of the area Note which plantsthe bees visit, especially those visited inlarge numbers.

Make surveys to record the flowering periods ofthese plants. Note weather conditions (previousand present) which are conducive to good nectarflows from these plants.

Make seasonal records of the weight gains andlosses of a few colonies kept on scales.

Note farming practices (crops, land use, etc.)in the area.

Examine weather records,,soil data, andaltitudinal variation of the area. Relate thisto the flora and t*- the nectar flow.

Talk with others in the area who are involvedwith bees. "Oldtimers" in the area often havean astute sense of the cycle of nectar flows.

63

SS

Timing of management operations is critical inbuilding up colony populations in preparation for themain nectar flow. Even though bees naturally build uptheir population during periods when resources areavailable, the beekeeper must ensure that peakpopulation is reached before or during the nectar flow,not after it.

Specific management points which call for carefulattention during this period are:

queenrightness (the presence of the queen) andthe queen performance of each colony;

siting of the apiary (an apiary is a group ofbee hives; it is also called a beeyard);

hive arrangement within the apiary to preventdrifting and robbing problems and to facilitatework in the apiary (with driftinTrforagersreturn to the wrong colony; with robbing,strong colonies take honey from weaker ones);

feeding methods and types of food (this isusually not relevant to small-scale projects);

control of diseases and pests;

swarm prevention;'

provision of adequate space in the hive forbrood and for nectar.

These will be discussed in detail in laterchapters.

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The post-flow care of colonies is crucial tosuccess in beekeeping. It often receives the leastattention because returns' from care given during thedearth period often seem remote to .the beekeeper. Thisis especially true with subsistence farmers whose.existence and reality are based on the present.

Nonetheless, it is important to remember that thisyear's honey crop is made on last year's post-flowcare.

The options for post-flow care are to:

ignore the colonies--the least desirablealternative, though unfortunately often themost common practice (especially among smallfarmers);

use lus bees to increase the number ofcol vies;

kill off colonies (this is' only practical inareas with severe winters, and where "package"bees are readily' available);

use bees to build comb for future use (thisinvolves feeding sugar syrup, which is usuallyprohibitive among small farmers);

In temperate regions:

reduce the number of colonies for overwinteringby killing or combining weak colonies;

overwinter the colonies where; they are, movethem to another more protecteld outdoor site, oroverwinter them indoors.

In the tropics and subtropics:

maintain colonies at reduced populations.

65

I

V

57.

The essence of development is betterutilization of the given resources. The essenceof beekeeping development is better utilizationof the bee and melliferous flora (bee plant)resource.

Every apiary has its limit of colonies giventhe bee flbra resources of the area; everybeekeeper has a limit on amount of time to carefor the colonies. Good beekeeping logically seeksto take advantage of the melliferous flora of thearea with the least number of well-managedcolonies. As stronger colonies produce moresurplus honey, such a strategy minimizes the costof equipment and reduces labor while increasinghoney yields.

manyP portY111 c 4<c°ories = (eVoy

+.4t)i y 1)044

fLgiu wet 1- rna Lo1211 i e 5 =5tron C__.'Icoies=n6orslaneY

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6 6

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58

Good beekeepers understand bees,recognize the needs of the colony,and take measures to meet those needs.

67

The Bee Space and Beehives

Bees usually build their nests in a cavity,attaching the combs to the upper part. The nest sitesor hives of feral colonies are often inaccessible tothe person wanting to gather honey. Even if a colonyis accessible, it is usually necessary to destroy boththe cavity and the combs to gather the hive products.

Beekeeping implies management of the honey beecolony. Management of the hive itself is based onmanipulating the combs to inspect the condition or toadjust the space needs of the colony. Therefore, apractical system which allows for easy removal andreplacement of combs without destroying them is aprerequisite for beekeeping.

%An understanding of the "bee space" permits tne

building of hives'which allow for the removal andreplacement of combs. This also allows for theconstruction of hives which separate the brood nestfrom the honey stores, permitting separate access toeach area.

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60

The Bee Space:

the basis for beekeeping.

The bee space is simply the crawl spaceneeded by a 1.ee to pass easily between two:itructure:; ( mm 1.5 mm. for the western hivebee, less to. the eastern hive bee). If the spacebetween any Lwo surfaces in the hive is too smallfor a bee to pass through easily, the bees will13eal it with propolis. If the space is larger'.lean a bee n,eds to pass through easily, the beeswill constiu._t comb in the area.

When the space betwen two surfaces in thehive is the fight size, the bees will leave itfree as a ci.,,w1 space. If the bee space isconsidered and respected in the construction of.t hive, a hive that allows for easy comb removal,nd repla.!em-nt will result.

The key. Lorenzo Langstroth of Philadelphiawas the first person' to make use of the bee spacein hive construction. He constructed the firstmodern hive in 1851, using moveable frames tocontain the comb within the hive. The modernframe hive currently used for "high-tech"beekeeping t.3 still sometimes referred to as theLangstroth !.1.

WIIPMEMIMala

et.

62

Types of Hives

Fixed-comb hives are no more than man-madecavities. These can be hollowed-out logs, barkcylinders, clay pots, wooden boxes, baskets of straw,bamboo, or wicker, mud-plastered wicker containers, ordiscarded metal cans or drums. In some areas, cavitiesfor bees are carved in the mud walls of houses or innearby earthen embankments.

In fixed-comb hives, the bees attach the combsdirectly cto the upper surfaces of the hive and usuallyto the sides. The bees naturally leave the bee spacebetween the combs as they construct them.

Combs can be removed from such hives, only bycutting them out, and it is not practical to replacethem. Thus beekeeping is impossible with fixed-combhive..;... These hives allow only for bee-killing or bee-having.

%ivantages of fixed-comb hives:

o materials for their construction are usually readilyavailable and they are cheap (free).

Beeswax production is relatively high. (There is aready local market for beeswax in some areas.)

They are traditional, and methods are established?or working with them.

;odvantayt, fixed-comb hives:

IL is imposLdbIe to remove combs and replace them- -thus examination of the colony condition and hivemanipulations are impossible.

. Sdarming is often common because of limited space.

s Iziood rs of:en lost in harvesting honey.

r% Honey produk::Aon is hindered.

9uney (quality is usually low because it comes from.7cmh or wixed with pollen, brood, or ashes.

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63

Moveable-comb hived ave a series of lairsacross the top which. allow or attachment of the comb..These bars are spaced to give the bees sufficient roomto build a comb centered on each bar and to leave a beespace between combs.

Such hives can be constructed of many materials,including straw, bamboo, mud-plastered baskets, metal,or wood. Wood is the best material for the top bars.The width of the top bars is the only criticaldimension in this type of hive.

Ideally, the sides of a moveable-comb hive.shouldslope about 120 degrees. This slope basically followsthe curve of naturally built comb; therefore itminimizes comb attachment to the sides of the hive.This makes it easier to remove the combs withoutbreakage.

r14N1-A 1C2A)

If the sides are not sloped (and sometimes evenwith sloped sideg), the bees will attach newlyconstructed comb to-the sides-of the hive. If theattachment is cut several times as the comb becomesolder and propolized, the bees will cease attaching it.The remnants must be scraped off the sides of the hiveeach time d comb is cut out. This requires diligenceand care from the beekeeper, especially when the colonyis building up.

Move.M:1!?-comb hives offer a logical intermediatestep betw,.,:t.n tIxed-comb hives and moveable-frame(Langstroth) hives.! Moveable-comb hives are oftencalled transitional hives or intermediate technology'hives. Th. -:y offer a bc.ekeeping technology that iswithin thj technological and economic reach of mostbee-killer 1-1,--havers who are cui'rently using

top bar with comb

64

.ovantages of moveable-comb hives:

The combs arc removeable and can be replaced withoutdestroying them. Thus, beekeeping, is possible.Swarming can be controlled, and colonies can beeasily increased with simple queen - rearing methods.

They are easier to construct becaus6 they have 'fewerareas where critical dimensions are important.

They can be t.asily made of-materials which arereadily available to the small farmer. Thus, they1 re more economical than Langstroth-type hives.

They offer a cheap and intermediate alternative tobeekeeping for bee-killers and bee-havers who areusing fixed-comb hives.

They do not lequire foundation to guide theL:onstruction of comb within the frame to achievetheir optimum returns.

beeswax production is relatively high.

i honey can be harvested from new comb. Thus higher-quality honey can be produced.

The top bars can be constructed so th ., y meet,ieaving no openings along the top of the ..ive. Thisa:tkes it easier to work with more defensive strains

bees.

1-)dvantages ox moveable-comb hives:

The combs are attached only to the top bars, Thus,Lt is difficult to move the colonies withoutbreaking tho corebs. Also, care must be used when_emoVino co!aUz and inspecting them.

:jince the combs are Ittached to the top part of thethe colony can :only expand in a horizontal

plane. This somewhat limits the expansion of thebrood nest. ifne natur:.:1 tendency of bees is to::u_ lease tic t.t..:.od net in an upward direction(vertically). (Thi.; is a negligible disadvantage in.1 beginning :;mall-sca3e project since intensive

najement 14; 1.1re.)

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6S

Moveable-frame or Langstroth hives are thehives used in modern "high-tech" beekeeping. In thesehives, the bees construct comb in frames which containan embossed sheet of beeswax foundation. Thefoundation serves as a "pattern" to ensure straight,centered combs in the frames.

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frame with comb

These hives are constructed so that there is a beespace between the frames themselves and between theframes and the box holding them. Such intricateconstruction demands relatively good quality wood andexpertise in carpentry.

bee

bee space

74

bee spcxe

66

Since there is a bee space between the tops of theframes which allows the bees to pass, several boxes offrames are used to form one hive. Usually two boxesor "hive bodies" are used to make up the brood chamber.Boxes stacked on top of these are called supers, andare used for honey storage. The construction of theseboxes is identical. The different names come fromtheir relative position on the hive and thus theirfunction.P-

These hives permit the ultimate in manipulation'And interchanging of comb. Not only can frames beinterchanged, but so can boxes. Such a system permitsa high level of management or "high-tech" beekeeping.

67

Advantages of moveable-frame hives:

Combs can be easily removed, inspected, andinterchanged since they are built in frames.

Combs. ontaining honey can be removed, the honeycentrifuged from the combs, and the empty combsreturned to the colony. This enhances honeyproduction as the bees do not have to construct newcoAb.

As only honey combs are.removed and extracted, honey'quality is high.

The combs.re securely attached to the frame. Lesscare is needed when removing and inspecting combs,and the colonies can be moved with little combbreakage. This permits migratory beekeeping or themoving of colonies to take advantage.of nectar flowsin different areas.

Space in the hive can be increased in a verticalplane by adding supers. This enhances the naturaltendency of the bees to expand the nest in an upwarddirection.

They can be easily used to produce pollen or for themass rearing of queens.

Disadvantages of moveable-frame hives:

They require relatively good quality wood and-expertise in carpentry to build; -thus, they areexpensive.

For their optimum return, they require combfoundation and a honey extractor. These areexpensive, and are often difficult to obtain.

For their optimum return, they require muchexpertise in beekeeping.

There are numerous bee spaces between the top barsof the frames. This makes it difficult to controlhighly defensive strains of bees.

Intermediate Technology

Beekeeping

Why?

T4t modern moveable-frame hive maximizes honeyprodu9ition. It is a beekeeping system that allows forthe interchanging of combs both within and betweencolonies. It offers a wide range of manageMentoptions, but it is relatively expensive. Moreover, itsoptimum utilization depends on inputs that are oftendifficult for small farmers to obtain.

To fully explo-it the range of management optionsand to realize the potential production of a moveable-frame system, a relatively high degree of expertise orexperience and timing are needed.

Small-scale beekeeping projects are sometimesstarted with moveable-frame hives but without readilyavailable follow-up inputs or technical assistance.This can result in the situation where a relativelyhigh investment is made in equipment which allows fora high return, but the technical ability to operatethis equipment and realize its potential is lacking.

Economically speaking, a cheaper and simplersystem would be better. Such an alternative may notallow for some sophisticated management options, butthis does not matter if the beekeeper does not know ofor use such management techniques. This is the essenceof appropriate technology.

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70

Intermediate technology beekeeping systems offer acheap system for bee-killers and bee-havers who usefixed-comb hives to make the transition to beekeeping.They provide a relatiVely simple beekeeping system thatis more within the economic and technical reach of mostsmall-scale projects, while still allowing the user toemploy the most current beekeeping knowledge. Mostintermediate systems sacrifice some honey productionfor wax production, but wax too is a valuable product.

These beekeeping systems give the user more-coutrol over the construction of the hive and limit theneed for-other equipment. Intermediate technologyhives give small farmers an affordable opportunity tolearn about bees and beekeeping and to develop theneeded expertise and capital to make use of a moveable-frame system later.

fie use of an intermediate technology system in abeeke;ping development program is not incompatible with"high-tech" beekeeping. Both have their place. It isthe job of the program planner to determine the natureof the bee-human relationship and the cultural andeconomic realities of the area. From this, the plannercan suggest the type of equipment to use in theprogram. In some areas, the use of both types may bejustified. The beekeepers themselves should make thefinal decision.

The moveable-frame system ("high-tech" beekeeping)is the ultimate in beekeeping development.Nevertheless, such a system will remain economically:lid technologically out of reach of many people whomight like to improve their methods of honey or waxproduction. Until they, accrue the necessary capitaland expertise to &!ngage in beekeeping with moveable-frame equipment, au intermediate technology system canserve their needs,

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73.

Some Considerations before Starting

Bee stings are a concern of all beekeepers.Although they can be minimized by protective clothingand good work habits, an occasional sting isinevitable. Accepting this is part of the mentalattitude which characterizes a beekeeper. Most peoplefrom rural settings who work with bees are moreaccepting of the idea that they will get stung than thedevelopment worker who comes from a "bug-free" urbanenvironment.

Avoid perfumes and scented lotions when workingwith bees. Strong scents attract bees and incite themto sting.

Slow, careful, deliberate movements when'workingwith the colonies are also important in minimizing beestings. Bees are more attracted to quick movements.Working carefully when manipulating the hive alsominimizes the risk of mashed bees. Mashed bees releasean alarm pheromone or odor which alerts and incitesother workers to defend the colony. (Using the smokerproperly helps mask the alarm pheromone. See page 89.)

If a colony becomes out of control while workingit, close it up as quickly as possible and move away.If the bees give chase, create a smoke cloud with thesmoker and move slowly away through bushes andbranches. Moving through these objects confuses thebees.

When a bee gets inside the veil or insideclothing, the best remedy is to mash it as quickly aspossible before it ,can sting. Trying to release itusually leads to getting stung anyway.

Bees sometimes sting through clothing, especiallywhere it is pulled tightly around the shoulders. Sucha sting rarely has the full effect, and is called a"false sting."

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When a worker bee stings, the barbed sting worksits way into the victim. As the bee pulls away, thesting apparatus usually tears out of the bee's body.This apparatus consists of the sting, the poison sac,and associated venom glands. The worker ultimatelydies. The muscles associated with the poison saccontinue to contract and pump venom into the victimafter the worker has pulled away. Therefore-tominimize the amount of venom injected, remove the stingas soon as possible.

Remove the sting by scraping it out along thesurface of the skin with a fingernail, knife, or hivetool. Grasping the poison sac to pull the sting outonly forces more venom into the Skin. A puff of smokeover the area will help mask the alarm pheromonereleased by the sting apparatus.

Remain calm .when stung. Dropping the cgmb orknocking the hive only incites more bees to sting.

Local tenderness and swelling is a normal reactionafter a bee sting. Swelling may be rather severe ifthe person has not been stung for a while. Swellingusually becomes less severe as the beekeeper's bodydevelops an immunity to bee venom, though the initial"pin-point" pain of a sting will always be felt.

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This type of reaction, no matter how severe theswelling, is a local allergic reaction. A more severeallergic response to a bee sting is a systemicreaction. This is a total body response (anaphylacticshock), with symptoms occurring awar from the stingsite. Symptoms of a systemiC reaction may include:hives; swelling of lips, tongue, or eyelids;tightnessin the chest with difficulty breathing or swallowing;abdominal pain; nausea and vomiting; dizziness;weakness or confusion; death.

These symptoms after a bee sting call for medicalattention They are treated with antihistamines oradrenaline. Individuals with a hypersensitivity to.-beestings should not try to become beekeepers.

Reaction to a sting will also vary depending onthe age of the bee (development of sting glands), andthe physiological condition of the beekeeper, whosebody chemistry can be affected by drugs used(especially antihistamines) or by different emotionalrstates.

As the venom is already injected into the skin,there is no "cure" for a bee sting. Lotions, icepacks, and other things may be used to soothe theafflicted area, but the .nly "cure" is time. There aremany folk remedies to sooth the effects of bee sting.Whatever is used, the swelling will disappear in a dayor so, and then there may be a brief period of intenseitching at the 'site.

Apiary sites are often limited for a small-scalebeekeeping venture. Choosing a site involves balancingthe needs of the bees against those sites available.\>

Besides nearby nectar and pollen sources, thereshould be a nearby source of clean water. This reducesthe effort needed by the colony in foraging for water.

Hives shatg not be in direct sunlight during thehot periods of e day, nor should they be in constantheavy shade. The ideal site would receive sun in themorning so that the bees start to fly early, and shadein the afternoon so that the number of bees ventilatingthe colony and foraging for water is minimized.

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The apiary site should'also allow for good aircirculation so that it does not remain damp for longperiods after wc.c. weather. Avoid areas that floodduring rainy periods. Areas under high trees oftenObvide good apiary sites because they dry out quicklyAteerains and are not excessively shady.

Avbid areas of constant high wind for apiarysites. Such winds hinder the bees from flying. Ifthere are no natural windbreaks, they Can be planted.Again, melliferous plants can serve a double purpose.Such living fences can also serve to keep livestockaway from the hives.

11-1114 AN,APiAg/

fled-4r 4nd polIen sourtesvsqtesc sourceSuficeY1t slide4ir circulationwind breatcsv4nc1411Wproteclor) of necx1,1) peopie end Iivestrxic.pro-ter-bon -from -Fire 4ncl tcxx

qccess for the begiceepernil' US49e,

75

Thatch shelters can be constructed for the apiary119 treeless areas, or shade covers of thatch or othermaterida can be placed over each hive. Quick-growingtrees or shrubs can be planted around the apiary toshade the hives. Aelliferous plants shouldibe chosenfor this whenever possible. In many areas, castor beanis a good plant to use.

For a small-scale project, it is often difficulttzto avoid sites near dwellings and neighbors. This canbe a limiting factor to beekeeping, especially with themore defensive strains of bees. Unfortunate accidentscan occur in which people and livestock may Ve severelystung. Deaths due to allergic reactions to/bee stingscan occur. This factor should be considered in areaswhere projects will be carried on with African racesof the western honey bee.

Shrub rows that separate the hives both from eachother and from dwellings can help minimize stingingincidents. If the bees are particularly defensive, itmay help to work the colonies at dusk or at night.Also, a periodic gift ofhoney can reduce theneighbors' objections to stinging incidents.

8 4

76

Getting Started - The Hives

Moveable-comb hives were probably first used bythe ancient Greeks. Hives that are most likely similarto those used by Aristotle to keep bees can be foundin rural Greece today. These hives are made of basketswith tapering sides which are sometimes plastered withmud. Top bars cut to a width to provide the bee spacebetween combs are plced across the top opening of thebasket.

Such hives are the forerunners of the modernmoveable-frame hive. They are also the forerunners ofintermediate technology hives that have been developedin recent years for use in beekeeping developmentprograms in areas where frame equipment is noteconomical.

77

The Kenya Top Bar Hive (KTBH) is a populartype of intermediate technology hive. It was developedfor use in Kenya in the 1970's and has been extensivelyused in a beekeeping development effort directed by agroup from the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

This is a practical hive to use in small-farmerbeekeeping projects. There are other intermediatetechnology hives, but the KTBH offers a relativelylarge numbr of m.inagement options when compared withsome ottu. int.o,cdiate technology hives. Its simpledesign also allows for the use of a wide range ofmaterials.

The KTEM iwud in this manual to demonstratemanagement opeA-,kLions. These manipulations are similarin whatever nr,v,.._1blecomb hive system is used.

...411MAWAT

T1w1 4. two important factors in theconstin,.t i of the KTBH:

1. lt _It thatthe widln Lhe topbars be ..;o3!.-..-ct so

that thy: h-Ls- willcohstt;:, t -:J: one

. ForAn Ica), L 1' : of thewestern h_.1 bee,the wicit be32 04a-4. ,,,uropean

races, . sad be35 pan.

2. The ;;1,i(.. thehive sh.miinelin angleof L20 o, . tothe thisminimi combsbeinq :; :o theside::: 0 tollows

inwhich 1 .tuially

it

irlarahr le., -r- .

ii0°

86

78

The hive can be made of any quality lumber, straw,woven reeds or bamboo covered with mud, or metal.,flitainers. Selection of materials should be based ondvailability and cost, balanced against how long thehive will last in the climate of the area. SeveralLypes of material can be used for demonstration hives,

local beekeepers can choose what is mostappropriate for them.

_... _----- -------,.... --,...______---- -,------- niud hi ve

The top bars them:3(!]vt-!s are best made of strong,wvoi. Foi easier control of more

dt.!ellsive lee,z, IL is important that theyill tiihtiv good wood and good

ry ate lnlp 1-)1. the top bars.

atk_1:: details on constructing(:eeH .

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79

The advantages of the KTBH system over a high-techsystem for small-scale beekeeping are

KTBH

The number of criticaldimension areas in theKTBH is far less than ina Lanystroth system.Thus, the hive is easyto build with locallevel carpentry skillsand equipment.

The wood used in theconstruction of the KTBHdoes not have to be ofhigh quality. The KTBHcan even be built ofreed matting, straw, orold oil barrels.

An extractor is not 1needed for the KTBHsystem. Only equipmentfound in any kitchen isneeded to harvest hiveproduci..

Sheets of pressedfoundation wax are notneeded.

Langstroth Hive

Expertise in carpentryis necessary to buildthe hive. Carefulattention to detail fora number of importantdimensions is required,which often involvesexpensive carpentryequipment.

The hive must beconstructed from fairlygood lumber to meet theabove criteria. Suchlumber is expensive andoften hard to obtain.

An extractor isnecessary to make aLangstroth hive systemeconomically viable.This is a very expensivepiece of equipment. Agood transportationnetwork can alleviatethis problem since manybeekeepers can use aregionally locatedextractor, but such anetwork is seldomavailable to small-scalebeekeepers.

For a Langstroth systemto work optimally,sheets of pressed waxfoundation arenecess..!:v. Unless theseare made locally, thevillage beekeeperbecomes dependent on anoutside supplier who maynot always be reliable.

88

4

80

As no frames are used,wire is not needed.

Because of its low costand design, it iseconomical to use withsimple managementtechniques to achievemoderate increases inhoney yield.

The KTBH was designedspecifically for thecharacteristics of theAfrican bee. There arefewer spaces for bees topass through when thehit: is being worked,thuL, the beekeeper canmore easily control thecolony.

The storage of combs isnot necessary with theKTBH sy: In, eliminatingthe need for storagefacilities -ii d chemicalinputs.

To work optimally, theframes should have wirestrung in them for moresupport. Wire involvesanother expense, and isnot always available.

To make a Langstrothsystem economicallyviable, a relativelyhigh level of beekeepingexpertise and sense oftiming in managementoperations are needed.These are generallylacking in the beginningbeekeeper.

The nature of theAfrican bee itself makesthe application of manyhigh-level management .

operations withLangstroth hivesdifficult even for well-trained beekeepers. TheAfrican bee will soon bepresent in most lowlandregions of the Americantropics as well as inits traditional habitat.

Proper management of aLangstroth system callsfor the storage offrames with combs duringdearth periods.Suitable storage spacefor small farmers isoften non-existent.Because of damage causedby the wax moth, thisstorage must be doneunder controlledconditions and withc.hemical fumigants.This is not practicalfor most small farmers.

81

The KTBH system producesmore wax than the.Langstroth system.However, in most areasthe beekeeper's incomedoes not suffer fromthis. Beeswax is amarketable product, too.Accruing a beeswax storemay also be of long terminterest for developmentof a beekeepingindustry. It is neededfor pressed waxfoundation whenconversion is made to aLangstroth system.

Since the bee colonyexpands in a horizontalplane in the KTBH, queenexcluders (see Chapter7, page 141) are notnecessary to achievebrood free combs forharvest. Thiseliminates the need foran expensive and hard-to-obtain piece ofequipment.

The Langstroth systemmaximizes honeyproduction overproduction of beeswax.This may not necessarilybe a financial advantagefor the beekeeper inmost regions, however,since local markets forbeeswax either alreadyexist or can be created.

..ten because of itsintroduction as part ofa "package" of equipmentfor moveable -framebeekeeping, a queenexcluder is believed tobe indispensable. Thisis an expensive piece ofequipment when a fewrelatively simplemanagement operationsalleviate the need forit. It is not necessaryto use a queen exc ±uderto achieve the goal ofbrood-free honey supers.The introduction ofqueen excluders to low-management-orientedbeekeepers establishes astrong felt need forthem. Bee projects cansometimes be stymied bythe lack of thisunnecessary input.

90

82

Other intermediate technology hives are usedin some areas.

The Johnson hive which is used in Uganda is an"improved" fixed -comb hive. rt provides for aseparation of honey combs from brood combs by using apiece of five-mesh (five holes per 2.54 cm) hardwarecloth (called coffee wire in East Africa). The workerscan pass through the wire while the queen cannot, thusthe comb constructed on the side of the hive oppositethe-queen contains only honey. Removeable sides on thehive make the harvesting of honey comb easy. This isa bee-having system since there is no possibility ofmanaging the brood nest.

9

re movablesides

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Most other intermediate techno ogy hives areeither variatic:ns of the 'WISH them or are hybridsbetween a moveavie-cOmb and a eable-frame hive. One-.t.ich hive is used in East Africa. Top bars are usedin the lower box, and the queen is confined there sinceplssages to the upper box are unly on the outer sides.The outer come r in the .ewer box are used fi- honeyLorage by th, sees and the queen will not pass the

honey barlior. The .--.; Lz:(: the upper box for honey-:.3ralo. Fithet to t.:t. .. frames are used in the.,;..,pet box.

91

it

There 4re oPeningSon mil side which4Ilow workers 4ccessto the upper boX.

lower box cont4inslop Ws flush ioge-ther.

The Up FtY 1X))( can conkineilher lop be)rs or Ames.

The er) will sr#y inthe bot iv.Gouse SheWin not p4ss honeYbIrrier on c:the sidesthe brood o-P.

84

The East African hive is also a system for bee-having, though it could be managed and thus used forbeekeeping. It does not allow for easy managiment ofthe brood nest, however. Its design is a bit morecomplicated than the KTBH as it uses two boxes.

Since the KTBH is simpler and more easily managed,it is probably best for most beekeeping developmentefforts. Management, however minimal, is a goal in anydevelopment effort. The KTBH offers a good balancebetween simple design and management possibility.

Getting Started - The Apiary

The arrangement of the apiary is importantto help meet the needs of the bees and to help make thebeekeeer's work easier.

In most areas of the tropics it is necessary toput the hives on stands to protect the bees from antsand toads. The stands should be at least 45 cm abovethe ground. The legs can be placed in cans thatcontain 'used motor oil, or bands of grease can beplaced round them to keep ants from the hives. Checkperiod ally to see that the oil is not washed out ofthe can by rainwater or that the grease is not coveredwith dust. Fresh ashes spre-d around the legs alsokeep ants away, but they must be replaced continually.

93

85

Since the KTBH consists Of'a'single box, it canalso be hung from a tree or from poles. This protectsit from ants and toads and from brush fires as well.Hanging the hive also meshes with bee-killing and bee-having practices in Africa, in which traditional hivesare hung from trees.

'I

Keeping weeds cut in the apiary also reduces theant problem. Tall weeds can provide bridges to thehives for the ants. A clean apiary also makes iteasier to work around the hives. Protruding rocks androots can cause the beekeeper to stumble or fall whileworking the hives.

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86

If there is no source of water for the bees withinone kilometer, a container of water with floatingsticks or protruding stones can be placed in theapiary. The sticks and stones are there to prevent thebees from drowning. The waterer should have a coverto prevent feces of flying bees from falling into thewater-. This helps to control no ema, a protozoan.disease.of bees which can be tr smitted bycontaminated water.

Hive arrangement within the apia y is also animportant consideration. Avoid placing the hives closetogether in long, straight rows. Such, placement-results in a lot of drifting or confusion of beesbetween colonies. Drifting can contribute to diseasetransmission.

n be varied,,and lines of hives can beTo prevent driftlng, the, directio; of the hive

entrances cabroken up with lindmarks such as trees or shrOs.Hives should be at least 45 cm apart, and slithtlytilted toward the entrance to aid the colony inremoving residue that falls to the byttOm. This alsoallows rainwater to run out.

The place!.-nt of hive;s should allow the beekeeperto approach tilt: colony and work it from behind. Thisis less disturbing to the colony since it does notinterfere with the flight path of the foragers. Italso allows r.11 beekeeper a chance to smoke the colonybei:)re the guard bees at the entrance are alerted.

87

Getting Started - Equipment

Besides the hive, there are several pieces ofequipment that are indispensable for beekeeping. Ifa person is to work successfully with bees, thereshould be some protection from bee stings.

Protective clothing worn by the beekeeper preventsmost stings. A smoker when properly used allows forsome control over the bees, thus minimizing stings. Ahive tool allows the beekeeper to pry top bars orframes apart gently. minimizing disturbance to thebees. All of these things can be made by local tailorsand tinsmiths.

A veil is the minimum piece of protectiveclothing. There may be times when an experiencedbeekeeper may not use a veil, but for the beginner itis a necessary confidence.'booster.

Veils can)6e made of metal or plastic screen, ofnylon mesh, or of mosquito netting. They are usuallymade to fit over a wide brim hat which serves to holdthem away fro4 the face and neck. Elastic, rubberbands, or strips cut from an old tire tube can be usedto hold them onto the hat.

Vei

The mesh material of the veil should preferably bedark. This limits reflection, which makes for bettervisibility when working in bright sunlight.

p

88

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The lower part of theweil 'should have a long drawstring that-can be crossed in front, go around theback, and be tied in front. This helps to ensure thatit is bee-tight around the collar. Angry bees have anuncanny ability to find any hole in a bee veil.

Gloves are often notneeded if the bees are nothighly defensive and they .

are kept under control.Working with,gloves can becumbersome,% though theyshould be kept .handy in caseof need. As with veils,gloves are good confidence- .

boosters for beginhers.

Gloves can be made ofleather1or of heavy, light-colored cloth. Gauntletsthat reach the elbow andhave elastic to hold themtight give protection to thewrists.

gloves

97 to

89

Clothing should be loose-fitting:and of light-colored, smooth-textured material. Bees are lessattracted to light colors. They tend to get tangledin fuzzy material, which' often causes them to sting.

A collar on the shirt helps in getting the lowerpart of the veil bee-tight. Pant legs can be stuffedinto the socks or tied down with string or elastic legstraps. Overalls.(often called bee suits bybeekeepers) can also be used.

The smoker is used to produce smoke whichcauses the bees to consume honey, reducing theirtendency to fly and sting. Smoke also directs beesaway from areas of the hive being worked'.

The smoker consists of a fir4box with a grate tohold the smoldering material, a nozzle to direct thesmoke, and a bellows. The firebox should hold enoughfuel so that it does not have to be refilled frequentlywhen-working with the bees.

Smo Ker

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90

The ideal smoker fuel remains lit, burns slowly,and produces cool, white smoke. Depending on what isreadily available to them, most beekeepers have 'afavorite fuel. Good smoker fuels are'coconut husks,.dried corn cobs, dried cow dung, old burlap saCks,rolls of cardboard,yood shavings, rotted wood; driedleaves, or pine needles. If these,Imaterials areslightly damp, Oey burn slower, with; cooler, whitersmoke.

Pieces of wood and charcoal give off too muciheat. Sawdust. creates embers which are blown out ofthe smoker into the hive. The embers can burn the beesand contaminate the honey. Synthetic Materials andpetroleum products should not be used as they producea dark, irritating smoke.

Local tinsmiths can make the metal parts of thesmoker. Pieces of tire tube,' leather, or vinyl can beused to cover the bellows; bed springs or 'bent, springymetal can be used for the spring in the bellows.

. Locally-made smokers often need a littleexperimentation and redesigning to get the right amountof air properly directed into the firebox. If too muchair gets in when the bellows are not used, the fuel.burns too quickly. If too little air gets in, thesmoker goes out easily. A few nail holes in the bottomcan increase ventilationif necessary. A comfortableamount of spring in the bellows is also important. Ifit is too stiff, your hand quickly tires when workingwith it.

The extra effort of getting a good smoker madewill prove;well worthwhile when working with the bees.Having to stop constantly and relight the smoker isfrustrating and not having smoke when it is needed canresult in many unnecessary stings.

/

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91

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ft.wsP4Per; 1.'9111- it 4131 Push .3)0hce -I-here 15 Ivrti.ing fuel).it clown lnio +iv firekvx. 61owiti p4cK the 5proirer withusa, You can a1 SO use coals more -Fuel. Confine pumpingor enters -Iv start 4 stnacer The bellows:until -1-lie fuel 514Y5

ld-.0 g2T:, Po not pacts -I-he fuel +Do+i y or the smolder will no-r m4in lit.

.

2)Purrp he bellows .4 -Few4irne.5. When the pe)per is-corning up, 510A N 43131 fuel

-to the smorer and continue-faFvrn? The bellows.

4

) When +he smolrer 15124ctied, put- some greenleaves or 3@$.5 onlvp oF-frefuel +0 cool +he 5frnole ridcaich the turning embers.Close -Ifie srnowr. .

100

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92

Rely the bellowsperiodic4Ily whileworm q in +he4P4rtr5o +h11:-.1-he

srem4ins

The smoker is the beekeeper's constant companion.A well-made smoker should last for several years if itis taken care of. Do not allow the fire to burn outin a smoker. Emptying it when you are finished workingwill prevent damage to the firebox from excessive heat.(Be careful not to start brush fires with the embersfrom the smoker.) Also, do not leave the smoker exposedto the weather.

Water can be used along,with smoke to helpcontrol highly-defensive bens or those that runexcessively on the combs. A pray bottle works best,though a squirt bottle or-a container with holes in itcan be used. The object is just to wet the bees, 'notto drown them.

Use the water in the same way you use smoke. Wetthe bees at. the entrance before opening the hive, andwet the bees on the combs as they are exposed. Thewater cools and weighs down the bees, which preventsthem from flying or running out of the hive.

The hive tool is also the beekeeper's constantcompanion,. It is a piece of flat metal used for pryingthe parts of the hive apart and for scraping away theexcess Propolis and wax. Some hive tools have a bentend for scraping and a hole that can be used to removenails.

A local Oacksmith can make a hive tool from a barof hardened steel. Hive tools can also be Made fromold cutlasses or machetes.

1019

Getting Started - Bees

Sources of bees will vary depending on theregion. In areas wheie bee having or beekeeping ispracticed, the most practical way to obtain bees is tobuy an established colony. If the coloiny is in afixed-comb hive, it can be transferred into a,top-baror frame:hive.

Where 'high- tech" beekeeping, is carried out, beescan be bought in packages or in nuclei (nucs). Apackage is a screen-wire box which contains workers anda caged queen. The bees are sold by weight. A nuc isa small colony. It contains adult bees as well asframes or bars containing comb with brood and stores.

The. preferences on high-tech beekeeping deal fullywith obtaining bees in packages and nucs and installingtheM in the hive. If such sources of bees existlocally, information should also be available from thesellers on how to deal with the bees. In many regions,however, these sources of bees do not exist.

The source of bees should be as local as possibleand readily accessible to the:farmer who wants to keepbees. Importing bees is not recommended. Not only isthere the risk of intoduag new diseases, pests, or'undesirable bee strains into an area, but also thebeekeepers involved can become dependent on thatsource:

The idea that bees can be obtained only byimporting them becomes established, and the newbeekeepers are reluctant to divide their own coldnics.By encouraging reliance on community resources, you canhelp ensure that the project will be self-supporting.

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Swarms are a praCtical way of starting an apiaryin those areas where they are prevalent. This includesthose areas where there are African races Of thewestern hive beet sub-Saharan Africa, and soon most ofthe low elevation (2000 m or less) regions in themainland American tropics. Swarms are also a practicalsource of colonies of the eastern hive bee in thetropical regions of its range.

(In regions of the tropics where only Europeanraces of the western hive bee are present, catchingswarms is not practical. These bees, which are adaptedto temperate climates, do not swarm much in thetropics.)

Using bait hives to catch swarms is a part oftraditional bee-killing and bee-having in regions ofAfrica. A swarm is seeking a suitable cavity'in,whivhto make a nest.' If*empty hives are put out in suitable.

,locations during the swarming season, there is a goodchance that the hive will become inhabited.

Ideal locations for bait hives are areas whichwould also be ideal apiary sites--airy, semi-shadyspots away from high winds. The hives should beprotected from ants and checked periodically for nestsof other animals.

.A few small pieces of 'new empty comb taken from eaestablished colony and stuck in the hive increases itsattractiveness. New comb is less likely to be damagedby wax moth because it is less attractive to the femalemoth as an egg-laying site. Rubbing certain aromaticplants on the inside of bait hives to make them moreattractive is common. Lemon grass, which containschemicals similar to the marking pheromone of honeybees, is used in many regions.

Swarms can also be easily hived if they are foundstill clustered on a branch or other object.

Is

Wild, or feral, colonies are another source ofbees. In regions where swarming is prevalent, suchcolonies are usually common. Talk with local villagersor farmers.about your interest in finding feralcolonies. They probably know about a number of suchcolonies. If you are willing to pay or share the honeyin return for information, you may be amazed todiscover how many feral colonies there are in the therearea.

Be aware that in some areas it is taboo to harvest. honey or bother bee colonie4in certain types of treesor in certain locations in the village. These coloniesmay be regarded as sacred or thought to be guardingsome shrine or special spot. Ask about local customsconcerning bees and respect them.

Small-scale beekeeping projects are usuallystarted to improve the methods already used inthe local bee-human relationship. If thepurpose of a project is to introduce improv4dmethods to those already working with bees, thenthe bees are already on hand. They may be feralcolonies, or they may be colonies in fixed-combhives. By talking with those involved withbees, you can easily locate the bees in yourarea. The problem then is not the source ofbees, but rather transferrin.j the bees intodifferent equipment.

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96

Management Practices

The goal of honey bee colony management is to aidthe colony to build up to its maximum during the mainnectar flow and to survive the dearth. Well-managedcolonies assure the greatest possible return for thebeekeeper.

The first management step in beekeeping isobtaining bees'in a manageable hive. Once the hive isestablished, it should be inspected regularly andmanaged according to. its need. Specific managementpractices can be broken into management during thebuild-up, harvesting honey, and management duringdearth periods.

Retrieving swarms is the easiest and cheapestway of getting bees. You have only to wait for beesto. inhabit a bait hive or to hive a swarm that hasclustered. If a swarm inhabits a bait hive on its own,it usually stays. Swarms that are clustered inaccessible places are easily put inside a hive, thoughsometimes they are reluctant to stay.

Hiving a swarminvolves shaking ordumping the bees intoor in front of thehive. If the swarm ison a low limb or bush,remove some of the topbars of the hive, putthe hive under the

r swarm, and shake theswarm directly into thehive. Alternatively,shake the bees in frontof the hive; they willusually run in. It isalso possible to coversuch a swarm with alarge bag, shake theswarm into the bag, andtransport it to thehive. If the swarm isclustered on a highlimb, cut the limb andlower it carefully witha rope.

If -the svqrnei is on 411

4cce55ible limb, 5}'P16beesclireci-iy info the hive.

105

Alt TrettivelY, 5hAire +he swarmorviD piece of. clo+11 infrom of tl hive. The c10131preents +he bees-From beccoiingen:4 in -file gr4ss or

-Fr w) k ecorni ng (Awed wrthdfo!4--.

Scoop up swarms that are clustered on a flatsurface or a large object with a piece of cardboard,and duMpfthrem into the hive. Use a brush of leaves orloose grass to bhish the bees into the hive. As swarmshave no brood or stores to defend, they are usually

idocile and no sm ke is needed when hiving them.However, if the warm has been away from the colony fora while, it may to hungry, thus defensive and difficultto work with. 1

Fees can 415o be scoopedupearo dumped intohiv.

t7.

106

AIP

98

If the swarm is defensive, sugar water (two partssugar to one part water) can be sprinkled on the swarmbefore trying to hive it.' Smoke can also be used whenhiving a awarm if it is defensiVe, but avoid excessivesmoke as this may cause the swarm to leave.

-(Bees that have constructed some comb and havebrood are also more defensive. This is no longer aswarm. With comb and brood it is a colony, and itsdefensiveness is normal.)

Swarms are much more. likely to stay in a hive ifthey are given some comb containing unsealed brood. Ifestablished hives are available, it is easy to removesuch a comb from the colony, brush the bees off withloose grass or leaves, and give the comb to the swarm.(Do not transfer adult bees with the comb as they willfight with the bees in the swarm.) Comb containing eggsor young larvae gives the swarm a chance to rear a new-queen in case the old queen is killed in the hivingprocess.

Iowa

PAVing_. some broodcopt, -tine VoiPs

-to Prq'ferit SAWA-From absconding .

It is necessary for the queen to be in the hive ifthe bees are to stay. If the bees return to theoriginal cluster site or cluster in another place,suspect that the queen is in the cluster. Try againto shake or dump the cluster in the hive.

107

r..

99

Although it is not necessary to find the queen, itis helpful to see her and'know where she is; A smallscreen-wire cage is handy to enclose the queen. Catchher from behind by both_wingvand guide her into the.cage. If she is caught by one wing or by one.leg shemay twist and hurtfaterself. Never grasp the queen bythe abdomen. This area is soft and you can injure thereproductive organs.

CACTiNCT ft CiitAaN

If the queen is caged, her whereabouts are knownuntil hiving is finished. When the hive is in itsfinal site and the bees are settled, release her.

Caging the queen also prevents her from being"balled." Under the stressful conditions of hiving aswarm, transferring the colony to new equipment, ormoving the hive, the workers will sometimes clustertightly around the queen and attempt to sting her.This is called balling the queen, and the workerssometimes kill her by stinging or suffocation.

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1

/

100

:.- If swarm retrieval or transferring feral colonies .

is going tb be frequent, it may be worthwhile toconstruct a tTBH one-half the standard length. Sucha hive is usually large enough for the normal-sizeSwarm or transfer from, a feral colony. Pay special_attention to-baking it :bee-tight and easy to transport.Make a wire grid or-screen to close the entrance

Transfer the colony into regular-size equipmeintinthe apiary. Swarms rapidly build up to full -size(colonies, thus they will soon need more space. Hivedswarms also construct or draw out comb quickly.Leaving the swarm in the small hive will restrict itsbuild -up.

Once the bees are settled in the hive, theentrance is closed up and the colony moved. 'It is.bestto-move the colony in the late evening or at night when.the bees are all inside-and it is cooler. Some beeswill drift back to the old site if the colony is movedless than two kilometers.

Do not leave a closed colony in the sun. If thecolony is to be closed for more than fifteeq,minutes,use some type of screen material to close the entrance.Sprinkle water through the screen if the colony isclosed for long periods. Th4.s gives the bees water todrink and helps to cool the hive.

Transferring bees from fixed-comb hives to top-bar hives is best done early'in a build-us period.This gives the colony time to recover from thetransfer. It will be easy for-the bees to build comband build up the population so that they can survivethe dearth. If the transfer is made early enough, itmay even be possible to. harvest some surplus honey.

The colony population is low, and there is aminimum amount of honey in the colony at the beginningof a build-up period. This makes the transfer easier,and minimizes problems of robbing from other colonies.

a

109

101

Colonies that have been transferred need time .

before a dearth.period to recover and store some honeyfor survival during the dearth. Transfers made duringa dearth period have little chance cif,survival unlessthey are fed.

Depending for feedingtOr colony-survival is not4advisable. ,Buying sugar to feed bees is often not t'

practical since a large colony can need a large amountto survive. Available cash for buying this sugar isusually lacking, And in some regions, even if theis available, sugar is scarce. 4

Feeding a colony during a dearth periodostimulatetbrood-rearing. This results in a greater amount of;brood than can be maintained with available naturalresources so the colony becomes dependent on feedingfor survival. Assessing the'feeding needs of a colonyis difficult for a beginning beekeeper. Once feedingis started it is often necessary to feed, continuouslyuntil a honey flow starts. This is .not economically .

practical for most small farmers, so avoid feeding-altogether. (See Ch4ter 7, page 146.)

.41

Transfer colonies during the build-upperiod so that feeding will not be necessary.

Transferring bees from feral colonies or fromfixed-comb hives is essentially the same. The cavitymust be opened and the combs cut out and attached tothe new hive.

With fixedaccetsible,

and e cavity is easily opened. Feralig mb hives, the colony is readily

colonies are sometikes inaccessible in such locationsas part.of a wall., the roof of a house, or a largetree.' rt may not be worthwhile to tear down astructure cieto cut down a tree for a colony. However,if the colony is in a limb you can cut the limb. Lowerit carefully to the ground since letting it fall willdestroy the comb..

110

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kittItAkt,:5) Ait4ch worker brood combsto -fop b4r5 t.161 +healin the is-TFIt--.

1, 11,1)1/k-tut.

0) der iii -Hie comb (5 cut-otAt dump -the feminin3 betsinto the ril3t, closes the hive,and reduce the eree-Oce,tag. Move The old, -Foittl-cont,hive ocii- of ithe api3iy -lb prevee"the bees from bei.119,4/174c+eci+D

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112

.104

To make tfie transfers, smoke the colony well', and,if possible, place the new hive where.the old hive waslocated. Then move the old hive a few meters away.The bees are oriented.to the site where their colonywas located; thus they will go into -the new hivequicker if it is in the old location.

Continue smoking the colony, turn it upside down,and open it if possible from the bottom.. Cut out thecombs. Set empty combs and combs with drone broodaside for their wax. Attach combS..containing workerbtood to the top bars with string or wire. Sharpenedbamboo sticks or other skewers through holes in the topbat's can also be used to hold the comb. Harvest mosthoney combs, but leave about one-half kilogram of .honeyfor the colony.

TO ARcii- COMB To Tap.:. RS

Si Tot**string or Wire

support +0hold comb

113

.11

105

When all of the combs are attached, shake, dump,or brush the remaining bees into the now hive. Replaceall of.the top bars, put on the top, and.reduce theentrance with a block of wood. A reduced entrancehelps the-colony to defend itself and deters robbing.

If the queen is found, cage her in a match box ora similar container until all the combs are attached.It is possible that she may be balled by the bees ormashed bythe beekeeper in the confusion. Caging hercan prevent this.

Remove the old hive from the area so that the beeswill go into the new hive quic!ter. If the bees startto cluster away from the hive, smoke the area and checkfor the queen.

Try to avoid spilling the honey and keep the honeycomb in a covered container., This will help reduce.robbing by Other bees.

. Absconding is sometimes a problem with transfers.Making sure that the colony has unsealed brood andsufficient food helps control absconding. Patience anda sense of humor also help in dealing with absconding,especially with some strains of bees.

Transferring rustic hives is traumatic for boththe beekeeper and the bees. It sometimes involves alot of work, and a little, experience working with beeshelps. Confused bees flying around sometimes make forconfused, beekeepers. Many bees are killed, and somebrood and comb are lost. However, making a transferis in itself a great learning experience. If you makeit through a transfer successfully, you are ddfinitelyon the way to becoming a beekeeper.

* * * * * * * * * *

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106

inspecting the hive regularly once'the colony isestablished is necessary to ascertain its condition andneeds. 'During build-up periods there is intenseactivity.in the hive, and the colony should beinspected every two weeks. Once:a month is sufficientduring dearth periees since the. colony is less active.Colony inspections assess the stktus of the brood, thespace needs, and the presence of adequate stores. Theperiod of the yearly cycle determines what thebeekeeper looks for.

With experience, the condition of the colony canbe noted by.looking at the activity at the entrance,and by removing a cosh or two. BoWever, beginningbeekeepers need_to_make more thorough inspections, whilelearning what to look for

The dispositionof the colony varies greatly withthe strain of bees, the colony condition, and theprevailing weather.

Generally, bees are more docile on warm, sunnydays during a nectar flow.. On such days; a maximumnumber of bees are foraging. Foragers, the older bees,are more defensive of the colony as their sting glandsare fully developed. In most areas, the maximum nectarflow is from early morning to mid-day. This, then, isthe best time to inspect the colony since most of theforagers are away from the hive.

In areas where bees-are particularly defensive,many beekeepers_ prefer to work with their bees at dusk.This is especialliEBTE-tf the hives are near houses.When night comes, the bees quickly settle back into thehive. This minimizes disturbance to neighbors and tonearby livestock. Beekeepers with highly-defensivebees also remove the honey from their colonies at nightto minimize stinging.

Robbing is often a major problem when inspectingcolonies .during dearth periods; Bees from other.coloriies take advantage of the ppenings in the hivebeing inspected to rob honey. Robbing can be suspectedwhen bees are observed fighting

115

Preventing robbing is much easier than stoppingit. Work fast when making inspections to minimize thetime that the colony is open. Also, be careful not todrip honey about the area and do not leave honey combexposed.

If robbing gets started, close the hive and waituntil another day. If robbing is out of control, close.the hive and stop up the entrance completely with grassor leaves. Also, douse the robber bees with water tohelp slow robbing. Remove the grass at night"or thenext day when the robbing has stopped. If the colonyis left open, it will be robbed of all its honey andmost of the bees will be killed.

The condition of the brood nest is the mostimportant thing to note when inspecting a hive. Aquick glance at a comb from the brood nest can tell youwhether or not the queen is present, and by observingthe brood pattern, you can determine the condition ofthe queen or the presence of disease.

The brood is always locited on the lower portionof a brood comb. Pollen is stored around the sides andthe upper edges of the brood area, and honey is found-along the top edge of the comb. The layer of honeyabove acts to insulate the brood nest.

116

r

L

108

I1J5PecriNa- A Hide

..

.

0 Apprc01 4 hive frombehind or -From +he side.5role the erli-qrtCe allotwdii- 30 Seconds .

2) TAre +he -fop off. clndmore smog over the

4 p 1,ars. Tqp-the i-op L34r5

f o la:41s the an& 171'.5.1

3)genewsre an empty fopbcir. Fuff srnore into tiee

emit( 61r4.0 45 the br15 oein,9 removed.

7:

117 t.

I

.'1 9

4)4ove the 40P bars downuniii You get to The broodnest Riff trbolve int theempty spice period (c4 1Y -1-0.Keep the bees Under control,1-hou* do not- V5e No rolicil5m6Ice, Too mycli smote c411Cu ?se +he colorof -10 abscond.

i

E) Remove +he brood combsone-by- one iv 'in vec÷ +hem. 1

ge careful not- -h> turn th-ecant:es vdelAe(s or -the will breRtcbt.ti- the comi>5 c4n be-turnedvpside down.

6)AFier invecting the calory,return +he tDp 174rs 4o fileir-

e,ongin4t pIces 4nd cio5e -thhye.

1181'. /

i

110

A good queen lays eggs in a tight pattern. Shelays one egg in a cell and lays in all the cells. Onceshe starts laying on a comb, she moves outward on thecomb laying eggs around the area containing thedeveloping brood. When the adults emerge from thecenter area, she again returns to that part of the comband begins to lay outward as the cells are emptied whenadults emerge. Thus, a good brood pattern has the formof concentric circles where the rings are composed ofsimilar-age brood.

If the queen is failing, a brood disease present,or there are laying workers, the brood pattern willappear spotty--many cells will be empty in the broodarea. Temporary drops in incoming nectar and pollencan also cause a spotty brood pattern, but this hasonly short term effects. If there is a brood disease(see Chapter 9), some cells may contain the decayingremains of the brood.

11

111

An _Old or failing queen lays eggs that,do nothatch or are unfertilized (thus they producedrortes).The colony will eventually supersede her, but youshould replace her when you note the condittOn sincethis will give the colony a young queen saiiik: Youcan requeen the colony by killing the .old queen andallowing it to rear another, or by in llrg-a queencell after killing the.bld .queekand Abe colonyqueenless for one day. If you are 9114fiittOp;:allow thecolony to rear a new queen, add a brood tomb containingeggs and young larvae (but no adults), from anothercolony so that you can be assured that the,queenlesscolony has worker larvae of the proper age to rear .

queens.

The queen is normally found on comb containingbrood. Sohe strains of bees are "runny"; they tend torun from the comb when the colony is disturbed. Withrunny strains of bees, finding the queen is verydifficult. However, it is not necessary to find the -

queen each time a hive is inspected. If eggs are therein a concentrated patterh, the presence of a good queenis verified.

If a colony has been queenless for a long time,workers will start to lay eggs. Since the eggs areunfertilized, they will always produce drone brood.

A spotty brood pattern and worker cells sealedwith domed cappings are signs of laying workers. Many,eggs of varying sizes placed haphazardly in a, cell isanother characteristic of laying workers (see Chapter3, page 38).

A colony with laying workers is in a hopelesssituation; since only drones are produced, the colonywill dwindle and die out. As the colony perceives thatit has a queen, it will not attempt to rear queen fromyoung larvae from another colony, nor will it acceptqueen cells from another colony.

When you find/a colony with laying workers,combine it with a Strong, gdeenright colony. (See page128.) The workOre_from the strong colony will takecare of the laying workers.

120

11.2

s.

The presence of adequate stores is anotherlAportant thing to check for when you inspect thecolony. There should be at least one comb containinghoney on each side of the brood nest. IT the colonydoes. not have sufficient honey stores, add honey combs(without bees) from str'nger colonies, or if the colonyis weak, you can"cOmbine it with another colony.

Maintaining records of hive inspections is helpfulto follow colony progress and to plan for future workin the apiary. Simple written records can be kept orthe position ()fa stone or stick on the top of the hivecan be used to denote the colony condition or itsneeds.

-el4j iflAlk k Ak v.fha,

e con:Ai-I-ion 9-F, -Pr.-e, C01011`i C-41 be.111411Ced by +he ioGigion of rocKon -top of -i-hd hive.

Note the general condition of the apiary wheninspecting hives. Check for weeds or grass, around thehive stands. Weeds can allow ants access to the hives.Also note broken or rotting equipment which may needreplacing.

121

.2(

113

Management during the build -up seeks toprovide space for the expanding b=od nest in order toallow the colony to build up to, its maximum populationfor the main nectar flow. Manipulations need to bemade several times during the period to prevent thebrood nest from becoming honey bound.

As the brood nest grows, it becomes crowded withbrood, and the space available for the queen to,layeggs becomes limited. The brood, nest becomes boundedby honey. The colony can expand the brood nest areaby using the honey in the adjacent cells, but this isa relatively slow process.

By putting empty top bars or combs adjacent to thebrood nest, you can quickly increase the area of thebrood nest and alleviate the crowding.' Thismanipulation allows the colony to build up both to ahigher population and earlier than if it were leftalone.

Space for the brood nest also helps to controlswarming. For bee-havers, swarming is considereddesirable, since it is the only way they know toincrease their colonies. Swarming is undesirable forbeekeepers, however, as swarms are often lost, and thereduction in colony population before the nectar flowprevents a good honey flow from the colony.

Swarming cannot be completely prevented, but itcan be controlled. Beekeepers can divide theircolonies to increase the number. They can control theprocess, doing it when they choose without the risk oflosing a swarm.

If queen cells are found in a strong colony duringthe build-up period, the colony is probably preparingto swarm. Such queen cells are often called swarmcells and are normally found along the edges of thecomb. If the colony has started the swarming process,there are two management options to prevent loss of theswarm. Either try to prevent swarming by destroyingthe queen cells and moving the colony, or divide thecolony (artificial swarming).

122

115

4/ 2 *mei4

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4

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5) POce empty tcp Ws .3+- theedges oi 1.- brood nest

124

*116

Once the colon has begun the swarming process itis often difficul to stop it. Try to prevent swarmingfirst by clestroyi g all of the queen cells in thecolony. Then swi ch-ES6 location of the colony whichwas preparing to swarm with that of a weaker colony inthe apiary. Foraging bees will return to the hive siteto which they were oriented. A colony prepaAng toswarm is a strong colony. Thus by switching the hives,the strong colony will lose bees and the weaker onewill gain them.

Switching colonies during build-up or flowconditions will not lead to fighting between thereturning foragers and the strange hive bees. Theforagers are returning with nectar and pollen, thusthey will be readily accepted in the new hive.

Destruction-of the queen cells combined with theloss of foragers will usually stop the swarming impulsein the colony. (Check the colony a few days later anddestroy any new queen cells.)

Exchanging the location of colonies is an easypractice to equalize colony populations. It is goodmanagement to have colonies of similar strength in anapiary as this minimizes robbing.

Another way of equalizing colony populations in anapiary is to-give combs of brood without adults to weakcolonies to help them build up quiE577 Be careful notto give a colony more brood than it can care for.Sealed brood which will soon emerge is best for thispurpose since it only needs minimal care from thecolony.

125

118

Dividing colonies or artificial swarming isanother, way to dear with colonies which are preparingto swarm., This is essentially the swarming.processcarried out under the control of the beekeeper. It isthe most practical method for small farmers to increasethe number of hives in their apiaries.

Strong colonies can be stimulated to constructqueen cells and torear queens if the queen is removed.Thede emergency queen cells are used to make furthercolony divisions if desired. The treatment of thequeen cells ancrthe. process of division are the samewhether swarm cells or emergency queen cells are used.

Divisions made with swarm cells-rarely yield-surplus honey. Swarming normally Occurs soon beforethe main flow, thus divisions made with swarm cells donot have time to build up. Take care that suchdivisions have sufficient provisions to make it throughthe next dearth perio,.i.

The best time to divide colonies is early inbuild-up periods. If made early enough, the colony maybuild up sufficiently to produce some surplus honey.

Making divisionb is always done at:the expense ofhoney production from those hiVes. Remember thatstrong colonies yield more honey in relation to' effortand equipment than weaker ones. The decision to .dividecolonies 'should center on the objective of theoperation. Is it to produce bees or to produce honey?

t:

korriNcr DivisioN Begin with 4 strong coloily;

2)T4it 41-1e4st- two combs ofsealed rood Ord qt least-IwoCombs of horty.frar the colony.

127

4a

1194 44 ""->r1

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3Yrrrofer +hese combs wH-h ifiebees 40 brv4-1 some more bees froma -Few othrr combs iPflo -isie new hive-RA- -ft braid cams tetwern The honeycant's -to insure The brood

I

4444141*4-)A ii queen cells io The newcolony. "arse rn071 be on a combor ite/ c4n be cut- col- fromone comb anci foced on fo4nottlerNom: IC- no queen cells Vre4y4i14bei -h& division wilt re.ejr

new queen if- you give themYoung 14rqs. Tate, it- will IV,klelonger for cf.-Awl -ID

,

4 queen.

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5 More -the 1w colonies*oaf -From each ativrioMinimize drifting.JIffe. The -Fossicjer5 will return+0 +he site of The onshrong cotortt

128

120

CUTriNCr our AND PliCil40- QuEal CEEB

6Cur Wound The queen cell.Be careful nat. to o.ut into thecell.NolE. Do not burn the queencell on 1+5 side qs +his m injure

developing pupa.3) PIWe tie queen cell inthe cut out section.

theftwanter Aivv4is Keepcell pointed clowow4rd.

4.

2) Guff section our of +hef4ce of The comb into who)ticla wilt put the queen cell.

q-) R. th-he comb into thebny. The bees

the queen cell to thec.ornD.

129

Harvesting honey is the beekeeper's reward. AsC;the honey flow progresses, the outer combs. Of the hivewill become filled with honey. Harvest these combsseveral times during the flow period. This preventsthe colony from becoming honey-bound, and the emptyspace in the hive stimulates the bees to forage.

When most of a comb contains capped honey, it isready for harvesting. The moisture content of uncappedhoney is too high for the honey to be self - ,preserving.Such honey is called green or unripened honey, and, ifharvested, will ferment. A comb in which at least two -thirds of the cells are capped contains .honey that willbe self-preserving. Such honey is called mature orripened honey.

Bees are. best removed from the comb by brushingthem off -. "'A little smoke can be used to get themstarted, but using too much smoke to clear the comb ofbees will give a smokey taste to the honey.

130

122

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f)Remaie orgy combhoney (no 'wood)

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2.) Smotce -i-he comba

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ka,m....412SY

3) Brush bees WO) RepWe +op 1*brush or leVeS.

NOTE: Too much 6rnore will give The hone? ''Smoicys-clqvar.

131

Management' during dearth periods isdifferent in temperate and tropical regions. Intemperate regions, there is a dormant period in thecolony. Good management in these regions eAtailsensuring that the colony has sufficient and properly-Iodated honey stores for the period and protecting thehive from prevailing winter winds. The hive entranceis also reduced to keep out cold and mice. (Mice willsometimes enter .a colony and build nests in the combaway from the bee cluster.)

There is no dormant period in the tropics. The,colony population drops, but the b%es remain activethroughout the dearth period. Management centers onhaving sufficient stores and sufficient bees to coverand protect the comb in the colony from wax moth.

Having sufficient honey stores in the colony isdependent on recognizing the need for them and notharveiting all of the hdney. The amount of honey toleave varieiin differeht regions depending on thelength and severity of the dearth period. This islearned with experience in an area and is part of the"art" of beekeeping. If inexperieliced in an area,:leave at least,a full'comb of honey for every twoframes of brood in a colony. It is better to leav toomuch than not enough. If the bees do not use it, oucan harvest it later.

s

132

Though feeding bees is discouraged for most small-scale beekeeping projects, it may be practical in someareas or useful in certain situations. ,(See Chapter7, page 146.);

To make a feeder for the KTBH, use a piece of woodthe same length as a top bar and three times the width.Drill a hole in the board such that it will hold'aninverted jar o bottle. Fill the container with sugarsyrup (two pa s sugar to one part water) and punchsmall holes i the top. The holes' should not allow thesyrup .to dri once the jar is inverted. The bees willtake the sy p and store it in the hive. If syrupleaks, it may draw ants or stimulate sobbing. To helpprevent robbing, always reduce the entrance of a colonywith a block of wood or other object when you arefeeding.

feeder for IM1+(LoNCr sips Vi w)

Protecting colonies from pests is anotherimportant aspect of management during dearth periods.Wax moth larvae are by far the most damaging pest tohoney bee colonies, yet simple management practices canprevent this loss.

133

Wax moth adults may enter the colony to layeggs or they may lay them along cracks on the outsideof the hive. The larvae tunnel into the hive to thecomb area where they hatch.

wax moil

J

Adult-

If the colony does not have enough bees to protectthe comb, larvae of the wax moth begin to develop inthem. The larvae tunnel through the comb eating thewax, the pollen residues, and the cocoons left by theemerging adult bees. Wax moths need more thaw-just waxin their diet, therefore they prefer older, darkercomb. They destroy the comb, leaving behind webbedmasses of excrement andbits of wax.

134

126

In weak colonies, wax moth larvae sometimes borethrough the midrib of comb containing brood. Thewebbing that they leave behind entangles the developingbee pupae and prevents the adult bees from emergingfrom the cells. Patches or straight rows of apparentlynormal adults trying to emerge from the cells, areresult. These bees eventually die and cell-cleaningworkers remove them.

In warm regions'and during warm periods intemperate regions, wax moths are always present andlaying eggs. The bees in a strong colony are usuallyable to cover and protect all of the comb in the hive,thus they remove the wax moth larvae before they cando 'any damage.

However, if wax moth larvae become established inpart of the comb, the bees tend to move away from thearea, abandoning the comb to the larvae. At this pointthe colony is doomed, as the bees tend to lose theirsocial organization. The population drops rapidly, andthe few remaining bees are eventually pushed off thecomb.

Wax moth problems are a result of poor beekeeping.The beekeeper takes too much honey from the colony, andit becomes too weak to guard the comb. Leaving toomuch empty comb in the hive during the dearth alsocauseeproblems with wax moth. The beekeeper mustthink of the strength of a colony both in terms of theabsolute population and in terms of the ability of thatpopulation to protect all of the comb in the hive.

135

127

Good management for wax moth control isbased on the following:

Maintain strong colonies.

Remove empty, unused comb from thehive during the dearth period. Putolder, darker comb away from thebrood nest so that it can be removedwhen it becomes empty.

Keep the bottom area of the hiveclean of residue that drops. Waxmoths can build up in the residue andmove onto the comb. Slanting thehive a little in the direction of theentrance helps the bees to removethis residue before it builds up.

Do not leave comb lying around theapiary or stacked inside nearbyshelters. This provides a goodrearing site for the wax mothpopulation of the area. Renderunused wax into blocks instead ofstoring it as comb. The wax mothcannot complete its life cycle inblocks of pure beeswax.

Weak colonies can be combined to make strongcolonies which have a better chance of survival duringa dearth period. The queen of one colony must bekilled to combine the colonies. A strcng colony canbe divided again later during the build-up period toincree the number of colonies. During the dearthperiod, the objective is survival of bees, not survivalof colonies. It is better to have one colony thatsurvives rather than two that die out.

136

f.

128r

COMBINT CoLbiVIES

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137

127

4Good management for wax moth control is

based on the following:

Maintain strong,colonies.

Remove empty, unused comb from thehive during the dearth period. \Putolder, darker comb away from thebrood nest so that it can be.retedwhen it becomes empty.'

Keep the bottom area of the hive)clean of residue that drops. Waxmoths can build up in the residue andmove onto the comb. Slanting thehive a little in the direction of theentrance helps the bees to removethis residue before it builds up..

Do not leave comb lying around theapiary or stacked inside nearby.shelters. This provides a goodrearing site for the wax mothpopulation of the area. Renderunused wax into blocks instead ofstoring it as comb. The wax mothcannot complete its life cycle inblocks of pure beeswax.

Weak colonies can be combined to make strongcolonies which have a better chance of survival duringa dearth period. The queen of one colony must bekilled to combine the colonies. A strong colony canbe divided again later during the build-up period toincrease the number of colonies. During the dearthperiod, the objective is survival of bees, noy survival,of colonies. It is better to have one colony thatSurvives rather than two that die out.

138

2) A dial rectAnglArboA t5 needed tobottAte Avp3-54Ferf---141e we4Kcciort41 -Abe vogCCows? -11, -We box.

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129

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5)114 +he biz with theWes col orti on top. Thebeo will sloWIY remove

1-e nettbmper nrx;I thebees 'Firm the twocolonies will combine.

NOV: C Sirre +he beesthey will nor

-Piot

OHO

G)When si-he bees hivemingle-a, combine the coivts4nel remove-0,e Ipoc.

usrlx.. The two colonies osuaillyfuse -10-her wimin one dqiAlso, 1c +he brood comb+043e-iiier when combining theconts.

14

130

Removirig oid Comb..

brood n st--

I. arood nest. wH-h 0

.

v-,

d, dri\--con11)

I

2)Recnove -ft old, dprK bardcornb -,m The brood neat

/

3) Rh- The old comb 4wy-From the brood nesi- end .

!grove --the rem4inino combsof -i).e brood net5t- fogether.

140-1. When 4411 of the brood -

174s emerged 4nci dire beeShive 'removed the 6torect how(4not paler' -From +iv old canto,avrove it 4nol render.ii- -For-The vlix.

141

el.

I-iighi-Tech Beekeeping

Inputs and Possibilities

Beekeeping is u simple technology. It cannotreally be called high technology when compared withother high-tech agriculture. All the physical inputsneeded for "high-tech" beekeeping can easily beproduced in carpentry, tailoring, and tin-smith shopsat the local level. A viable high-tech beekeepingsystem at this level would differ from that of a"developed" region primarily in mechanization. Forexample, human power would replace the motors ofextractors.

The lack of understanding of how to construct anduse the inputs is the factor that prevents the economicuse of a "high-tech" beekeeping system .,,cost small-scale development situations. The pr;' les of hivemanagement.are the same for high-tech . .seeping as forintermediate technology beekeeping. High-techbeekeeping provides for more ease in manipulations andgives more options to the beekeeper. It also calls fora greater investment.

142

132

High-tech beekeeping will give greater return forthe investment in most beekeeping situations. However,the options of a high-tech system must be fully usedto realize such a return. The combination of lack ofcapital for investment and lack of understanding oftiming, organization, andbee biology often makes thesuccess of high-tech beekeeping difficult forfarmers.

A high-tech beekeeping system uses moveable framesin several boxes. This system allows for easymanipulation.of combs.' Both frames (containing combs)and boxes can be easily interchanged for management.Frames containing honey are removed from the hive, the.,cappings of the cells cut off with a heated knife, andthe honey is centrifuged out of the comb in anextractor. The empty combs are then returned to thecolony for the bees to refill.

Honey production is maximized at the expense ofwax production with moveable-frame hives. Bees needto produce about eight kilograms of honey to produceone kilogram of wax. Because the empty combs-arereturned for refilling, honey production is enhanced.

Comb foundation, or sheets of beeswax embossedwith the dimensions of worker cells are used in theframes. The main function of this is to produce strongcomb centered in the frame. Sharply embossedfoundation reduces `he amount of drone combconstructed. Comb Foundation also reduces the amountof wax that the bees have to produce, which alsoincreases honey production.

Since the combs are attached to the frame on foursides, and the frame usually contains several strandsof thin wire to reinforce the comb, hives can be easilymoved with little chance of comb breakage. Therefore,migratory beekeeping can be carried out with moveable-frame hives.

In migratory beekeeping, colonies are moved totake advantage of the variations in the nectar flowbetween regions. This effectively increases the periodof honey flow for the beekeeper. However, a goodtransportation system is necessary for this practice.

143

133

A moveable-frame beekeeping system also givesbeekeepers the option to produce pollen, royal jelly,or queens in large numbers.

Pollen is collected by putting pollen traps on thehive entrance. These contain a wire mesh grid thatscrapes the pollen off the legs'of the returningforagers as they enter the hive. The pollen fallsthrough another wire mesh too small for the bees to getthrough. It drops into a drawer-like collecting pan,and the beekeeper collects it regularly (usuallydaily).

Royal jelly is produced by using a queenlesscolony of bees. A strong colony of young bees is madeup by shaking,bees from the brood comb of severalcolonies. Such bees are mostly nurse bees, which havefully developed head glands and thus are good producersof roydl jelly. The colony is given plenty of pollenand honey stores, but it is kept both broodless andqueenless. After one day, frames with bars ofartificial cell bases (queen cups) containing one-day-old larvae are given to the colony. Because of thequeenless condition of the colony, the young bees arestimulated to rear queens.

To harvest the royal jelly, the larvae are removedfrom the cells after a few days, and the royal jellyscooped out'.

No al a is ip II

II

V li

in1 11 o11 11 1

-Ftqrre of queen cells

144

N

134

To rear queens, the started cells are usuallytransferred to a strong colony for finishing. They areplaced in a super with unsealed brood separated fromthe queen by a. queen excluder, a grid which allowsworkers to pass through, but prevents the passa0e ofthe queen since she is larger.

Each cell is removed and placed in a small,queenless colony before the queen emerges. When thequeen has mated and is laying, she is caged with a fewworkers and sold. Queens in cages can also be storedin colonies that do not have a free queen.

This is the assembly line production of queens.Maintaining queenless cell starter colonies and matingcolonies calls for intensive management, though thebeekeeper can control the process to obtain any number.of queens when they are needed.

* * * * * * * * *

Good timing and organization are essential forsuccess in rearing large numbers of queens, producingroyal jelly, or producing pollen. These arespecialized operations for specialized markets. Theyare not for beginning beekeepers nor for small-scalebeekeepers.

135

Problems in Sma I-sc'ele Development

In some areas, beekee ing development programshave introduced moveable-fr e equipment to smallfarmers. The goal was a dir ct transfer of "high-tech"beekeeping. Those projects at have provided forcontinued technical assistant as well as continuedavailability of necessary inpu have been the mostsuccessful. These successful p ojects have often beenassociated with cooperatives.

In many cases, though, develo ment programs haveled to many people becoming bee-ha ere using relativelyexpentive equipment meant for beekeeping. In relationto the potential, little return was realized from theirinvestment. These projects failed because they triedto go too far too fast. Equipment was made available,but technical assistance was poor or lacking.

You may encounter theremnants of unsuccessfulprojects. The equipment may be intact,' though it iseither not in use or not in optimum use. (If you aregoing to be working with an established bee projectusing frame equipment, consult one of the informationsources given in Appendix A. Many cover the specificsof high-tech beekeeping.)

All of the management problems coming from thelack of understanding bee biology and the seasonal beecycle are usually found in failed projects. There arealso other Problems which stem more directly from theattempt to use Langstroth equipment. Some of the morecommon problems are:

poorly made equipment

frames not spaced properly

one-box brood chambers

improper use of queen excluders

lack of comb foundation.

146

The solutions to these problems are sometimessimple, but often misinformation or lack ofunderstanding have established bad habits. Changingestablished practices is always difficult. Changingpractices in an unsuccessful bee project is often madeeven more difficult because the people involved havelost enthusiasm for working with bees.

Many problems are causectby poorly-made equipment.The idea that a moveable-frame hive is merely a boxwith frames in it is widespread. The fact that sincethe hive is designed around the concept of the bee,space and exact dimensions are important inconstruction is more difficult to grasp. Equipment issometimes made without any regard for the bee space.This can be the result of lack of understanding or aconsequence of poor workmanship. Many local carpenterslack the experience or proper tools to make precisemeasurements.

Boxes and frames not built around the bee spaceare really no better than fixed-comb hives. Frames

dr that fit too tightly will be stuck onto the box withpropolis. Removing them will be very difficult. Ifthere is too much space between the frames and the box,comb will be constructed there. Removing the frameswithout destroying the comb is impossible. In thesesituations, any advantage of a frame system is lost.

There should also be a proper bee space betweenthe top bars of the frames and the top of the hive. Ifit is lacking, the top will be stuck down with eitherpropolis or comb. Either situation makes managementdifficult.

The hive with too little space between the framesand box can cause ventilation problems for the colony.This is especial]: detrimental in damp areas. Smallspaces that the b es cannot reach also provide areas

iwhere wax moth la vaeican hide.

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137

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Space between the frames is also important. Thereshould be sufficient space for the bees to constructfull-size comb. Too little space will result in combwith shallow cells -which cannot be used for broodrearing. Only small amounts of honey can be stored insuch comb. On the other hand, if there is too muchspace'between frames, the bees will construct combbetween them. This makes frame removal difficult.

If frames are badly spaced and comb foundation isnot used, the bees will construct their comb where theywant. They will construct what is essentially a fixed-comb hive inside the frame equipment. Comb may evenbe constructed diagonally or perpendicular to the topbars. Frame removal is impossible in this situation.

rames should be 35 mm center to center forEurop an races of the western hive bee, and 32 mm forAfrican races. For the eastern hive bee in India, thedista#ce is 31 mm. Proper spacing allows the bees roomto cogstruct the comb and leave a bee space between thecombs.1

148 '

138

A bee space is needed between the top bars of theframes to allow the bees to move upward into thesupers, thus frames are often constructed with a woodenledge on the side bars to give the proper spacing.Such frames are self-spacing when pushed together.Good beekeeping habits call for assurring that theframes are properly spaced before closing the hive.Attention to this detail is often overlooked.

149

2;

139

(N.

Frames that do not have the ledge on the side bars

can be made self-spacing by using small nails. The

nails should be on opposite sides of the frame, since

this sgallows the'frame to be turned either way in the

hive and maintain proper spacing.

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140

All wooden equipment should be well nailed. Thisis especially true of frames, which receive a lot of/rough handling. Frames which break when trying toremove them frustrate beekeeping.

Wire should be used to reinforce both the framesand the comb. Use tilittoated wire to ptevent rust; thezinc in galvanized wire will react with the honey,darkening it and changing its taste. An alternativeis monofilament fishing line. Embed the wire orfishing line into the comb foundation with the edge ofa coin.

The misconception that beekeeping with moveable-frame-equipment entails the use of .only two boxes isanother common problem found in development projects.The erroneous idea is that one box is the brood chamberand the other is the honey super.

This idea perhaps stems from the term broodchamber. _Since the term is singular, thatthere is only one box. The brood comber is that areaof the hive that contains the brood. For a fully-developed colony the brood chamber should consist oftwo boxes. Using only one brood box for the entirecolony restricts its growth colony, and makes it hardto get supers containing only honey.

Good beekeeping needs atleast three boxes, twofor the brood chamber and one as a honey super. Withtwo boxes for the brood chamber, the colony populationwill be higher. Thus, there will be better utilizationof the nectar flow.

. Switch the two boxes of the brood chamberperiodically to provide more space for expansion of thebrood nest. The natural tendency of the colbny is toexpand-the brood nest in an upward direction. When thelower box contains mostly older larvae and sealedbrood, and the queen is laying in the upper box, switchthe boxes of the brood chamber. This 'puts the queenin the lowest 'box of the hive where she can again moveupward as the cells in the upper box are emptied as theadult bees emerge.. With this management, the'queenmoves upward into the brood chamber, not upward intothe honey supers.

151

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Only one super for honey increases the need forlabor. The honey must be extracted several timesduring the flow period so that the colony always hasroom to store it. An alternative is to have two ormore honey supers. These can be tdded to the hive toincrease storage space. This alternative lowers laborneeds, but increases investment in equipment;

Queen excluders are a necessary piece of equipmentfor specialized operations such as rearing and storingqueens. However, they are detrimental to optimum honeyproduction. For the hobby beekeeper who is moreinterested in convenience than honey yield, they areperhaps a useful gimmick. But they are not for thebeekeeper interested in maximum honey production.

Queen excluders are commonly misused indevelopment programs. They are especially expensivefor these projects since they have to be imported. Thefact that their use restricts honey productionincreases their real cost even more. The idea of theiruse is to produce brood-free supers, but this objectivecan be easily achieved through management and usingmore than two boxes for a colony.

Often when excluders are used in small-scaleprojects to restrict the queen to one box, nothing isdone to alleviate honey-bound brood nests. Thisrestricts the colony's growth and leads to a lot ofswarming.

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142

The proper use of queen excluders requires good -timing and management. They are often used in placeof management And left on the colony all the time- Ifused at all, they. should be used only during the flowperiod.. Using queen excluders during-a dearth periodprevents easy-access by the bees, and allows wax mothsto build up in the supers. This often results in highcolony loss.

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If queen excluders are needed, a substitute forimporting them is to use five-mesh (five 'holes per 2.54cm) hardware cloth. In some regions this is calledcoffee wire. Try to use a quality of hardware cloththat is uniform and has smooth holes. Larger holeswill allow the queen to pass; rough hardware cloth willtear the wings off the workers as they squeeze through.Mesh of this size may not work as well if the queensare small. This would apply to queens of the easternhive bee and smaller queens of African races of thewestern hive bee.

153

Storing combs during the dearth season isnecessary for good management of a moveable-framebeekeeping system. This is especially difficult in thetropics since the wax moth is active throughout theyear. To prevent damage to the combs by wax mothlarvae, the boxes containing the frames and combsshould be tightly sealed and treated with chempalfumigants.

Fumigants are volatile, toxic gasses whichdissipate:and.leave no toxic residues. Theirapplication is limited to enclosures which arerelatively gas tight). As most fumigants are extremelytoxic and often highly flammable, you should becautious in recommending their'use. Using fumigantssafely requires special equipment and training.

A relatively "safe" fumigant is sulfur dioxide,because the gas has an irritating, obnoxious oder. Itcan be generated by burning sulfur moistened withalcohol. Both of these products are available inpharmacies. (The gas is also corrosive since it formssulfuric acid in the presence of moisture.)

: Another relatively safe fumigant is aluminumphosphide which is used to treat stored-grain productsand is available in many agricultural supplysktores.The chemical is sold as a tablet in a sealed container.When exposed to moisture in the air, phosphine, atoxic, flammable gas, is released. A sulfur compoundincluded in th'e tablet releases hydrogen sulfide, anoxious gas, which makes this product safer to use.

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144

A stack of-supers sealed with mud or with stripsof newspaper glued on with flour paste (any starchflour and water) can be easily treated with burningsulfur or with aluminum phosphide.

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Remember: Fumigants are also toxic tohumans and other animals. Follow all properprecautions when using them.

Once the comb has been treated, use moth balls toprevent adult wax moths from laying eggs. Check storedcombs periodically for reinfestation with wax mothlarvae. Do not use any type of chemical insecticideto treat comb for wax moth. These chemicals may beabsorbed by the wax and kill the bees when the combsare placed on a hive.

The lack of comb foundation is sometimes a barrierto beekeeping development projects. Comb foundationis often difficult to obtain. It is also expensive.The people involved in the beekeeping project becomedependent on this input since it introduced to themwith. the hive equipment. This becomes a psychologicalbarrier due to a lack of understanding of bees and whycomb foundation is used in the frames. With such anunderstanding, you can stretch the supply of combfoundation on hand or improvise suitable replacements.

The main purpose of comb foundation is to guidethe bees to construct comb centered in the frame. An--row strip (about three cinEIMairs) of foundations. Ick in a groove centered in the top bar will servefor this. Several starter strips can be cut from eachfull sheet of foundation. A ridge of beeswax stuckdown the middle of the top bar like that used on thetop bars of the KTBH also works for this. Yet anotheralternative is to stick small pieces of comb on the topbars.

Starter strips of beeswax can be made by using adip board (see Appendix C). These strips will not beembossed, but this is not important since the purposeof the strips is nly to guide the bees to startbuilding the comb

Another minor purpose of comb foundation is toguide the bees to construct comb containing workercells. If you are using only starter strips, you canachieve mostly worker cells if you use small, rapidly-growing colonies to construct comb. Such coloniesconstruct little drone comb since no drones are neededin the hive.

It is also possible to make a mold to produce combfoundation. (See Appendix C.) Buying beeswax andproducing foundation to supply local beekeepers can bea good business opportunity for a family involvementin beekeeping.

Remember that correct frame placement(the center to center spacing) is alsoimportant to produce centered comb. This,combined with some type of "starter guide,"is necessary to get centered comb. However,full sheets of comb foundation are abeekeeping luxury, not a necessity.

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146

A bad practice unrelated to type of equipmentwhich is often seen in high-tech development programsis the mass feeding of apiaries. Large, opencontainers of sugar syrup are, put in the apiary to feedthe bees. This is usually done in areas where sugaris cheap and readily available.

Proper feeding of colonies should be based on theneeds of the colony, and each colony should be fedindividually. The practice of putting large barrelsof sugar water in the apiary for feeding is wasteful.Not only does this feed the bees in the apiary, but italso feeds wild insects as well as bees from other

) apiaries.

Usually, only the weaker colonies in an apiaryneed feeding. They benefit little from mass openfeeding. The stronger colonies are the ones thatbenefit most since they have the foragers to takeadvantage of the sugar water.

This feeding method also encourages robbing. Whenthe sugar syrup is finished, the stronger coloniesoften rob out the weaker colonies. Thus this methodcan lead to the death of the very colonies it attemptsto help.

Most of the food value of the sugar syrup is usedby the bees in the intense flight activity of robbing.The colony that robs honey actually gains very little.Thus, the beekeeper usually loses more than is gainedwith open feeding.

To be economically viable, feeding colonies mustbe part of an overall intensive management scheme. Insome beekeeping situations, feeding is wrongly used asa substitute for good management. It is notrecommended for most small-scale beekeeping.

tIn any beekeeping development project,

the transfer of knowledge, or teaching peoplehow to use the equipment, is the mostdifficult aspect. It is a slow, on-goingprocess. Patience and a sense of humor areimportant assets.

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7-

1

v

Hive Products

The best known hive product is honey, which isvalued both as a food and as a folk remedy. Beeswaxis another major hive product, though neither its usesnor its value are as widely known as those of honey.Honey and beeswax are products in any beekeepingproject, and their production and marketing mesh wellwith most small-farm situations.

Other hive products are pollen, royal jelly,propolis, bee venom, bee brood, and bees (queens andpackages). All of these involve either specialmanagement practices and equipment or highly-specialized markets. Their production and marketingare not practical for beginning beekeepers.

Honey is the primary hive product. It isbasically nectar from which the bees have evaporatedmost of the water content. In converting the nectarto honey, the bees also add enzymes which serve mainlyto break complex sugar molecules down into simple sugarmolecules.

The characteristid tastes and properties of honeydepend upon the floral sources of the nectar. Thushoney from different regions and from different periodsduring the nectar flow is different in taste andphysical properties. Generally, darker honey isstronger-tasting.

158rEr tli

148

Nutritionally, honey is virtually purecarbohydrate. It contains only trace amounii`-of othersubstances. The greatest nutritional attribute ofhoney is that it consists of simple sugars. Thesesugars do not need to be digested, but are assimilateddirectly by the body. This makes honey a quick energysource.

Honey is a natural sweetener. It can be eaten asis or used in any type of cooking or to sweetenbeverages. In some regions, honey is traditionallyused to prepare special foods for certain occasions.It is also widely used in folk medicine. Honey has along history as-a wound dressing, for example. Itsbacteriostatic property (inability to allow bacterialgrowth) helps to control infections.

Honey is also used in some areas to make alcoholicbeverages such as mead or honey wine. In parts ofAfrica, honey beer pis a traditional and popularbeverage. '

Honey is a widely known and used product. Yet inmarketing honey, it is important that consumers haveconfidence that they are getting what they are payingfor. Thus the most important aspect of honeyprocessing is maintaining quality. A good qualityhoney in which potential users have faith is essentialto establish and maintain marketing outlets.

Absence of foreign material is the main criterionof quality in honey. Bits of wax or propolis, pollen,brood, dirt, dead bees, or ashes can contaminate honeyduring extraction or processing. But the mostinsidious honey contaminant is sugar water deliberatelyadded by dishonest beekeepers. Good beekeepers whostrive to avoid contaminating their honey eitherdeliberately or in processing will be-rewarded with asteady market for their product.

For harvesting honey, use combs that contain onlyhoney and have at least two-thirds of the cells sealed.Preferably use only lighter-colored combs. Dark combcontains propolis, which can impart a strong taste tothe honey. Using only honey comb preventscontamination froM brood and minimizes the pollen inthe final product.

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All honey contains some pollen. Too much pollenin honey is mostly an aesthetic concern. -A high pollencontent gives honey a cloudy appearance and can alsogive it a stronger taLte. Pressed honey, or honey thatis removed by squeezing it from the comb, has a higher'pollen content than extracted honey. (Extracted honeyis removed from the comb by centrifugal force. Theliquid honey is spun out of the comb, and the solidpollen remains.)

Water content is also iMportant to the quality ofthe honey. All honey contains yeasts. To prevent thegrowth of the naturally-occurring .xeasts and thesubsdquent fermentation of the honey, the water contentof the honey should be below 19 per cent. Such honeyis said.to bd mature-or ripened. Nectar that has awater content above 19 per cent is called green orunripened honey. Yeasts cannot grow in ripe honeybecause of osmotic imbalance; there is no wateravailable to the yeast cells for growth.

Once the bees have ripened the honey, they sealthe cells of the comb. Use only honey comb that hasmost of the cells sealed for harvesting honey. Thisis the beekeeper's assurance that the honey is ripe andwill be self-preserving. Ripe honey stored in closedcontainers in cool places will keep for long periods.It does not need refrigeration.

Pressed honey is the type most easily produced insmall-scale projects. To minimize the pollen contentof the honey, check the comb for stored pollen'beforesqueezing out the honey. (The pollen can be seen bylooking through the comb toward the sun or a light.)Areas of comb that contain large amounts of pollen canbe cut out. Remove the honey from the comb thatcontains pollen separately, and use it for homeconsumption. (The pollen and comb can also be eaten.Pollen is a nutritious. food.)

161

-,1

151

After the honey is removed from the combs, put itin a sealed container. Honey is hygroscopic; itabsorbs moisture ftom the air. If left exposed inhumid environments, the moisture content will rise andthe honey will ferment. Dead bees or brood in honeycan also raise the moisture content as well asaesthetically contaminate the honey.

120 0 '

fermented honey con*ins bobbies4nd fqin.

That is why adding water to increase the volume ofthe honey is a no-win situation. It quickly leads tofermented honey and dissatisfied customers. Addingsugar water does not cause a problem with fermentationprovided the sugar concentration is high enough, butit does lead to dissatisfaction among the users of thehoney.

People who buy honey and pay honey prices wanthoney. They do not want sugar water mixed in thehoney. Unfortunately, extending honey with sugar wateris practiced by some beekeepers and by some honeysellers in local markets. Even if the beekeepers arenot involved in the adulteration, they get the ultimateblame and lose the most, for it is their product whichloses credibility.

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152

Selling honey in the comb is one way to assurebuyers of a quality product; Comb honey is sealed inthe hive by the bees, therefore buyers can be confidentthat the honey has not been adulterated with sugarwater. Marketing honey in the comb is especially aptfor beekeepers using the KTBH or other intermediatetechnology systems;.

Honey can be scelkoifies or in the comb.

153

A common misconception is that granulated orcrystalized honey is proof of adulteration with sugarwater. Honey can granulate whether or not it has beenadulterated. Honey is a supersaturated sugaz solution,thus crystalization is normal. Some honey from certainfloral sources is especially prone to crystalize.

Crystalized honey is not spoiled. It can beliquified by heating it slowly. This is best done byputting the container of honey in warm water sinceheating honey directly can caramelize the sugars,giving it a burnt taste. Heating honey does change thetaste, so it is best to avoid the use of heat whenprocessing honey for marketing.

In the bulk processing and packing of honey,heating is sometimes used to destroy sugar crystals.This prevents crystalization when the honey is bottled.(This heating is not a pasteurization process.Pasteurization kills off bacteria. This is notnecessary with ripe honey since these organisms cannotgrow in a sugar solution with such a low watercontent.)

The heating process is carefully controlled adregulated. (The temperature is maintained at 63degrees C for thirty minutes.) Sophisticated equipmentis needed since excess heat alters honey and lowers itsquality. Thus for small-scale beekeeping, avoid usingheat for processing.

Heat is also used to process wax and to recoverthe residue of honey left in the combs after they havebeen squeezed or drained. Use this honey for homeconsumption, as its quality is lower.

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154

In rare instances, bees produce honey that 'ispoisonous to humans. This occurs in a very few,regions. It sometimes results when nectar secretionfails in the usual bee forage due to abnormal.environmental conditions. The bees are then forced tocollect nectar from plants which they would normallyriot visit.

All of the honey produced by the colony during theyear would not be poisonous. Only honey made from thepoisonous nectar would be harmful. This fact is oftenrecognized by local beekeepers, and honey producedduring certain periods is not harvested.

Normally, poisonous' honey is not produced everyyear. By knowing the source of the poisonous nectarand noting when bees are visiting the flowers, thebeekeeper can prevent the possibility of poisoning.

Various tests are available to bulk buyers ofhoney to check on the purity and qua3:ity of honey. Ifa bee project develops to the point where it is sellingto these buyers, quality will make the difference inthe price received as well as whether or not they willbe able to sell at all.

The idea of quality is importantto stress from the beginning. Make-quality a habit. Even with fixed-combhives, a better quality honey ispossible if care is given toharvesting and processing. Many areashave a virtually untapped local marketfor honey. Quality is important tocapture this market and to'keep it.

165

40155

Beeswax is a hive product whose value is notrecognized at all in some areas, while in others it isconsidered more v4luable than honey.

The wax of the western hive bee (Apia mellifera) -

differs from the beeswax produced by the Asian speciesof honey bee (A. dorsata, A. florea, and A. cerana).Wax of the Asian species is ciiraThhedda wax isless desirable-than that of the western hive bee forinternational marketing purposes.

Pure beeswax is harder and has a higher meltingpoint (64 degrees C) than most other waxes. Theseproperties make it more desirable for certainapplications. Beeswax is used industrially incosmetics, pharmaceuticals, polishes, ana candles.Uses for beeswax on a small scale include:

(

candle-making

lost-wax casting of metals

wax printing and batiking of cloth

polishes for wood and leather

strengthening and waterproofing thread-forsewing

treatment of cracked hooves of domestic animals

making of comb found tion or wax starter sttipsfor beehives.

Many of these crafts and practices already exist,and can furnish a ready outlet for beeswax. Check withpeople engaged in these activities to find leads indeveloping a local market for beeswax.

(See Appendix-D, Uses for Beeswax.)

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156

All old combs and pieces of wax should be savedfor rendering.into wax blocks. Old combs should berendered separately from newer ones since the newercombs yield a higher quality wax. Dark combs containpropolis and cocoons which lower the quality of thewax.

Comb stored in pieces is tdghly susceptible to waxmoth damage. With a solar wax welter, small pieces ofcomb can be rendered easily as they are cut from thehive and made into blocks. There is no need toaccumulate a lot of comb to render at one time as isthe case with rendering wax with hot water.

Comb to be rendered can be stored for shortperiods in sealed plastic bags with moth balls (para-dichloro- benzene or PDB) to prevent wax moth damage.Check the stored comb periodically for evidence of waxmoth larvae. The PDB only prevents the adults fromlaying eggs, it does nothing to developing larvae.Stronger fumigants can be used, but these are generallyimpractical for small-farmers.

Most methods of rendering wax use hotwater to melt it. They are based on the factthat beeswax floats in water. A few words ofcaution are in order, however:

Never use iron, zinc, brass, or coppercontainers for beeswax, as theydiscolor the wax. Use enamelled oraluminum containers.

Be careful with melted beeswax, sinceit is highly flammable. Do not allowthe beeswax-water mixture to boilvigorously. Boiling beeswax lowersits quality by making it more brittle.

Blocks of rendered beeswax can bestored in cool, dry places for longperiods without harm. They should bewrapped in paper or plastic.

Never store beeswax near pesticides.Beeswax absorbs many such chemicals,and they can kill bees if this wax isused to make comb foundation.

167

4) When w4( is trieliRi,sei- 45kle .41/cwThe wax 1-0 hrder).

5) Hat- w4x c411 be pouredinto Old5, if desired.

159

Pollen has only recently been thought of as ahive product for human consumption. Previously, it wascollected by beekeepers during periods of heavy pollenflows and then fed to the colonies at the beginning ofbuild-up periods to stimulate brood-rearing.

The interest in pollen as human food is usuallyfound only in large urban centers where there is aspecialized market for natural foods. From anutritional viewpoint, pollen is a rich source ofproteins, vitamins, and minerals, though economicallyit cannot compete with conventional sources of thesenutrients. The many medicinal claims for pollen havenot be substantiated, and some people have evendeveloped allergic reactions to ingested pollen.

Pollen is collected by forcing the returningforagers to pass through a five-mesh (five holes per2.5 cm) wire grid. The pollen pellets are scraped fromthe pollen baskets on the workers' hind legs and fallinto a collecting tray covered with a smaller mesh wireto prevent the bees from retrieving the pollen.Several designs of pollen trap are used. (See sourcesin Appendix A.)

Pollen collecting is not recommended for beginningor most small-scale beekeepers. The colony needspollen to rear brood, thus only limited amounts can beremoved or the colony will become weak. This entailsmonitoring the colony closely. Trapping pollen is moreefficient in areas where there are intense flows. Inmost areas of the tropics, pollen collecting isdifficult since the flows are weaker and the yields arelow.

Pollen also spoils quickly. The traps should beemptied often (daily in humid weather) to preventpollen from molding. Once the pollen is collected, itmust be quickly dried or frozen. Direct sunlight andtoo much heat reduce the nutritional value and qualityof the pollen, thus special facilities are needed forprocessing and storage.

The problems involved in collecting and processingpollen, coupled with its limited market, make it animpractical product for most small-scale beekeepers.

170

160

Bee brood is a potential hive product for localuse. It can be used as animal food or as human foodin areas where insects are accepted in the human diet.

Brood is the developing adults of the colony, soonly drone brood should be used. Cut out the areas ofcomb that contain the brood and remove the brood fromthe comb by shaking or picking it out. Older larvaeare easier to remove since the cells do not have to beuncapped:

After the brood is removed, the comb can berendered for the wax. Comb containing brood can alsobe given directly to chickens. They will remove thelarvae and pupae, though the beeswax will be lost asthey destroy the comb.

For human food, the broad can be eaten raw ordried, or skewered and roasted.

* * * * * * * * * *

Pollen, royal jelly, propolis, bee venom, and bees(queens and packages) are hive products which call forexperience in beekeeping and specialized skills inproduction and marketing. Production of these is notas a rule for the beginning beekeeper nor for mostsmall-scale farmers.

More information on these products is available insome of the sources listed in Appendix A.

171

Diseases, Pests,

and Insecticides

Diseases are more of a problem where intensivebeekeeping is carried out because of the large numbersof colonies concentrated in small areas. The economicimpact of diseases is also greatest where the financialinvestment in beekeeping equipment is the greatest.These two factors ameliorate the impact of disease onsmall-scale intermediate technology beekeeping.

The concept of disease being caused by microscopicagents is not readily accepted by many people livingin developing communities. It is sometimes difficultto convince beekeepers in these communities of the needfor effective disease control programs. This isespecially true if such a program calls for destructionof colonies or purchasing expensive drugs. Moreover,the drugs themselves are rarely readily available inthese communities.

Fortunately, many areas are free of at least someof the diseases and pests which affect honey bees.This is a major reason to limit imports of bees.

In areas where beekeeping is established, it ispossible to consult with other beekeepers on diseasespresent and control measures used.

172

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Bonebee diseases that affect the brood cause themost problems: Since brood represents the futureadults of the colony, these diseases can quickly weakena colony.

American foulbrood (AFB) and Europeanfoulbrood (EFB) are the most serious honey beediseases. (The names have nothing to do with theirdistribution, but describe where they were firstrecognized.) Bacteria cause both of these diseases.The bacteria kills the developing brood and causes itsdecay within the cells of the comb. The decaying masshas a characteristic putrified smell, hence the namefoulbrood.

These diseases result in a spotty or shotgun broodpattern -- there appear to be many empty cellsscattered about in the brood nest. A poor queen orlack of food resources can also give a shotgun broodpattern, but in this case the cells are completelyempty.' In a foulbrood diseased colony, the "empty"cells usually contain the decaying remnants of thelarva or pupa. The adult workers are unable to removethe remains of the brood until they dry.

ajbvsyrsibrood patternis 5Fcrt14-t.

174

164

The age of death of the brood is the maincriterion for distinguishing between AFB and EFB. AFB,affects older larvae and pupae, thus death occurs afterthe cell is sealed. When the brood dies, the cap onthe cell sinks inward. The adult workers'often teara small hole in the sunken cap.

Cell Ceps tarn open

American foulbrood

EFB causes death of the larvae before the cell issealed, thus the dying larvae can be seen. Larvaedying of EFB are creamy-white to brown in color and aretwisted in the cell.

European -Foy!brood

L.4ome twisted in cal

Another difference between AFB and EFB is theconsistency of the decaying mass. In AFB, it isgenerally sticky and tends to "rope out," or adhere toa stick that is pushed into the mass and then pulledout. The dried scale of the AFB-killed brood alsotends to adhere tighter to the side of the cell.

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The bacteria that causes these diseases is oftenspread by the beekeeper. Be careful not to givediseased brood to a colony when adding brood tostrengthen it. Also, never cPnbine a diseased colonywith a healthy one. (It may be beneficial, though, tocombine two diseased colonies. It is easier to treatone colony, and a strong colony has a better chance ofovercoming the disease.)

Contaminated hive tools can also spread foulbrood.After working with a diseased colony, stoke up thesmoker and put the hive tool in the fire to sterilizeit.

The most common mode of foulbrood transmission inpoorly-managed apiaries is robbing. A diseased colonyeventually becomes weak and susceptible to robbing.The robber bees take the contaminated honey back totheir hive and transmit the disease. It is thereforeimportant to recognize diseased colonies and to dealwith them before they become so weakened that they aresusceptible to robbing.

The possibility of transmitting foulbrood,especially AFB, between colonies is one reason whybeekeepers should never feed their bees honey.Foulbrood-contaminated honey is all right for humanconsumption, though, since the bacteria are harmlessto people.

Antibiotics are useful for treating foulbrood,, buttheir use can lead to problems for beekeepers who donot completely understand the disease process or theproper method of treatment.

The cause of American foulbrood is a spore-formingbacteria. Antibiotic treatment of AFB-infectedcolonies can eliminate all symptoms, but the diseasewill return when treatment is stopped because thespores are not affected by the drug.

Effective control of AFB centers on destroyingdiseased colonies and disinfecting contaminatedequipment to prevent the spread of infection. Thesemeasures are difficult to implement in most small-scalebeekeeping projects.

Since the bacteria which causes European foulbrooddoes not form spores, this disease can be successfullyeliminated with proper antibiotic treatment usingproper dosage and regular application.

Correct identificatior of thetype of foulbrood present iA importantsince AFB cannot be effectivelytreated with drugs but EFB can.

Treat EFB with a mixture of sugar and terramycin.Pound or grind the sugar to powde and mix it with thedrug. The mixture should be 20 r cent terramycin (byweight). Sprinkle a heaping tab espoon of-this mixturein the colony near the brood ne t every three or fourdays for one month. Even though the symptoms of thedisease disappear soon after Carting treatment, it isimportant to continue treating to eliminate thebacteria completely from the/colony.

Commercial mixtures of sugar and antibiotics forfoulbrood treatment are available in some areas, butIt is usually much cheaper to purchase some pureterramycin and make your own mixture. Terramycin isavailable in livestock supply stores.

Using terramycin in sugar syrup is not recommendedbecause the drug breaks down rapidly in a liquidmedium.

Beekeepers often sporadically apply a low drugdosage to EFB - diseased colonies. They either use toolittle drug in the mixture or do not treat oftenenough. This suppresses the disease, but it does notcure it. This also creates conditions where thedisease organism can develop drug resistance.

Improper use of antibiotics can also result in theharvested honey being contaminated by the drug or bybreakdown products. Some countries have legalstandards which prohibit the marketing of contaminatedhoney. Drug-contaminated honey is not pure honey, thusit cannot be-marketed as such.

To avoid drug contamination of honey, dO not givedrugs to the colony for four weeks before harvesting.

* * * * r. * * * * *

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Starvation is sometimes confusedwith disease. A starving colony willopen brood cells and pull the broodout. The bees will eat some of the-brood and throw the other brood out ofthe hive. The colony will be agitatedand often will be defensive.Starvation can be confirmed by theabsence of any nectar or honey storesin the hive.

Si

The other two brood diseases, sacbrood andchalkbrood, are generally benign and self-limiting andthus do not call for treatment. (There is in fact nodrug treatment for either of these.) Both are stress-induced diseases. It is important to recognize thesediseases only so as not to confuse them with the moreserious foulbroods.

Sacbrood is caused by a virus and is usuallyfound only/around the edges of the broodnest.usually results when the brood has been chills becausethere were not enough bees to completely cover thebrood area.

Sacbrood is more likely to be confused withfoulbrood.than is chalkbrood. The absence of anyputrified smell of the dead brood is the mostdistinguishing feature of sacbrood. The dead larvaalso remains intact as the virus does not attack theskin. This is different from foulbrood, where the deal'brood becomes a mass of decayed material.

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Chalkbrood is a fungal disease and isdistinctly different in appearance from the other brooddiseases. Infected larvae swell to fill the cell asthe fungal mycelia (strands) grow. At this stage, themass is soft and has a yeasty smell. The mass driesinto a hard, whitish mummy which looks like a piece ofchalk, hence the name chalkb'rood. If the fungus is inthe sexual phase of its life cycle, the mummy iscovered with dark-colored fruiting bodies.

Chalkbrood is usually more common on the edges ofthe broodnest where the brood is more susceptible tooeing billed. Thus, it often attacks drone broodbecau this is located on the edge of the broodnest.

Cool, damp conditions favor the development ofthis disease. After such periods, chalkbrood mummiescan sometimes be seen at the entrance of the colony.Locating colonies where there is good ventilation helpsto prevent chalkbrood.

* * * * * * * * * *

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Bee diseases infecting adults show less graphiceffects on the corny than brood diseases. Adultdiseases are more chronic, shortening the lives ofeffected bees. Since the bees usually die away fromthe colony, the presence of the disease is not asnoticeable to the beekeeper.

Nosema is an intestinal disease of adult beeswhich is caused by a protozoan. It disorients the beesand affects their ability to fly. In severe cases,many bees with "unhooked" wings can be seen crawlingin front of the hive. This is a general symptom ofmost adult bee diseases.

Nosema also causes dysentery in some cases. Youcan see spots of feces around the entrance of the hive,and in severe cases, in the hive itself. Transmissionof the disease is through this contaminated fecalmaterial. Protection of water sources in the apiaryfrom fecal contamination is important in the controlof nosema. A roof over such water sources preventscontamination. (See Chapter 6, Getting Started - TheApiary.)

This disease is most severe in temperate regionswhere the bees are confined in the hive for longperiods. Serious losses due to nosema are less commonin the tropics. A drug (Fumidil-B) is effective fortreating the disease, but it is expensive and availableonly from specialized bee-equipment suppliers.

Dysentery can also be caused by bees foraging onpoisonous plants. When more favorable forage is notavailable, bees will visit plants which are poisonousto.:them. Thip occurs when nectar secretion or pollenproduction fails in the normal forage plants becauseof adverse environmental conditions.

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Mites are another problem which slowly weakens thecolony, making them susceptible to attack by otherdiseases and pests.

Acarine disease is caused by a mite that lives inthe respiratory system of adult bees. The symptoms aresimilar to nosema except that there is no dysentery.

The Varroa mite attacks both brood and adults.It is an external parasite and feeds on the hemolymph(body fluid) of the bee. Attacked brood either diesor results in deformed adults. Infested adults areweakened and their lives shortened. This parasite isparticularly destructive to bee colonies, and hascaused a lot of problems recently in Europe andsouthern South America where it was accidentallyimported with bees.

There are other ites that live on bees or in thehive which cause little or no damage to the colony.

Treatments for mites are not practical for mostsmall-scale beekeepers. Fortunately, many areas arestill free of mite problems. These areas include sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, and most ofNorth America.

173.

Pests are usually easier to deal with inbeekeeping. They can be seen, their effect isimmediate, and the solution to the problem is moreobvious to the beekeeper.

The wax moth is by far the biggest pest ofhoney bee colonies. It is discussed as a part of hivemanagement in Chapter Five.

Other possible pests to colonies include: hivebeetles, birds, ants, small flies, lizards, toads,mice, and insect-eating mammals.

Generally, the damage done by these pests isminimal. Their greatest damage is usually to hiveswhich the beekeeper has allowed to become weak. Ininstances where they become a problem, control centerson mechanical means of removing them or preventingtheir access to the hive.

Beetles are sometimes found in the colony in thetropics and subtropics. These hive beetles feed on thestored pollen. Generally, the only damage is in weakcolonies where the beetle larvae are allowed to burrowthrough the comb.

Braula, a small, wingless fly which lives on beesis common in some ateas. This fly only lives on thebee; it is not a parasite. It feeds on Eifiof pollenon the bee and on glandular secretions from the bee.Braula are especially attracted to queens. The numberof individual flies is usually small and they do littledamage.

(Braula are larger than mites and have three pairsof legs, whereas mites have four pairs.)

. Birds and lizards sometimes cause problems in theapiary by eating large numbers of bees. The onlysolution for this is to kill the animals involved,though this is usually only a temporary solution --others soon replace them. Well-cared-for colonies areaffected very little by losses from birds and lizards.

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Ants are a common pest of bee colonies in manyparts of the tropics. They can continually attack acolony for several nights until they weaken itsufficiently to gain entrance and destroy it. Ants areusually more interested in the brood than in the honey.Colonies that are under attack by ants at night areagitated and very defensive during the day.

Toads are also a problem for colonies in areas ofthe tropics. They can eat large numbers of bees fromthe entrance of the colony at night or capture bees asthey leave the hive early in the morning. If toads areeating bees from the colony, toad feces which containbees will be seen around the f-)nt of the hive.

In areas where ants and toads are a problem, it isnecessary to have the hives on hive stands to preventlosses. (See Chapter Five for details.) Hive stands11W-41 working the hives easier and can also lessentermite damage to wooden hives. Using termite -resistant posts to make the stands can prevent termitesfrom gaining access to the hives.

Mice can be a problem in hives during dearthperiods. They can destroy large areas of comb to buildtheir nests. A strong colony which has sufficient beesto cover all of the comb in the hive will not allowmice to build nests.

Insect-eating mammals such as the honeybadger of Africa and Asia can destroy- hives for thebrood. Where this is a problem, the animals can bekilled or a fence built around the apiary.

A fence may also be helpful in preventingvandalism. Vandalism is especially prevalent in areaswhere bee-having or beekeeping is new.

Where bee-killing is traditional, the icka existsthat bee colonies are a community resource: frbm thebush. Thus, the:idea that bees can be owned will notbe readily accepted by many people in the area. Fromtheir point of view, bee hives are a legitimateresource for them to use.

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173

Insecticides which are used to conv. J1agricultural and household pests also affect ,3ees. Theextent to which this problem affects beekeepers variesconsiderably.

In some regions, nsecticide use is sufficientlyisolated so that it has little effect on colonies. Inother regions, .vast areas are made unfit for beekeepingby aerial spraying of insecticides.

Insecticide poisoning mostly affects the foragers.Many are killed in the field, but some do not die untilreturning to the colony. Large-numbers of dead beesaround col.Rnies are a reason to suspect poisoning byinsecticider.

LessiWing the problem of insecticide poisoninginvolves educating both the beekeeper and theinsecticide user. Hives can be moved from an area ifinsecticides are going to be used, but this option israrely realistic for the small-scale beekeeper.

Losses due to insecticides can be minimized bychoosing a chemical or a formulation of the chemicalless toxic to bees yet still effective on the targetinsect. Unfortunately, this is difficult in manyregions since only a limited number of chemicals andformulations is available to farmers.

The method and timing of application are alsoimportant in preventing high bee losses due toinsecticides. Proper application prevents drifting 04the chemical away from the intended crop onto beecolonies 3r other bee forage. Applying the insecticidewhen bees are not active on the crop can also reducebee losses. This can be when the crop is not in bloomor during a time of day (or night) when bee activityon the crop is low. (This is not as effective inpreventing bee kill if the insecticide used has a longresichthl activity.)

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3.74

Fungicides, herbicides, and microbial insecticidesare all relatively nonhazardous to bees. These usuallycause problems only when they are applied directly toforaging bees.

The following are lists of common insecticides(generic names) which are hazardous and moderatelyhazardous to bees. A complete list of pesticides withtheir relat_se toxicity to bees is given is some of thesources in Appendix A.

Hazardous to honey bees

AzinphosmethylBenzene hexachlorideCarbarylCarbofuranChlorpyriphosCrotonamideDiazinonFenthionHeptachlorLindaneMalathionMethyl parathionMethomylMonocrotophosParathionPropoxur

Moderately hazardous to honey bees

ChlorodaneDemetonDisulfotonEndosulfanEndrinOxamylPhorate

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175

Convincing farmers that bees can actually increasetheir yields of many crops is necessary to get theircooperation in alleviating insecticide problems.Because of the given socio-economic realities in manyregions, the small-scale beekeeper is often in a no-winsituation when it comes to solving an insecticideproblem.

Another alternative to prevent pesticide loss isto confine the bees during the period when thechemicals are applied. Screens can be placed over theentrance at night when all the bees allt inside.

Make sure confined colonies are kept cool by beingin the shade or covered with wet burlapisor thatch.such colonies should also be given watet by squirtingit into the entranc r putting it in a feeder bottle.Do not confine colons for more than two days.

* * * * * * *.* * *

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ao

177

In recent years there has been a growing,awareness of the potential of beekeeping asa development tool. This has grown out ofthe interest in directing development effortsto small-scale projects.

Beekeeping fits well with this approachto local development. Its potential isgreat. The idea needs to be disseminated.This manual will. help you get started.

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Resources and

Bibliography

The International Bee Research Association (IBRA)is an international clearing house for bee r arch andbeekeeping information. IBRA publishes Be. .id, aquarterly journal of a general nature, id-AJournal ofApicultural Research, a quarterly technicalpublication.

180

Recently, IBRA published with financial supportfrom the Canadian International/Development ResearchCenter a series of ten leaflets, Source Materials forA iculture, providing information o ?t nee a andsought by beekeepers in developing countries.Individual leaflets are free to addresses in developingcountries. The titles of the leaflets are:

No. 1 Suppliers of equipment for tropical andsubtropical beekeeping

Nd. 2 Marketing bee products: addresses ofimporters and agents

*No. 3 Planting for bees in developing countries

No. 4 Opportunities for training in apicultureworld-wide

No. S Sources of voluntary workers forapicultural development

*No. 6 Sources of grant-aid for apiculturaldevelopment

*No. 7 Obtaining apicultural information fcr usein developing countries

*No. 8 -Ilicultural reference books fordeveloping countries

No. 9 Educational aids on apiculture

No. 10 writing about apiculture: guidelines forauthors

* These are especially useful for small-scale projects.

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lel

The Bibliography of Tropical A iculture is anotherpublication of IBRA. Eis is a series o etailedbibliographies on bees, beekeeping, and beekeepingdevelopment in the tropical and subtropical regions ofthe world. Pertinent sections of the bibliography areavailable free to certain libraries and resourcecenters in developing countries.

Peace qlosps Information Collection and Exchangehas worked out an arrangement with IBRA to providetechnical assistmice on beekeeping for Volunteers.Specific requests for information should be sent toPeace Corps, Information Collection and Exchange, RoomM -701, 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington D.C.20526. ICE will refer the questions to IBRA if necessary.

For more information on IBRA or to request publicationswrite:

IBRAHill HouseGerrards CrossBucks. SL9 ONREngland

The International Agency for ApiculturalDevelopment (IAAD) is an organization of scientists,technicians, and beekeepers who are working to promotebeekeeping development. The agency provides a linkbetween its members and development funding agencies.IAAD also co-sponsers a yearly seminar each summer ondevelopment apic41ture. Members of IAAD havebeekeeping experience in most regions of the world andmay be able to provide you with contacts in your area.

For more information on IAAD, write:

IAAD3201 Huffman Blvd.Rockford, Illinois 61103U.S.A.

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182

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has anumber of publications 'dealing with bees andbeekeeping. These are for sale from the Superintendentof Documents, U.S. Govelmment Printing Office,Washington, D.C. 20401 U.S.A. (Minimum order of$1.00.)

The following USDA ublications may be useful forsmall-scale projects:

Beekeeping for Beginneri, Home and GardenBulletin 158 ($0.30) \.

Beekeeping in the United States, AgricultureHandbook 335 ($6.00)

A good overview o "high-tech" beekeeping;thus, it is useful t gain a perspective onthe possibilities of eekeeping.

Insect Pollination of Cul ivated Crop Plants,Agriculture Handbook 49 ($5.90)

A comprehensive tre tment of thepollination requiremen s and recommendationsfom both temperate and tropical crop plants.

0(Pesticides and Honey Bees, Leaflet 563 ($0.70)

Selecting and Operating Beekeeping Equipment,Farmers' Bulletin 2204 ($0.40)

1

Identification and Control of Honey Bee Diseases,Farmers' Bulletin 2255 ($1.00)

Nosema Disease, Technical BUlletin 1569 ($0.90)

Shade and Water for the Honey Bee Colony, Leaflet530 ($0.35)

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183

Other USDA publications of a more "high-tech"nature are:

Development of Hybrid Honey Bees, ProductionResearch Report 168 ($0.35)

Instrumental Insemination of Queen Bees,Agriculture Handbook 390 ($0.25)

Overwintering of Honey Bee Colonies, ProductionResearch Report 169 ($0.35)

Trapping Pollen from Honey Bee Colonies,Production Research Report 163 ($0.35)

Two-Queen System of Honey Bee Colony Management,Production Research Report 161 ($0.35)

Using Honey Bees to Pollinate Crops, Leaflet 549($0.60)

Supplemental Feeding of Honey Bee Colonies, AIB413 ($0.70)

Note: Single copies of USDA publications can bereceived free, if available, from: USDA, SEA,Information Staff, 6009 South Bldg., Washington,D.C. 20250, U.S.A. Include a brief statementon your interests and project in your request.

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184

There are many books on bees and beekeeping. Thefollowing were selected for their comprehensiveness andfor their usefulness to beekeepers working in small-scale development projects. The prices quoted are inU.S. dollars and are for 1982. They do not includepostage; thus, include sufficient money for air mailpostage when ordering these books from outsideof theircountry of origin.

Complete ordering information is provided for alltitles, incluoing those available from ICE. However,note that titles which are available from ICE are freeof charge to PCVs and staff and can be ordered by writingPeace Corps, Information Collection and Exchange, RoomM-701, 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington D.C.20526.

ABC and XYZ of Bee Culture, The A.I. Root Company,P.O. Box 706, MedinaOhio 44256, U.S.A., 1974,726 pp.

A popular-oriented encyclopedia on bees andbeekeeping. $13.80.

A.I. Root also publishes Gleanings in BeeCulture, a monthly, popular - oriented jourEir. Theyalso have a catalog of beekeeping supplies andequipment. (Don't overlook the educational value ofa catalog.)

La Apicultura: Guia Practices, Como Trabajar con lasAbejas, (In Spanish), J.D. Wce. ProyectoDesarrollo Apicola, Nebaj, Guatemala, 1980, 222 pp.Order from: Centro de Recursos para el Desarrollo,Apartado Postal $2, Chimaltenango, Guatemala.

A simple, how-to guide to the methods of "high-tech" beekeeping. Well illustrated. Recommendedfor those working in Spanish-speaking America.$5.50.

Apicultura Tropical, (In Spanish), Dario Espina P. andGonzalo S. Ordetx. Editorial Tecnologica de CostaRica, Cartago, Costa Rica, 1981, 420 pp.

A good book dealing with "high-tech" beekeepingfor those working in tropical America. $12.50.

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185

A Beekeeping Handbook, Bernhard Clauss. Ministry ofAgriculturi75iirieping Officer, Private Bag 003,Gaborone, Botswana, 1980, 65 pp.

includes methods and photos of beekeeping withtop-bar hives. Also includes photos of theconstruction of mud hives. Especially recommendedfor those working in Africa. About $7.00.

%4-11 Beekeeper's Handbook, Diana Sammataro and Alphonsevitable. Peach Mountain Press, Ltd., Box 126,

D,xter, Michigan 48130, U.S.A., 1978, 131 pp.

A practical guide to bees and to beekeeping ascarried on in the U.S. Recommended as anorientation to "high-tech" beekeeping. $7.95.

stehetRing in Rural Development: Unexploited beekeepingpotential, in the tropics with articular referenceto the commonwealth, Commonwealth - Secretariat andIBRA, 1979, 196 pp.

Case studies of the beekeeping situation invarious regions and countries. Available free toaddresses in developing countries from:

Commonwealth SecretariatFood Production and Rural Development DivisionMarlborough HousePall MallLondon SwlY 51.1XUK

Beekeeping in Zambia, R.E.M. Silberrad. Apimondia,Buc erest 1, Romania, 1976, 76 pp... (Available fromIBRA.)

Provides an excellent orientation to the natureof beekeeping with African bees. $6.60.

Beekeeping Technical Cooperation: Directory, and'Guidelines, W. Drescher and Eva Crane. 19U7.

A guide to starting and funding large-scaledevelopment programs. Available free to addresses.in developing countries from:

German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ),Postfach Siao6236 Eschborn 1German Federal Republic

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186

A Book of Honey, Eva Crane. Oxford University Press,Oxford, England, 1980, 194 pp.

Discusses the composition and properties ofhoney, the uses of honey, and the role of honey infolklore and literature. $7.70.

Contemporary Queen Rearing, Harry H. Laidlaw, Jr.Dadant and Sons, Hamilton, Illinois. 62341, U.S.A.,1979, 199 pp.

A complete guide to the methods of large-scalequeen production. Includes sections on the historyof the techniques, package bee production, and beestock maintenance and improvement. (Royal jelly isproduced using the basic techniques covered in thisbook.) $10.95.

The Da Bees, Karl von Frisch. Harcourt, Brace andWor d, New York, 1953, 182 pp.

A highly readable account of the life history andthe senses of the honey bee. Includes a discussionof the author's work on the communication system ofbees. $3.50.

The Hive and the Honey Bee, Dadant and Sons, Hamilton,IRoi U.S.A., 1975, 740 pp.

The most comprehensive book available on allaspects of bees and beekeeping. $12.95.

Dadant and Sons also publishes the monthlyAmerican Bee Journal, the widest-interest journal inthe U.S. dealifigTiEh bees and beekeeping. You canalso request a catalog of beekeeping supplies andequipment from this company.

Let's Build a Bee Hive, Wilbert R. Miller,2028 W. SEerman Street, Phoenix, Arizona 85009,U.S.A., 1976, 92 pp.

A carpentry book which contains plans and tips onbuilding a wide range of "high-tech" beekeepingequipment. $8.50.

187

Make Your Own Bee Hives and Make Your Own HoneyExtractor, Garden Way PubiiiKing, CEiFlotte,Vermont 05445, 1977, 8 pp. each.

Well-drawn and explained plans for building thisequipment. $5.50 for both.

Preparation of Honey for Market, G.F. Townsend.Ministry 5? AgricuTEUre and Food, Ontario, Canada,1976, 38 pp.

Describes commercial-scale extraction andprocessing of honey using high-technology foodprocessing equipment. Contains a brief section onsmall-scale honey extraction. The booklet alsocovers the principles of maintaining' high quality inhoney. About $2.00. (You may be able to obtainthis for free if you request it on an officialletterhead.)

The following titles are available to PCVs andstaff through ICE:

Apicultura Lucrativa by Walter T. Kelley, TheWalter T. Kelley Co., Clarkson, Kentucky42726, U.S.A., 1977, 104 pp. (Spanish only.)

This guide, written in Spanish, outlines theprocedures involved in beekeeping. Chaptersinclude information on beekeeping equipment,placement and construction of the apiary, des-cription of bee activity, treatment of diseasesand pests and collection and uses of honey,complete with illustrative photographs. Aserviceable guide for the apiculturist workingin small-scale beekeeping projects. $10.00.Available to PC offices/resource centers only;two copies per country.

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4

188

Firewood Crops: Shrub and Tree S ecies for EnergyProduction, Natraial-Kciairily of Sciences,Washington, D.C., 1980, 237 pp.

Discusses other uses of these plants. Some areimportant bee forage in certain areas. One copy isfree if requested on you organization's letterhead.Order from:

Commission on International RelationsNational Academy of Sciences -

National Research Council2101 Constitutional AvenueWashington, D.C. 20418U.S.A.

Lesson Plans for Beekeeping by PC/Philippines,ICE Reprint R-32, 1978, 62 pp.

Step-by-step procedures and basic technicalinformation for starting small-scale beekeepingprojects, presented as a series of lessons.

Available to all PCVs,and staff through ICE.

19;

189

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":.7......."........ ...1) Use 4 sit-mai-1,i, h4rdwoodboard.

2)Wer +he bo4r01 wifh+lie viei-i-in3 liquid.

\fr\ 0-3, ) Dip -I-he board intohot vkix. fur -1-hicKerSrips, dip the boro4seveqi -1-i mes.

4) When the w4x-"A hardens), peel it-From

the bard, +rirn itand cot' it inl-02 cm strips.

213

205

jk MOLD FOR 1441.CiiKr wqx Foutum-rro 0

v4OR* 4r2pyie coni-4intli9 45vrel- of -Foundai-ion ohbo4r4.

65A

fiti--.2-----=92) GO- foundation withveget4ble oil.

lif cm

3) Povr in pl4sier of Faris,4nct at iovv to hrden.

4Trign over'ind do*e other side.

we'

5W4len ife melds Wehrcil c4brefullYsepaThem. RAO 4 him-Frairre (box) 1-c. .hd +hemolds.

214

4

IN

tsicim:Meif +he 1/44x

in 4 double boiler.W4x l' 5 -Fi4mmable.Do not 41Iovy. thk4K

iD 13011 ----1-1(6- will w4leii- brittle.'

Uses for Beeswax*

Grafting Wax for Horticultural Purposes

Melt equal portions of resin anu beeswax in adouble boiler. Allow the mixture to cool and roll itout into sticks. Wrap in wax paper and store in acool, dry place.

Sewing

Pull the thread through small blockz.ut-lageswax.The wax stiffens and smooths the thread. This isespecially useful when sewing hides and thick material.

Treatment for Cracked Hooves

Mix together equal parts of melted beswax andhoney for a good home remedy PA- cracked 4.00ves ofanimals. Clean and dr, the crack befesre applying themixture.

*Adapted from: 'Practical Beekeeping for the DevelopingWorld by Henry Mulzac. 1978. UnpubliAid manuscriptprepared for the Peace Corps.

216

208

Beeswax Furniture/Wood Polish

200 gms beeswax100 gms turpentine50 gms orange, lemon, or coconut oil

Grate the beeswax into flakes. Gradually add theturpentine to soften the wax. Add oil and mix. Storein a tin with a tight-fitting top or in a jar.

Beeswax Floor Polish

60 gms potash60 gms,water120 gms beeswax270 gms water

Heat 270 gms of water to the boiling point andgradually add the beeswax. Mix the potash with 60 gmsof water and'pour this mixture into the beeswax andwater. Heat until a milky fluid results.

Leather Waterproofer

750 gms beeswax45 gms pitch60 gms ground nut oil40 gms iron sulfate15 gms essence of thyme

Grate and melt the beeswax. Allow the wax to cooluntil it is "semi-soft". Add the remaining ingredientsand mix. Store in a tight container.

Topical Ointment for Burns

18 gms beeswax'40 gms paraffin10 gms pulverized aloe30 gms water1 gm borax (available in pharmacies)

Grate and melt together the beeswax and paraffin.Remove from heat and add the remaining ingredients.Store in a jar.

21,7

Beeswax Cold Cream

100 gms beeswax200 gms water300 gms colorlass-lineral oil

6 gms boraxaromatic essence (if desired)

Heavy, colorless mineral oil, which is sold inpharmacies as medicinal oil, is satisfactory. Theborax, or sodium borate, neutralizes the acids in thebeeswax and acts as an emulsifier.

Heat the beeswax and mineral oil to 70 degrees C.Stir until the wax is completely dissolved. Add theborax to the water and heat to the same temperature asabove. Add the borax-water solution to the oil and waxwhile stirring briskly. Stir until a smooth emulsionis formed.

When the mixture has cooled to 60 degrees C, addthe aromatic essence and stir thoroughly; When cooledto 48 degrees C, pour into jars and allow to set withthe lids off.

218

210

Ordwire meshenough -forthe

bees to cie04/1 J*00(more th4t) 5 holes per

FR.owr view) 2.54,m)

nmwe a sw4rivi b, rd.

2) rind the queen incolony and car her ME/1;h

oged queen +o the trieson twe swaprien

3) Remove +he comb5(either on fop t;1. 5 or inframes) from the lelive,hdShVe or- brugi 411 of the.bees -from +he cowib5back into" ihe. hive. set-

, the combs .sicie iiet zclosed empty boX

4) Piece The swaw)thegveeri

over The loose kees.TrI 4 -eivi mmufes, theewith clust-e( qrptincl thequeen.

219

2111

Making an Artificial Swarm

5) Yov car) then 114113 (i4-he stivtewi up .to ol,seiveit.

(ft 4,, I...

_..D iii-ogunivii___q)-1-0 retwe +he sw4(tri;shzfice if on +0 q, cioth ora nevv5pFer- in front of ahive in which You have.put -I-he comb. Rele-thequeen into the hive.

4

220

1

Since 1961 when the Peace Corps was created, more than B0,000 U.S. citi-tens have served as Volunteers in developing countries, living andworking among the people of the Third World as colleagues- and to- work rToday 6000 Pelts are' involved in programs designed to help strength,local capacity to address such fundamental concerns as food production,water supply, energy development, nutrition and health education andreforestation.

Peace Corps overseas offices:

BELIZEP.O. 487Belize City

FIJI1 .:117 Box 1094Suva

BENIN GABON119-371 1157U98Cotonou Libreville

BOTSWANA7767-137 93Gaborone

SAMBIA.TheP.O. Box 3t2Banjul

MAURITANIABP 222Nouakchott

MICRONESIA77-01T37-736Saipan, MarianaIslands

MOROCCO17/17115uat BenzerteRabat

SOLOMON ISLANDSP.O. Box 547Honiara

SWAZILAND15767-17-362Mbabane

TANZANIArox 9173Da- es Salaam

BURUNDI GHANA NEPAL THAILANDc/o Ame-icon P.O. S796 15717Box 613 17-157Embassy RiCr0 (Worth) Kathmandu Sompasong 2Bujumbura Petchburi Road

GUATEMALA NIGER Bangkok 4CAMEROON Ti17/71771a 1-46 ITM537DP 117 Zona 2 NiameyYaounde Guatemala TOGO

CENTRAL AFRICAN HONDURAS PT Box 966ro-2194

REFOLIC XiiiTTicT6 Postal MuscatIP 100 C-51

ini:10.0. Box 1790 R faBangui Tegucigalpa PAPUA NEw GUINEA

COSTA RICA JAMAICA BorokoIF77FITIFFFOStAl WITT-7.7,e Avenue Port Moresby1266 Kingston 10 TUNISIASan Jose PARAGUAY P 96

KENYA c/0 American Embassy1Belvedere

ApartadoDOMINICAN REPUBLIC P.O., Box 30518 AsuncionApartado Postal Nairobi Tunis1414 PHILIPPINESSiOtO Domingo LESOTHO "P.O. Box 7013 UPPER VOLTA

IP 537-Samanlin:710sTrITx 554 ManilaOuagadougou

EASERN CARRIBBEA RWANDAIncluding: Antigua, LIBERIA ZITAierican Embassy WESTERN SAMOABarbados, Grenada, 17.7-757 Kigali P.O. Box 8B0Montserrat, St. Monrovia Apia

Kitts-Nevis,St. SENEGAL fLucia. St. Vincent, MALAWI IP 254 YEMEN

Court" Bishops LilongweDakar PBox 1151

tiSnp.21Oominica °Erin 1 iirs rTE8

Court Hill SEYCHELLESP.O. Box 696-C MALAYSIA 17-07---- ZAIREBridgetown, Barbados flan Victoria 11-07T.7

Raja Muda KinshasaECUADOR Kuala Lumpur SIERRA LEONErilTITTi 635-A Private Mail BagQuito MALI Freetown

BP BSBox S64

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