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AUTHOR Schleppegrell, Mary; Bowman, BrendaTITLE .ESP: Teaching English for Specific Purposes.INSTITUTION Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C.SPONS AGENCY Peace Corps, Washington, D.C.PUB DATE Aug 86CONTRACT 205-2723NOTE 123p.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Administrator Guides; Class Activities; Classroom

Techniques; Content Area Reading; Content AreaWriting; Curriculum Guides; Educational Needs;*English (Second Language); *English for SpecialPurposes; *English Instruction; Foreign Countries;Grammar; Information Sources; InstructionalMaterials; Language Skills; Media Selection; NeedsAssessment; *Program Design; *Program Development;Student Role; Study Skills; Teacher Role

IDENTIFIERS Peace Corps

ABSTRACTThis manual is a guide to the development of an

instructional program in English for Specific Purposes (ESP).Step-by-step procedures for assessing student needs, settingachievable goals, designing a program, and selecting appropriatematerials and activities for the classroom are outlined. The fourlanguage skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) aredescribed and suggestions for teaching these skills and grammar andstudy skills are provided. General guidelines for program andclassroom management are also presented. A special section addressesthe needs of students who are preparing to study abroad, and aresource section reviews materials available to Peace Corps ESPteachers and gives directions for ordering them from the Peace CorpsInformation Collection and Exchange. The manual is not an exhaustivereview of techniques and approaches to teaching English as a secondlanguage (ESL), but focuses on the ways in which an ESL programshould be structured for the teaching of ESP. (Author/MSE)

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from the original document.***********************************************************************

ESP:

TEACHING ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

MARY SCHLEPPEGRELL and BRENDA BOWMAN

Prepared for the Peace Corpsby the Center for Applied Linguistics

Washington, D.C.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EOUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document haS beers reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.

0 Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction qualify.

Points Owe," or opinionsstated in Misdeeu .ment de not necessarily rePresent officialOERI position or policy.

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTE9 BY

7irtr

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Prepared for the Peace Corps by the Center for AppliedLinguistics under Contract #205-2723, August 14, 1986.

This Manual may be reproduced and/or translated in part or infull without payment of royalty. Please give standardacknowledgement.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank John L.D. Clark, JoAnnCrandall, and Karen Willetts of the Center for AppliedLinguistics, and John Guevin and Maureen Delaney of the PeaceCorps, for their valuable editorial comments. We would also liketo thank Joyce Simpkins of the Center for Applied Linguistics forher help with the figures and diagrams.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

chapter P4ge

1. THE TEACHER, THE STUDENT:AND ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES 1

English for Specific Purposes 1

The Role of the Teacher 2

The Role of the Student 4

2. ANALYZING NEEDS 7

Purpose of the Needs Assessment 7

The Needs Assessment Process 8

What to Look For 9

3. DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS 11

Listening 11

Reading 16

Writing/Grammar 32

Speaking 41Study Skills 45

4. PROGRAM DESIGN 49

Setting Goals 49

Designing Units 50

Planning Lessons 51

Sample Unit: Computer Science 53

5. MATERIALS SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 69

Assessing Reading Difficulty 69

Selecting Materials 70

Developing Your Own Materials 71

Using Commercial Materials 78

6. PROGRAM MANAGEMENT AND EVALUATION 79

Group Work 80

Error Correction 81

Testing 82

Helping Students Learn Outside the Classroom 83

For Teachers Whose Students are U.S.-Bound 84

Appgndices

A. RESOURCES 85

Reference Books 85

Course Books 87

How to Obtain Copies of these Books 98

B. OUTLINE OP TRAINING MODULE:80 hour preservice training. 99

C. OUTLINE OP TRAINING MODULE20 hour inservice training. 105

INTRODUCTION

This Manual is a guide to the development of a program ofinstruction in English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Step-by-stepprocedures are outlined for assessing student needs, settingachievable goals, designing a program, and selecting appropriatematerials and activities for the classroom. The Manual alsodescribes the four language skills: listening, reading, writing,and speaking, and provides suggestions for teaching these skillsas well as grammar and study skills. General guidelines are alsopresented for program and classroom management. A special sec-tion addresses the needs of students who are preparing to studyabroad, and a resource section reviews materials which are avail-able to Peace Corps ESP teachers and gives directions for order-ing then from Peace Corps' Information Collection and Exchange(/CE).

This Manual is not an exhaustive review of techniques andapproaches to teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL).Other resources will be needed for that purpose by the Volunteerwith no previous EFL teaching experience. The Manual does focuson the special case in EFL; teaching English for SpecificPurposes, and the particular ways that a EFL program should bestructured for the teaching of ESP.

Chapter One

THE TEACHER, THE STUDENT, AND ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

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If you have had previous experience as a teacher of Englishas a Foreign Language (EFL), your first question on receiving yourcurrent assignment to teach ESP may be: "How is ESP different fromEFL?" The major difference between ESP and EFL lies in thelearners and their purposes for learning English. ESP studentsare adults who already have some familiarity with English and arelearning the language in order to communicate a set ofprofessional skills and to perform particular job-related func-tions. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment ofpurposes and needs and the functions for which English is re-quired.

ESP is part of a larger movement within language teachingaway from a concentration on teaching grammar and language struc-tures to an emphasis on language in context. ESP covers subjectsranging from accounting or computer science to tourism and busi-ness management. The ESP focus means that English is not taughtas a subject divorced from the students' real world; instead, itis integrated into a subject matter area important to thelearners.

EFL and ESP differ not only in the nature of the learner,but also in the scope of the goals of instruction. Whereas in EFLall four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, andwriting, are stressed equally, in ESP a needs assessment deter-mines which language skills are most needed by the students, andthe program is focused accordingly. An ESP program, might, forexample, stress the development of reading skills in students whoare preparing for graduate work in engineering; or it might stressthe development of conversational skills in students who arestudying English in order to become tour guides.

ESP integrates subject matter and English language instruc-tion. Such a combination is highly motivating because studentsare able to apply what they learn in their English classes totheir major field of study, whether it be computer science,accounting, business management, economics, or tourism. Beingable to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in anmaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases stu-dents' motivation.

The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, inturn, enhance their ability to acquire English. Subject-matterknowledge gives them the context they need to understand theEnglish of the classroom. The ESP class takes subject-mattercontent and shows students how the same information is expressedin English. The teacher can exploit the students' knowledge of

1

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the subject matter in helping them learn English faster.

figure 1 summarizes what is meant by English for SpecificPurposes. The °specific" in ESP refers to the specific plirmaafor learning. Students approach the learning of English througha field that is already known and relevant to them. This meansthat they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroomright away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhancesthe relevance of what the students are learning and enables themto use the English they know to learn even more English, sincetheir interest in their field will motivate them to interact withspeakers and texts.

The _Role of thp Teacbet

Some of you may already have experience teaching English asa Foreign Language (EFL). If so, you can draw on your backgroundin language teaching. This Manual will help you identify theways in which your teaching skills can be adapted for the teach-ing of English for Specific Purposes. In addition, you will needto seek out content-area specialists for assistance in designingappropriate lessons in the subject matter field you are teaching.

/f you are a subject-area specialist with no experience inteaching EFL, this Manual will be a valuable resource as it takesyou through the process of needs assessment and program designand offers concrete suggestions for classroom activities. Youwill need to carefully study the EFL techniques suggested here tosee how your subject-matter knowledge can be used in the teachingof language skills.

The Peace Corps ESP teacher must fill many roles. You maybe responsible for organizing courses, for setting learning ob-jectives, for establishing a positive learning environment in theclassroom, and for evaluating student progress.

1. Organizipg_programs: You will set goals for the studentsand then translate those goals into an instructional programwith hourly, daily, and weekly activities. One of yourprimary tasks will be management; selecting and organizingcourse materials, supporting the students in their efforts,and providing them with feedback on their progress.

2. Zetting Goajs and Objectiusi You arrange the conditionsfor learning in the classroom and set long-term goals andshort-term objectives for student achievement. Your aware-ness of students' capabilities is a crucial factor in de-signing a program with realistic goals that takes intoaccount the students' contribution to the learning situa-tion.

2

Purposefor

I,earning

WEnglish

will be used

English for Specific Purposes

NeedsAssessment

Motivution

SubjectMutter

Context.

SkillsDevelopment

ANWIIIMMINNI

figure I. ESP assesses needs and integratesmotivation, subject matter end content for theteaching of relevant skate.

Reading

Listening

Speaking

StudySkilkI

3. Zstablishino a LearninciEnvironment: Your communicationskills establish the classroom atmosphere. Language isacquired by students when they have opportunities to use thelanguage in interaction with other speakers. As theirteacher, you may be the only native speaker of Englishavailable to students, and although your time with any onestudent will be limited, you can model good communicationskills in the classroom. This means that in yourinteractions with students you should listen carefully towhat they are saying (or trying to say) and reflect yourunderstanding or lack of understanding back at them throughyour responses. Language learning is a great risk-takingendeavor for students in which they must make many errors inorder to succeed. Language learners are handicapped in theclassroom because they are unable to use their nativelanguage competence to present themselves as knowlegeableadults. Instead, they have to take on the role of inarticu-late learner. You should create an atmosphere in the lan-guage classroom which supports the students. The non-nativespeaker of English must be self-confident in order to commu-nicate, and you have the responsibility to help build thelearner's confidence.

4. BIWAMIUMLIMOVAtEL Finally, you are a resource person whohelps students identify their language-learning problems andfind solutions to them. You identify the skills that stu-dents need to focus on, and take responsibility for makingchoices which determine what and how the students learn.You will serve as a source of information to the studentsabout how they are progressing in their language learning.

The_Rolv of tbe Student

What does the learner bring to the classroom and what is thetask the language learner faces? The learners come to the ESPclass with a specific focus for learning, subject matterknowledge, and well-developed adult learning strategies. Theyface the task of developing English language skills to reflecttheir native-language knowledge and skills.

1. Focus for Learning; The ESP student has a particular pur-pose and focus for learning. People learn languages whenthey have opportunities to understand and work with languagein a context that they comprehend and find interesting. EsPis a vehicle for such opportunities. Students will acquireEnglish as they work with materials which they find interes-ting and relevant and which they can use in their profes-sional work or further studies. Successful learners payattention to the nglning of the language they hear or readand do not focus primarily on the linguistic input or iso-lated language struJtures. The ESP student is particularlywell disposed to focus on meaning in the subject-matterfield. In ESP, English should be presented not as a subjector body of facts to be learned in isolation from real use,

4 ii

nor as a mechanical skill or habit to be developed. Rather,English should be presented in authentic contexts toacquaint the learners with the particular ways the languageis used in functions that they will need to perform in theirspecialty fields.

2. jibjeetater _EnDiagdsgi. Learners in the ESP classroom areable to make a real contribution to the language learningprocess. They are generally aware of the purposes for whichthey will need to use English. Having already orientedtheir training toward a specific field, they see theirEnglish instruction as complementing this orientation.Rnowledge of the speciality area enables the students toidentify a real context for the vocabulary and structures ofthe ESP classroom. In this way, the learners can takeadvantage of what they already know about the subject matterfield to learn English.

3. Adult Learnlnq atrateoilpt Learning as an adult has advan-tages -- adults must work harder than children to learn anew language, but the learning strategies they bring to thetask enable them to learn faster and more efficiently. Theskills they have already developed in reading and writingtheir native languages will make learning English easier.Although the English of the students you will be workingwith will most likely be quite limited, the languagelearning abilities of the adult in the ESP classroom arepotentially great. Language learning continues naturallythroughout our lives. Educated adults are constantlylearning new language behavior in their native languages;expanding vocabulary, becoming more articulate in theirfields, and modifying their linguistic behavior in newsituations or new roles. ESP students can tap these naturalcompetencies in learning English.

To summarize,

ESP combines

o purposeo subject mattero motivationo contexto relevant skills

Your role in the ESP classroom is to

o organize programso set goals and objectiveso establish a positive learning environmenio evaluate students' progress

5 1 2

Your students bring to ESP

o focus for learningo subject matter knowledgeo adult learning strategies

613

Chapter Two

ANALYZING NEEDS

furpose of the Needs Assessment

Three reasons you should conduct a needs assessment prior todevelopment of an ESP course are:

1) to become acquainted with the institution and itsrequirements,

2) to identify how learners will use English in their tech-nical fields, and

3) to assess the students' current level of underctanding ofspoken English.

A series of interviews and observations, as suggested here,will allow you to take advantage of the resources available atyour institution to help you identify the particular skills thatthe learners will need to perform in English, and to createopportunities for students to engage in activities that give thempractice in understanding and using language structures to performthose skills. The process outlined here will prepare you toselect activities and materials whiclh are appropriate to thelearners' needs and level of proficiency.

The needs assessment phase of ESP program development willgive you a better understanding of your students' needs andcapabilities as English learners. Identifying these needs andcapabilities involves identifying the functions for which thestudents will use English and collecting samples of authenticlanguage. In analyzing this language your focus should not justbe on the grammar of the language, but also on how it is used inthe academic or professional contexts that is, what role Englishplays in that specialty field and what students must learn to beable to use English in their technical work.

are:The main questions answered by the needs assessment, then,

What are the purposes for which the students will useEnglish? Will it be mainly for oral communication, writtencommunication, reading, or to do research?

What language skills will the students need to develop inorder to perform these tasks? Will the receptive skills ofreading and listening be most important, or the productiveskills of writing and speaking -- or some other combination?

Your needs assessment will help you to answer thesequestions.

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The Needs Assessment Process

The process of needs assessment requires interviews andinteractions with three sources of information at your institu-tion: the administrators, the content-area instructors, and thestudents themselves.

1. ELggilyik_alminislotArs_ should be interviewed soon after yourarrival at your site. It is important that you integrateyourself into the new institution; introducing yourself tothe administration will give you the opportunity to find outwhat is expected from you as a new member of the teachingstaff, and for you to let them know what the goals of thePeace Corps program and your course are in the context ofbroader host country goals.

Ask the administrators about the institution's grading andexamination requirements. These requirements may put someconstraints on the program you develop. In many countriesstandard examinations are developed by the government oreducational institutions. If you are required to give suchan exam at the end of your course, your teaching must takethis into account. Even if you do not agree with the empha-sis on or focus of the examinations, your students will bedissatisfied if your program ignores material which isnecessary for their success within the institution.

Ask about facilities and equipment which are available toyou as a language teacher. Find out if the institution hasany funds available for you to acquire materials or equip-ment. Finally, ask to be introduced to the subject matterinstructors in the area of ESP that you will teach (instruc-tors in computer science, for example, if you will be teach-ing English for computer science students).

2. Contept-prep_instkusto;s are valuable resources for the ESPteacher. If the ESP course is English for Accounting, forexample, the instructors in the accounting department of theinstitution should become close working partners with theESP instructor to share information about the students'needs for English and the ways students will use the Englishthey are learning. Ask the instructors for samples ofEnglish-language materials used in subject-matter teaching:textbooks, research articles, and, if possible: classhandouts and sample exercises. It may be useful for you tolook at copies of old exams and materials which studentsused in secondary schools, if they are available. These canbe adapted and used in the ESP class to reinforce what istaught in the content-area classes. Ask the subject-matterteacher to show you any equipment and laboratory facilitiesused by the students. Spend some time in the laboratory todetermine first-hand the kinds of interactions that areimportant to the students in their acquisition of English.

3. Student intgrvigws will help you in the final purpose of theneeds assessment -- assessing the learners' current level ofunderstanding of spoken English. An assessment of the stu-dents' ability to comprehend English is done at this timefor.your benefit as a teacher, not to test the students'language skills. It is a necessary step in preparing you tomeet and interact with the class in a way that they will beable to understand. You need to know what the general levelof comprehension of spoken English is among the students inorder to prepare your initial presentations to them. It isnot necessary that you thoroughly assess your students'level of competence in English before the course begins, butinterviewing a few students before the first class meetingwill guide your preparations. Talking informally with stu-dents about their interests and experiences in languagelearning will give you an idea of how much you will need tomodify your speech initially so that it is understood by thegroup. See Chapter Six, Program Management and Evaluation,for tips on how you can modify your speech to achievecomprehensibility. Students can also give you informationabout what they perceive as their needs for English.

These student interviews should not be seen as formal or"testing" situations, but rather as opportunities for infor-ma1 assessment of individual students which will help you tou' -stand how much of your spoken English the students willco,....,:ehend. The students interviews are also useful,particularly in unstructured or informal instructionalsettings, for you to find out what the students perceive astheir needs for English. Your interview questions can probein depth on this topic. Keep in mind that it is thelistening comprehension ability of your students, and nottheir speaking ability that you are interested in at thispoint. Assessment of students' other language skills, suchas reading and writing, may be accomplished as the coursegets under way. See Chapter Three, Developing LanguageSkills, and Chapter Five: Materials Selection andDevelopment.

What to Look for

The materials and activities you select should reflect whatstudents will need to do with the English they learn. Asyou study subject-matter materials and observe students intheir laboratory and classroom interactions, pay specialattention to the functions and uses of language in thecontent area. Many of these can be incorporated into yourcurriculum. Uses of language include:

1) Vbcabulary used to identify and describe equipment,tools and machinery.

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2) Language used to describe procedures, processes, andsafety precautions necessary for using equipment,tools, and machinery. Functions for which such lang-uage is used include following directions, clarify-ing/verifying or getting more information, explain-ing, reporting, giving advice, and requesting help.

3) Language used for measurement and mathematics in thespecialty skill.

4) Language used to evaluate work and to check whetherwork has been completed properly.

Following the interviews suggested above, you are ready tooutline the instructional program that you will provide. Inaddition to the information from the interviews, you will havecollected any subject-matter materials that are available andnoted and observed situations in which English is used or will beused by the students.

To summarize:

Needs Assessment interviews cover three sources:

1. A.OPirdstsators, who will give you information aboutthe institution's requirements of your students.

2. Content ffirea instructoks, who will give youinformation about the materials covered by yourstudents in their specialty studies.

3. Btpdpnts, who will give you information about howwell you will be understood in the classroom andwhat they perceive as their needs for English.

With this information you should be able to identify theinstitutional goals, the skills to be developed in your ESPclass, and the level at which you should pitch your English tocommunicate best with your students.

Chapter Three

DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS

Listening, reading, speaking, and writing -- these are thefour basic language skills. Your needs assessment will show youwhich of these skills should be emphasized in your ESP class.Emphasis will vary from situation to situation, but in many post-secondary institutions, students typically need ESP to understandEnglish and will therefore expect priority help in developingtheir listening and reading skills. However, no skill should betaught in isolaition. This section of the Manual describes thelanguage skills, lists objectives for the development of eachskill, and gives guidelines and suggestions for classroom activi-ties to give students practice.

LISTENING

Listening comprehension, although vital for communication inEnglish, is usually the most neglected of the language skills inEnglish programs. As a native speaker, you have a unique advan-tage in developing listening comprehension skills in your stu-dents. Everything that you say in the classroom can be useful indeveloping the students' listening abilities.

To be effective, however, your spoken communications withthe class must be comprehensible. Language which is not under-stood is just "noise" and does not lead to student language acqui-sition. For this reason, it is important for you to gauge yourstudents' level of comprehension and adjust your speech to reflecttheir understanding. You should spend some time at the beginningof your course to be sure you are understood. Your students maybe accustomed to hearing a British accent, for example, and mayneed time to adjust to yours. Look at your students carefully asyou talk to get cues about their comprehension. Check com-prehension frequently by asking questions about content whichrequire listening comprehension, or by asking for questions orcomments.

The cloze exercise is a good way to check your students'listening comprehension. Give them a short passage with somewords deleted. Read the passage aloud twice. If they are unableto fill in the missing words, they are unable to make sense of thepassage. More information and examples of cloze exercises can befound on pages 38, 64, and 68 of this Manual. Other ways of usingcloze exercises include deleting articles or verbs, for example,if you are working on these forms, to focus students' attention onthese language structures.

The tape recorder is a valuable asset to the language teach-er. If you have a recorder available, you can tape listeningexercises in advance to allow yourself the freedom to circulate

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in the classroom as students complete them. You can also recordother native English speakers reading cloze or other passages togive the students practice hearing other accents and speakers ofthe opposite sex.

Give students practice taking notes as they listen. Yourstudents may be used to writing notes down verbatim, as a dictation exercise, and will need practice in listening for mainpoints of information. Help them to recognize clues to meaningintroduced by the speaker. figpu a illustrates the types ofclues you should bring to your students' attention.

A summary of such clues includes:

a) Numerical statements, such as "There are tworeasons ..."

b) Rhetorical questions.

c) Introductory summaries: "Let me first explain...";"The topic which I intend to discuss is interestingbecause..."

d) Development of an idea, signalled by statements suchas: "Another reason..."; "On the one hand...";"Therefore..."; "Since..."; "In addition...", etc.

e) Transitions, such as "Let us turn our attentionto..."; "If these facts are true, then..."; etc.

f) Chronology of ideas, signalled by "First...1'; "Thenext..."; "Finally...,"; etc.

g) Emphasis of ideas, such as "This is importanthecause..."; "The significant results were..."; "Letme repeat..."; etc.

h) Summary of ideas, signalled by "In conclusion ...;"As I have shown...°: etc.

(adapted from Richard C. Yorkey, gtudv fo; gtufAeDts 2t English As A gecond Language,. Used by permissionof McGraw Hill Book Co.)

Use graphics and visuals whenever possible with listeningexercises. Eigagg 1 shows how a graph can be used to keepstudents engaged in active listening. Students may also needhelp in learning to read graphics (maps, charts, etc.) becausethey may have had little experience with this skill. Listening,-oxlaprehension activities can help them see how graphicLo'ormation is read and analyzed.

3.219

CHOLERAIntroductory

Let me tell yrou, right at the beginning of this talk, I believe Summarythat with the correct use of available resources, epidemics ofcholera can be controlled.

But before saying how I believe cholera can be controlled, I Numericalwant to look at two questions: first, why does cholera occur in Statementscertain communities and not oth-Trs? second, why, despite alladvances in medical science, do people-kin-die from cholera?

To answer the first question, cholera occurs in conditions Numericalwlere germs spread easily From one person's feces to another Statementsperson's mouth. These germs are generally spread in food andwater, in places where there is no safe water and no latrines.These conditions are found in poor overcrowded communities,where people's resistance to disease is already weakened by Development ofmalnutrition. In addition, many traditional practices such as Ideathe washing of dead-bodies and feasting during funerals canhelp spread epidemics of cholera.

I now want to turn to the second vestion. Modern methods oftreatment can limit the number of deaths among victims to 1%,yet death rates of 30-40% continue to be seen. Alyi ? The basicreason for this high death rate is the insufficiency of medicalsupplies and trained health workers to help the victims.

So what can be done to control cholera? There are three mainways of preventing the disease: 1) by improving sanitary - Rhetoricalfacilities, such as latrines, 21 bySaving a safe water supply, questionand 1 by encouraging hygenic preparation of food. All threeways should be taught in b.ealth education programs. - Numerical

Statements

Transition

NumericalStatements

Rhetoricalquestion

Furthermore, when epidemics do occur, centers to help victimsoig.ilaTeTruickly set up. Most cholera cases can be treated

with oral rehydration therapy - that is, giving those sufferingfrom cholera clean water mixed with sugar and salt. Thistreatment can be given by a trained health worker withoutprofessional education, if proper supplies of' water, sugar andsalt are available.

To summarize, one imoortantpart of cholera control is theproviding of better sanitary conditions, supported by healtheducation. And the second important part is the training ofhealth workers in a simple and inexpensive treatment, oralrehydration therapy.

Notetaking Clues

Developmentof idea

Summary

NumericalStatements

Emphasisof ideas

13 20

LISTENING TASK

I Listen carefully. Write the name of each country after the corresponding letter. Us, theextra space for notes.

TRADE WITH THE SOVIET UNION IN 1979 (in billions of U.S. dohars)

ImportsExpons

Figure 3. Fromituency_Sguans by Phillip L.. Knowlesand Ruth A. Sasaki. Copyright 0 1981 by RegentsPublishing Company. Inc. Reprinted by permission.

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\

QUANTITATIVE ENGUSH

LISTENING TASK

I Listen carefully. Write the name of each country after the corresponding letter. Use theextra space for notes.

Example Britain's imports from the Soviet Union are more than its exports. Its importsare between one and two billion dollars. (b)

1 The United States' exports to the Soviet Union are about four times as much as its imports.Its imports are less than one billion dollars. (a)

2 West Germany's Imports and exports are both between two and three billion dollars. Itsimports from the Soviet Union are slightly greater than its exports. (g)

3 Japan sells more to the Soviet Union than it buys. Its exports are slighly more than twobillion dollars. (f)

4 Canada's imports from and exports to the Soviet Union were both less than one billiondollars in 1979. (c)

S France's imports from the Soviet Union were about the same as Britain's. Its exports,however, were about double Britain's. (d) .

6 Italy's exports to the Soviet Union were'rnore than four times as great as its imports. Itimported more than one billion dollars' worth of goods from the Soviet Union in 1979. (e)

112

Fisurt3. Continued.

/IIMINNE1110"

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Following are general objectives for the teaching oflistening comprehension. General objectives are given in eachsection of this chapter for the teaching of language skills, butyou will need to develop specific objectives for your particularprogram after you assess student needs and select teachingmaterials. Guidelines for the development of such objectives aregiven in Chapter Four, Program Design.

Qbjegtiyes fo_r_Development of I4steninc Comprehension

1. Students will understand short lectures in thecontent area when vocabulary is familiar, asdemonstrated by their ability to answer questionsabout the lecture.

2. Students will understand spoken numbers, includingpercentages, fractions, decimals, and othernumerical expressions common to the specialty field,as demonstrated by their ability to write thosenumbers when they hear them in context.

3. Students will be able to follow instructions givenin class regarding assignments and activities, asdemonstrated by their correct performance of suchinstructions.

Activities fgr Teac4ng Listeninql

1. Mini-lectures. Give a short lecture every class meet-ing to provide students with opportunities to developnote-taking and other listening skills. Make yourmini-lectures as contextualized as possible. Demon-strations are particularly effective. Use visual aidsand real objects at every opportunity to increase thecomprehensibility of your presentation. If possible,go into the laboratory with your students and demon-strate an experiment or process. Organize practical,hands-on activities for student participation. Follow-ing your presentation, ask true/false and yes/no ques-tions to give students the opportunity to check theircomprehension. You can do this orally, or make it apaper and pencil task and call it a self-evaluationtest to allow students to assess their own progress.

If you have sufficient preparation time, it is alsouseful to construct a cloze exercise in which, follow-ing your mini-lecture, you re-read some parts to thestudents while they follow along and fill in theblanks. This exercise can be checked immediately inclass so students receive feedback on their understand-ing. An example of such an exercise is given in Chap-ter Four.

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2. Reading aloud to your students. They will enjoy listeningto you read short passages aloud as they read them silently.They can listen to your intonation patterns and pronuncia-tion and absorb some of the features of native speakerspoken language, which will provide additional clues for theinterpretation of complex sentences which might otherwise bebeyond the students' competence. If possible, tape recor-dings of reading assignments can be made available to stu-dents out of class.

3. Number recognition. Any technical field requires that stu-dents understand spoken numbers. From your initial needsassessment, you will have identified certain math languagethat students will need to understand in English. Numberrecognition exercises give them practice doing so. Suchexercises develop Aistening comprehension and numeracy inEnglish and can easily be constructed in advance of eachclass period.

Ask the students to number a piece of paper from I. to 10.Then read a sentence which has a number in it. Ask them towrite the number they hear. Initially, the numbers you usecan be the simple cardinal numbers (differences betweensixteen and sixty, for example, often give students prob-lems), but as the course progresses this exercise can becomemore challenging, as you include numbers in the thousands ormillions, monetary expressions, decimals, fractions, percen-tages, and other specialty uses of numerical expressionswhich occur in the content area.

Read each sentence twice. Have a student at the blackboard,and as you read the sentence a third time, ask the studentto write the number so that the others can check theiranswers and get immediate feedback about whether or not theyunderstand. An example of this type of exercise is,given inChapter Four.

4. Dictation exercises. Dictation combines listening andwriting practice. When dictating, read the whole sentenceat normal speed three times, allowing time for writingbetween each repetition.

When evaluating dictation, do not focus on spelling as aprimary goal of the exercise. /f you think of dictation asa listening comprehension exercise, you can evaluate theproduct according to whether or not meaning is reflected inwhat is written. For example, plural endings or past tenseendings are necessary for correct interpretation of meaning.Spelling errors which reflect the irregularities of Englishorthography may not affect meaning.

READING

Reading is the primary channel through which your studentswill progress in English after your course is over. A goodreading program provides instruction in the skills required atvarious levels of reading, along with plenty of practice in thisskill, which can only be developed through extensive and contin-ual practice. Pollow the guidelines in Chapter Five, MaterialsSelection and Development, for selection of appropriate readingmaterials.

Two types of skills are needed in reading: simple identifi-cation skills, (decoding) and higher level cognitive skills suchas analyzing, synthesizing, and predicting. Your reading programshould work on two levels to develop both types of skill.

In order to do this, your program should incorporate twotypes of reading tasks: intensive and extensive. Intensivereading is close analysis of a short passage and can be used todevelop vocabulary, grammar skills, and comprehension. Extensivereading is faster reading of longer passales to develop under-standing of writers' organizational strategies, to improve read-ing speed, and to focus on main ideas.

Fluent reading depends primarily on knowledge of vocabularyand subject matter, and secondarily on knowledge of grammaticalstructure and familiarity with the ways that writers organizetexts in English. Vocabulary development, then, is a vitalaspect of reading (and listening) development. Your studentswill need to develop a good vocabulary in English in order to beefficient readers and listeners. You will probably find thatthey already know quite a lot of technical vocabulary in Englishin their fields. You can help them to expand their technicalvocabulary and develop the additional vocabulary they need forfurther study.

Vocabulary should be taught only in context, never in wordlists to be memorized with dictionary definitions. Use real ob-jects or pictures whenever possible to introduce new words. Thevocabulary you teach should be words which are useful for thestudents in the situations in which they encounter English. Donot give long lists of words each week; instead, focus on usefulwords that are present in the reading and listening passagesstudents are working with.

Grammar is best taught in connection with writing (see be-low), but exercises related to the reading and listening passagesthe students have worked with can also help them to increasetheir reading comprehension. Help students focus on grammaticalstructures which appear in reading texts, such as verb forms,possessives, adjectives and adverbs, and comparative forms.

Higher level cognitive skills necessary for good readingdepend on knowledge of the subject matter of the texts and know-ledge of the way that information is organized in writing. Your

1825

ESP students already bring their knowledge of the subject matterto the reading task, and their backgrounds in their fields willhelp make the reading materials more comprehensible to them.Students' higher level cognitive skills can be tapped by givingthem advance information about the texts they are asked to read,and by teaching them to preview texts before bevinning to read.Previewing is a quick reading for general familiarity, in whichstudents a) read the introductory paragraph; b) read the firstsentence of each of the body paragraphs; and c) read the entireconcluding paragraph. This should take students only a fewminutes, and will enhance their reading comprehension.

Tbe SQ3R technique is commonly used to help students get themost from their reading. SQ3R means Survey, Question, Read,Recite, and Review. Students are asked to complete these fiveactivities:

1) to puny; looking over headings, reading introduc-tory and concluding paragraphs, and identifying thecore ideas of the passage.

2) to formulate guastiom from text headings.

3) to make a conscious effort to find the ans rs inthe text as they re0.

4) Raving read the first section, to look away f m thebook and try to 19ci.te the answers to their ques-tions, using their own words and trying to give anexample.

5) to take notes, and, when they have finished reading,to ggyiew their notes.

Training in this procedure will help students to read more effi-ciently.

Students should receive practice in reading for differentpurposes, such as finding main ideas, finding specific informa-tion, or discovering the author's point of view. Students shouldhave a clear idea of the purpose of their reading before theybegin. Background information is very helpful in understandingtexts. Students need advance guidelines for approaching eachassignment. Knowing the purpose of the assignment will helpstudents get the most from their reading effort. From the title,for instance, they can be asked to predict what the text is about.It is also helpful to give students some questions to think aboutas they read. The way they approach the reading task will dependon the purpose for which they are reading.

Use different texts for different reading tasks. Teach theskills of &Waring and scanning. Sklmming is quick reading to getthe general drift of a passage. Students can be asked to skim atext to discover the author's purpose. 5gannina is a focusedsearch for specific information. Students can be asked

19

26

to scan a text to answer a specific question.

Comprehension checks can be built into reading as well aslistening exercises. figure A is an example of how a readingexercise can incorporate comprehension checks. Students readpart of the passage, then mark statements as "true" or "false"based on what they have read, and then continue reading. You canalso teach them to read the questions about the text first, andthen read the text itself.

Use long articles as well as short passages. Students needpractice with long blocks of text which they read for main ideasas well as intensive work with paragraphs and short passages.Long articles can be read outside of class to provide backgroundfor the work that will be done during the class period. You canmake long passages more accessible to students by dividing thetext into sections and adding appropriate sub-headings.

Train students to recognize patterns of organization oftexts. These include the following:

Description: Descriptions include physical descriptions orpersons, places, or objects, or descriptions ofprocesses, such as step-by-step explanations of howsomething is done or directions for doing something.

Example paragraph: Description by enumeration of steps in aprocess.

fn his will, Alfred Nobel _A specific instructions as to how thewinners of the science awards he ende ed are V) be selected. First, eachyear the Swedish Academy of Science (physics and chemistry) and theCaroline Medical Institute (physiology and medicine) solicit nearly twothousand recommendations f'rom past laureates, university professors,and otl-)r experts from all over the world. The second step is the reviewof recommendat ,ns received and the selections of preliminarycandidates by special committees within the two Swedish Institutions.The committee members are specifically instructed that those chosen"shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind," and that noconsideratio'_. be given to the candidates' nationalities. Next, afterlengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices are made foreach discipline. Finally, telegrams informing them of their awards aresent to the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the awardceremony.

From Paragraph Development by Martin L. Arnaudet andMary Mien Barrett, Copyright 1981 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.Used NT permission.

2027

1 Engineering Materials

I READING AND COMPREHENSION

'Engineers lutv: to know the best and most economical materials to use.'Engineers mum aho understand the properties of these materials and howthey can be worked. 'There are two kinds of materials used in engineeringmetah and non-metals. "We can divide metals into ferrous and non-ferrousmetals. 'The former contain iron and the latter do not contain iron. 'Castiron and steel, which are both alloys, or mixtures of iron and carbon, arc thetwo most important ferrous metals. 'Steel contains a smaller proportion ofcarbon than cast iron contains. °Certain elements can improve the propertiesof steel and are therefore added to it. 'For example, cbromium may beincluded to resist corrosion and tungsten to increace hardness. 19duminium,copper, and the alloys, bronze and brass, are common non-ferrous metals.

Study the following statements carefully and write down whether they aretrue or not true according to the information expressed above. Then checkyour answers by referring to solutions at the end of the passage.'

(a) Non-metals are used by engineers.(b) Cut iron contains more carbon than steel.(c) Chromium improves the properties of steel.(d) Copper contains iron.(e) Bronze is an alloy

'Plastics and ceramics are non-metals; however, plastics may be machinedlike metals. "Plastics are classified into two types thermoplastics andthermosets. "Thermoplastics can be shaped and reshaped by heat and

" The following symbols are used in the solutions:equals, means the same as

efi does not equal, mean the same SSCr. that is to say

therefore

Figure 4. From English in Mechanical Eneneering byEric H. Glendinning. Copyright 1973 by OxfordUniversity Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

21 28

Comparisonand Contrast: In this pattern the main idea is developed through

comparison and contrast with other things. Oftenexamples are used to illustrate. Definitions anddescriptions are often included in this pattern.

Example paragraph: Comparison and Contrast.

In studying the phenomenon usually referred to as sleep, we areactually dealing with more than one phenomenon. In point of fact,we spend the night alternating between two different types of sleep,each with different brain mechanisms and different purposes. As aperson: rlils asleep, his brain waves develop a slower and less regularpatter:, 'clan in a waking state. This is called orthodox sleep. In thisstate the brain is apparently resting. Its blood supply isreduced, andits temperature falls slightly. Breathing _and heart rate are regular.The muscles remain slightly tensed. After about an hour in thisstate, however, the brain waves begin to show a more active patternagain, even though the person is apparently asleep very deeply. Thisis called paradoxical sleep because it has much in common withbeing awake. Paradoxical (active) sleep is marked by irregularbreathing and heart rate, increased blood supply to the brain, andincreased brain temperature. Most of the muscles are relaxed.There are various jerky movements of the body and face, includingshort bursts of rapid eye movement (REM's), which indicate that weare dreaming. Thus, we spend the night alternating between thesetwo vital "restoration jobs": working on the brain (paradoxical sleep)and working on the body (orthodox sleep.)

From Paragraph Development by Martin L. Arnaudetand Mary Ellen Barrett. Copyright 1981 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. Used by permission.

Other patterns of organization of texts include:

Analysis: In this pattern, a topic is broken down into causes,effects, reasons, methods, purposes, or othercategories that support the main idea.

Analogy: In this pattern the main idea is implied by the useof analogy. This organizing principle is often usedto make complex concepts easier to understand byrelating them to better known ones.

Definition: The purpose of a text in this pattern is to define,explain, or clarify the meaning of something. Itmay involve analysis, comparison or contrast,description, or even analogy. Help students tobecome adept at recognizing implied and explicitdefinitions.

22 29

Do not ask students to read aloud in class to test theircomprehension. When reading aloud, the reader focuses on pronun-ciation, not comprehension. In any case, listening to otherstudents' inaccurate reading is boring and counterproductive.Students should read silently when reading is to be done in class.Students will appreciate hearing you read aloud, however, becauselistening to native speakers is one way they accustom themselvesto the sound patterns of English.

Students often believe they must understand every word inorder to read English. In fact, good reading means the ability toprocess chunks of language larger than single words, so strivingfor word-for-word recognition will actually slow students down andirterfere with their overall comprehension. Encourage them to usethe context of the passage to understand it, rather than reachingfor the dictionary every time they do not recognize a word.Context clues include use of functional definitions, as in "Thescientist used a caliper to measure the thickness of the paper"where the meaning of "caliper" can be inferred from thedescription of the function of a caliper. Using context cluesalso includes noting grammatical clues, such as recognizing that aword is an adjective because of its position in the sentence, ornoting past tense endings or possessive forms.

Context clues also include understanding the meaning of theother words in the sentence and applying such understanding toinfer the meaning of an unknown word or phrase. For example,students can be taught to infer the meaning of the word "drought"in the sentence "Because of the drought, many communities in theSahel region of Africa are having to leave their homes to searchfor water."

Be sure to get the most out of any reading passage youassign, using it in various ways so that students work withfamiliar material that they understand well in doing various typesof reading and study skills exercises. Flgure 5 shows how areading passage can be used to develop several different types ofexercises. Guidelines for preparing reading comprehension ques-tions are given in Chapter Five, Materials Selection andDevelopment.

Objectives for_Taachina_Raadiaci

1. Students will demonstrate their understanding of au-thentic material in their content area, includingstating the main points of the text and giving theauthor's point of view.

2. Students will be able to scan a passage quickly tofind specific information.

3. Students will use an increasing large vocabulary inthe subject area and in general academic language.

23 30

Activities fuSieysj_munt of Reading Skills_

1. Use fill-in-the-blank vocabulary exercises like the one givenin Chapter Four, Plogran Design, to develop students' vocab-ulary. This type of exercise also doubles as a listeningcomprehension exercise if you read the sentence aloud andask students to write in the missing vocabulary word.

2. Vocabulary can also be developed through instruction aboutprefixes and suffixes that carry meaning in English. Theseinclude:

a) prefixes which convey negative meaning, such as un-;in-; non-; a--; dis-; anti-; de-; counter-; contra--;mis--; mal--; under--; over-;. Examples:like/dislike; understand/misunderstand.

b) Noun-agent suffixes such as -er; -or; -ent; -ant;-ist; -ian. Examples: teach/teacher;science/scientist.

c) Verb-forming suffixes such as -ize; -ify; -ate.Examples: organize; specify.

d) Noun-forming suffixes such as -ation; -cation;-tion. Examples: organization, specification.

3. Have students use what they read in order to perform atask. Following is an example of such an activity fromthe plyclgus series (see Appendix A, Resources):

"In a given system the chances of a component failingafter the first five thousand hours are one in athousand. During the next three thousand hours thechances of failure uniformly decrease until aftereight thousand hours the chances are one in twothousand. The failure rate remains constant for thenext four thousand hours. It then enters the wearoutperiod and the chances of the component failing inthe next three thousand hours increase uniformly toone in eight hundred.

Now draw a graph to plot the changes in failurerate as a percentage. Make the vertical axisthe failure rate and the horizontal axis theoperating hours."

(From Engineerj.ng by T. Dudley-Evans, T. Smart, andJ. Wall. Copyright 1978. Used by permission ofLongman Group, Ltd.)

4. Exercises can be developed which help make explicit theorganizational pattern and/or main idea of the author. Theoutlining exercise in Chapter Four, Program Design, is anexample of this.

24 31

5. Encourage students to read extensively by asking them toreport on material they have read outside of class which isrelevant to the topic under consideration.

6. If time permits, incorporate some time for silent readinginto your instructional program.

25 32

UNIT 19Computer arithmetic

pi The digital computer is an electronic machine which contains thousandsof tiny circuits characterized by the fact that they have only two states:complete and broken. A complete circuit signifies that the electricity ison, whereas a broken circuit signifies that the electricity is off. lt isthrough the on and off states that information is transmitted by thecomputer. Substituting numbers for these states, one can say that 1 is onand 0 is off; this is the number system on which the computer operates.Because there are only two digits in this system, it is termed* binarysystem with the 0 and 1 being called bits B from binary and it fromdigit. They can represent all other numbers, the alphabet, and special 10characters such as $ and 0.

m In our everyday arithmetic, we use the decimal system, which is basedon ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In the decimal system,maiplication by ten would yield the following results:

10 .= (10° x 0)+ (10' x 1) 15100 = ()0°x 0)+ ()01x 0)+002 x 1)

woo = (10° x 0) + (101 x 0) + ()02 x 1) + (105 x 1)

In tabulating this, we notice that we multiply by 10 each time we movea number one column to the left; that is, we increase the base number10 by the power 1. 20

(103) (102) (101) (10°)1000 100 10 1

1 (1)1 0 (10)

1 0 0 (100)1 0 0 0 (1000)

Therekte, 652 in the decimal system is equal to 2 + 50 + 600:100 10 1

2 (1 x 2)5 0 (10 x 5) 30

6 0 0 (100 x 6)

Fisture 4. From English for Computer Science by NormaD. Mullen and P. Charles Brown. Copyright 1983 byOxford University Press, 1,c. Reprinted by permission.

2633

192 Mr 19 Coosa(' arithmetic

131 Since the binary system is based on two digits, 0 and 1, we multiply by'2 instead of by 10 each time we move a number one column to the left.So to convert binary to decimal, we use the base number 2 withsequentially increasing powers.(23) (22) (2i) (20)8 4 2 2

As an example, the decimal number 1 is 0001 in binary.

35

13 4 2 1 (decimal)

0 0 0 1 (1 x 1) ,to

The decimal number 2 is equal to 1 x 2 plus 0 x 1 or 0010 in binary.8 4 2 1

O 0 1 0 (0 x 1) plus (1 x 2)

The decimal number 3 is equal to 1 x 1 plus 1 x 2 or 0011 in binary.13 4 2 1

O 0 1 1

Let us tabulate the decimal numbers. 0 to 15 in the binary system.

45

(23) (22) (21) (20)8 4 2 1

0 0 0 0 (0) so0 0 0 1 (1)0 0 1 0 (2)0 0 1 1 (3)0 1 0 0 (4)0 1 0 1 (5) ss0 1 1 0 (6)0 1 1 1 (7)1 0 0 0 (8)1 0 0 1 (9)1 0 1 0 (10) so1 0 1 1 (11)1 1 0 0 (12)1 1 0 1 (13)1 1 1 0 (14)1 1 1 1 (15) Bs

Pll The binary system is very tedious for humans, especially in the handlingof long numbers, and this increases the possibility of committing errors.To overcome this limitation, two number systems were developed whichare used as a form of shorthand in reading groups of four binary digits.These arc the octal system with a base of 8, and the hexadecimalsystem with a base of 16. CDC computers use the octal system, whereasIBM computers use the hexadecimal.

70

fiattl. Con tin ued .

27 3 4

UM, 19 Cowl:Ago arithmetic 193

is) The table above shows that four binary digits may be arranged into 16different combinations ranging from 0000 to 1111. This forms the basisof the hexadecimal system. To represent these binary combinations, thesystem uses the digits 0 to 9 and 6 letters of the alphabet: A, B, C, D,E, and F. Following is a table that shows the relationship between thebinary, the octal, the hexadecimal, and tbe decimal systems.Decimal Hexadecimal Octal Binary

75

0 o o 0000 501 1 1 00012 2 2 00103 3 3 00114 4 4 0100s 5 5 0101 as6 6 6 01107 7 7 01118 a 10 10009 9 11 1001

10 A 12 101011 B 13 101112 C 14 110013 D 15 110114 E 16 111015 F 17 1111 es

PI On some computers, addition is the only arithmetic operation possible.The remaining arithmetic operations are based on the operation ofaddition (+): subtraction () can be thought of as the addition ofnegative numbers; multiplication (x) is repeated addition; division (+)is repeated subtraction. How do we add in tbe binary system? There are loofour basic rules of addition which we must remember:1 + 0 = 10 + 1 = 10 + 0 = 01 + 1 = 0 and carry 1 or 10 (read from the right 105

to the left as zeroone).Here is an example:

110

Binary Decimal1110 141000 8

10110 22

3526

fiv_r_z_li. Continued.

104 NU 19 Composer arilbserir

Exercises

1 Main ideaWhich statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why did youeliminate the other choices?

O 1. There are four different number systems.

O 2. Most arithmetic operations can be analysed in terms of addition.

O 3. Computer arithmetic is based on 0 and 1.

2 Understanding the passageDecide whether the following statements are true or false (TT) byreferring to the information in the text. Then make the necessarychanges so that the false statements become true.T FO 0 1. The digital computer uses the decimal number system.

O 0 2. In the decimal system, the 0 is called a bit.

O 0 3. The binary system has only two digits.

O 0 4. In binary arithmetic l + 1 = 0.

O 0 5. Unlike IBM computers, CDC computer arithmetic isbased on S digits.

O 0 6. The hexadecimal system is based on 16 numbers.O 0 7. To subtract a number really means to add a negative

number.

O 0 8. The computer transmits information through theprinciple of connected or broken electrical circuits.

O 0 9. The $ sign cannot be represented in the binary systembecause it is not a number.

O 0 10. The hexadecimal system is an economical way ofrepresenting the binary system.

3 Locating informationFind the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed.Give the line references.

1. To do calculations using the binary system is laborious work.2. The computer gets information by means of electric circuits

which are either on or off.3. In binary, 1 + 1 equals 0 and 1 is carried to the next column.

rilture 5. Continued.

2936

thea 19 Computer arithmetic195

4 Roth numbers and letters are used in the hexadecimal system.5. The binary system has two digits only.

4 Contxtual reforsncLook back at the text and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to.1. that they have only MO stiteS (I. 2)2. h is termed a binary system (1. 8)3. They can represent all other numbers (1. 10)4. which is based on ten digits (I. 12)5. this increases the possibility (I. 67)6. These are the octal (1. 70)7. This forms the basis (I. 74)8. that shows the relationship (/. 77)

B Understanding wordsRefer back to the text and find synonyms for the following words.

1. means (1. 3)2. replace (1. 6)3. conditions (I. 6)4. give (I. 14) .............5. uninteresting (1. 66)

Now refer back to the text and find amonyms for thc following words.6. incomplete (I. 3)7. completed circuit (I. 4)8. decrease (I. 19)9. impossibility (I. 67)

10. the same (1. 74)

Word forms1. characterize, characteristic, characteristically, characterized,

charactera. My daisy wheel printer can print 132 per

line.b. Daisy wheel printers are by having a superb

print quality.c. Can you describe the most imponant of the

computer?d. The 0 and 1 in computer arithmetic represent the alphabet, oll

numbers, and special such as $ and E. EhoL____e 5.

Continued.

3037

196 OW 19 Compaer arithmetic

2. substitution, substituting, substituted, substitutea. The 0 and 1 in computer arithmetic are . for

the two states of electricity, i.e. off and on.b. There is no for the speed at which a

computer performs arithmetic operations.

3. conversion, convert, converted, convertera. Canada has frorn the British to the metric

system. Now centimetres are used instead of inches.b. from an old computer system to a Dew one

can be time-consuming and complicated.c. Before the computer can do the necessary computations for a

problem, the number should be to machinecode.

4. combination, combine, combined, combininga. To represent the 16 different . of four binary

digits, the hexadecimal system uses the digits 0 to 9 and A, B, C,D, E and F.

b. Today's microcomputers are almost as powerful as yesterday'sminis, mainly because of man's creativitywith the advancement in chip technology.

S. basis, base, based, basica. The binary system is on two digits: 0 and 1.b. The decimal system uses 10 as a whereas

the hexadecimal system uses 16.c. Data management involves structuring and

organizing data so as to make them useful and available to morethan one particular user.

d. Flowcharting is a sten in programming.

7 Content review/Write the appropriate words for the following definitions.1. a number system based on 102. a number system bawd on 83. a number system bawd on 164. a number system based on 25. 0 and 1 when they are the only

digits of a number system

Figure 5. Con tin u ed.

31. 38

WRITING/GRAMMAr

Although your students wixi plohaoly place great emphasis onlearning grammar, you should assure them that grammar is not themost important aspect of language learning. This is easilydemonstrated by reference to the person who knows many grammarrules and yet cannot understand or expLevt, anything in the spokenlanguage. Students whose language courses have always focusedexclusively on grammar may urge you to spend lots of class timeexplaining various points of English gramnar and structure. Suchexplanation is actually teaching English linguistics, and thereis controversy in the field of EFL teaching regarding the realvalue of such instruction for language learners. Students mayhave a false sense that they are learning English, when, in fact,they are learning about English, but making little progresstoward comprehending and being able to use the language in thecontexts for which they need it.

Understanding and communicating in English is within thestudents' reach even if they don't understand the fine points ofgrammar. The ability to function in English is not directlylinked to accuracy of grammatical use or pronunciation. Studentsneed to be encouraged to use English even if they make mistakes.The main purpose of language use, after all, is communication.

Some instruction in grammar is necessary, however.Especially in written work, learning grammar rules can helpstudents to recognize and correct their errors. In preparing toteach grammar, be sure you have a good understanding of thestructures that you want to teach, so that your presentation isclear. It is also important that your students be able to usethe grammar they practice. One way to ensure that students canmake effective use of what they learn is to teach grammar inconjunction with writing, the skill in which it can best bepracticed. In speaking, we do not usually have the time toremember and apply rules of grammar, but in writing we have ampleopportunity to monitor our usage. It is in writing that grammarinstruction is most useful. The grammatical forms which are mostuseful and most learnable are those which control sentence-levelfunctions such as question form, negation, relative clause forma-tion and other structures involved in subordination and coordina-tion. These features are more important than correct usage ofarticles or other non-sentence-level features. Focusing on para-graph features such as tense continuity across clauses, parallelstructure, and connectors, will help students in reading compre-hension as well. (See section on READING, above, for more ideason teaching grammar with reading.)

Development of writing ability takes lots of practice.Start with simple, structured exercises and allow students todevelop confidence as writers before you give them longer freewriting tasks. As in other skills, development of writing can beenhanced through the use of appropriate visuals. See Figu_refor an example of how a text uses a diagram of the carbon cycle

3239

7. Reed this wow sod loots al the ifintrust:

The carton eyekThe life of plants and animals depends on chemical substancescontaining carbon atoms. Plants obtain carbon from the verysmall amounts or carbon dioxick in the atmosphere. This atmo-spheric COI is continually absorbed and given off (released) in the'carbon cycle%

absorptionteoduction ofca,bohydrel food of whole Anfesels

411\1\ohotollmfwvi decompoett,Offbsofohoo of COI relesse of COs

ose:, \14.decant:colon

miens or co,

decomvoirhonunder wetly.,

lownenon of bonesob. end teeth

sheortitionersin

!Ilogrc Its,CO,forrnshoo

of Coe

(9TA

sin

founspon of shells

.;

'lonoshon of held mites

41 am as sa git

CCHC01),

Look at these:

(A um cause. B se result)

A results M B.results from A.

As a rook of A. It occurs.A kads ro 8 (eventua)ly: other events occur between A

Now make ten true sentences from the tables below:

As a mutt of

neating plants.photosynt hesis.combustion orcool.decomposition of

dead plants.

embers dioxide is giscarbohydrates are pi

by plants.animals absorb carb

Decomposition of plants respiration.under pressure photosynthesis

Release of CO, into the the fomiation iatmosphere results in and bones in

Decomposition ordeed the formation Ianimals

from the re""it4:41 iFormation of hard water resultsthe release of C

Absorption of CO, by the atmosphithe st'l leads to the formation t

Production of carbohydrates the comhinatioFormation of carbonic acid and CO, in tFormation of shells 'rnosevre.

Figure 6. From General Science by Bates and El(Nucleus: English for Science and Technology SeCopyright 1878 by Longman Group Ltd. Reprintepermission.

4 0

to guide students in writing true sentences. Students need onlychoose the correct combination of elements to write the senten-ces. Another such exercise is shown in Figuxe 2. Here thestudents write statements which establish relationships amonganimals based on information from a diagram.

Writing assignments should be carefully structured. Theyshould also be practiced and reviewed often and used as a basisfor more complex writing assignments. Paragraph writing exer-cises can be based on models which the students first complete,and then expand or build on. An example of this is given infigure Students first complete a paragraph based on a dia-gram, and then use another diagram to write a paragraph in simi-lar style.

If development of skill in writing longer compositions is agoal of your writing program, work gradually toward this goal.Compositions are very time-consuming to correct and should belimited in length and scope. Following are the structural errorsmost often found in student compositions:

1. Subject-verb agreement2. Articles3. Word order problems: adverbs, wh-clauses.4. Present perfect tense5. Verb + Verb-ing (gerunds) vs. Verb + to 4- Verb

(infinitive)6. Passive Voice7. SpellingS. Punctuation

(From Quide tia language gn0 gtpdy BkIljs for Co1).ege5tvg1ypt8 a Enalisb Aa A gecongi language by A.V. MartinIt al.)

"Dialogue journals" have recently become quite popular as away for teachers to communicate with students individually inwriting without spending massive amounts of time in correction.The students are encouraged to keep a notebook, a dialogue jour-nal, in which they write anything they want. The teacher col-).ects the journals at regularly scheduled intervals, reads them,and writes notes or comments to the student; hence, a "dialogue"is created. Error correction can be done through teacher en-tries, where the correct forms are modeled. Dialogue journalsare an effective way for you to get to know students individuallyif you have large classes.

If students write during class time, the teacher can circu-late among the students, monitor their progress, and offer sug-gestions. This can be a useful activity.

34 4 2

6. Look at this diagram:

hawks

snakes

held mice hz.rds \ids bads\hwhiverous insects

green plants

A food-web

Figure 7. From Biologv, by Adamson and(Nucleus: English for Science and TechnologyCopyright I' 1977 by Longman Group Ltd. Repripermission.

Look at these examples:

Possibility: Green plants may be eaten by herbivorous insects orthey may be eaten by field mice. They may also beeaten by snails.

Probability: Field mice are likely to feed cn green plants.

Now make other statements about possible and probable feeding habits ofthe following:

snakesihawksfield mice/snakes/hawkssnails/green plantsherbivorous insects/toads/snakes/birds/lizardslizards/herbivorous insectssnails/snakes

43

The Heart 79

!II INFORMATION TRANSFER

I. Look at the following diagram. Write out the paragraph and complete itwith reference to the diagram.

osmoticpreuure

cirouletion of fluid through thetissue Stmicesof. osmotic

pressure

hychottatecpeuure hydrostatic

Preuure

CiernOtiCpleuure

As tbe blood from the arterial to the of the ,the pressure decreases. In this example, it from mm ofmercury to mm. The , however, remains constant at mm.At the arterial end, the exceeds the by mm, and sofluid passes out of tbe capillary into the At the end, theis less than the by mm, and so approximately the same amountof passes out of the into the Thus the difference inpressures causes the through the

FiKure 4. From English in Basic Medical Science byJoan Maclean. Copyright C 1975 by Oxford UniversityPress, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

36

02j_g2tiygg_f_gs_tiag_psyslcip n

1. Students will be able to summarize material whichthey have read.

2. Students will be able to take notes on lectures orreadings.

3. Students will be able to compose coherent paragraphson familiar topics.

4. Students will be able to write short letters instandard format.

5. Students will be able to write for a variety ofpurposes, depending on the needs of their specialtyarea.

Actiyities for_Developing Writing Skills

1. Copying exercises are helpful for beginning learners,especially if their native language uses a writing systemdifferent from English.

2. Writing exercises include dictation and completion of clozeor fill-in-the-blank exercises. Completion of cloze exer-cises forces students to hypothesize and to recognize rela-tionships between sentences.

3. Sentence-combining eY %Uses require students to combineshort sentences into .i-inger ones. This gives them practicewith coordination and subordination without requiring thecomposition of coherent prose passages.

For example, given the sentences:

Wheat is subsidized by the government.The subsidy is paid for local wheat.The subsidy is also paid for imported wheat.The purpose of the subsidy is to keep bread priceslow.

Students can form the sentence:

Both local and imported wheat are subsidized by thegovernment in order to keep bread prices low.

4. Re-ordering jumbled sentences helps students build under-standing of paragraph structure.

5. Note-taking exercises give students practice recordinginformation. Guide them in developing good note-takingstyle. Teach them that when they take notes they shouldinclude content words, important diagrams, correct figures

37 4 6

(such as percentages, quantities), transitional expres-sions, and appropriate abbreviations and symbols. Seepage 12 for more tips on teaching note-taking skills.

6. Outlining exercises for reading, shown in Chapter Four,Program Design, help students to see the organizationalstructure of material they read. In writing, outliningexercises can prepare the students to write by forcingthem to make their own organizational patterns expli-cit. Ask students to write a sentence giving the mainthesis of their composition, and then to outline thepain points they will develop in support of the thesis.

7. Summarizing exercises can be combined with reading or studyskills assignments. Such exercises can also be used todevelop skills in paraphrasing and to caution studentsagainst plagiarism. For example, students can be asked toread and summarize information in preparation for writing aresearch paper. The teacher can evaluate the summary interms of how well the students express the information inthe article in their own words.

4. Writing descriptions can include descriptions of substances,places, and objects. At more advance3 levels this mightinclude interpretations of illustrations, graphs, andcharts.

9. Writing descriptions of processes, including writing in-structions or "how to" exercises as well as descriptions ofhow things happen over time. See Ixample. rigure

10. Writing definitions. See example, Figure 10,

38 47

Activity 7 Study the following sentences about radio com-munication and label the diagram using wordsfrom the list given.

y4444-1/* iv

_

A radio transmitter generates radio-frequencywaves.A transmitting aerial radiates the waves into space.A receiving aerial intercepts a portion of the radi-ated waves.The receiving serial often consists of a piece of wireor a loop.The wire conducts small electrical signals to theradio receiver.The radio receiver selects and amplifies the signals.The radio receiver contains a detector.Audio signals are sent out by the detector.An amplifier strengthens the audio signals.A loudspeaker converts the amplified audio signalinto sound waves.Now complete the following description of thewhole process. Make information previously men-tioned the theme of each sentence.

The first element in radio communication is aradio transmitter which .... ... into space by a.... ... is intercepted .... ... a piece of wireor a loop. ... conducts small electrical signals tothe radio receiver. ... by the .... The radioreceiver.... The detector .... ... are strength-ened .... ... by a loudspeaker into ....

46

MicrophoneReceiving aerialTransmitterLoudspeakerReceiverTransmitting aerial

rhaire 9. From Reading and Thinking In English:piscovering Discourse by John Moore et. al. Copyright *1979 by the British Council. Reprintad by permission.

39

48

1

i

EXERCISE B Making definitions

Study the following diagram:

[Is) scaly mown" so Ibi Phystaw QuentitY

gC ismIQnh1iObQ1not doecoon

We can make a classifying sentence about a scalar quantity by joining (a)and (b):

A scalar quantity is it physical quantity.

We can then expand the sentence by including (c):

A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude but notdirection.

The expanded etntenct defines a scalar quantity. It is a definition. Now writeas many definitions as you can using the following table.

English in Mechanical Engineering

a b c

a vector quantity can extend a bodya load has magnitude and directiona tensile force straight line represents a vector quantitya linear dimension force is a product of basic unitsa vector unit can be measured in a straight linea compressive force dimension can stretch or compress a bodya derived unit physical quantity can compress a bodyfriction opposes motion

Figure 10. From English in Mechanical Enzineering byEric H. Glendinning. Copyright 1973 by OxfordUniversity Press, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

40

4 9

SPEAKING

Your needs assessment will determine whether the developmentof speaking skill is a goal in your ESP class. For many ESPsituations, development of speaking skills may be beyond the scopeof what it is possible for you to provide. To provide everystudent wlth practice in speaking is an inefficient use ofclassroom time. Discussion groups are notoriously difficult tomanage. Students rarely listen to each other talk and "conversa-tion" degenerates into one student after another saying unrelatedthings. Aggressive students usually take and hold the floor, andit becomes impossible to give everyone the same amount of prac-tice. Even if everyone did get the same amount of practice, inthe typical class of 50 students and two hours of class time, eachstudent could not possibly get more than two minutes of practice!

You and your students should not despair, however, becausealthough in your situation the direct teaching of speaking may notbe practical, studies have shown that increased listeningcomprehension leads to increased ability to speak. You can assurethe students that the exercises they are doing to increase theirlistening comprehension will make them better able to holdconversations with native npeakers of English.

If teaching speaking skills is one uf your objectives; forexample, in an ESP class in English for Tc you will need toselect activities that reflect the real fu. for which yourstudents will use English.

Asking the class to repeat in unison is not teaching speak-ing. They will not necessarily repeat correctly, you cannotcorrect their errors, and repetition may only reinforce theirmistakes. Memorizing and repeating dialogues will also not im-prove the speaking skill. Speaking is a connunication activityand improves only with practice in communication. Therefore youare better off using class time for activities which will increaseoverall language proficiency and ability to comprehend spokenEnglish.

Give students practice in conversation management. Teachthem greetings and closings, and replies to greetings and clos-ings. Teach them how to introduce themselves and others. Teachthem forms they can use when they do not understand, such as"Pardon me. What was that again?" or "What does mean?"or "Please speak more slowly."

Pronunciation is often overstressed in language teaching andshould play a restricted role in your class. Perfect, or native-like, pronunciation need not be a goal. English is now a worldlanguage and different pronunciations are standard throughout theworld. Learners also need to show themselves to be learners --lengthy drills to achieve perfect pronunciation of a few words isnot only time-consuming, but may also mislead native speakers intothinking that the student is more fluent than he or she actuallyis, leading to breakdowns in communication.

41

5 0

Role playing is an effective way to stimulate conversationin the classroom. You can use flowcharts to outline a situationwhich you want to use as a base for developing your students'speaking skills. You may want to select a small group of stu-dents to demonstrate this method until the whole class under-stands the procedure. Once this is done, you can divide theclass into groups, vary the flowcharts for each group, and thenask each group to act out their situation for the rest of theclass.

The steps for this exercise are as follows:

1. Choose a situation. This could be based on a textyour students are studying, either with you or inanother class. For example, students of hotelmanagement may be studying public relations, andyou could devise a flowchart which requiresstudents to exercise their public relations skillsin English.

2. Teach the required vocabulary, language functionsand grammar. (See suggestions on pages 16 and 24for teaching vocabulary.) You could then ask stu-dents to use these same vocabulary items, functionsand grammar points in their role play. This wouldprovide you with a focus when you are noting errors.Concentrate on correct use of the selected items,but otherwise ignore errors, except, of course,those that lead to major breakdowns incommunication.

3. Design a flowchart similar to the one in Figure 11,The kinds of exchanges this flowchart might generateinclude:

Receptionist: Good morning sir (madam). Can I helpyou?

Guest:

Receptionist:

Guest:

Yes. My name is Mr. I

have reservations for two nights.

Let me see. I'm afraid I can't seeyour name on my list. Are you surethe reservations were made?

Yes, of course I'm sure. This isvery annoying. These reservationswere made weeks ago.

Receptionist: I'm sorry, sir. Let me check again.

Guest: This is too much. I would like totalk to the manager. (Etc.)

42

Receptionist(s) Guest(a) Manager

NameReservation Problem:

No reservation

ufteswO'...

StillIrritated

Explainsituation

tomanager

Request

Manager

Irritated

Igure 11. Flow Chart for Role Playing Activity.

~1Leave fur

!tom

RequestExplanation

Other situations for tourism and hotel management ESP couldinclude tracing lost luggage, renting a car, discussing a hotelbill, visiting a historical monument, etc.

Pbjeotives for_the Development of Speakinq Malls

1. Students will be able to carry on a short conversation on afamiliar topic.

2. Students will be able to give a short oral presentation thatthey have prepared in advance, fluently and with few errors.

3. Students will be able to ask for information, using appro-priate language forms.

4. Students will be able to answer a complaint or apologizeappropriately.

Activl.ties for Developing Spgaking Skills

1. Debating. You can divide students into teams and have thempresent opposing sides of an issue.

2. Interpreting pictures or explaining diagrams.

3. Giving directions; for example, looking at a map andexplaining how a person would get from point A to point B.

54

44

STUDY SRILLS

Your students will probably have had little practice instudy skills that we take for granted. They will need instructionin how to use English dictionaries, grammars, and other referencebooks. They will also need practice in basic library skills suchas using pn index or bibliography. In order to do effectiveresearch, they will need to know how to look at a book anddetermine the author, publisher, date and place of publication.You should plan to devote some part of each instructional unit todevelopment of these skills.

The students will need pr:iAce using good English languagedictionaries, not just bilingual dictioharies which translate fromtheir language into English. Bilingual dictionaries seldomcontain the technical terms needed for subject-area study.

If your institutipn has a library with English-languagematerials, ask the librarians to give your students an orientationsession to show them where English-language materials relevant totheir subject area are kept. They can also point out bibliogra-phies and indexes which are available for your students' use. Youcan assign follow-up activities asking students to take notes,paraphrase, or compile bibliographies on topics in their fields.

If no library is available to you, you will be more limitedin the skills you can teach. You can still show students how toget the most from the texts that are available to them, however,by giving them practice using the index or bibliograpy of a textthat is available.

Give students practice taking notes and writing summaries.Use these activities to introduce the notion of plagiarism andensure that they are aware of academic protocols regarding quota-tion and use of paraphrased material. Introduce conventions forcitation and footnotes, and preparation of bibliographies.

pbjectives_for Development of Study Skills

1. Students will be able to identify the parts of abook, including title page, table of contents, in-dex, glossary, etc.

2. Students will be able to use dictionaries forinformation about pronunciation and syllable divi-sion, to identify the way words are commonly used insentences (parts of speech), to find correct mean-ings, and to determine whether the word is Britishor American, formal or informal.

3. Students will be able to use indexes, includingbeing able to use alternate search words when thetopic they have in mind is not listed.

45 55

4. Students will be able to use biblio7r3phies, inclu-ding being able to identify titles which might pro-vide additional information on their topic ofresearch.

5. Students will develop note-taking skills, includingoutlining and paraphrasing.

6. Students will be able to summarize information theyhave heard or read.

Act/Vitigs tor_DeYelOPOct_StOY_SisillQA.

1. The efficient use of a dictionary should be a focus ofyour work on study skills. One technique for learningfrequently used words is for students to make a small dotbeside a word every time they look it up in the diction-ary. If students find certain words accumulate a numberof dots, they should make a list of those words for moreintensive study.

2. Other activities which develop dictionary skills include:

a) Alphabetizing exercises. Especially if the stu-dents'native language does not use the Roman alpha-bet, they will need practice putting words in alpha-betical order, particularly words that begin with thesame letter or letters. This skill is necessary forany library work and in order to efficiently consultdictionaries, encyclopedias, and other referenceworks. It is also necessary for office work, hotelmanagement, tourism, and other fields.

b) Syllable division exercises. Students will need touse the dictionary to find syllable divisions inorder to correctly divide words when writing.

c) Guide word exercises. Students can practice usingguide words to locate words more quickly.

d) Pronunciation key exercises. Dictionaries usecommon words, called key words, to illustrate thepronunciation of the various symbols used by thepublisher to show how words are pronounced. See theillustration of this in Yiqure 22. Students can betaught to use these symbols, along with stress mark-ings, to get full use of their dictionaries.

e) Definition identification exercises. Students shouldpractice identifying which definition is most appro-priate when several are given for the same word.

46 56

3. Encyclopedia exercises. If encyclopedias are available inthe library, students should be shown how they are organizedand instructed in the use of the encyclopedia's index. Theycan be asked to locate and summarize or paraphraseinformation.

4. Yearbooks. Reference books such as the Wor3.0 Allunsw andWWP 1Jb9, and other yearbooks can be used to get currentinformation on a wide variety of topics.

5. Atlases. Students can use atlases to get many kinds ofinformation; for example, about geographical features,population distributione major resources, and climate.

6. Bibliographies. Students can be asked to use bibliographiesto identify other sources of information about topics ofinterest to them.

7. Students' abilities to read and understand publishedresearch in their fields of study may depend on theirknowledge of such research vocabulary as Hypothesis,Experimental Design, Data Collection and Compilation,Interpretation of Results, and Evaluation. It may behelpful to give students an example of a research paperwhich uses an experimental researe, -re)cess and discusstogether the components of the r?.., Al design.

47

57

Pronunciation table

VOWELS

Symbol Key Word

i7

I

CY

c

re

o

v

ow

u

ow

A

a

beat

bit

toy

bet

bat

box, car

bought,horse

bone

book

bout

but

banana,sister

at

auot

by

bound

boY

ur

tar

ratVW

blIrll

beer

bare

tour

IV means that the It/ sound is said asa voiced sound (like a quick EnglishisV).loi means that /a/ may or may not betoed.

l'I show: main strem.If shows secondary stress.

/ 4/ shows stress shift.

CONSONANTS

Symbol Key Word

P

b

t

cl

k

9

Poo

ban

tip

dip

eap

PP

tJ

d3

church

judge

f

V

6

a

s

z

J

3

h

fan

Van

thing

then

rip

ship

MASI=hot

m

Il

0

sum

illnsong

vi

hw

I

r

Y

wet

what

lot

rot

yet

Eigl_irtig. From Longman Dictionary of AmericanEnslish: A Dictionary For Learners of En lish.Copyright c 1983 by Longman Inc. Reprinted bypermission.

Chapter Four

PROGRAM DESIGN

This Chapter gives guidelines for the design of an ESPprogram. It takes you through the process of setting goals,designing units, and preparing lesson plans. The steps fordesigning a program are shown in Flque

Text

Unita: ThemeTopic

Goals

Objectives

'Lesson Plans:Activities

Figure 13. Steps in ESP Program Design.

Evaluation

Betting_goals

Setting goals is the first step in the development of yourinstructional program. These goals will reflect what you intendfor the students to be able to slg with English at the end of yourcourse of instruction. Identify relevant, concrete, and motiva-ting goals appropriate for your students.

Setting goals for learning will become easier as you becomemore familiar with the institution and your students. Initially,you should recognize that your goals will be limited. Yourstudents will not be able to acnieve complete fluency in Englishin a semester- or year-long program. Your task is to specifyjust what goals are reasonable. For most year-long Peace CorpsESP programs, the following are reasonable goals:

o Students will be able to read and comprehend text-books and research articles in their fields.

o Students will be able to understand short lectures inEnglish in their technical fields.

4959

o Students will be able to write short summaries ofmaterial they have read.

o Students will be able to locate resources for furtherinformation in 111tr specialty area.

o Students will. 'le to ask questions to get infor-mation or clarify points.

o Students will be able to give short oral reports.

These goals encompass the skills needed for academic studyin an ESP situation where students' needs for English are limitedto reading and attending lectures in English. You may need toset different goals for students in other contexts. In formula-ting your goals, you will need to set priorities for the develop-ment of language skills, and in doing so it is useful to bear inmind that reception precedes production in language learning. Inother words, students cannot learn to say or write somethingwhich they cannot understand. A manageable initial objective,then, is to improve the students' receptive competence; that is,their listening comprehension and reading skills. Listeningcomprehension is a must for the student who wishes to attendpresentations or training in English and is a prerequisite forachieving oral fluency. A good speaker must first of all be agood listener. As a native speaker, you are in an excellentposition to focus on developing students' comprehension of spokenEnglish, which will give them the basis they need to developskills in speaking and conversational interaction.

Development of c.-mversational skills may be an unrealisticgoal for most Peace Corps ESP courses, where large class size andvarying levels of English proficiency make it impossible toprovide each student with adequate practice in speaking. It mayalso be an unnecessary goal, since students' primary ..11ed forEnglish will most likely be to gain access to informat..on ortraining in English, tasks which rely less on speaking than onreading and listening. If you are teaching ESP for tourism, onthe other hand, you may need to put a high priority focus ondeveloping listening and speaking skills.

Having set long-term goals, you are ready to select mater-ials and classroom exercises that lead to development of appro-priate skills. The range of English abilities in your classroomwill undoubtedly be large. The task you face is to design aprogram which challenges the more advanced students without in-timidating and discouraging those whose English skills may beweak. You may also face the added challenge of large classes,few materials, and little equipment. The suggestions given hereare designed to overcome those obstacl2s.

5060

Daaignias_Unitg

It is impractical to think of designing your entire semesteror year-long ESP program in advance. It is impossible, at thebeginning of the course, for you to know how quickly students willprogress. Instead, try to outline one or two units of instructionbefore classes begin and then be flexible in adapting or modifyingyour program as you get to know the students better. As youbecc,me better acquainted with the resources of the institution andthe backgrounds of the students, you will also become aware ofother ways to enrich your program.

A unit can be developed by identifying a major theme, selec-ting a topic and an appropriate text, and setting appropriateinstructional objectives. Activities can then be selected todevelop the skills you have identified as needed by the students.

1. Theze is a general organizational concept. Build yourcourse around a theme or series of themes, rather thanchoosing different topics at random. In a course in Englishfor Economics, for example, your general theme might beprice policies, and your topics tlelected from that area ofeconomics.

2. Tonle. is a convenient unit of syllabus organization. Eng-lish is learned best in context, and the topics you choosewill provide a context for learning. For computer science,in a unit whose theme is hardware and software, a list oftopics might include the following:

A. Hardware1. Mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers2. Computer capabilities and limitations3. Computer components: the processor, memory, input

and output devices.

B. Software1. Word processing2. Data processing3. Programming.

The topics of interest and importance to your students canbe identified from your interviews with the subject-area in-structors at your institution. Ideally, you can make yourEnglish instruction parallel to what the students are learn-ing in theix content courses for maximum transfer of know-ledge and skills.

3. Texts which address your chosen topic should be selectedwith the students' needs in mind. Select one or more read-ing passages concerned with each topic you have chosen. Try

51 61

to select readings and topics which build on each other anddevelop common vocabulary. The passages can be taken fromcommercial ESL or ESP textbooks relevant to the contentarea, or from authentic content-area materials such as re-search papers or textbooks. Guidelines for choosing textsof appropriate difficulty are provided in Chapter Five.

The reading passage serves as the unit core from whichclassroom activities and exercises are developed. Vocabu-lary, listening comprc)hension exercises, and grammar andwriting exercises can be based on the reading selectionchosen for each unit. The length of the passage will dependon your assessment of students' abilities, but it should belong enough to provide opportunities for practicing inten-sive reading and for increasing reading speed through exten-sive reading. Appropriate use of any text, of course, willdepend on the skills that your students need to develop.

4. Dbjectives: Following your selection of topics and read-ings, appropriate objectives for instruction should be iden-tified. Not only do log need to know the skills that youplan to teach in each unit, but your students will alsobenefit from knowledge of what your objectives are. Objec-tives should be written for each unit of instruction toaddress the specific skills that you want to develop in yourstudents. Examples of broad objectives for the developmentof language skills are provided in Chapter Three; these canbe used as references in writing specific objectives foreach unit.

A spiral concept of program design is recommended. Such adesign calls for "recycling of materials to provide review andreinforcement of vocabulary and structures covered in earlierunits. For example, the same text can be used to teach the fourskills by using it one week for reading activities, another weekfor listening activities, and then using it again later in theprogram for writing or speaking activities.

f]ann q Lepsons

After you have developed a unit outline, you will need toselect and schedule activities for each lesson. It is helpful tobuild your lessons around a common format. For example, eachMonday class might begin with a listening activity and then havea series of reading activities. On Wednesday you might work ongrammar and writing. Saving a common format to your lessonsgives you a framework on which to build each unit and helps yourstudents to become accustomed to your teaching routine.

Following is an example of how a topic and text can be usedto develop a unit outline for a course in English for ComputerScience. Following the unit outline is a two hour lesson plan.

5262

The activities given here would be appropriate for a wide rangeof topics. Suggestions for other activities can be found inChapter Three, Developing Language Skills. This sample unit hasthe following format:

I. Text of the reading passage which forms the basis of theunit Crigqx /4).

//. Unit Outline:objectives.

//I. Lesson Plan:meeting.

Content of unit, skills focus, and teacher's

Detailed outline of activities for a two-hour

/V. Student worksheets to accompany the lesson.

You should evaluate your program to determine whether youhave met your goals and objectives, and then make adjustments toyour program based on this evaluation. See Chapter Six, ProgramManagement and Evaluation, for suggestions for testing.

UNIT OUTLINE

(Content of unit, skills focus, and teacher's objectives)

Program: ESP for Computer Science

(This unit outline forms the basis for two class sessions.The lesson plan for one of the class sessions, whichdevelops listening and reading, and study skills, followsthis unit outline. The other class session would developthe grammar and writing skills outlined below.)

Torlie: Software

Copttat:

Reading Assignment:

Vocabulary terms:

Visual Aid:

Mini-lecturetopic:

Bkijle focus:

Listening:

Number practice:

Reading skills:

Study skills:

Writing skills:

Grammar focus:Reading:

Writing:

Scientific Applications Software by John C.Nash, from 131rte, December 1985.(See Figure 14).

program, style, computations, convenient,categories, package, equipped, programminglanguage, operating system.

Catalog/Chart: Software Tools for ScientificComputations.

Selecting Software: Reading a Catalog.

Listening for specific information.

Dollar amounts from $100.00 to $1000.00; deci-mals to one place.

Recognizing the author's organizationalpatterns.

Using a catalog.

Writing a business letter.

Sentences that begin with subordinateclauses. See how the author uses them.Example: "When considering a particularprogram or package, you first have todetermine what it is supposed to do."

Structures used to make requests: Example:"Please send me information about..." "Iwould like to know ...", etc.

5464

Objectivtsi

Listening: Students will be able to understand alecture which describes the characteristicsof software programs, as demonstrated bytheir ability to answer questions about thelecture.

Reading:

Study Skills:

Writing:

Grammar:

Students will be able to understand dollarand decimal amounts used in context, asdemonstrated by their ability to correctlywrite the numbers they hear.

Students will be able to recognize theorganizational pattern of a text, asdemonstrated by their completion of anoutline of that text.

Students will be able to use catalogdescriptions in English to identify softwareappropriate for their applications, asdemonstrated by their selection of suchsoftware.

Students will learn the form of a basicbusiness letter in English, as demonstratedby their ability to write a short letterasking for information about softwareprograms.

(Reading) Students will learn the structureof subordinate clauses, as demonstrated bytheir ability to find such structures in thereading text.

(Writing) Students will learn how to makepolite requests in writing, as demonstratedby their ability to use such structures inwriting a business letter.

55

65

LESSON PLAN

(This is the teacher's lesson plan. Worksheets needed bythe students for completion of the exercises outlined belowfollow this lesson plan.)

Homework AsSignment, Read "Scientific Applications Software"and answer the questions about the article.

(A reading selection appropriate to the unit topic serves asthe core content of the unit. The students will find ithelpful they are given the reading assignment as homeworkbefore the unit is introduced. This background reading willprepare them for the content of the lesson and give themadded context for comprehension of the classroom exercises.See Student Worksheet 1: Reading Comprehension Questions.)

Class Activities:

A. Mathematics language comprehension exercise. (5-10 minutes)Read the following and ask students to write the number theyhear:

1. The software sources are listed on page 146.

2. The MATH/LIBRARY Program is available for $440.

1. The program costs $320 when purchased by universities.

NAG FORTRAN can be used with Microsoft FORTRAN 3.13.

5. You will need MS-DOS 2.0 to run most scientific programs.

(This activity is described more fully in Chapter Three,LISTENING COMPREHENSION)

E. Vocabulary building. (10 minutes)

See vocabulary exercise on Student Worksheet 2: ListeningComprehension Exercises. Read the sentences aloud and askstudents to write the words they hear.

C. Listening Exercise: Mini-lecture (15-30 minutes)

Read the Mini-lecture (See Teacher's Script, below) askingstudents to answer the questions they hear on theirworksheets. Then read the passage again so they cancomplete the cloze exercise. (See Student Worksheet 3:Cloze Exercise).

D. Reading/Study Skills (20-40 minutes)

Outlining: Complete the outline exercise together in class.(See Student Worksheet 4: Reading Activity)

56 66

Teacher's Script for Mini-Lecture:

MINI-LECTURE: SCIENTIFIC SOFTWARE PRODUCTS

Software provides useful tools for scientific computations.For those,who do not know how to program computers, software makesthe full power of the machine available. Even those who panprogram the computer often find it more convenient to use acommercial software package to save time and effort.

Look at the catalog, "Software Tools for ScientificComputations." Bere you see four categories of sclentificsoftware. Look at numbecs one through four on your worksheet.Write the four categories of scientific software there.

Now look at the information given for each software package.Four pieces of information are given for each software package.The information given for each package includes the name of thepackage, the cost, a short description of the program, and anaddress where the software is available.

Look at the first program listed, "MATH/LIBRARY." What isthe cost of this program for individuals? Now look at number fiveon your worksheet. Wtite the cost of MATB/LIBRARY at number five.

The description of MATH/LIBRARY tells which computers it isdesigned for. It is designed for an 1DM PC or PC XT. Thecomputer must be equipped with Microsoft FORTRAN, a programminglanguage, and the operating system MS-DOS 2.0.

Now look at the description of NAG FORTRAN at the bottom ofthe first column of the catalog. For which computers is itdesigned? Write the name of the two computers at number six onyour worksheet.

The catalog descriptions also list the kinds of mathematicalproblems that the programs can solve. These differ from packageto package, and it is this information which tells you whether thesoftware package will be useful to you. But the description doesnot tell the whole story. In order to really know if a programwill help you in your application, you'll have to try itl

57

67

SCIENTIFICAPPLICATIONSSOFTWARE BY IcHIN C NASH

How to find and

select suitable

scientific software

To determine whether ascientific applications soft-ware package is suited toyour needs. you should

consider three thinger-the purpose ofthe package. the style in which it'spresented. and its overall quality.

Most of the software mentioned inthe text boxes for this article istargeted for microcomputers. and theapplications are scientific and engi-neering tasks. But the suggestions Ipresent should help you find andselect scientific software in general.

Tim PURPOSE Ot ASorrwARE PACKAGEWhen considering a particular pro-gram or package. you first have to de-termine what it is supposed to do Ifit does not address your problems orneeds. it is unlikely to be of further in-terest to you.

Various sources of information canhelp you determine which softwareproducts have the functionality youneed. Some of these sources arelisted in the text box "Search Aids-on page 1415.

a.

Esins C. Nash (Nash Infannation Servicesf975 Bel Air De. Ottawa. Ontario, Canada

OXI) is acomputational mathematicianwipse resarth and writings cm" many arrasof aimputfr applications. He is also a BYTEcontributing editor.

Because the subject matter of scien-tific software Is complicated. it iswonhwhile subdividing topics, not byscientific discipline, but by theauthor's intended audience.

A program may have been devel-oped to perform a particular compu-tational task or tasks for a limited setof scientific or engineering problems.An example of this type of programis one that does structural analysis ofbuildings.

Or the software may have been de-veloped as a general tool for use indata reduction, data analysis. or docu-mentation of work in a number offields. such as a word-processing sys-tem for mathematical or scientificsystems or a statistical package.

Alternatively, the package may havebeen designed primarily to educateusers in a certain subject area ratherthan to provide serious cornputadonel power to practitioners. An ex-ample of this kind of program is onethat Illustrates how simultaneouslirelir equations are solved or one

t prepares test questiors in arttallic discipline from a master set.

;8

Fiore 14. Reprinted with'permiasifrom the December 1985 issue of Bimagazine. Copyright* by McGraw-inc., New York 10020 All rights retie

,11.1...11.

ramoW011aanl.voiessosslisftsawnwer

STYLEThe way a software producer preseand packages his creation is the ftor that most often causes buyersrave or curse about software If sevesoftware packages can perform tsame function, style may become thinge of your buying decision.

lb determine if a program's st)suits you. you should consider thnthingsthe way in which the programust be used. the level of satisfacticor frustration you experience whiusing It. awl the suitability (or fitapplication) of the program's packaing and documentation.

Although it is relatively easy to Itthe features of a software produceven extensive reviews may fail tcapture the style of the product. lbexpanding availability of demonstration disks (especially those that &Oayou to try all of a program's functionsIs to be welcomed as an aid to software selection.

The three subdivisions of softwar,I described eariiersoftware designed to perform certain tasks. to beused as a tool. or to be used as ateaching aldcan also be aPited tothe discussion of stYie

For your own

protection, you should

ke aware of lite

quality of a scientific

program before

you buy it.

Early scientific software took theform of single programs or subrou-tines (tasks) (for example, the col-lected algorithis of the Associationfor Computing Machinery). Librariesof subroutines are still a common anduseful form of software packaging.However, unless source code is avail-able. this form of packaging requiresthat you write driver programs andlearn how to fink to the compiled sub-routines

Mote recently. the microcomputerhas tome to be viewed as a worksta-tion. whkh In turn has led to the de-velopment of more scientific softwareIn the form of command- or menu-driven peciv.4es (tools) that do not re-quire that you ptogram them. As thecommand set becomft ridte r. you aregiven mote control over dsta manipu-lation. and you can group commandsInto procedures that are Interpreted,compiled. or othetwlse processed forexecution. The end product Is a newprogramming language in all butnsme.

Another approach some softwaredevelopers take is to provide a pro-totype program that is designed to beeasily modified by the uset (theteaching aid approach). You can adapttt to particular tasks or personal pref-erences This approach is not widelyused commercially, partly becausethere are difficulties In protecting theauthorship of programs.

QUALITYThe degree to which software per-forms as claim& l far too often takenfor granted.

In scientific computations subtle in-teractions between th, problem pre-sented and the floatog-point arith-metic used to solve NI problem maydramatically alter the results a pro-gram obtains. 'thus. scientific softwaremust operate correctly on the tasks itshares with such programs as wordprocessors ot database managers.However. it r lust also be roduced insuch a way Mat the appoximationsand Iterative processes it uses giveresults that wellinformed users con-sider reasonable. Alternatively. diag-nosficinfonnaoon that allows trouble-some situations to be understood andcorrected in an appropriate way mustbe output.

For your protection, you should beaware of a program's quality beforeyvu buy P. This means you should payattention to reviem by competentprofessionals in the field the docu-mentation of authorship, methods ofprogram development, the history ofthe software. and the reputation ofthe software producer and vendor.

CONCLUsIONThe text boxes "Software lbolsScientific Computations" on pageand "Microcomputer Softwaretconomeuic Modeling and PomoIng" at left list a number of scientsoftware packages However, withdevekvnent of new products andImprovement of existing ones, thisformation will soon be dated. In onto obtain more up-to-date Inforrtion, you should also consider Ifollowing sources: reviews in scientjournals reviews In computer joumand magazines. publicatiodedicated to scientific software anduses and public-access softwzdatabases to

Figure 14.Continued.

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!gil4.Continij.

STUDENT WORKSHEETS

(Note: Answers are given in parentheses for the convenienceof the teacher. These answers would not, of course, beincluded in the student copies of the worksheets.)

Student Woricsheet 1: Reading Comprehension Questions

Reading: Scientific Applications Software by John C. Nash,from j3.xtg, December 1985.

Assignment: Read the article and ansuer these questions beforecoming to class.

Comprehension Questions:

1. According to the author, what are three major considerationsin choosing scientific applications software?(The purpose of the package, the style in which it'spresented, and its overall quality.)

2. What are some purposes for which scientific software hasbeen developed?(To perform particular computational tasks, as a generaltool for data analysis, or to educate users.)

3. What are the three aspects of program style that the authorconsiders important?(The way in which the program must be used, the level ofsatisfaction or frustration you experience while using it,and the suitability of the program's packaging anddocumentation.)

4. Why is it difficult to find commercial software that iseasily modified by the user?(Because there are difficulties in protecting the authorshipof such programs.)

5. What considerations does the author mention regardingsoftware quality?(Interactions between the scientific software and wordprocessors or database managers, reasonable results onapproximations and iterative processes such as floatingpoint decimal operations, and Oiagnostic information thatallows troublesome situations be understood andcorrected.

6. How can the buyer assess the quality of software?

(By reading reviews by professionals in the field andchecking authorship, methods of program development, thehistory of the software, and the reputation of softwareproducer and vendor.)

62 76

Student Worksheet 2: Listening Comprehension Exercises.

Topic: Scientific Applications Software

Vocabulary Practice

Choose the word from the list below which best completes eachsentence:

operating system convenient computations

equipped programming language package

categories program style

1. Software provides useful tools for scientific

2. This catalog lists four of scientificsoftware.

3. If several programs can perform the same function,may become the most important feature.

4. Software usually requires that your computer bewith particular features.

5. Most programs are written for a particularand

MINI-LECTURE: SCIENTIFIC SOFTWARE PRODUCTS

Directions: Listen to the mini-1ecture and answer the questionson L.he spaces below.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

63 77

Student Wbrksheet 3: Cloze Exercise.

MINX-LECTURE: SCXENTIFIC SOFTWARE PRODUCTS

Directions: Some words are missing from this passage. Themissing words are contained in the word list. First read thepassage silently. Then listen as you hear it read twice. Afterthe first reading, you will have two minutes to fill in themissing words. Then you will hear it again and can check youranswers.

EU& Li Lt.

software where /BMindividuals the kindsthose lists linearfor must cantells program you'llof description packagefind be ordercommercial include doescomputations how full

software provides useful tools for scientific

For those wbo do not know to program computers,

software makes the power of the machine available.

Even who can program the computer often

it more convenient to use a software product to eve

tine and effort.

The catalog, "Software Tools for Scientific Computations,"

four categories of scientific 'software- These

General Scientific Software Collections, Software for

Algebra, Software for Nonlinear Equations, and for

Mathematical Programming.

The information given in the catalog each

software package includes the name the package, the

cost, a short of the program, and an address

the software is available.

6478

The first program listed, "MATH/LIBRARY," costs

$440. It is designed for an PC or PC

XT. The computer be equipped with Microsoft FORTRAN

and operating system MS-DOS 2.0.

The catalog descriptions also list the of

mathematical problems that the programs solve.

These differ from package to and it is this

information which you whether the software package

will useful to you. But the description

not tell the whole story. In to really

know if a will help you in your application,

have to try it!

65 79

Student Worksheet 4: Reading Activity

READING ACTIVITY: Completing r.r Ovt7ine

Directions: Use the reading text to complete the korgoutline. [NOTE: Suggested answers are given inparentheses.]

SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

A. Purpose of a Software Package

1.

2.

3.

(for a particular computational task)

(as a general tool for data analysis)

(to educate users)

S. Style Considerations for Purchasing Software

1.

2.

3.

(the way the program is used

a.

b.

C.

(single programs or subroutines)

(menu-driven)

(user modifiable)

...

(level of satisfaction you experience using it)

(packaging or documentation)

C. Quality Considerations

1.

2.

3.

(operates correctly on tasks shared with other programs)

(approximations and iterative functions are reasonable)

(diagnostic information is output)

66 SO

D. How to Judge i'3oftware Quality

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

(reviews by competent professionals)

(documentati of authorshi0

(methods of program development)

(history of the software)

(reputation of producer and vendor)

67

Chapter Five

MATERIALS SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT

The, materials you teach should be chosen primarily for theirrelevance to the content area. You may select them from authenticmaterials used in content-area instruction or from commercialmaterials. Developing materials is time- and energy-consuming, soyou should take advantage of any materials which are alreadyavailable for your use. The Resources section (Appendix A of thisManual) describes materials that are available through PeaceCorps' ICE. All of the materials listed have been evaluated foruse in Peace Corps ESP programs and are highly recommended. Youare encouraged to order copies.

EtAdins Diffimlix

When choosing texts for use in the language classroom, yourgoal is to select passages that challenge the students withoutbeing too difficult. If you want to determine in advance whethera particular text will be too difficult ',or your students, you canuse the following procedure to find out whether your students willbe able to understand it. This exercise should not be overdone --use it to check a few passages you plan to use and then use thoseas general guidelines for selection of other texts.

Following is a procedure for construction of a cloze passageto check reading level and difficulty. such a passage is easilymade and easily scored. Follow these steps:

1. Choose a passage of approximately 250 words from the textyou are considering for use in the classroom.

2. Reproduce the 200 words on a mimeo worksheet, deleting every5th word and replacing it with a blank. (Use 50 blanks foran easy percentage calculation when you correct them.) Notethat names and numbers should be skipped when they come upas potential blanks, and the next word chosen.

3. Number the blanks for easy scoring. If you provide ananswer sheet, students will not need to write on theexercise itself and you will be able to re-use it.

4. Stress to the _lents that this is not a test. Tell themyou are determiA,ng whether the material is at the rightlevel of difficulty for them to read. Ask them to read thepassage and write an appropriate word in each blank. Do nottime the test; give students ample time to complete it.

69

82

Evaluating the results:

1. For ease and speed in correcting the papers, accept ascorrect answers only those words from the original textwhich were deleted- Students may provide synonyms which areappropriate, but accepting these will not help you decide ifthe reading qiection is appropriate for the whole class.(Looking at au.lh answers may help you when working withstuder individually or as they work together in diagnosticor le n:".ng situations.)

2. Compute the average score of the whole class's perfor-mance. Second language students will not be able to fillin wore than 60-70% of even easy material. Evaluate theresults according to these guidelines:

If the class's average score is greater than 53% (inde-pendent reading level), they can probably read the storyon their own or at home. If the average score is lessthan 43% (frustration level) it is too difficult even forclasswork. The ideal is to get a set of scores for allstudents which is greater than 43% and less than 53%.This material can then be used for instructional pur-poses.

(From John F. Haskell, in glaggzasaLltgstigg_g_jo,BAIA, TESOL, Washington, D.C. Copyright 1976 by Teachers ofEnglish to Speakers of Other Languages. Reprinted by per-mission of the publisher and John Haskell.)

These figures are not absolute, but they can provide youwith an initial indication of the suitability of materials forclasswork and independent reading. Experiment with your owngroup to find the right level of material.

Selectills Materials

Look at potential materials in terms of their comprehensibi-lity to the students. In order to judge complexity, look at thefollowing features:

1. Length: shorter texts will be e.71siet to read, in gen-eral, than longer trIxts.

2. Internal complexity: texts made up of simplesentences will generally be easier to read thantexts which contain many complex constructions.

3. Density of new informatiqn: texts whose content isalready somewhat familia co students will be easierto read than those with unXaniliar content.

4. Presence of supportive graphics: Pictures, charts,and other graphics provide context and make readingeasier.

5. Organizational pattern: texts which Id:low a chron-ological or logical progression in the sequence ofevents or actions are more likely to be understood.

6. Degree of abstraction: texts that provide a con-crete discussion of events rather than analysis orspeculation will be clearer.

If passages are complex and dense, they sl!ould be short sothat they can be read intensively. But stueents also need prac-tice in developing their reading speed, and to 6o this they needto read longer selectiona as well. Passages which follow achronological order or provide clear descriptions can be long andstill be acceeeible to the students. Supportive graphics areparticularly Jeeportant. Select texts which present a conceptclearly through visual or graphic exampleR. Visual aids contri-bute much to the comprehensibility of a reading passage.

Othez aspects of texts which affect their readability arethe relevance of the topic to the students' interests, the taskstudents are asked to do with the material, and the culturalcontext of the reading. Material which ic not apparently relevantwill be more difficult for students to comprehend. Tasksappropriate to different levels of reading complexity are sugges-ted in Chapter Three, Developing Language Skills. Texts shouldalso be assessed to ensure that they are not so culture-bound asZ.o be incomprehensible to learners from other cultures. Thecultural context is crucial because materials whose culturalcontent the students find objectionable will not only be incom-prehensible, but may in some cases also alienate them.

Students do not have to understand every part of everyreading passage they work from. You can use materials from whichstudents can gain some skill or insight, even if total comprehen-sibility is not achieved. Students will accept this if they aretold that they are reading a particular text for specific infor-mation or for a particular purpose; for example, if students areasked to scan an article to find the answer to questions you givethem. The text can then later be "recycled" at a higher level asthe students gain in proficiency.

eyelopinQ

Developing appropriate materials takes lots of time andeffort, but the end product is usually something that meets thespecific needs of your students better than commercial materials.You will probably have a good collection of materials you haveprepared yourself by the end of your course. You can ensure thatother Volunteers who follow you in your position will be able to

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make good use of your work if you label each exercise and organ-ize your materials in a way which will be clear to someone newcoming into your job.

Peace Corps' ICE is also constantly looking for Volunteer-developed materials which have broader value. Send copies of thematerials you develop to ICE so that they can review them forpossible publication. In this way materials with wider applica-bility can be made available to other Volunteers teaching ESP inthe same content area.

This Manual stresses the use of authentic subject areareading texts as the core for your instructional units. If youare unable to find texts at a reading level appropriate for yourstudents, you may consider simplifying or adapting more difficultmaterials. Such a process should be undertaken with caution.however. Studies have shown that when material is simplified, itoften becomes more difficult to understand. Features which con-tribute to comprehensibility are unintentionally eliminated bythe native speaker who attempts to simplify a text. The rela-tionships between sentences may become unclear, or natural redun-dancy may be eliminated. The coherence of the passage maysuffer.

If you cannot find texts at the right level cf difficultyfor your students, however, the following guidelies can help youto adapt texts for students with low-level skills.

First, start with an original text which expresses an ideaor presents some information that you want your students to know.Reduce this text to a list of separate points. Then recombinethese points, using maximum redundancy and clarity. For example:Figure 11 is an article from TIME magazine veth content interes-ting to a science class. Some main points were selected from thearticle:

1. A massive object has been discover?d in space.

2. The object was discovered when physicists realized thatwhat appeared to be two quasars was actually the samequasar.

3. The light from the quasars is diverted by the intensegravitational field of the object in space.

These points, along with details from the article, were used todevelop the simplified text in gliqure 11. The diagram was alsosimplified to eliminate extraneous information and to highlightthe most relevant features. The important point here is thatinstead of starting with a complex text and simplifying it, youshould start with the ideas that are important and compose a textyoura,elf. In this vay the features of natural language will bestbe preserved.

Often authentic materials can he used in ESP classrooms

72 85

without simplification, especially if the students' readi i;)i-lity is at a higher leval than their other skills, as is L theease. Some commercial publishers use authentic reading pft 3esin their texts, glossing words that students may not ktotl. .51example of such a passage is given in rigurp

If you select rtading passages from subject area texts orarticles, you will have to develop your own reading comprehensiozactivities to accompany them. The type of questions you askdepends, first, on whether the students are reading intensively orextensively (see Chapter Three, READING.) Questions for intensivereading first ask about f:amrete informatic and general ideas.In both types of reading, questions should be asked about theauthor's point of view or the student's own opininn of what wassaid. In extensive reading, check only comprehension of importantpoints in the story, not minor details.

Following are some types of comprehension questions, fol-lowed by examples based on figure

1) Questions which refer to persons, identification ofplace, etc. Example: What are some Americanproducts that are recogni2ed for their high quality?(Answer: commercial aircraft, tractors, sheets,plastics, chemicals, machine tools.)

2) Finding sentences or words that are redundant (thatexpress the same meaning). Example: Find threewords in paragraph five that have the sane n-ningas the word "company." (Answer: pacesetters,industries, makers.)

3) Making a of words which belong to the samecategory. Example: Find several w,.):ds in the arti-cle which are used to describe high quality. (An-swer: long-wearing, stronger, purer, flawless,etc.)

4) Questions which ask what is being referred to in thetext when a reference is make to some other part ofthe text. Example: What does "the word" In thefirst sentence of paragraph six refer to? (Answer:quality.)

5) Find and underline the sentence or sentences whichexpress the main idea of the passage. (Answer: Thefirst sentence of paragraphs two and three.)

6) Outlining. Initially, you can prepare a skeletonoutline for the students to fill in. (See example inChapter Four, Program Design). Eventually, they canprepare their own. The outline should be designedto reveal discourse organization features; that is,how the author has organized the material. Focus ontransitions and other words used to structure the

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ScienceThrough a Lens DarklyTwin images signal the discovery ofa mysterious cosmic object

t was a coal-black night in March, thekind astronomers like best: At Arizo-

na's Kitt Peak National Observatory,Princeton Astrophysicist Edwin Turnerpointed the 158-in. reflecting telescopefirst at one distant pinpoint of light in thesky, then at a neighboring one. A fewhours later, studying the results of hisnight's labors, Turner could hardly be-lieve his eyes. "It was a big surprise," helays. "But a big surprise is al-ways a clue you might be on thetrack of something."

Something indeed. After an-alyzing the light from the distantsources, 'Avner and seven otherscientists concluded that theyhad apparently found evidenceof the most massive object everdetected. That object, they sur-mise ka a report poblished lutweek in Natars, could be a hugecluster of galaxies or a blackhole far larger tba.n any ever an-ticipated. More startling, itmight be t "cosmic string," a hi-tam hypothetical remnant ofthe:chaotic birth of the universe.

The Kitt Peak telescope badbeen aimed at what app,utred tobe two MAWS, mystenous, in-tensely bright bodies so far awaythat the light they emit travelsfor billions of years beforeteaching the earth. Gathered bythe telescope'a parabolic minor,the light from each of the qua-tars was coovert=1 111to a spec-trum, from which a quesar's characteris-tics and even its distance Can bedtterniined. Most scientists believe thateach of the some 3,000 known au-and thus the spectnun of each, la r."..ASays Caries Lawrence, ataltecht,o..71.coer and a co-author of the Nature paper."Quasar spectre are something like fin-

and no two are the same."But es Turner confirmed, the two

spectra recorded at K.itt Peak were virtu-ally identical. This meant that if eachwere from a different quasar, the two ob-jects would not only have identical chemi-cal properties and temperatures but alsowould be the same distance (about 5 bil-lion light-years, in this case) awayshighly unlikely coincidence. "If you getmatching fingerprints," Turner says, "youcould have images from the same quasar."

Row does one quasar produce two im-ages? The answer, astronomers say, lies ina "gravitational lens," an immense objectwith a powerful gravitational field locatedsomewhere between the quasar and theearth. As light from the quasar approach-es the object, it is diverted from its origi-

t_-

nal path by the intense field (ree diagram)and produces what earthbound observerssee as multiple images.

As long ago as 1915, Albert Einsteinpredicted that. as a sonsequence of hisgeneral theory of relativity, light layswould be bent if they passed through theintense gravitational field of a massive ob-ject. That prediction was confirmed byBritish Astronomer Arthur Eddington in

i le none of these previous multipleimages was separated in the sky by morethan seven arc seconds, the latest dualquasar images are 157 arc seconds, orsnore than 22 times 111.1 far apart. In orderto bend light that much, the lens musthave the mars of a thousand galaxies.Says Turner: "It was like looking for acat in the backyard and coming up withan elephant."

So far, however, it is an invisibleelephant. Says Co-Author MaartenSchmidt, the Caltech astronomer who 23years ago discovered that quasars werethe most distant and intrinsically bright-est objects in the sky: "The fact that we

do not see anything there makesit rather challenging. It is diffi-cult to bide an appropriate cluster of mass between us and thequasar."

Rising to the challenge,Turner's team suggests anotherpossible source of the powerfulgravitational lens: a black boleat least a thousand times as large" the Milky Way &ataxy (whichconsists of hundreds of billionsof stars, including tlle sun). irthat black hole exista, it shouldbe producing dual images of oth-er quasars nearby in the ::ky, andastronomers have begta to seekthem Wt. Still, astrcphysirirA:.find it difficult ID I bow .:LItremendous a bla,:k he wJ:1have formed.

The Naive .another intriguinsthe lens effect: the'This weird one-dimensionalcreature viLaderived mathemat-ically by physicists ponderingthe events that occurred in the

) irIction of a second after the Bigcreated the universe. In theory,

strings were either infinitely long orenclosed in a bap and could move atnearly the speed of light. Although irthni-tesimally thinner than the nucleus of anatom, those that have survived shouldhave formidable gravitafional fields.Each mile of length could contain a massequivalent lo that of the earth. As in thecase of black ho- ...".ings would theoreti-cally produm aie image.: of othernearby quasars. Explains Schmidt: "Sincethere are other q;_ssars in the region, onewould expect to see some of them doubledas well,"

Turner also has reservations. "I givethe cosmic string theory less than a filly-fifty chance of being the answer," be says."But if it is, it would be extremely excit-ing. Just think, we would be looking at afossil of the Big Bang." tyy.twate auphy.Rog:kat...116y Jon 16,11/Les Mvics endSoraskt/New York

: '11 .

I

I

I . I

II

1919, when he traveled to an bland oirWftt Africa to observe a total tabueclipse, From there he was able to mea-sure Precisely the location of a star thatbecame visible in the suddenly darkenedsky near the edge of the sun. Decease lightfrom the star was bent by solar gravity asit passed the sun, the apparent position ofthe star in the sky was slightly displacedfrom its known position by the amountthat Einstein had predicted.

By the 1930s, Einstein and other sci-entists had recognized tbe possibility of agravitational lens effect but doubted thatit would ever be observed. Then, in 1979,two Britons and an American working atIC.itt Peak observed the first lensing phe-nomenontwo quasar images with virtu-ally identical spectral characteristics.Their cronclusion: something, later shownto be a cinsttr <if galaxies, was serving asthe graviteticntsd lens, obscuring the actu-al quasar but bending its light rays to rman image on either side. Since then, fiveother examples of quasar multiple imageshave been observed, and intervening lensgalaxies found for three of them.

'Each degree oftre in the sky is divided inio 60 Arcminutes and 3.600 arc seconds. The full moon spansa half deo*. or 10 arc minutes.

1134E, MAY 19.19$674

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Sinvlified Version:Astrophysicists at an observatory in Arizona have discovered a mysterious cosmicobject. 'Their telescopes had been aimed at what appeared to be two quasars;mysterious, intensely bright bodies so far away that their light travels for billions ofyears before reaching the earth. Most scientists believe that each of the 3,000 knownquasars is unique. Says astronomer Charles Lawrence, "Quasars are likefingerprints, and no two are the same."

However, when the astrophysicists in Arizona put together information on thecharacteristics of the two quasars, including their distance from the earth, theydiscovered to their amazement that the two quasars were identical.

This is such an unlikely possibility that the astrophysicists realized they must bereceiving two images from one quasar. But how does one quasar produce twoimages? The answer, say astronomers, lies in a "gravitational lens," an immenseobject with a powerful gravitational field, located somewhere between the quasarand the earth. As light from the quasar approaches the object, it is diverted from itsori -.al path by the inunense gravitational field (see diagram), and produces whatpet ,e on earth see as two images.

Earth

es.dorelso

moo."

Path of light

Path of light

Fiture 18, (Opposite Pagel Reprinted with permissionfrom the May 19, 1996 Issues of TIME magazine.Copyright 0 by Time-LIfe, Inc. MI rights reserved.

75

Image 1

Real position ofQuasar

Image 2

CHAPTER EIGHT: The Battlefor Quality Begins

Jeremy Main

Vito My" Ins wails] wearLiss in industryk so only odscates doe tacellerm or wren-airy a product. bus Own isiIie also theamsures hal rout' be lokeo in ceder to rm.s- Amor qualityLA.abk: dependable. *bid will email, inworking order over the gonna life of she!endue'.Amiable: whit* con be mood or changed

aceordsng to needWade tin pow: twin little to do with thearabssci. irrelevant.

hapercepalkly: wo slowly lo beiibk

ChM: ovwer. Wolsence%sites (sho ~dem) tbree odso sell lesiscriatly so minufacturersiPers...dical:y: moo arid Then. aornetunes. fromWoe so tow

Ascirkssody: w tonone cire. sbibprate. orpertinence.ears: esuresnify mann mums onnicoweinurs4 wasirssal Nod i oucro-elactionses

73

. Fortune

Why are we suddenly so worried about the quality of Aintliicanproducts? Boeing makes the best commercial aircraft ic th *orki.International Harvester and Deere & Co. produce the mast reli-able° uactorsequipped, if farmers want, with stereos, sir condi-tioning. orthopedic seats, and adjustable* steering wheels. Euro-pew tourists carry off American-made permanent-press sheets!because they're cheap, long-wearing, and dazzlingly patterned. Ourplastics are stronger, our chc:nicals purer, and our machine toolsbuilt to finer tolerances than ever. This is all true enoughyet,unhappily, it is also largely beside tbe point.

America's le43ership in quality has been almost imperceptibly'anding for yeilfs. More and more U.S. executives have awakenedto the fact that they are caught in a fateful struggle. They are turn-ing their companies upside down to give qualiry specialists moreclout. Vendors are being told to supply better pans or lose thebusiness. In hundreds of factories, unall groups of workers are sit-ting down periodically' to search for ways of improving qualityand productivity.

While U.S. companies have steadily improved quality, they arecoming under pressure largely because the Japanese have advancedby leaps. Building assiduously° for 30 years on a foundation oftheories developed in the U.S., the Japanese have made quality theweapon that wins obe world's markets. A few bald facts show howvie)] they have done: A Dew American car is almost twice as likelyto have a problem as a Japanese model. An American color TVneeds repoir half again as often as a Japanese set. U.S.-madecomputer-memory chips were judged in one test this year to bcthree times as likely to fail as Japanese chips. *There's no questionthat the Japanese have set new world standards:* says Robert E.

Yleure tE "rbe Battle for Quality Begins" by J. Main.FORTUP,Z magazine, December 29, 1980. (c) Time Inc.AU righ..a !,,;:served. From Business World by R. Speegleand Giesecke. Copyright 0 1983 by OxfordUniversity Press. Reprinted by permission.

Cht 'ter Eight 9

Cole. who has worked in Japanese factories and now directs theUniversity of Michigan's Center for Japanese Studies. "Their bestfactories.are baner than our best factories."

Roben B. Reich, director of policy planning in the Federal TradeCommission, summarized the consequences of the relative declinein American quality in a speech this year (19801: "In industry afterindustry, consumers in America and elsewhere are tuming their backson U.S.-manufactuntd products in favor of fottign competitors; 28%of our automobiles are now manufactured abroad by non-U.S. com-panies. 30% of our sport and athletic goods, 34% of microwaveovens, 90% of Cb radios and motorcycles. almost 100% of videocassette recorders. The list goes on and gets longer year by year:radial tires, calculators, tekvisions, food processors, premium beer,cameras, stereo components, digital watches, pianos. bicycles, out-board motors."

Among U.S. companies. it's often hard to identify the specialcharacteristics that divide those that lead in quality from those thathave fallen behind. Certainly the pacesetters are run by people whoinsist on 'c:allence, often by an individual or family with a repu-tation Beyond that, though, none of the usual influenceson indus,..)al performanceunionization*, capital intensity* . thenumber of competitorsseems to explain quality disparities* amongcompanies or industries. Nor is there reason to suspect that today'smakers of even the best U.S. productsfarm Nuipment. aircraft.machine tools, large applianceswill be immune to future threats.

One thing that complicates thinking about quxlity is that theword can mean just about whatever a CusiofTICt thinks it means. Tothe fashion-conscious, qualit)' might mean the patch that transformsa $20 pair of jeans into a $40 pair. To a space scientist, qualityrepresents a million parts so carefully made, tested, and assembledthat they will function flawlessly for years. A work.* definitionof the quality most sought today might be "fitness for use, plusreliability. deliverrl at a marketable` price."

The principles fe: improving quality !Yen': developed in the U.S.before and duns; Wcrld War lland then neglected here. ButAmericans have been teaching the principles to the Japanese forthree decades, with extraordinary results. When inclooxialists movedinto the postwar power vacuum in Japan, they MU that the econ-omy depended on wiping out the nation's image as the world'spurveyor of junk. In 1950. the Japanese invited W. Edwards Dem-ing, a Census Bureau statistician, to lecture on ritlhods he haddeveloped for statistical analysis of quality. Four years later, theyasked Joseph M. Juran. a Western Electric quality manager, to in-struct them on management's role in improving quality.

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Coorocpwocest molts. effects.

raceme:eery thaw who crate the atamdardi.espectall) the Nehru standard*Voloalsation: formation of emsoctstions(unarm/ foe the pupae a itopporunt work.en' rawest*Coosa istrasety: the extent to which costalMust be invested per productPlapoeties: differences. gapsIleasouse: not inbject or auscosibk eo hoax.thing?. free horn

Worthect: practtrat. effective

PtitOollad: rven too or sof aloof', cart o r at.IowanVacusow: a space occupied h) nothing1Alp4ot omit: destrorine. raison,letevryor: teller

rigure le. Continued

material. The outline should reveal the intent ofthe writer, and what and where new information isintroduced.

7) With texts that are chronologically organized orwhich describe a process, students can be given ascrambled version to re-order.

8) students can be asked to make a sketch of somethingwhich is described in the text.

9) Students can be asked to summarize the text, inclu-ding showing how the author perceives and addressesthe audience.

10) Students can be asked to give an opinion of thetext.

ligiaaSconmargiaLlatesialgBecause you wil7 probably be unable to order class sets of

books for your student-sr the commercial materials you do haveavailable will be useful to you more as resources than as text-books. You will be able to select those activities and exerciseswhich are relevant to your students' needs. See Appendix A fortitles and descriptions of materials available through PeaceCorps' ICE.

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Chapter Six

PROGRAM MANAGEMENT AND EVALUATION

Depending on your teaching experience, you may at first feeloverwhelmed by the large classes and diverse needs that you faceas an ESP teacher. The purpose of this chapter is to provide sometips to help you manage the language learning environment in theclassroom.

Initially, students may experience problems in listeningcomprehension, remaining attentive, and following instructions.Your first class meetings, then, should be seen as opportunitiesto establish a routine, communicate your objectives, and allow thestudents to become accustomed to your teaching style.

You may have to adapt your style of speaking at the beqin-ning of your program so that students can understand you. somecontroversy does exist in language teaching about whether or notteachers should adapt their speaking style. It is argued thatthis exposes the students to inauthentic language and will notprepare them for understanding English spoken at a normal rate ofspeed. Of course, your ultimate goal is to enable your studentsto understand natural speech, spoken at normal speed, but at firstyou may need to speak more distinctly, allow more frequent pausesthan normal, and say things more than once and in more than oneway in order to be understood. As students get to know you bettertheir understanding will improve.

The students will feel most comfortrble and secure in theirlearning situation if you design a program which is well-structured and in which your expectations for the students areclear. Take extra time in the initial class meetings to explainhow each exercise should be approached. This time will be wellspent, as later class meetings will then fall into a routine,assignments will be coupleted as expected, and students willrecognize their steady progress.

Make your initial introduction of concepts and vocabularyhighly conteztualized through demonstration. Do not deny studentsthe extra help that contextual clues give, or comprehension willbe more difficult and the students will not develop strategies forexploiting context clues. The visual is the most important clue.A typical lesson should demonstrate. Use language, gestures, andeye contact to establish meaning, and take advantage of thestudents' knowledge of the world. Tasks appropriate to this kindof treatment include description of a process, conducting ofexperiments, and explanations of charts or graphs. When youask questions, discourage rapid reaction replies. save a slow-paced classroom in which everyone has time to think. If you arelecturing, stop every few minutes to allow students to get downnctes, discuss briefly among themselves and ask questions. Youmay find it valuable to circulate through the class from time totime to discuss and answer questions.

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Use short handouts and visuals. Give a handout satr. yourfirst treatment of a theme to give students the opportunity forlistening comprehension practice before they read the handout toconfirm, correct, or expand their notes.

When students ask questions in class:

1) Do not say too much. Omit all information that is notdemanded by the question. Do not give in to the temp-tation to show everything you know about the subject.

2) Leave tine and opportunity for students to answer eachother's questions.

3) If you observe that students do not appear to understand thequestion, you nay need to paraphrase it for the benefit ofthe other students.

Use class time to go over the exercises the students havecompleted. The sooner they get feedback on their answers, themore learning will take place. Students enjoy this activity asthey check their own work. You can save tine and ensure fairnessby preparing small tokens (cardboard or slips of paper) with astudent's name on each. Shuffle the tokens and call students'names in random order, rather than stopping at each question tocall on a student with raised hand. This will give every studentan equal opportunity to participate and will ensure that studentsremain attentive. It will also give you an indication of whichstudents do not understand the exercise.

rup yprk

Many arguments can be made in favor of group work. Itallows you to assign different tasks to students with differentneeds. It stimulates classroom communication since it obligesstudents to discuss the problem with each other. It fosterscooperative activity which gives students with non-equivalentskill levels an opportuniry to interact and learn from eachother.

In the typical ESP situation with large classes, inflexiblefurniture arrangements, and students who are unaccustomed toworking in groups, it may not be possible to ta5e group workeffectively. Do not feel that you must break the class intogroups in order to teach them. Your students may Le most comfor-table with the lecture format, and if your class session has avariety of activities as suggestcd above, group work is notnecessary for language learning.

However, if you are able to do group work and want it to bemost effective, the following principles should be followed:

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93

1) When you set a question for the group focus on, frame thequestion in several alternative forms be sure it isunderstood. Allow sufficient time for thought and be surestudents know just how much time they will have ("You've got5-8 minutes to think about this.")

2) Small groups are best. Have no more than three to fivestudents in 4 group. Spread the good students out (goodstudents are not necessarily only those who are good inEnglish, but also include those who are good in the contentarea you are teaching.)

3) Give a short, manageable task (5-20 minutes). Make suregroups know what to do -- ask them to repeat your instruc-tions, say what materials are needed, or outline how theywill accomplish the task.

4) Circulate among the groups as they work to be sure groupsare on task and to answer their questions.

51 If groups are making class presentations, allow the presen-tations to continue only until the problem they are workingon has been solved. Groups which do not get an opportunityto present on any given day will have an opportunity anotherday. Do not allow presentations to become dragged out andboring for the other students.

Errpr cgrrycliopErrors are a natural part of second language learning. It

is impossible to learn without making errors. Because of this,students' production of spoken and written language is full oferrors. The teacher cannot correct every error, and even if itwere possible to do sof excessive error correction intimidates thestudents, decreases their se7r-confidence and makes them hesitateto use the language. Therefure the teacher must decide how andwhen errors will be corrected and communicate this policy, to thestudents.

Errors should be corrected oLly when it can be done withoutinterfering with coromunication. If you are speaking with astudent individually, you should be focusing on the content ofwhat the student is saying, and not on the structure of thelanguage. Error correction in conversation will certainly causethe student to "clam up." In class recitations, questions whichare comprehensible as stated should not be corrected, since thisdestroys the Illow of the interaction and often the real questionis lost as the student struggles for grammatical accuracy. Eval-uate student responses to your questions accorCing to the resultsof the response, that is, if the response answers a question oncontent in a way that is comprehensible, do not make grammaticalcorrections. When you or other students do not understand astudent's question or answer, correction is desirable to get at

819 4

the intended meaning. And of course, if the purpose of thequestion iS to verify a point of grammar, correction is neces-sary. This policy can be discussed with the students so thatthey understand how and when you will make corrections, and soonthey will find it natural that not all spokeli errors are cor-rected when they occur.

Writing is the ideal medium for error correction, and moststudents expect that errors will be corrected in their writtenwork. If on particular assignnents you do not plan to correctall errors because you want to encourage students to write exten-sively without worrying about mistakes, explain this to them sothat they realize that what they have written is not necessarilyerror-free, even if you have not corrected it.

The most noticeable errors a student makes may be themost important. Errors in article usage, for example, whilequite noticable to the native speaker, do not often interferewith understanding. Focus on those errors which disrupt communi-cation, rather than those which are surface mistakes.

Testing

Testing, an important aspect of teaching, is, however, oftenoverstressed. Teaching should not be confused with testing, andmaterial which has not yet been taught should not be tested. Thepurpose of daily classroom activities is learning. Studentsshould not be put on the spot to demonstrate instant proficiencyin whatever is being taught.

Appropriate testing will, however, give you an accuratepicture of the students' abilities and progress.

A daily comprehension quiz at the end of each class periodis a quick way for students to judge their grasp of what has beentaught. Such a quiz might consist of five questions which re-quire a yes/no, true/false, or one-word answer. This can begiven in the last five minutes of class and checked by the stu-dents themselves as a closing activity.

Formal examinations should be based on what has been taughtin class. Your initial performance objectives can be the basisfor test questions. Be sure that the exam relies on the sameskills chat class activities are designed to build. An oraltest, for example, would be a poor test medium if the developmentof oral skills is not one of the objectives of your program. useformats that are familiar to students from class activities.

Belping stpdents learn outside the classroom

Your best students will want more from their English programthan you are able to provide. They need help in learning how togo about improving their English on their own. You can offer themthe following suggestions:

1. Take advantage of every opportunity to have an Englishlanguage experience: see a movie in English, listen to theradio, go to a lecture.

2. Find a news program on the radio (from the BBC or othersource) and listen to it every day. Comprehension willincrease rapidly as the daily listening reinforces vocabu-lary heard previously. If students find that initially theycannot understand enough to benefit from listening, suggestthey read the newspaper in their native language beforelistening to the English. Knowing the big stories of theday in advance will make the radio program more comprehensi-ble.

3. Read for pleasure in English. This point cannot be over-stressed. Illustrated English language magazines are avail-able in most parts of the world, and students will benefitfrom the contextualization they offer. Point out to themthat when they read for pleasure they should not focus onunderstanding every single word; instead they should settheir dictionaries aside and strive to comprehend the globalmeaning of what they read.

4. Take every opportunity to communicate with native speakersof English. Such opportunities include both conversing withnative speakers, when possible, and exchanging letters withnative speakers. A pen pal can provide good practice ininformal writing as well as information about the culture ofEnglish-speaking countries.

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4_

In some cases you may be preparing students for a program ofstudy in the U.S. or U.K. If so, you should incorporate culturalinformation into your curriculum to help them in their transi-tion. Following are some topics to include:

Greetings and_ Introduction: Formal and informal situations, whento use first names, how to keep a conversation going.

Punctuality: American standards and expectations. How to apolo-gize for being late. Bow to talk about time ("it's a quar-ter after", "it's fifteen minutes after", etc.)

Asking questions: Asking for directions or other information.

gniymity life: The U.S. system of education, features ofcampus life. How to talk with professors and other stu-dents.

Food: Common foods, types of restaurants.

Medigal gam: Vocabulary relating to health and illness, pre-scription vs. over-the-counter drugs, types of medical careavailable.

Male-Female gelationships: The roles of men and women inAmerican society; dealing with women and men in all walks oflife.

Transportatign: Air, bus (inter and intra-city), train, andautomobile. How to read a schedule. Driving laws.

VIPpping: Types of stores. U.S. money; use of checks, tippingcustoms.

Other information which your students will find useful includes:

- Geographic and demographic features of the U.S.

- Weather and climate

- The U.S. political system: state and federal government.

- Sports

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Appendix A

RESOURCES

Theie are two categories of books in this Appendix. Thefirst deals with books and a journal which you can use for refer-ence, and from which you can build your professional ESP skills.The second deals with textbooks which can be used either as coursebooks, or sources from which you can develop your own courses.

Reference Bgoks

A. For a background of the evolution of ESP:

John Swales, Episodes_in EP, (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1985).

This book is a source and reference book on the develop-ment of English for Specific Purposes. It aims to bothexplain and illustrate the major lines of development inESP. It achieves this by focusing on fifteen landmarkpublications in the field. Each publication -- elevenarticles and four extracts from textbooks -- is analyzed asfollows:

1. Setting - The background of the publication and itsrole in the development of ESP.

2. Text and Commentary3. Activities - Questions on the text: for example, "Here

again is the short "authentic" passagefrom Example 1. What language work canyou derive from it?"

4. Evaluation - Discussion points: for example, "How muchsay should the students have in the kindof ESP course they get?"

5. Related Readings.

B. For Grammar:

G. Leech & J. Svartvik, A Gramm4r of cgmmunicat4ve English.

C. For Language and Methodology:

1. Bernard A. Mohan, Language And Content, (Addison-Wesley,Reading, MA, 1986).

A comprehensive treatment of the teaching of languagethrough content. Presents a "knowledge framework" for inte-

grating language and content, giving general principles fororganizing information and activities. Useful for the

85 9 8

teacher interested in learning theory and program develop-ment. Designed as a course text, this book also includesexercises and suggested reading for each chapter.

2. F. Dubin, D.E. Eskey, & W. Grabe, Teactipq gpcondliffinguage Beadjnq for Acaderqc Purposes, (Addison-WesleyPublishing Co., Reading, MA, 1986).

A good introduction to reading theory and the readingprocess, especially as it applies to the second languagelearner. Separate chapters discuss reading skills develop-ment at the beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels. Asection on texts discusses authentic vs. adapted texts andteacher-made lessons. Reading testing and assessment arealso discussed. This book is designed as a course text forESL teachers and contains discussion questions and sugges-tions for further reading.

D. For an update on what's going on in ESP:

ESPMENA Bulletin.

Published twice a year by the English Language ServicingUnit, Faculty of Arts, University of Khartoum, Sudan. Newsabout research, materials development projects, new courses,and conferences and workshops related to teaching languagesfor special purposes, especially in the Middle East andNorth Africa.

E. For Cultural Orientation

1. To the United States:

E. N. Kearny, M.A. Kearny, & J.A. Crandall, The Mari...cmWay (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984.)

An introduction to American culture, including such top-ics as "Basic American Values and Beliefs," "Government andPolitics," "Education in the United States," "The AmericanFamily," and others. Includes vocabulary, comprehension,and other exercise types, questions for discussion and com-position, and suggestions for further reading. This bookprovides useful information about the United States and isrichly illustrated with photos, graphs, and charts.

2. To Great Britain:

Britaint 1986, published annually by the Central Officeof Information, 49 High Holborn, London, WCIV 6HB. In-tended for the use of scholars planning to study inBritain.

86 99

A smaller publication, DtltAin And its people is avail-able from the Rraus-Thompson Organization, Rt. 100,Milwood, N.Y. 10546.

Course Books

The'books recommended in this category were selected becauseof their conceptual endurance, their teaching support, and theiremphasis on reading skills. It is unlikely that you will haveaccess to large budgets for buying books, so the ones you do buywill have to last and should be examples of sound, practicalteaching based on solid ESP theory. They should also offerstimulation and support to you, the teacher, who will frequentlyhave to develop and adapt the books' ideas and activities. Inaddition, these books will have to be flexible enough to trainstudents with varying levels of English in their most pressingtask of extracting important information from texts written inEnglish.

The books in this category are:

For the sciences:

A. Pugleus SeriesB. pnglieh ia foc9.5

For computer science:

C. Eaglish t9k_goirtpliter scignce

For business management and accounting:

D. gusinesa 'goadE. Diiess_ggrigepts_fsmiLalleaLlkostimusF. glpenCy Eguarga

For tourism:

G. Restaugamt gnglishH. 09tel gnglish

For study skills:

I. Rep:ling au0 Thiatiag ia BrialiehJ. Skills fps. Learning

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A. &clew: ;ieries1 English for Science and TechnolOPY,C. Barron & D. Stewart, Editors. (Longman Group Ltd.,London)

The General Science book in this series has become one ofthe most successful ESP textbooks ever written, with sales ofover one million copies. The Nucleus Series, for which Gene_ralacience is the core book, originated at a university in northwestIran. It was written for students entering university with a lowlevel of English, whose medium of instruction at university wasnot English, and whose main need of the language was to studyEnglish textbooks for their science courses.

There are nine titles in the series, including GenualScience, which can precede or accompany the study of a specialsubject book. The titles are:

Gentrel Science

Biology

Agrjcultuse

Snglneeripg

Geology

rathepatics

redicine

rutslng Science

The student's book is accompanied by a teacher's book withnotes on methodology and scientific background, together with thetexts of listening comprehension passages and answers to theexercises. Each course has a listening cassette containing thepieces for listening comprehension.

All nine of the books have been organized in the same way,following the concepts of form - which includes properties, loca-tion/ and structure - then process/ and finally measurement ineach individual subject. In this way the contents pages forgngineeriog and Diolgmy are almost identical, though students ofbiology will study the properties and shapes of living organisms,while students of engineering will study the properties ofmaterials.

Each unit is organized into sections of Presentation,Development/ Reading and Listening. The simplicity of thisorganization provides an efficient model which you can followwhen you are designing additional material.

The series receives high marks for:

a. The visuals/ drawings/ diagrams/ charts/ etc., whichare inventively used to generate language.

b. The exercises/ which are firmly contextualized, eitherby visuals/ or by sentences in the exercise whichrelate to each other or the text.

88101

C. The exercises which promote active learning of readingand listening skills, which have often been given apassive role.

The series is criticized for:

a. The reading texts which are too short and notauthentic.

b. The insufficiently developed reading strategies, whichcompare poorly with the more sophisticated strategiesfound in the Focus series.

B. English la Focus Series: J. P. B. Allen and H.G. Widdowson,editors (Oxford University Press, London).

There are eight books in the series:

English ja Pbysigal Sawa&

English jij. Meghanigal Engineering

English .112, Wprgbop PracticeEnglish in_ Basic NeOical EgisngaEnglish it Agricgltikre

Bnglish in. Education

English in. Sgcial Studies

English irk Siplogical Science

Each of the books in the series follows the same format,with chapters divided into six sections:

I. Reading and ComprehensionII. Use of Language

III. Information TransferIV. Guided WritingV. Free Wtiting

The student's book is accompanied by a teacher's book andcassettes containing recordings of the reading texts and some ofthe exercises. However, the courses can be taught without thesetapes.

The series receives high marks for the variety and number ofexercises it offers. The following exercises are particularlyuseful:

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a. Reading comprehension: Each chapter opens with areading passage which has comprehension checksinserted in it. Students are encouraged to thinkabout what they are reading by deciding, for exam-ple, whether the inserted statements are true ornot, according to the information they have justread.

b. Rephrasing: After the reading passage, studentsare asked to replace selected words in the readingpassage with listed expressions which have similarmeaning. This exercise is useful in developingvoc,abulary consolidation and search readingteeL:iiquva.

c. Information Transfer: This activity uses exercisessuch as completing paragraphs with information fromdiagrams. The main regret among both teachers andstudents is that these exercises are not used morefrequently.

The series is criticized for:

a. The texts which are too short and are too thorough-ly worked over. In the process, some studentsbecome bored with the repetitious monotony of theexercises' format.

b. The grammar exercises which are frequently mechani-cal, and contain sentences which are not related tothe reading passage.

c. The exercises which vary in level of difficulty andwhich require more explanation than is given.

However, the last two books in the series, Social Studieqand Diologickl atuOies, have responded to these criticisms byadding more study skills exercises and by giving more appropriateexplanations where necessary.

C. proallsb for_cOmputer Science, Norma D. Mullen and P.Charles Brown (Oxford University Press, 1983).

ELEalElir_g_c_Lpx_k_i_utecence is one of the few books writtenfor the field of computers in ESP. It comes from Canada and waspilot tested among police officers in Kuwait. It is for use bypeople studying at post-secondary institutions who need a readingknowledge of computer science in English.

The course is divided into three parts: The Computer, withdescriptions of the characteristics and kinds of computers avail-able; Compute; Cpmpopents, with descriptions of the processor,

90 103

memory and input/output devices; and pata nogesqlno, with de-scriptions of programming.

The student's book is accompanied by an answer book, so itcan be used as a self-study course.

Chapters with reading passages are followed by exercisesinterspersed with Focus chapters, (printed in green), which dealwith grammar, vocabulary and language functions.

The book receives high marks for the variety of exercises itincludes to develop reading skills. For example, there areexercises to promote:

- understanding information directly stated or implied,

- understanding concepts,

- understanding grammatical and lexical devices whichbind a text,

- deducing meaning of new lexical items from context,

- scanning to locate specific information,

- distinguishing main ideas from supporting details,

- selecting important points to summarize an idea.

In contrast to the field of computer science, business man-agement has provoked an abundance of ESP courses. Here, threebooks from the many are recommended to you - two for upper inter-mediate to advanced level students, and the third for lower inter-mediate level.

D. pusiness World: A Collegtign of Readings on Qgntemporary;ssuea, by Roger Speegle and William B. Giesecke, (OxfordUniversity Press, 1983).

This is a collection of articles from prominent Americanbusiness magazines, adapted for students at upper-intermediatethrough advanced levels of English as a second language. The aimof the book is to improve business reading comprehension, as wellas listening and oral performance.

Each chapter is centered on the reading of an article. Therest of the chapter is divided into business vocabulary, structur-al review, business communication (summarizing, note-taking, iden-tifying the main idea), action (debating, discussing, interview-ing), and reaction (discussing in an open session).

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The book receives high marks for:

a. Using authentic materials. The texts are shor-tened, but the original sentence structure remainsunchanged. Potential problems in understandingvocabulary or the cultural context are dealt withby explanatory notes in the margin. Dealing withthese problems in this way saves time and preventsfragmentation of your lesson.

b. Being lively. The action and reaction sectionsprovoke student participation. While much of ESP'sfocus is on developing reading skills, students atthis level will want to keep up their oral perfor-mance skills, and these exercises provide simulatedrole play situations. The topics chosen for theseexercises relate to the text, but are also expandedto include concerns of interest to developing coun-tries. For example:

"The need for environmental protection has created more than200 new companies in Germany alone. In the U.S., environmen-tal divisions of large companies continue to employ more andmore people. Clearly, environmentally related business bene-fits the economy. Will this sort of business be of interestto businessmen in the developing nations? Where will busi-ness in the developing nations be most concerned with inves-ting its money? Do you foresee environmental business becom-ing an important part of the economy of developing nations?"

The book is criticized for:

a. The exercises in the structural review, which be-come predictable and monotonous.

b. The exercises in business communications, which areinsufficiently developed to teach study skills suchas note-taking.

E. pusineg_s_concepts for_Engllsh kractice, B. Dowling & M.McDougal, (Newbury House, Rowley, MA, 1982).

This book is intended for intermediate to advanced studentsof English as a Foreign Language, with an academic or profes-sional interest in the English of business or accounting. Thebook aims at providing practice in reading comprehension, tech-nical and business vocabulary, and activities for general lan-guage practice and the improvement of study skills. The book wasfield tested in American colleges and international corporations.

The book has eight units. These unit titles are: BusinessBasics, Marketing, International Business, Data Processing,Accounting, Finance, Management and Decision Making. Each unitis divided into three parts. The first two parts contain texts

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1 05

followed by exercises, and the third part contains an authenticarticle excerpted from a journal or newspaper.

The teacher's manual provides additional information on thebusiness and linguistic aspects of the student's book, as well asnotes on how to present each lesson.

The book receives high marks for:

a. The thoroughness of its teaching approach. Forexample, exercises are preceded by proficiencymarkers indicating whether the level is for inter-mediate, upper-intermediate or advanced students.

b. The comprehensive approach to the subject matter.Both vocabulary and concepts of business andaccounting are thoroughly covered.

The series is criticized for:

a. Failing to exploit the authentic articles morefully.

b. Being insufficiently international in its approach.Attempts are made to refer to other countries andcultures, but this does not quite balance out thestrongly American flavor.

F. Fluency Squares For Business and Technology by Phillip L.Knowles and Ruth A. Sasaki (Regents Publishing Co., 1981).

This book was developed at the Language Institute of Japan,for students with intermediate levels of English who requireEnglish training for their work as bankers, engineers and execu-tives. There is little emphasis on the reading of conventionaltexts; rather, the thrust is towards active listening. This isESP as in English for Shy Persons, in that students are encouragedto take an active role in their learning, but need not talk muchto do so.

The course consists of one book with an answer key at theback. Large scale visuals are also available to facilitate class-room use of the book; however, it might not be too difficult toproduce your own enlarged versions of many of the visuals.

The chapter format is as follows:

Oral Presentation of Information, in which the teacher readsthe text while students follow visual renderings of the sametext.

Oral Practice, in which students are guided in question andanswer sessions on the text.

93 1 06

Written Reinforcement; for instance, writing down thequestions and answers of Oral Practice.

Dictation

Follow-up Activities, for example, "Make a presentationto your class. Compare two models of cameras, pens,tape recorders, etc. Give your recommendations and thereasons for your recommendations."

Quantitative English, in which students work withnumbers.

Test

The book receives high marks for:

a. The careful and attractive layout, and the good useof information transfer exercises.

b. The emphasis on numbers, graphs, and numericalrelations essential to technical communication inany subject.

This book contains no reading passages, and at first thismay appear to be a weakness. However, Fluency Vquares is direc-ted towards the lower intermediate learner who may well appre-ciate the use of visuals and numeracy, which provide a non-threatening approach to discussions on concepts of business man-agement. The introduction of basic reading skills from a booksuch as Culcepts In Use, (discussed in the section on studyskills, below), could easily follow after.

G. gestAurant BrIglish, Philip Bingham, Riitta Lampola, JamesMurray. (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982. U.S. distributionthrough Alemany Press.)

H. Botel EnctlIsh, Philip Bingham, Riitta Lampola, James Murray.(Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982. U.S. distribution throughAlemany Press.)

These books are written for students or professionals "se,ohave a knowledge of English, but need to familiarize themselveswith the language and phraseology" of hotel management. Thebooks were written with European students of English in mind, butsince their target is to teach the English of internationaltourism, most of the situations covered are applicable to almostany country in the world. The books emphasize listening widspeaking skills. For that reason, the books cannot be properlytaught without the accompanying cassette tapes.

RPstaurant English has fifteen chapters which cover most

94 107

restaurant situations from paying the bill to discussing specialdiets customers may require for religious or health reasons. Eachchapter follows a format of presenting information, either on thecassette or in the form of menus, table charts or pictures of aplace setting for dinner, etc. Each presentation is exploitedthrough a series of comprehension questions, completing sentencesor role-pXay situations.

Rotel Engligh has twelve chapters covering reservations,giving directions, telephoning, handling complaints, and othertopics, in a format like that described above for RestaurantEnglish.

These books receive high marks for:

a. The good exploitation of cassettes as teaching tools.The dialogues are authentic, recorded at "almost normalspeed" and with a variety of accents. The two cassettesfor each book cover two different levels. The firstrequires students to listen and reproduce; the secondrequires students to manipulate the items presented by,for instance, responding to statements.

b. The emphasis on real-life situations, rather than rigidsets of artificial language exercises.

c. The inclusion of sets of useful phrases.

These books are criticized for:

a. The emphasis on Europe, especially when dealing withfood.

b. The sketchy support offered to the teacher in organizingsuch activities as role-playing or discussions.

I. Reading and Thinking In English, B.G. Widdowson, editor.(Oxford University Press).

This series of four books originated in Latin America in awriting project carried out at the University of the Andes,Bogota, Colombia. The series is designed to "relate ESP with theteaching of more general reading competence", and as such is anexample of the study skill materials now coming on the market.The series contrasts with others that have been recommended herein that the focus is on preparation for reading, and not onreading comprehension after the text has been read.

The authors explain the relationship between the four booksin the preface:

"The series starts at a near beginner level. It is assumedthat the beginning learner has a minimal know3edge of basic

9 5 108

grammar and vocabulary...The course then takes thelearner progressively through the intermediate stages oflanguage learning by extending his ability to understand thedevices of the language and how they are used in academiccommunication. By the final book he is expected to havedeveloped a sophisticated awareness of the communicativeresources of English and an ability to perform a range ofchallenging reading tasks."

The four books in the series are:

C.Q.D_CtRik_111_12122. (near beginner)

X:xploring _functions (pre-intermediate)

Discovering DiscaUrae (intermediate)

Discourse in Action (advanced)

The student's book is accompanied by a teacher's book whichcontains teaching notes, notes on the units, and answers to theexercises.

The series receives high marks for:

a. The clarity of its teacher support and the way inwhich it draws students into tha learning processby explaining the learning goals.

b. une attractive layout, (the books are coded withdifferent colored print), and the full exploitationof the information transfer activities, with manyvisual cues used to generate language.

The series is criticized for:

a. The generality of the texts, which attempt to addressstudents from any scientific background, and whichfrequently end up being too general.

b. The insufficiency of the vocabulary work.

C. The inclusion of more discourse analysis discussionthan is pedagogically useful.

J. pq.11s in Learpinq, Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., Walton-on-Thames, England. (University of Malaya Press).

This series originated at the University of Malaya. It wasdesigned to teach students with little knowledge of English howto extract important information from textbooks and journalswritten in English. Both this series and Eggcling_ancimingingIn EpglIsh are based on the assumption that it is more cost-effective to teach a core of academic language common to most

96109

disciplines, rather than to prepare subject-specific materials.However, this series does include one book, Reading Projects:Science, which focuses on texts specifically for students ofscience. With this book the authors hope to keep the attention ofscience students.

There are five books in the series:

fpundations Application

Revelopment p.rogression

Beading Projects: sc,ience

The first four books cover a variety of general texts suit-able for students with intermediate levels of English. BeadingBp9igetp complements the main course books by familiarizing stu-dents with the linguistic forms and reading strategies appropriateto the particular subject they are studying. These subjects aregeology, chemistry, biology, ecology and physics. The student'sbook is accompanied by a teacher's book.

The books receive high marks for:

a. The explanations and support given to the teacherfor organizing classroom activities.

b. The organized way in which it breaks down studyskills into manageable units. For example:

Arriving at main points

Making sense of word behavior

Reading for relevant information

Using contextual clues

Using symbols, abbreviations and equations

Learning about graphs

c. The variety of exercises it offers. For example:

Checking illustrations. This involves consultingother books and then correcting illustrations whichhave been incorrectly drawn and labelled.

Writing appropriate headlines for articles.

Checking statements against flow charts, diagramsor graphs.

Putting pictures in the right sequence and thenwriting subtitles for the pictures.

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Hoy /2 Obtain Copies of These Books

1. Check to see if the book you want is in the InformationCollection and Exchange (ICE) catalogue. If it is, you caneither ask your associate director to cable ICE asking forthe book, or you can contact ICE yourself. The staff at ICEis willing to help and would like you to take full advantageof the services ICE has to offer. Do not hesitate to con-tact them if you have any inquiries about materials. Forinstance, you may want to know what books, other than theones mentioned in this chapter, are available on ESP inchemistry. ICE can get you a list of titles. Also, you maywant photocopies of articles or excerpts from books in theICE reference section. Again the staff at ICE will bepleased to help.

2. If the book you want is not in the ICE catalogue, you haveseveral options. First, check to see if Peace Corps fundsare available for your purchase. If they are, you can workthrough your country staff. Ways of ordering books varyfrom country to country, but your associate director will beable to tell you the way he or she has devised. A secondoption is to ask family or friends to order and pay for thebook for you. If you check ahead with your country deskofficer, it may be possible for U.S. publishers or bookshopsto send the book to you via your desk officer. But in thisr I remember to ask the publisher to put your name and theL., try desk clearly on the package. A third option is toorder the book yourself.

When writing to publishers:

a. Ask how much has to be included in the price tocover postage.

b. Check on the method of payment. The most accept-able are credit cards, international money orders, orU.S. checks for books ordered from the U.S.

c. Specify whether you want airmail or surface delivery.

In considering how long ordering will take, calculate thatfrom the U.S. it will take two to four weeks to process yourorder, one week to get the book to your desk officer inWashington, and two to three weeks for the pouch to deliver thebook to the Peace Corps office in your country. From Europecalculate two to four weeks to process your order, two weeks forairmail delivery and up to three months for surface mail.

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Appendix B

TRAINING MODULES FOR PEACE CORPS ESP PROGRAMS

80 hour pre-service training

Week One

Session 1 (4 hours): The theory of language learning

Reading: Manual Chapter One

What is ESP? Why teach for specific purposes?The role of the teacher.The task of the student.

Review of approaches to teaching languagesGrammar/translationDirect MethodAudio-lingualCommunicativeComprehension-based

What modern language teaching theory tells us:Developing communicative competenceLearning vs. acquisitionDeveloping the receptive skillsThe importance of affective variables (motivation,attitude, etc.)

Activity: Ask PCV's to share their individual languagelearning and teaching experiences and discuss theadvantages and disadvantages of various approaches fromtheir personal points of view.

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Session 2 (4 hours): ESP Needs Assessment

Reading: Manual Chapter Two.

Purpose of the needs assessment: Identifying what studentsneed to learn.

Getting to know your Institution and colleagues.

Language functions and uses: What to look for.

Getting to know your students: Observing spoken language.

Assessing written materials in the subject area.

Interview techniques for talking with administrators,content-area instructors, and students.Activities: 1) Ask PCV's to construct interview outlineswith appropriate questions. 2) Choose a content area andprovide examples of the kinds of texts that students of thatsubject would have to work with. Ask PCV's to identifylanguage functions and uses appropriate to the subject area.

Session 3 (4 hours): Teaching Languuge Skills: Listeningcomprehension

Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Listening

"Teacher talk" -- practicing comprehensibility.Incorporating comprehension checks into your lesson.

Helping students 1:ecognize clues to meaning in speech.

Exercises which develop listening comprehension.

Activity: PCV's use a visual aid to design a mini-lecture:practice making their speech comprehensible, using "teachertalk" and incorporating comprehension checks.

Session 4 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Reading

Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Reading

Wbat is reading? Getting meaning from print; the role ofbackground knowledge.

Voc.abulary development.

Extensive vs. intensive reading.

Assessing difficulty and appropriateness of materials forreading and listening.

Teaching reading techniques: previewing, SQ3R, skimming,scanning.

Recognizing the author's purpose; recognizing patterns ofdiscourse.

Activity: Design and conduct a readability test.

Session 5 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Writing and StudySkills

Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Writing/Grammar and StudySkills.

Building writing skills from sentence to report.

Teaching writing skills: definition, classification,hypothesis.

Teaching library skills.

Teaching note-taking.

Teaching summarizing and avoiding plagiarism.

Activity: Prepare a writing lesson which includesappropriate pre-writing activities.

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Week Two

Session 6 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Grammar inReading and Writing

Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Reading and Writing/Grammar

Using texts for grammar instruction.

Techniques for teaching grammar.

Activity: Prepare a reading or writing assignment;identifying relevant grammatical features for focus anddeveloping a lesson plan for teaching them.

Session 7 (4 hours): Teaching Language Skills: Speaking

Reading: Manual Chapter Three: Speaking

The role of speaking in the classroom.

Developing appropriate speaking activities; the importanceof maintaining a communicative emphasis rather thanmeaningless chill.

Activity: Prepare and demonstrate a lesson which developsspeaking skills.

Session 8 (4 hours): Course and Materials Design

Reading: Manual Chapter Pour

Setting goals and objectives.

Designing a program: Choosing topics and texts.

Using standard formats: making the materials developmentprocess easier.

Unit design: incorporating all language skills.

Writing lesson plans: providing a variety of activities.

Activity: Write a unit outline based on a sample text.(This should be considered an ongoing processunder the supervision of an experienced teacher.)

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Session 9 (4 horJrs): Materials Selection

Reading: Manual Chapter Five and Appendix A

Review of resource section of handbook.

Addj.tional sources of materials.

Selecting appropriate authentic materials: features whichmake materials comprehensible to learners. Authentic vs."simplified" materials.

Teacher-developed materials.

Activities: PCV's look at a wide array of authenticmaterials and practice selecting texts appropriate for ESPclasses and giving rationales for their choices byidentifying features which make the texts accessible andreadable. Prepare comprehension exercises for a text youselect.

Session 10 (4 hours): Program Management

Reading: Manual Chapter Six.

Classroom management techniques, including group work anderror correction.

Testing and evaluation

Teaching cultural orientation

Activity: Look at test and quiz formats. Design a quiz onthe text you have been working with this week.

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Weeks Three and Four

Volunteers prepare ten lessons for students, including:

1) Teaching reading technigues

2) Recognizing patterns of discourse.

3) A vocabulary lesson.

4) Teaching grammar in reading.

5) Listening for note-taking.

6) Teaching writing

7) Teaching speaking: communication exercises

8) A study skills lesson.

9) A lesson using group work and speaking skills.

10) Prepare and administer a test.

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Appendix C

TRAIN/NG MODULES FOR PEACE CORPS ESP PROGRAMS

20 hour in-service training

(Ten two-hour sessions)

Session 1: Teaching ESP

Time ii.ctiVit.Y.

15 min. Introductions

10 min. Presentation: Goals of the in-service.

30 min. Group brainstorming: What is language learning andteaching? Sharing of experiences. Participantsreport on what has been successful and unsuccessfulfor them. This sets the stage for the presentationon methods which follows.

45 min.

15 min.

Presentation: Review of approaches to languageteaching; what modern language acquisition theorytells us.

Review of approaches to teaching languagesGrammar/translationDirect MethodAudio-lingualCommunicativeComprehension-based

What modern language teaching theory tells us:Developing communicative competenceLearning vs. acquisitionDeveloping the receptive skillsThe importance of affective variables

Group work: Why ESP? What are the advantages anddisadvantages? Groups brainstorm and report. seeChapter One for the advantages of the ESP approach.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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Session 2: ESP Needs Assessment

2ima

10 min.

10 min.

30 min.

20 min.

15 min.

30 min.

IQiiytty

Presentation: Purpose of ESP needs assessment. SeeChapter Two.

Group brainstorming: Oses and functions of language.What do participants consider important to teach?

Group work: preparing for needs assessment.Groups construct interview protocols to interviewadministrators and content-area instructors at theirprospective institutions. Groups share results andindividuals revise protocols.

Presentation and demonstration: observing spokenlanguage. How to identify uses and functions inorder to prepare relevant lessons.

Presentation: Evaluating written materials.Identifying features to incorporate into teachingmaterials.

Group work: Assessing written materials in subjectareas. Give participants samples of subject areamaterials and have them identify features needed byESP students.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

Session 3: Teaching Reading

Ming ActiltitY

20 min.

45 min.

Presentation: Overview of the four skills. Today'sfocus on reading. What is reading? See ChapterThree.

Presentation and demonstration with sample materials:Guidelines for selecting appropriate readingmaterials. Groups work on selecting and justifyingchoices.

20 min. Presentation: techniques for teaching reading.Types of exercises. Extensive vs. intensive reading.Show examples of exercise types and how they can beused in the classroom to promote reading skills.

30 min. Groups look at exercise types and make shortpresentations to the class.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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Session 4: Teaching Listening Comprehension

2ima Activity

15 min.

30 min.

45 min.

25 min.

S min.

Presentation: What is listening comprehension? SeeChapter Three.

Notetaking: clues to meaning. Sample exercise. Givea short lecture. Partners take notes and compare toidentify what is necessary for good note-taking skills.

Group work: Participants construct listening mater-ials to be used in their classes.

Presentation and demonstration: practicingcomprehensibility. Teacher talk, comprehension checks.

Summary and conclusion.

Session 5: Writing and Study Skills

Tire Activ.itY

30 min. Presentation: building writing skills. Sampleactivities and materials. See Chapter Three.

30 min. Group work: prepare writing lesson incorporating pre-writing activities.

15 min.

15 min.

Presentation: Study skills. See Chapter Three.

Group brainstorming: research skills -- what isneeded? Identify features which should be taught.

25 min. Group work: prepare lesson on teaching study skills.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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Session 6: Teaching Grammar and Speaking

lima AatiYitY

15 min. Presentation: Sow to teach grammar. See ChapterThree.

40 min. Group work: prepare a grammar lesson in reading orwriting which identifies relevant features and showshow to teach them.

15 min. Presentation: Teaching speaking. See Chapter Three.

15 min. Group brainstorming: Sow to encourage speaking inthe classroom. Participants share ideas.

30 min. Group work: prepare a lesson for teaching speakingskills.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

Session 7: Course Design

30 min. Setting goals and designing a program ChapterFour.

10 min. Demonstration: Sample unit outline.

20 min.

15 min.

40 min.

5 min.

Group work: Writing objectives. Participants writeobjectives for various skills.

Presentation: lesson planning. Using standardformats. Providing a variety of skill practice.

Group work: groups select a text and design a unitbased on that text. See Chapter Four for model.

Summary and conclusion.

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Session 8: Materials Selection.

10 min.

45 min.

30 min.

30 min.

5 min.

Presentation: Sources of materials. See ChapterFive.

Group work: groups review an array of materials and. evaluate them in terms of interest, level, and skills

addressed. Groups present their evaluations.

Presentation and demonstration: developing materials;making materials comprehensible to low-level students.Give guidelines for simplification.

Group work: practice in writing materials followingguidelines given above.

Summary and conclusion.

Session 9: Program Management and Testing

15 min. Group brainstorming: Problems you anticipate as youbegin your ESP program. Participants present theirconcerns.

45 min. Presentation and discussion: Classroom managementtechniques. Teaching cultural orientation. SeeChapter Six. Answer concerns brought out inbrainstorming.

25 min. Presentation: ?sting and evaluation issues. SeeChapter Six.

30 min. Group work: groups design a quiz for the unit theydeveloped in Session Seven.

5 min. Summary and conclusion.

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Session 10: The Total Program

30 min. Group work: Review of what you will do when you goto your site. Groups develop action plans. Plansshould include steps for needs assessment, programdevelopment/ and materials preparation.

20 min. Groups present plans.

20 min. Brainstorming: questions and issues in ESP. Finalopportunity for participants to raise concerns.

30 min. Presentation: summary and final words ofencouragement.

15 min. Evaluation of in-service. (Evaluation instrumentneeded.)

5 min. Conclusion.

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