ED 289 968

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CE 048 701

Manage the Adult Instructional Process. Module N-5 ofCategory N--Teaching Adults. Professional TeacherEducation Module Seri.as.Ohio State Univ., Columbus. National Center forResearch in Vocational Education.Department of Education, Washington, DC.ISBN-0-89606-231-78748p.; For related documents, see ED 274 810 and CE048 697-702.American Association for Vocational InstructionalMaterials, 120 Driftmier Engineering Center,University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.Guides - Classroom Use Materials (For Learner)(051)

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.*Adult Education; Adult Educators; *Adult Students;Behavioral Objectives; *Classroom Techniques;*Competency Based Teacher Education; HigherEducation; Individualized Instruction; Job Skills;Learning Activities; Learning Modules; SecondaryEducation; Teacher Evaluation; *Teaching Methods;Teaching Skills; Vocational Education; *VocationalEducation Teachers

ABSTRACTThis module, one in a series of performance-based

teacher education learning packages, focuses on a specific skill thatvocational educators need to create appropriate learning environmentsand to plan and manage instruction that is well-suited to thelearning and psychological needs of today's adults. The purpose ofthe module is to help the teacher manage the adult instructionalprocess effectively. Introductory material provides terminal andenabling objectives, a list of resources. and general information.The main portion of the module includes two learning experiencesbased oh the enabling objectives: (1) identify instructionaltechniques and activities appropriate for use with adults and (2)critique case studies on modifying the learning environment for adultstudents. Each learning experience presents activities withinformation sheets, samples, worksheets, checklists, and self-checkswith model answers. Optional activities are provided. Completion ofthese two learning experiences should lead to achievement of theterminal objective through the third and final learning experiencethat requires (1) an actual teaching situation in which to manage theadult instructional process, and (2) a teacher performance assessmentby a resource person. An assessment form is included. (YLB)

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module is one of a series of over 130 performance -ha,,edteacher education (PBTE) leasing packages focusing uponspecific professional competencies of occupational instructors(teachers, trainers). The competencies upon which these nnoci,desare based were identified and verified through research as be-ing important to si ccessful teaching. The modules are suitablefor the preparation of instructors in all occupational areas.

Each ,nodule prow ies learning experiences that integrate theoryand application, each culminates with cnterion- referenced assess-ment of the instructor's performance of the specified competerrcy The materials are designed for use by teachers-in-trainingworking individually or in groups under the direction and with theassistance of teacher educators or others qualified to act asresource persons. Resource persons should be skilled in theteacher competencies being developed and should be thoroughlyoriented to PBTE concepts and procedures before using thesematerials.

The design of the materials provides considerable flexibility forplanning and conducting performance -based training programsfor preservice and mservice instructors, as well as business-industry-labor trainers, to meet a wide variety of individual needsand interests The materials are intended for use by local educa-tion agencies, postsecondary institutions, state departments ofeducation, universities and colleges, and others responsible forthe professional development of instructors

The PBTE modules in Category N-- Teaching Adultsare de-signed to enable adult ins ictors to create appropriate learningenvironments and to plan and manage instruction that is wellsuited to the learning and psychological needs of today's adults.The modules are based upon 50 competencies identiliad andverified as unique and important to the instruction of adults.

Many inuividuals have contributed to the research, development,field reviow, and revision of these training materials. Apprecia-tion is extended to the following individuals who, as membersof the LACUM analysis panel, assisted National Center staff inthe identification of the competency statements upon which thiscategory of modules is based: Doe HeMschel, State Universityof New York at Brockport; David Holmes, Consortium of the

California State University, Joanne Jorz, JWK International Cor-pchation, virginia, Jean Lcwe, Fairfax County Public Schools,Virg.nia, Jim Menapace, BOC/Lansing-General Motors,Michigan, Norma Milanovich, University of New Mexico, CubaMiller, Sequoia Adult S ;hod, California, Donald Mocker, Univer-sity of Missouri, and Michael A. Spewock, Indiana University ofPennsylvania.

Appreciation is also extended to the following individuals for theircritical held reviews of the six modules in the N category duringthe development process. Edward K. Allen, Donna Baumbach,Ronald J. Bula, Madelyn R. Callahan, Deborah Clavin, JoeCooney, Yvonne Ferguson, Howard Harris, Ronald Hilton, DavidHolmes, Donna E. Johnson, Edward V Jones, Russell Kratz, JeanLowe, Frances Melange, Donald L Martin, Sandy McGechaen,Norma Milanovich, Audni Miller-Beach, Donald Mocker, ChristaOxford, Willann Reese, Rick Schau, Steven E. Sorg, Michael A.Spewock, Neal Wiggin, and James L. Wright.

Recognition for major individual roles in the development of thesematerials is extended to the following National Center staff. HarryN. Drier, Associate Director, Development Division, and RobertE. Norton, Prograr., Director, for leadership and direction of theproject, Lois G. Harrington, Program Associate, for training ofmod de writers, assistance in the conceptualization and develop-ment of the materials, and mai Lenance of quality control, DavidJ. Kalamas, Graduate Research Associate, for development ofillustration specifications; Susan Dziure for initial art work; andSheltie Tremaine and Cheryl Salyers, for their word processing.

Special recognition is also extended to the staff at AAVIM for theirinvaluable contributions to the quality of the final printed products,particularly to Sylvia Conine for typesetting, to Marilyn MacMillanfor module layout, design, and final art work, and to George W.Smith, Jr for supervision of the module production process

Robert E. TaylorExecutive DirectorThe National Center for Researchin Vocational Education

THE NATIONAL CENTER

FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

/ THE KENNY t1T0EAD CgaTZUS OHIO 43210

The National Center for Research in Vocational Education's mis-sion is to increase the ability of diverse agencies, institutions, andorganizations to solve educational problems relating to individualcareer planning, preparation, and progression. The National Centerfulfills its mission by:

Generating knowledge through researchDeveloping educational programs and productsEvaluating individual program ,reeds and outcomes.Providing information for rar.onal planning and policyInstalling educational programs and productsOperating information systems and services.Conducting leadership development rid training programs

MVIAA

AMERICAN ASSOCIATIONFOR VOCATIONALINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALSThe National Institute for Instructional Matenals120 Driftmier Engineering CenterAthens, Georgia 30602

The Ariencan Association for Vocational Instructional Matenals(AAVIM) is a nonprofit natia al institute.

The institute is a cooperative effort of universities, colleges anddivisions of vocational and technical education in the United Statesand Canada to provide for excellence, in instructional matenals.

Direction is given by a representative from each of the states,provinces and territories AAVIM also works closely with teacherorganizations, government agencies and industry.

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INTRODUCTIONIt's your first time before a class of adult learners.

Most of them are as old as or older than you. Youcan se: a lot of experience, a little trepidation, somepretty high expectations, and signs of some verycomplicated lives shining out of their eyes. It's bothexciting and challenging.

How are you going to relate to these learners?Establish rapport? Create a comfortable atmospherethat is conducive to learning? How will you help themdevelop confidence in themselves as learners? Howwill you encourage them to take an active part in thelearning activities and to assume responsibility formeeting their own educational goals?

What instructional techniques will you use? Howwill you ensure that your techniques and materialsmeet their individual needs? At the same time, whatwill it take to get them functioning as a group, notjust as individuals with individual needs?

What other needs or problems could interfere withtheir getting the most out of your instruction? Andwhat is your role in helping them deal with theirdifficulties?

All these questionsabout techniques, rapport,atmosphere, and individual and group needsrelateto the instructional process. The selection and useof instructional techniques, of course, is a key partof that process. Many of the techniques you will usewith adult learners are the same as for learners atany age. And, as with other age gt cups, the instruc-tional process requires more than putting togethera "casserole" of instructional techniques.

In managing the instructional process, you mustconsider not just what instructional techniques youwill use, but all aspects of the instructional environ-ment, including the psychological, physical, and in-tellectual aspects. Instruction must be a unified,coherent process, which is carefully planned andcarried out with the characteristics and needs ofadult learners in mind.

This module is designed to help you manage theadult instructional process effectively. First, it pro-vides an overview of a wide range of instructionaltechniques. Then, it focuses on specific instructionalstrategies and ways of modifying the learning en-vironment that are particularly effective with adults.

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35

ABOUT THIS MODULEObjectives

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Enabling Objectives:1. After completing the required -eading, identify instruc-

tional techniques and activities appropriate fir use inadult instructional situations described in given casesituations (Learning Experience I).

2. After completing the required reading, critique the per-formance of the instructors described in given casestudies in modifying the learning environment for adultlearners (Learning Experience II).

PrerequisitesTo complete this module, you must have knowledge of thecharacteristics of adult learners and the process of adultdevelopment. If you do not already meet this requirement,meet with your resource person to determine what methodyou will use to do so. One option is to complete the infor-mation and practice activities in the following module:

Prepare to Work with Adult Learners, Module N-1

ResourcesA list of the outside resources that supplement those con-tained within the module follows. Check with your resourceperson (1) to determine the availability and the locationof these resources, (2) to locate additional references inyour occupational specialty, and (3) to get assistance insetting up activities with peers or observations of skilledteachers, if necessary. Your resource person may also becontacted if you have any difficulty with directions or inassessing your progress at any time.

Learning Experience IOptional

References: The National Center for Research inVocational Education. Professional Teacher Educa-tion Module Series; Category C: Instructional Execu-tion (29 modules). Athens, GA: American Associationfor Vocational Instructional Materials, 1977-85.Reference: Current Index to Journals in Educationthrough which you can locate journal articles relatingto the use of specific instructional techniques withadults.A group of peers to participate in a seminar in whichyou can practice using various instructional tech-niques.

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Learning Experience IIOptional

A classroom that you can visit to observe instructionaltechniques being used with adults.

Learning Experience IIIRequired

An actual teaching situation in which you can managethe adult instructional process.A resource person to evaluate your competency inmanaging the adult instructional process.

General InformationFor information about the general organization of eachperformance-based teacher education (PBTE) module,general procedures for its use, and terminology that iscommon to all the modules, see About Using the NationalCenter's PBTE Modules on the inside back cover. Formore in-depth information on how to use the modules inteacher/trainer education programs, you may wish to referto three related documents:

The Student Guide to Using Performance-Based TeacherEducation Materials is designed to help orient preservice andinselnce teachers and occupational trainers to PBTE ingeneral End to the PBTE materials.

The Resource Person Guide to Using Performance-BasedTeacher Education Materials can help prospective resourcepersons to guide and assist preservice and inservice teachersand occupational trainers in the development of professionalteaching competencies through use of the PBTE modulesIt also includes lists of all the module competencies, as wellas a listing of the supplementary resources and the addresseswhere they can be obtained.

The Guide to the Implementation of Performance-BnedTeacher Education is designed to help those who will ad-minister the PBTE program. It contains answers to implemen-tation questions, possible solutions t) problems, and alter-native courses of action.

6

Learning Experience I

OVE7VIEW

A key factor in meeting the needs of adult learners is providing a variety ofinstruc;:onal techniques. For a review of some of the many techniques thatcan be used with adults, read the following information sheet.

VARYING YOUR INSTRUCTIONAL. TECHNIQUESThe instructional techniques used with adults are,

in large part, the same as those used with youngerstudents. And, just as a good teacher of youngerstudents varies the techniques used, so must youas a good teacher of adults.

The point is, however, that with adult students,variety is critical. Younger students bring a widerange of abilities, talents, interests, and experiencesto the learning situation; adults may bring an evenwider range. They may have widely varying goalsand expectarins. They may have physiological char-acteristics (e.g., hearing loss or visual impairment)you will need to consider. And if they are to remainin the program, they will expect the program tosatisfy their needs, not only in terms of content butalso in terms of instructional approach.

You will need to provide variety in two ways: (1)vary the instructional techniques and resources youuse and (2) offer alternatives from which learners canchoose. Adults need to be allowed to decide forthemselves how they will learn or practice some ofthe course content. This does more than providevariety. It gives them some control in tailoring theinstructional process to meet their learning needs.

Of course, not every adult is ready to take controlright away. Some adults come to the classroommotivated, self-directed, and eager. Others may beunsure and might need to be encouraged, bolstered,and prodded. You will need to be sensitive tolearners' needs and help them work toward assum-ing more of a decision-making role.

The following are some of the ways in which youcan provide variety in the learning activities you offer:

GroupingProvide opportunities for large-group and small-group interaction and for in-dividual study.Learning modalityTo address their differentlearning modality preferences, offer learners thechance to acquire knowledge and skill throughdifferent senses. Include hearing (auditory);seeing, watching, examining, reading (visual);and hands-on activities (tactile).Study skillsInclude opportunities to applysuch skills as reading, writing, observing, lis-tening, speaking, collecting, memorizing, prac-ticing, problem solving, making/doing, andconstructing/creating.Types of assignmentsProvide in-class andoutside assignments, supervised and indepen-dent study, and paper-and-pencil work and ap-plied performance.Levels of conceptual skillPlan activities inwhich students need to make inferences, drawconclusions, reason, analyze, consider differentperspectives, organize and express ideas, andapply knowledge in a different context.Learner and teacher rolesSet up activitiesin which the students are learning from you,learning from their peers, teaching their peers,teaching you, or functioning as a member of ateam. Likewise, vary your own role as informa-tion giver, facilitator, resource person, orlearner.

Instructional Techniques: An Overview

In this section are presented some of the manyinstructional techniques and resources that you canuse to provide variety in teaching adults. As youreview these techniques, it is important io keep a fewpoints in mind.

The first relates to educational setting and the ter-minology used to describe it. The teaching of adultstakes place in many different settings: schools, busi-ness offices, laboratories, factories, branches of the

7

YMCA, and community centers, to name only a few.Adults may be learning technical or managementskills on company time, preparing for advancementor career change on their own time, or simply broad-ening their horizons. To accommodate and discusssuch a wide range of possibilities, it is necessary tosettle on a few key terms and define them broadly.

Therefore, the term classroom in this modulerefers to all the places where instruction may take

9

place, from classroom to storefront to plant floor ofa factory. The term organization refers to the entitythat is offering instruction. it may be a school, a busi-ness, an industry, a county program, or another typeof organization. The term administrator refers to thepeople who manage the business of education ortraining: principals, deans, supervisors, trainingdirectors, and others.

The second point relates to flexibility. Everyteaching situation is different. You may be teachingin a program in which instructors have a great dealof freedom to mold the curriculum to the needs ofthe learners. Or, at the other extreme, your situa-tion may be one in which the curriculum is rigidlyset, because of organizational policy or occupationalstandards. Most likely, your degree of flexibility fallssomewhere between these two extremes. You willneed to determine how you can best provide instruc-tional variety within the confines of your ownsituation.

The final point relates to brevity. The descriptionsthat follow are intentionally brief. They are intendedto provide an overview of the wide range of tech-niques and resources that are available to you. De-tailed information related to each technique isavailable in many other educational texts, as well asin other modules in the PBTE series.

Oral ResentationsWhen one speaks of oral presentation, the old

standby "lecturing" comes to mind. However, oralpresentations can take numerous forms, and thereare many ways to make them interesting and effec-tive. In most cases, effective presentations are notstrictly oral, but are supplemented through someother modality, often visual. Oral presentations maybe formal or informal, given to a group or to an in-dividual, and used in various settings. An oralpresentation is not always given by the teacher. Attimes it may be given by a guest speaker, a field tripguide, or a student.

Illustrated talk. This kind of presentation may begiven formallystanding in front of the class andserving as a dispenser of informationorinformallyperhaps sitting around in a group, en-couraging the students' participation. The size of thegroup and the students' familiarity with the topicoften affect the degree of formality, although with anadult group, an informal approach is often mosteffective.

8

Key points in the talk may be illustrated both oral-ly and visually. The following are common meansof giving verbal and visual illustrations:

VerbalAnalogiesFrames ofreferenceAnecdotesExamples

VisualChalkboardFlannel boardFlip chartGraphicsListing, diagrammingAudiovisuals

Illustrateu talks are most effective when they arecarefully structured with an introduction, key points,and summary. They should be suited to students'level of understanding, the nature of the material,the group size, and your teaching style. Finally, theyshould provide an opportunity for student feedback.

Demonstration. Although demonstration could becategorized as a visual technique, it must necessally be both visual and oral to be effective. The oralpart of a demonstration gives it structure and driveshome the point that the visual part is intended tomake.

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You can demonstrate a manipulative skill (e.g.,loading a camera), a concept (e.g., n,trio equiva-lence), or a principle (e.g., Boyle's law). All takecareful planning and preparation and should includethe following:

Verbal introductionWhat will be demonstratedHow it relates to past experience and tofuture activitiesDefinitions of new termsMotivational matJrial

Explanation of each step as it is performedComments on key points and safety practicesSummary of the material that has been pre-sented

The class members are asked key questions dur-ing the demonstration and are encouraged to asktheir own questions for clarification. The summarymay take the form of a hands-on activity; . For exam-ple, you may ask a learner to perform an operationwhile you narrate and then ask another learner toperform and narrate his or her own performance.

Demonstration is a very useful technique in oc-cupational education if the group size and roomsetup permit everyone to see and hear clearly. Awell-presented demonstration can also bevideotaped for future use.

Oral questioning. This technique consists of pos-ing questions to the class during a lesson. You canuse oral questioning in conjunction with many otherinstructional techniques (e.g., demonstration, groupdiscussion, illustrated talk, and project work), andit can serve a variety of purposes:

Motivating learners to participate in a discussionProviding opportunities for learners to practiceself-expressionStimulating thinking and reasoning skillsAllowing you to discover the abilities and in-tore= of the individuals in the class and to!earn from the studentsProviding information about learners' progress

Questions can be designed so that they requirelearners to apply knowledge at different levels. Forexample:

Recognize/recallInformation is repeated.Process/applyInformation is used in an il-lustration, example, or solution.Deduce/inferDeductions and inferences aremade from applying the information.

In this way, oral questioning can be tailored to moreand less capable individuals.

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There are a few potential disadvantages of oralquestioning. For example, the questions must bewell developed to elicit the desired response level.A poorly worded question may hamper rather thanhelp the instructional process. It is a good idea toprepare questions in advance until you become usedto the technique. In large groups, it may be difficultfor students to hearespecially if any individuals inthe class have hearing problems. Oral questioningmay be time-consuming, and a discussion canbecome unbalanced if assertive members of theclass are allowed to dominate while quiet classmembers are overlooked.

However, when handled with sensitivity, thistechnique can be excellent for use with adults. It canhelp create an atmosphere of respect and equalityin the classroom and can provide a forum for learn-ers to share their experiences with the others in thegroup.

Subject matter experts. People are a very impor-tant resource for an instructor. A subject matter ex-pert, or resource person, can be invited to talk to theclass about a variety of subjects. Such a personmight, for example, be any one of the following:

A skilled worker who uses the most up-to-dateequipmentA labor market expert who can discuss employ-ment conditionsA personnol manager who has valuable insightson how older workers can market theirexperienceA counselor who can discuss ways to cope withstress during a midlife career changeAnother adult learner who has experiences toshare or who has completed the program andcan give examples of its relevanceAnother person who can add a new ciimensionto your curriculum

Using a subject matter expert provides a breakfrom normal classroom routine. A carefully selectedspeaker can also motivate students by providing amodel of success, bring an element of down-to-earthrealism to the instruction, and help to maintainlinkages with the community. Coaching speakersbefore their talks can help them meet your expecta-tions. Sometimes, when particular experts cannotcome to your class at the time you need them, it ispossible to audio- ur videotape their presentationsor to talk to them by means of a teleconference.

Held trips. A field trip is a visit by an individualor a group to a place outside the regular learningenvironment. It is designed to achieve objectives thatcannot be achieved as well through other meansfor example, seeing a process firsthand, seeing themost up-to-date equipment in use, or experiencingthe atmosphere of a particular work setting.

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Field trips are a natural part of business or industrytraining because the office or plant provides an ex-cellent site. The class can be taken on short walk-ing tours within the facility to observe equipment,systems, or situations the trainees will face n the

job.

Often a field trip involves a guided tour. If thereare opportunities for more than one type of ex-perience at the same site, the class may be dividedinto smaller groups and rotated among the pointsof interest. In addition to providing concrete learn-ing experiences, field trips give learners firsthand ex-perience and enable them to appreciate the rele-vance and importance of what they are learning in

class.

When the site for a field trip is well selected, thetrip well planned and conducted, and the experienceworthy of class time, field trips can be an effectivestrategy for teaching adults. One way to ensuro thatall these criteria are met is to involve the studentsin every aspect of planning to ensure the trip meetstheir needs. It ii; also helpful to precede the trip witha handout and discussion of points or questions andto follow the trip with a discussion.

Group Process ActivitiesGroup process activities depend on student partici-

pation and interaction as a primary means of instruc-tion. These techniques are usually informational tosome extent: the learners actively engage in present-ing, sharing, or processing information. Althoughthese techniques are not generally a very efficientmeans c presenting information, the exchange ofideas among learners contributes to the developmentof self-awareness, problem. solving skills, inter-personal skills, and skill in breaking down communi-cation barriers. Group process activities are especiallyappropriate for adult learners who need to developtheir capacity for self-direction and decision nhakirg

Group discussion. This type of discussion usuallyinvolves the whole class, although it can be usedwith smaller groups. The purpose of a group discus-sion is to share information on a given topic and toanalyze and evaluate that information. The ultimategoal may be to leach a definite decision, or simplyto exchange ideas.

The group leader (you or a student) keeps thediscussion on track. Ideally, all members of the classparticipate in the discussion, so that a variety of view-points is revealed. In many cases, it is also impor-tant that each learner serve as a discussion leaderat some point. With good leadership, a group discus-sion can stimulate thought and analysis, encourageinterpretations of the facts, and develop new at-titudes or change old ones.

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Pnnei disci- scion. A panel discussion is a small-group discussion among a few people, conductedin front of an audience. The panelists may be out-side experts or class members. The most appropri-ate topics for panel discussions are tries that areof immediate concern to the class and somewnatcontroversial in nature.

EP.,:h member of the panel is responsible for oneaspect of the topic. The panelists need to b., general-ly prepared on the whole topic and thoroughly pre-pared on their own subtopics. The Jiscuc :ion isdirected by a moderator who introduces the topic,poses questions to the panel members, and keepsthe discussion balanced and moving along. Thepanelists do not actually give prepared presenta-tions. Rather, they respond to questions on theirtopics and react to other members' comments.

The rest of the class listens to the panel discus-sion and afterward may ask questions of the panelmembers. Class members will Lid these oppor-tunities even more worthwhile if they are asked todevelop a list of questions before the presentation.This helps them focus on specific points in thediscussion and to refine their listening skills.

Symposium. This is a more formal type of discus-sion format than the previous two, in that severalspeakers give prepared presentations on differentaspects of an issue rather than discuss the issue in-

formally. Usually, the presenters are outsidespeakers who are experts on the given topics.However, it is possible to set up a symposium in

which the presenters are students, especially whenthe students have special expertise in their fields.The presentations may be followed either by a paneldiscuIsion among the speakers or by a Question-and-answer period involving the audience.

Brainstorming. This technique is especially welisuited for involving learners in a spontaneous dis-

cussion for the purpose of generating ideas or sug-gestions on a specific topic. It is also useful fordeveloping fresh ideas upon which to base laterplanning (e.g., topics and activities to include in thecourse that will meet students' needs and specificways to apply information from the course).

A brainstormi, I) session is guided by a leader(either you or a student) who keeps the discussionmoving and ensures that c ain ground rules arefollowed. The ideas are written down by a recorder.All relevant ideas are welcomed and accepted; theyare not evaluated or criticized during the session.Discussion and assessment are saved for a later

time.

1 2

S

Brainstorming, when well planned and done withsensitivity, has the advantages of involving the partici-pants, stimulating creativity, breaking down com-munication barriers, and generating valuable ideas.The positive atmosphere encourages all participantsto contribute ideas.

Buzz group. In the buzz group technique, theclass breaks into small groups (e.g., six memberseach) to discuss a limited topic for a short period oftime (e.g., six minutes). Each group selects a lead-er, who keeps the discussion on the right track andencourages all members to participate, and a record-er, who keeps a record of the discussion and later.ammarizes it for the whole class. Your role is tomonitor the groups' progress by circulating duringthe discussions.

This technique is especially guod for breaking theice, promoting interaction, and generating ideas.Often, individuals who are reluctant to speak out ina large group will do so in a smaller group.

Question box. This technique is used to obtainlearners' ideas, questions, or concerns anonymously.The learners are asked to write down their questions(or comments) and put them in a specified containerby a certain time. The contributions are then col-lected and used for a later activity. For example:

Questions may be solicited on a given topic tobe addressed by you or by a guest speaker.They may be used to structure a later presen-tation or given to the speaker at the time of thespeech.Opinions on a given topic may be requested.The responses may then be used as startingpoints for later discussions in class.Class members may be asked to place positiveand negative reactions on a given topic inseparate boxes marked pro and con (rather likevoting). These can be used in planning an up-coming class activity.

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This technique has the advantage of givinglearners time to consider their responses without us-ing class time. In addition, anonymity is helpful insome situationsfor example, in allowing leanersto contribute their ideas on a sensitive issue withoutembarrassment, or to take what they perceive to bean unpopular stand without alienating themselvesfrom the rest of the class.

Hands-on Practice ActivitiesMost adults learn best by doing. They need to

apply new knowledge at some point in the learningprocess in order to internalize it. Instructional tech-niques that give learners opportunities for hands-onexperience and allow them to practice the skills theyare learning have an especially important place inoccupational programs. For adult learners, they areabsolutely essential. Ideally, such participatory ac-tivities are interwoven throughout the program withcognitive material that provides information.

Hands-on activities enable learners to integrateknowledge, attitudes, and skills (i.e., learning in thecognitive, affective and psychomotor domains).They help learners to "cement" what they havelearned by applying it in a practical context. Theyallow students to experiment in a nonthreateningsituation, while providing a degree of realism and im-mediacy that is often lacking in an abstract presen-tation of ideas. Hands-on activities also provide acontinuing source of feedback about comprehensionand progress, to both you and the learners.

Laboratory work. Laboratory work is a naturalpart and the :most obvious "hands-on" componentof most occupationa: programs. It gives the learnersthe opportunity to learn by doing, to apply the skillsthey are learning in the classroom, to gauge theirown skill development, and to develop confidencein their ability to do the job.

You have numerous roles to perform in relationto laboratory work:

Plan and set up assignmentsProvide oral and written instructionsProvide for the individual learning needs ofstudents (e.g., through the use of instructionsheets)Supervise and assist with work in progressEvaluate learners' work

In addition, you need to provide for student involve-ment through group discussion, :ndividual job plan-ning, lab management, and creative problemsolving.

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Projects. Another means of providing learnerswith hands-on experience is the projecta task orproblem undertaken by one class member, a small

group of learners, or the entire class. In a project,

the learners do something. They may run abusiness, repair equipment, provide personal ser-

vice, make a product, renovate a building or reclaim

an outdoor area, or carry out some other activity.

Projects give learners an opportunity to apply what

they are learning in the classroom. They integrate

theory with practice, knowledge with action, and help

students learn to solve problems related to their oc-cupational area. Projects may be used as aculminating activity, to reinforce and supplementclassroom studies. Or, a series of carefully plannedprojects (or a single major project) may serve as the

focal point for all instruction. In this latter situation,

related classroom instruction supplements and sup-

ports the projects.

Projects may be wescribed by you, selected freely

by the learners, or selected by learners from a listof approved projects you have provided. In any case,

projects are selected to meet course objectives. Giv-

ing class members some degree of choice alsoenables them to meet their own needs and careergoals, which is crucial for adults.

Community study. A specific type of project that

can be used is the community study. Through thistype of activity, learners gain experience in suchareas as fact finding, problem solving, interpersonalskills, and interviewing methods, while also gainingknowledge about a given topic.

Learners are given (or select, with the instructor'sapproval) a topic or research question relatec, to their

fields of study. They plan the methods they will use

in seeking answers in the communitywhetherthrough personal interviews, survey methods, library

research, or other information-gathering techniques.

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A community study may be an individual or group

project. When used with a group, the membersusually take individual responsibility for differentaspects of the question or for tapping particularsources of information. The results are analyzed,synthesized, and reported orally or in writing.

Simulation. When it is impractical to obtain real-

life on-the-job experience, a simulation is often the

next best alternative. Simulations replicate the workenvironment as closely as possible. This allowslearners to experience some aspects of the working

situation and to practice responding to them.Because simulation activities are a step removed

from reality, they enable learners to gain valuablepractice and to learn more about themselves without

risk to themselves or others (for example, by using

a CPR dummy instead of a heart attack victim).

There are several types of simulation activities.They may be commercially developed, teacher-made, or even student-made. Regardless of the type

used, the simulation experience must be (1) carefully

introduced into the learning situation, so thatlearners understand the objectives of the activity and

how it works, and (2) followed by a discussion of thekey concepts covered and the outcomes of the ex-

perience.

In-basketAn in-basket simulation is a

decision-making exercise structured around a

real-life situation. Learners receive materialsthat require them to set priorities, budget time,and demonstrate skills in carrying out worktasks. An example might be a secretarial "inbasket" containing several items of varyingpriority to be handled by the learner.In-basket simulations can be quite complex, in-

volving many learners in interrelated roles. For

example, a banking simulation might be set up

to include roles for tellers, supervisors, con-sumer and commercial loan officers, and manyothers. As in a real bank, the actions of one per-

son would affect the work of others.

EquipmentEquipment simulators allowlearners to operate controls as they would onthe job, but without some of the distractions,dangers, or costs that would be encountered on

the job. For example, driving and flightsimulators and specially equipped mannequins

for the health fields provide practice situationswithout danger to the operator or patient.

In addition, computer-assisted instruction isopening new vistas in simulation. Hardware and

software are available for instruction in basicskills, as well as in many content areas, using

principles of programmed instruction. This field

is growing so rapidly that what has not beenthought of today may be commonplace by

tomorrow.

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Case studies and case situationsA casestudy provides a description of a realistic prob-lem situation and how someone solved thatproblem. The learner is asked to analyze howwell the person handled the situation. A casesituation presents an open-ended problemsituation, which the learner is asked to analyzeand solve.Case studies and case situations can providean effective technique for getting learners toapply their knowledge to real-life situations andto exercise their problem-solving skills. To beeffective, they must be carefully developed, sothey are challenging to the learners, written inan interesting manner, and closely related to thelesson objectives.GamingGaming is a type of simulationdesigned to generate learning through theproblem-solving actions of a game. Commercialand teacher-made games may be used for thispurpose. Framegames, in which the gamestructure is provided and you incorporate theoccupation-specific content, are also a growingphenomenon.Great care must be taken when attempting touse games with adults. They must have sub-stance, be challenging, and have a readilyapparent purpose, and they must not involve ac-tivities that may appear to be silly or childish.Role - playing - -Role- playing is an unrehearseddramatization in which the learners play theroles of participants in a situation or incident.It is often used in relation to social situations,customer or client interaction, employabilityskills, and other areas involving human rela-tions, such as negotiation, communication, orconflict management.There are three main forms of role-playing: (1)role-reversal, in which the learner assumes therole of another person with whom he or shemust normally interact (e.g., the health occupa-tions student assumes the role of a patient); (2)character role-playing, in which the learnerbecomes a specific person and acts as he orshe thinks the character would act in a specificsituation; and (3) position role-playing, in whichthe learner plays a character but is not givenfacts about the person and is free to play thepart as he or she wishes.

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Role-playing has many potential uses andbenefits. It can provide e-amples of behavior,help individuals develop inore sympathetic at-titudes or gain insight into other people'sperspectives, and provide a means for improv-ing communication skills.

However, role-playing must be very well plannedand introduced into the lesson. And it must beused with great sensitivity toward the people in-volved. Students may be uncomfortable at firstand should be given opportunities to practicebefore the actual role-play takes place. Role-playing also needs to be closely monitored toensure that learning objectives are being met.Finally, the activity should be followed by acarefully guided discussion to reinforce theobjective.

Written and oral assignments. One of the mostimportant ingredients in improving learners' basicskills is frequent practice. This practice can be pro-vided through the use of regular oral and written ac-tivities. Such activities can be woven naturally intothe fabric of ongoing course activities. They may in-clude written and oral reports, statements of opinionsor viewpoints, and questions; participation in discus-sions and other group process activities; interviews;and completion of forms, tests, worksheets, andother materials.

Peer coaching. Another way to provide learnerswith practice and continuing support is to use peercoaching. This involves pairing learners, usually bycompetency fuel, for a given skill or activity. For ex-ample, a moi e advanced student might be pairedwith a student who needs assistance. The advancedstudent, with yc.ur guidance, can tutor his or her p.:-..:ner in the skill and provide ongoing coaching asneeded. This technique can be beneficial in severalways. It reinforces both students' learning, it freesyou to work with other students, and it encouragesstudents to make use of peers as part of a supportnetwork.

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Resources to Enrich Techniques

Up to this point, we have been talking about using

ways and at as many levels as possible. The follow-

cur. It is important to provide variety in the resourcesyou use, in order to reach your students in as many

involve people helping people to learn. There is alsca wide array of resourcesprinted materials,audiovisual aids, and other visualswith which yogican enrich your instructional techniques.

a variety of instructional techniquesstrategies that

follow-ing brief descriptions provide an overview ofavailable resources.

Resources do not replace the instructor. Rather,they help increase the chance that learning will oc-cur.

Print MaterialsOne of the oldest resources in educatior, is printed

instructional materials. Textbooks, workbooks, learn-ing packages or modules, handouts, outside read-ings, and other printed resources are used to presentinformation. The following are a few other types ofprinted material that are widely used in occupationalprograms.

Instruction sheets. Instruction sheets have an im-portant place in individualized instruction, especiallyin laboratory work. They are printed (typewritten orhandwritten, photocopied or otherwise duplicated)instructional aids designed to supplement your oraland visual instruction. Instruction sheets may bedeveloped by you, furnished by the institution, or ob-tained from commercial sources.

Instruction sheets are given to learners to guidetheir individual work. They enable learners to workat their own pace, with some degree of in-dependence. There are several types of instructionsheets:

Job sheetThis type gives instructions andspecifications for doing a complete job and mayinclude a working drawing.Operation sheetThis gives instructions for asingle basic task, operation, or process. It mightapply to a number of different jobs in which thetask appears.Information sheetAs the name implies, thissheet supplies information on new techniquesor technical data needed to do an assigned job.Such information may not be readily availablefrom other sources.

Instruction sheets are brief and prepared in aneasy-to-read format (e.g., using frequent subheadsand bulleted lists, as in the preceding paragraph).They contain only necessary information and arewritten in clear, straightforward language.

Programmed texts. Programmed texts presentmaterial in a carefully planned sequence of stepsthat lead the learner from present knowledge toachievement of specific educational objectives. Thelearner actively participates by continuously respond-ing, either by writing a response or by selecting amultiple-choice answer. The learner is informed im-mediately whether the response is right or wrong.

Programmed materials can be used for convey-ing information and for teaching certain skills.Carefully developed programmed materials areuseful for individualizing instruction. They permit youto monitor the work of individuals working on a varie-ty of self-paced programs. However, such materialscannot take the place of skilled instructors, and in-structors who use these materials must be trainedto use them effectively. Even when the materials areused properly, some learners become bored withthem.

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Audiovisual MediaA great variety of audiovisual (AV) resources are

available to instructors. Sol ie have been around fora long time; others are being developed so last onecan hardly keep track of them. All AV resources re-quire some kind of equipment, ranging from thesimplest overhead projector to the most complexcomputerized interactive equipment.

Audio recordings. Audiotapes and records canbe used in various ways in the classroomto in-troduce a topic, to present information, to summarizea lesson, to provide examples of something you arediscussing, or to provide a narration to accompanya set of slides or a filmstrip.

Both tapes and records are relatively inexpensive,and tape recorders and record players are readilyavailable in most settings. An added benefit of tapesis that you can make them yourself to meet specificinstructional objectives. For example, you couldtape-record an interview with a subject matter ex-pert who cannot come to the class in person.

Filmstrips. Filmstrips are composed of a seriesof still pictures that are projected onto a screen. Theyare excellent for presenting close-ups of key stepsin an otherwise difficult-to-see process. They can beused at any point in a lesson and can be readily com-bined with other resources, such as audio record-ings, and with various techniques. The projector isportable and is available in most educationalsettings.

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Slides. Like filmstrips, slides are still pictures pro-jected onto a screen, so they are useful for similarpurposes. An advantage of slides is that, beingseparate units, they can be rearranged, added,deleted, or replaced by updated pictures. In addi-tion, you can make your own slices to meet specificinstructional objectives.

Films. Motion picture films can bring a bit of realityand interest to the classroom. They can portray ac-tual movement and processes and enable learnersto both see and hear events that they otherwisecould not experience. Newer equipment is more por-table, inexpensive, and easier to operate than theolder equipment and makes individual viewingpossible.

Transparencies. Transparent acetate material onwhich information or drawings have been producedcan be projected onto a screen by means of anoverhead projector. Transparencies provide a visualsupplement to your oral instruction when used aspart of an illustrated talk.

Teacher-made transparencies are especially goodfor presenting complicated concepts or processessimply and clearly. They can be prepared on-site asthe lesson unfolds. They are also good for updatingpublished texts and for tailoring instruction to thespecific instructional needs of the class. They arebest suited for use with groups.

Television and videotapes. Videotape record-ings are filmed with a videotape camera, stored bymeans of a videotape recorder, and replayed on avideotape monitor or television. Like audiotape re-cordings, they can be reused many times.

Videotapes can be used in the classroom inseveral ways. Productions can be prerecorded byyou or a colleague, an audiovisual specialist, or acommercial firm. Then they can be played in classat the appropriate time. For example, a speciallesson introduction, a complicatea demonstration,an interview with a subject matter expert, or a fieldtrip could be taped and replayed for future classes.

Videotaping can also be used very effectively asa learning device in the classroom. For example, stu-dent presentations can be videotaped and then usedfor self-evaluation, instructor evaluation, or as thefocus for group discussion. Videotaping is especiallygood for reinforcing the development of interper-sonal skills. For example, learners might role-playan employment interview and then watch their ownperk mance on the replay. This can be a real eye-opener for many learners and can be used to helpthem improve their performance.

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A television camera and a monitor, with or withoutvideotape, also provide a useful teaching tool. Theyenable you to provide a magnified close-up view ofa demonstration in which small parts are being usedor in a situation where only one or two students couldget close enough to see the action. For example, ina circuit board, the camera could focus on the in-structor's hands and tools. Students could sit at theirown places with soldering irons and components andduplicate the process as they watched on themonitor. Similarly, the camera could provide a viewof a technique done under the hood of a car.

TeleconferencingTeleconferencing is a way of providing educational

experiences to people who are geographically dis-tant from the place of instruction. At one time, thiswas done primarily by sending printed correspon-dence materials to students for independent homestudy. Educational radio and television broadcastshave also played a part in providing for long-distancelearning.

Teleconferencingconnecting people via tele-communications systemsis a much more personalway to reach people over long distances. By install-ing a portable conference telephone in the class-room, you can amplify a phone conversation so thatit may be heard by an entire group. In addition,anyone in the group can talk to the person at theother end of the line.

Thus, a subject matter expert in another buildingor city or state can be brought into the classroom"live," and two-way communication between expertand audience is possible. Or, an instructor can teacha course simultaneously to several classes ofstudentsone in the same room with him/her, andthe others at branch sites, connected to the mainsite by teleconference hookup. If all sites also haveclassroom computers and monitors, these can beconnected by modem, and the oral communicationbetween sites can be supported with illustrations,graphics, and written materials.

Even more sophisticated hookups are available atsome institutions. Some have arrangements wherebyconferences, for example, can be taped and broad-cast, via communication satellite, to receiving sites,which bring down the signal using a satellite dish.If such systems are available to you, it can greatlyexpand the instruction you provide your students orthe audience to which you provide instruction.

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Visual AidsThere are a variety of resources for visually sup-

plementing your instruction that do not depend onsophisticated electronic equipment. Most of them arefamiliar and quite inexpensive, yet they can add animportant visual dimension to the instructionalprocess.

Chalkboard. The old, familiar chalkboard isavailable, inexpensive, easy to use, and suitable formany purposes. It can be used effectively for pre-senting facts and principles; illustrating ideas withgraphics or drawings; emphasizing key points; listingsteps, procedures, or rules; making announcements;and many other instructional uses. Very lengthymaterial or intricate drawings are better illustratedwith handouts.

When using the chalkboard, it is important toremember the following guidelines:

Write big enough so that everyone can see.Talk to the class (not the board).Don't block the learners' view of what you havewritten.Plan your use of space and arrangement ofmaterial.Prepare time-consuming material in advance.

Flip chart. Like the chalkboard, the flip chartan easel with a large pad of paper attachedis con-venient, inexpensive to use, and suitable for manyuses. It ;s also portable and compact, so it can bemoved easily from one place to another. Flip chartsare used for many of the same purposes as chalk-boards and are especially good for drawings, notes,and charts.

Sheets can be prepared in advance and revealedone at a time during a presentation. An advantageover chalkboards is that the material on a flip chartcan be saved for future use. However, what hasbeen written cannot be erased or changed easily.And because flip charts are smaller, they may beless suitable for use with large groups.

Flannel board. A flannel board consists of a flatsurface covered with plain, rough fabric. Figures andcutouts to be displayed on the board are backed withflannel so that they adhere to the fabric. Newermodels are made with improved materials, such asVelcro.

Although commonly thought of as a resource foruse with younger students, the flannel board is alsoappropriate for use with adults. It can be used, forexample, with a scripted presentation for which a fewkey points can be illustrated, one point at a time, withsimple figures or blown-up pictures. A flannel orVelcro board would also be an effective way to pre-sent a flow chart or pie graph in increments.

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Models and objects. Use of models and real ob-jects is an excellent way to provide visual and tac-tile reinforcement and concrete experiences in theclassroom. Sometimes it is possible to use the realobject:

When the parts are big enough to be seenWhen the object is not too big to bring into theclassWhen the important parts can be seen from theoutsideWhen the object can be used effectively to il-lustrate a principle or process

Sometimes models are better instructional toolsthan real objects. Models are imitations of the realobject, often with a difference in size. For example,you might have a scale modela larger than life-sized model of a tooth or a smaller than life-sizedmodel of a landscape.

Models can also be specially designed for instruc-tional purposes. A cutaway or cross-sectional modelshows the inner parts that are not normally visiblefrom the outside. A mock-up may show a simplifiedversion with a certain part highlighted, with color ortexture. The more senses a learner can use in ex-periencing an object or model (i.e., sight, touch,perhaps hearing), the more he or she is likely to learnfrom it.

Displays. Displays mdy include photographs, clip-pings, charts, graphs, diagrams, specimens,models, products, and other materials related to thefield of study. They may be placed on walls, onbulletin boards, on tables, or in display cases. Theymay be two-dimensional or they may include three-dimensional objects. They can be enhanced by pro-viding an audiotape recording to explain the topicof the display.

Effective displays are not a hodgepodge of variedmaterials used to fill a space. Rather, they arecarefully planned to fulfill a specific instructional ob-jective, and they have been determined to be themost effective means of carrying out that objective.Displays can serve several purposes:

Motivating and stimulating class interestEnriching instructionTransmitting informationSummarizing the key ideas of an instructionalunit

Displays are also a very good way to let all learnersstudy materials of which you have only one example.In addition, displaying work produced by individualsin the class is a way to provide valuable reinforce-ment.

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OptionalActivity

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To gain skill in using specific instructional techniques and resources, youmay wish to refer to one or more of the PBTE modules in Category C: In-structional Execution. These modules provide detailed guidelines for im-plementing each technique, as well as suggestions for practice activities andsupplementary readings.

You may wish to refer to the Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE)to identify journal articles relating to the use of specific instructional tech-niques with adult learners. CIJE is a monthly publication, available in mostlibraries, that publishes listings of journal articles with abstracts. The articlesare cross-indexed by subject, author, and EJ-numher.

You may wish to arrange a seminar-type situation with a group of peers. Inthis situation, you could gain practice in using various instructional tech-niques, such as illustrated talks, demonstrations, oral questioning, groupdiscussion, brainstorming, and buzz groups.

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Each of the following cases describes an adult instructional situation. Readeach situation and then describe in writing types of instructional techniquesand activities that would be appropriate to use in each case. Explain thereasons for your choices.

CASE SITUATIONS1. Jack Talisman has an adult education class in basic plumbing repair. He wants to present a lesson on

removing and replacing a sink trap.

2. Ann Kellogg has provided her career change class with a lot of information on job-seeking skills. Shewants them to practice the techniques she has been teaching them betore they apply the skins in theactual job market.

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3. The new management training session is about to begin at Abbey Services, inc. Last sessicn the trainer,Bob Atwood, found that it took quite a long time to get the ball rolling. The trainees had not participatedin any management training before, and they seemed unsure of what to expect. Bob wants to do somethingthe first night of class to get the trainees involved and working together.

4. Sloan Phillips wants to present information to her heating and air conditioning students on the principlesof radiation, convection, and conduction.

5. Hank Koenig wants to give his classdisplaced homemakers returning to the work forcean idea ofhow various aspects of the business world have been changed by technological advances in businessequipment.

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6. Chris Kerley's class IF. !earning entry -level skills in retailing. As past of the training, the learners havenature!:-/ recaived a good deal of mathematics review anc.' practice to enable them to handle such dutiesas writing up sales stirs. Chris realizes, however, that many of the learners also need practice in basicliteracy ski:;s to enable them to market their new occupational skills and succeed on the job.

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Compare your written responses to the case situations with the modelresponses given below. Your responses need not exactly duplicate the modelresponses; however, you should have covered the same major points.

MODEL RESPONSES1. To present information on a manipulative skill

such as removing and replacing a sink trap, Jackcan put together several techniques that enablethe students to learn through the auditory, visual,and tactile sensory channels. For example, hecan introduce the task by means of an illustratedtalk that includes verbal frames of reference (e.g.,relating this task to a similar task on a plumbingfixture covered in a previous lesson) and that in-corporates visual aids (e.g., a chalkboard or flipchart diagram of a sink trap with the partslabeled).

Then Jack can demonstrate the skill, usingeither an actual plumbing fixture or a mock-up.During the demonstration, he should explaineach step as he performs it. He can more close-ly involve the students by using oral question-ing techniques while he demonstrates and thenby asking one or more learners to repeat thedemonstration while they or their peers narrate.This would also provide some of the learners withthe opportunity for a tactile learning experience.Alternative visual techniques could include useof slides of the steps being completed, a film ofa worker doing the job, or a previously tapedvideotape of a demonstration.

2. A simulation experience would achieve Ann'sobjective of giving the learners practice in a non-threatening environment. There are a number ofways a job-seeking simulation can be set up toinclude different kinds of learning activities. In-dividual work and peer interaction, learning bydoing and by observing, and supervised and in-dependent work are examples.For example, in an in-basket type of simulation,students would be given real or mocked-up news-paper classified ads, notes about job leads fromfriends, employment service referrals, and otherpotential leads to pursue. Telephones could beset up for role-playing inquiries and follow-upcalls, with peers playing the role of employers onthe phone.

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Learners could be supervised in individual ac-tivities, such as developing letters of applicationor filling out application forms, or could work in-dependently. The letters and forms could then becritiqued by the instructor, a peer, or the group,using performance checklists developed for thatpurpose.

Job interviews could be set up as role-play situa-tions. Class members could watch and critiquethe interviews (again, using performancechecklists) and give the participants suggestionsfor improving their performance. Or, if videotapeequipment is available, the interviews could betaped and the participants could self-evaluatetheir performance.

3. Bob apparently needs to accomplish severalthings at the outset in order to get the course offto a good start. He needs to find out somethingabout the students, get them involved and work-ing comfortably together, and determine whatkinds of training activities may be appropriate forthe group.These objectives can probably be achieved at thesame time through some type of group processactivity. For example, Bob could lead a groupdiscussion aimed at (1) discovering each per-son's background, personal training objectives,and preferences for types of learning activities,and (2) agreeing upon a course of action that willmeet everyone's needs.If the group is large, buzz groups might be ap-propriate for parts of the discussion. This tech-nique, because of the small group size, can leadto greater involvement and sharing among par-ticipants. It also permits many to voice their opin-ions concurrently, which can save time.For generating ideas for topics or training ac-tivities or seeking solutions to a great disparityin training needs, brainstorming might be useful.For obtaining input about areas of concern, on-the-job problems that participants would like to

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have addressed during the course, or otherpotentially sensitive issues, the question boxtechnique offers the welcome element ofanonymity.

4. Sloan can give a lively and interesting presenta-tion on the principles of radiation, convection, andconduction in several ways. She could, of course,show a film that explains and illustrates the t' treeprinciples. Or, she could give an illustrated talkusing both verbal and visual illustrations. For ex-ample, any number of anecdotes and examplescome to mind to illustrate the effects of transferof heat, such as the person who gets sunburnedon a fishing trip or the cook who is burned by ahot pan. These concepts could be visually illus-trated with simple chalkboard diagrams, morecomplex drawings on handouts, or photographicslides, And the key points of the presentationcould be listed on a flip chart or transparencies.Another approach is to give a demonstration ofheat actually being transferred by each of thethree methods, using simple everyday props. Thedemonstration would, of course, be accompaniedby verbal explanations, and could be combinedeasily with oral questioning.For a more tactile experience, Sloan could set upcenters with equipment, materials, and instruc-tion sheets, where learners could experimentwith different materials to discover which princi-ple is at work.

5. Hank can provide opportunities for a closer viewof the "real world" both in and out of theclassroom. Outside the classroom, it may bepossible to arrange one or more field trips tobusiness establishments where the effects oftechnology are evident. Or, for some learners, anindividual project may be appropriate. For exam -F; ;, individuals might interview people inbusiness about the impact of technology on theirjobs and report their findings to the rest of theclass.

If outside activities are impractical, there are in-class techniques that are also effective. A filmmay be available showing modern businessequipment and processes. A series of slidescould be developed, perhaps showing "before"and "after" types of business settings. A sub-ject matter expert is a possible source offirsthand views about how business is changingand what it means for the workers. In a similarvein, a panel discussion or symposium can givethe class a chance to see the situation from morethan one perspective.

6. Chris does not have to put aside her instructionin retailing in order to give her class practice inthe basic skills. She can incorporate into her in-struction a variety of assignmentson retailingsubject matterthat require reading, writing, andoral presentation.For example, she can have them read instruc-tion sheets, outside articles, trade magazines,and instruction manuals. They can be asked toanalyze newspaper advertisements for local retailconcerns.Written assignments might include a writtenreport of a project, a field trip, or the outcomesof a grow discussion; statements of opinions orconcerns on a given issue (perhaps as part of aquestion box activity); letters in response tocustomer complaints; completion of job-relatedforms; and other activities that require writing atvarious levels.Oral activities can include oral reporting; infor-mal participation in group discussions, buzzgroups, question-and-answer sessions, and othergroup activities; serving as spokesperson for asmall working group; peer teaching or narratinga skill demonstration; participation in role-plays,and interviewing a subject matter expert. Again,this array includes activities at many different skilllevels.Chris can also set up individual or group retail-ing projects for the class (or have them designtheir own) that call for use of the whole range ofbasic skills.

Level of Performance: Your written responses to the case situations should have covered the same majorpoints as the model responses. If you missed s ,me points or have questions about any additional pointsyou made, review the information sheet, Varying Your Instructional Techniques, pp. 7-16, or check withyour resource person if necessary.

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There are many ways in which an instructor can make the learning environ-ment more conducive to learning and more appropriate for adults. For infor-mation about methods you can use in working with adult learners, read thefollowing information sheet.

MODIFYING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR ADULTSManaging the instructional process with adults in-

volves more than developing a wide-ranging reper-toire cf instructional techniques. An effective teacherof adults establishes a learning environment thatmeets the particular needs of adult learners.

Establishing such an environment may includemodifying the traditional classrnc , settingin bothits physical and interpersonal dimensionsin orderto create an atmosphere of adult rapport and par-ticipation. It may involve structuring the learning ex-perience to encourage independent learning, fosterself-confidence, and increase group cohesion.

It most certainly will entail providing for individualdifferences and learning needs through variety andindividualization. Finally, meeting the needs of adultswill include demonstrating supportive attitudes, andit may require providing support services and serv-ing in an advocacy role on behalf of the students.

These outcomesrapport, participatory environ-ment, student independence and confidence, indi-vidualization, group cohesion, support services, andadvocacycan be achieved in many ways. Many ofthese strategies require only common-sense ap-proaches to carrying on respectful human interac-tion. They are not really different from the strategiesthat any good teacher uses with any studentsjustnotable in their degree of importance when thestudents are adults.

Establish Adult-to-Adult RapportThe simplest key to establishing rapport with adult

students is remembering who you are and who theyare. Many instructors who have taught secondarystudents or continuing students (those straight outof high school) at the postsecondary level havedeveloped a particular mind-set about the instructor-student relationship, and it usually has to do withauthority. These teachers tent: to view themselves,perhaps subconsciously, as authority figures, andthe students as subc:alate; themselves as olderand wiser, the students as young and inexperienced;themselves as the leaders, the students as followers.

However, none of these attitudes really hold upwhen we are talking about adult education, and itis very important that those who teach adultsrecognize this. People who have reached adulthood

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generally expect to be treated as adults. as peoplewho have intelligence and are capable of learning,as people who have a broad range of interests andvaluable experiences on which to draw, as peoplewhe are generally self-motivated Lnd will work hardfor what they want; as people who do not have timefor a lot of silly rules or time-wasting procedures.

At the same time, it is important to recognize thatnot all adults are ready to step up and take chargeas independent learners. Some adults may needyour help in accepting the fact that formal educa-tion does rat automatically mean that, as learners,they need to be dependent on you as the instructor.

In order to develop a productive learning environ-ment for adults, you will need to establish .. dult-to-adult rapport. There are a number of techniques youcan use to build rapport with your class. Let's lookat a few of tnem.

Use nonverbal communication. Sometimesbuilding adult-to-adult rapport with learners is justa matter of the way you look them in the eye.Sometimes it's your tone of voice, post ire, facial ex-pressions, gestures, or the interest with which youlisten to what they have to say that demonstratesyour acceptance of them as mature individuals whohave something important to offer.

Deal with the whole person. It is also importantto remember that for adult learners, the pursuit ofan education is probably not the only thino going onin their lives. It may not even be the primary endeav-or in their lives. They may have family (or no family,a job (or no job), financial of health problems midlifecrises, or any number of other major situations thatcan affect their work in your class.

You will need to be sensitive to these aspects ofyour students' lives both instructionally and per-sonally. Instructionally, you would not, for example,be well advised to require a great deal of work out-side of class if students have no available time todo it. Personally, you need to be an interestedlistener and a friend to your students.

Don't talk down to adult learners. To developrapport with adult learners, you need to treat themwith respect and earn their respect in return. It is im-portant to show that you regard them as peers or

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contemporaries who have valuable insights to shareand worthwhile occupational experience. Don't talkto them as if you expect them to be blank slates;acknowledge that theylike youmay be familiarwith the subjects you're discussing and that youlike themare still learning and don't know all theanswers.

Address learners as equals. Some returningadults have negative images of school environmentsfrom the past. For them, education means authori-tative, teacher-directed, rigid settings whereteachers are demeaning and critical. Such imagescan interfere with their participating to the fullest inthe learning experience.

In some cases, operating on a first-name basis(both you and the students) can help to dispel suchauthoritarian images. You should be sensitive to thesituation, however, and try to determine what is ap-propriate for the learners in your class. Some popula-tions (e.g., some older adults, some SoutheastAsians) are more comfortable operating on a less-personal last-name basis. The point is to addressadult learners as equals: avoid calling them by theirfirst names when you are called by your last name.

In the same vein, speaking in terms of "we," in-stead of distinguishing between "you" and "I,"helps to diminish the distance between instructorand learner, encourages a feeling of a group ofadults working together, and helps to establish arelaxed, adult-to-adult tone.

Don't act the absolute authority. Many adultlearners have been around as long as their instruc-tor, if not longer. They find an "i know" attitude onthe part of an instructor to be offensive. Experiencedteachers of adults generally find that, in fact, theyare neither absolute authorities nor necessarily moreknowledgeable than their students in many things.Adult learners have much to contribute, and by be-ing open to learning from them, the class can gainfrom the maturity and experience of a whole classfull of people, not just from one instructor.

For example, suppose a learner says, "That's notthe way we do it where I work." The instructor whocan respond comfortably with "Let's explore that,"rather than "Your company is wrong," is not onlygoing to gain a wider perspective but is going to rein-force the rapport he or she is building with the class.

Arrange the room in a nontradition,e,i way. Aninformal arrangementsuch as placing all the chairsin a circle, in a U, or around a table, with everyone,including the instructor, on the same levelalsohelps to break down the authoritative image ofeducation. It helps students to see themselves asequal members of the group and to participate fromthat basis. In addition, learners typically participatemore when they can see each other's faces.

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Share information about yourself. In yourteaching, you will be focusing on the learning objec-tives and experiences of the learners. However,there will be many times when it is appropriate toshare something from your own experience to il-lustrate a point you are making, draw an analogy,or otherwise give added meaning to what you aresaying. These moments have another equally impor-tant purpose. They set up a model for openness andfor informal sharing that can help the learners openup and share in the same way. They can alsostrengthen your rapport with the class.

For example, imagine the first session of a classin which an instructor begins a discussion somethinglike this:

"When I was deciding whether to take this job ofteaching career decision making, I found myself takinga look at my own situation, my own career. I realizedthat I myself was at a crossroads. My family . . ." andso on.

This instructor's willingness to expose the fact thathe or she has the same adult concernsperhapscrisesthat the learners have, helps to establish acommon ground with the learners that will make iteasier for them to share in the same way.

Be reachable. Real rapport can grow out of asense 3f camaraderie. Let your students know thatyou are interested in them and invite them to cometo you if they need help. When they do come, takethe time to listen. Let your students know how theycan reach you outside of class hours. Some instruc-tors try to schedule at least one semisocial event(e.g., pizza after class) with each class to helpdevelop a sense of their being reachable outside theclassroom.

Create a Participatory EnvironmentOne thing that sets adult education apart from

other types of education is the role of the learner.The traditional role of the learner is to listen to theteacher and respond when called upon. In adulteducation, the learner's role is to participate in adialogue. An optimum adult classroom environmentis egalitarian, democratic, cooperative, collabora-tivepeople working together on an equal footing.

Getting learners to adopt this view of their respon-sibility for their own learning may not be easy. It cantake a long time to get them totally involved.However, their role needs to be made clear to themat the very beginning. They need to leave their veryfirst session in your program knowing that this isdifferentthis kind of education does not fit any oldimages they may have of authoritarian teaching.What are some ways in which you can establish aparticipatory, collaborative environment?

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Get the learners talking Immediately. Thesignals you give oV during the first 15 minutes canset the tone for the whole program. if you can getthe learners involved and talking during that time,it will help to set the right tonethat it's okay toparticipatefor the rest of the program.

One technique is to ask them what they want outof the program. Adults sometimes have trouble ver-balizing their objectives, but they generally havesome purpose that led them to the program. Youmay need to help them find ways to express that pur-pose. The discussion will help you tailor the programto their needs and will give them a feeling for whotheir classmates are. More important, it will showthem that what they think really matters and may getthem to take some hasponsibility for their own learn-ing.

Starting out with a discussion dues not mean youshould ignore how learners fee! about such an ac-tivity. Some learners initially prefer a more directiveenvironment. Because of past experiences, uncer-tainty, anxiety, or other factors, they want to knowthat someone is in charge, and such feelings shouldbe dealt with.

For example, if learners are reluctant to share inthe large group, you can ask them to talk to the per-son next to them for a few minutes or to share in asmall-group setting. Or you can ask them to writedown their feelings in a letter to you. In this way, youcan make it easier for them to take partbut still in-volve themand gradually bring them along to apoint where, eventually, they will appreciate beingable to take an active role.

Involve the learners in deciding on course con-tent. The data you have gathered about individualtraining needs, as well as the outcomes of initial ice-breaking discussion, will provide information aboutthe learners' individual objectives. The natural nextstep is to make decisions, as a group, about thecourse.

For example, an instructor might find that he orshe had one view of the course, while the learnerswere hoping to get something a little different out cfit. Through a group process technique, these dif-ferences could be explored and the course contentredefined, insofar as possible, to meet the needs ofthe learners. When preferences cannot be accom-modated, that should also be made clear.

Other course matters, to the extent that they areflexible, might also be jointly agreed upon. Forexample:

Types of learning activities to be usedPacing of instructionTexts and other learning materials to be usedOptional readings and activities to be includedEvaluation options, such as contracting forgrades, contracting for learning to be done, self-evaluation, or other achievement measures

This is not to suggest that students with little orno prior training or experience in the occupationalarea should be expected to suggest potential textsand readings. They would probably have no basisfor doing so. However, more experienced studentsmight have some valuable suggestions to offer. Andeven inexperienced students can, if given a slate ofacceptable options by the instructor, help determinewhich of those options most appeals to them andtheir preferred style of learning.

The amount of latitude you have in altering cur-riculum will be a function of your institution's policiesand occupational standards. But insofar as it ispossible to make adjustments to accommodatelearners' needs and preferences, it is important toinvolve the learners in making those decisions andagreeing upon roles.

Involve the learners in establishing classmanagement procedures. Adults should have asay about such organizational details as when (andif) to take breaks, smoking in class, and similar mat-ters. For example, one class might want to dispensewith a scheduled break and either use the time pro-ductively or get out early so as to get on tc otherthings in a busy schedule. Another class might feelthat a break is necessary to maintain their ability toconcentrate. In some cases, it may even be possi-ble for students to have input into the class schedule,including meeting dates and times.

At the adult level, teacher-imposed disciplinepolicies (e.g., regarding attendance, late arrival,deportment) are not generally appropriate, beyondthose imposed by the organization or occupationalprogram.

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Provide multiple learning options. People havedifferences in learning styles, preferences for differentkinds of activities, and varying levels of ability in differ-ent study skills. Offering individual learners choicesin how they will learn specific portions of the coursecontent (e.g., through reading, computer-assisted in-struction, self-directed research, or completion of aproject) allows them to tailor their educational ex-perience to meet their own needs.

Similarly, you can suggest additional, optionalreadings or activities for those individuals who wishto carry their study further. This is especially impor-tant when you have worked with individual learnersto establish learning goals at different levels of con-tent mastery.

Involve learners as instructional resources.When learning is a collaborative endeavor, both theinstructor and the students learn, and both teach.You can help this happen by using learners as re-source persons when you find that they have par-ticular expertise that would benefit the others in theclass. For example, you can involve learners in suchactivities as the iullowing:

Tutoring or coaching fellow students (i.e., work-ing in pairs to GJvelop and practice new skills)Serving as instructional aides in the classroom(e.g., setting up activities and equipment, work-ing with small groups, or helping to check outlearners on competencies)Presenting information on a given subject to theclass or sharing their knowledge and experi-ence through a group discussion, panel, or sym-posium

Activities such as these give adult learnersvaluable experience on which they can draw whenthey are on the job. When they leave your program,they will not be able to depend on you for continuedlearning, guidance, and support. It is important thatadults learn to rely on each other for support andto establish supportive networks with other adults formutual reinforcement.

As part of a collaborative learning environment,you must also model the role of learner. This meansbeing open to what you can learn from your students,actively inviting them to share insights and ex-periences, and sincerely listening when they do. Thiskind of behavior on your part helps to demonstrateto the class that we can all learn from one another,and it also serves to reinforce the concept ofnetworking.

Monitor learner satisfaction When you beginyour course by asking the learners what they wantout of it, it is important to follow up regularly on thatexchange to be sure the instruction is meeting their

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needs. For example, after the third or fourth session,you can ask the group how tnings are going. Whathave they learned so far? What approaches do theylike or dislike? Are their goals being met? Have anynew goals surfaced? Have they had any new idsasfor helping the instruction better meet their needs?

If individuals are reluctant to share how they feelin front of their peers, you can again use small-groupdiscussion, written responses, or one-to-one (instruc-tor and learner) discussion as alternative techniquesfor getting their input. Techniques such as these notonly provide you with feedback on your instruction,but they (1) keep the learners involved in and respon-sible for their own learning and (2) reinforce the im-portance of ongoing communication.

Facilitate Adult IndependenceAs experienced and self-motivated as they may

be, some adults may have been away from formaleducation for a long time. This can have several dif-ferent kinds of effects on how they assume the roleof student. For example, students whose last educa-tional experience was quite structured and teacher-directed may feel that their job as students is to ab-sorb and parrot back what they hear. Although theywill expect adult programs to meet their individualneeds, they may not be ready to accept the respon-sibility demanded of an adult learner.

Some returning adults may lack self-esteem andconfidence in themselves as learners. They maydoubt their ability to learn, and they may be anxiousabout what the future holds for them. if they areamong the many workers who have lost their jobsto changing technology, they may both fear the newtechnology and recognize the need to learn some-thing about it. Adults in this situation may feel resent-ment about having had to return to school at all.

Adults in a new and different educational settingmay gravitate toward dependence on a friendlyteacher, especially one who is sensitive to theirneeds. They may expect you to lead them, makedecisions for them, and otherwise help them avoidtaking responsibility for their own learning. However,this approach is not going to help them cope withwhat they will encounter when they leave your class.

Learning is a lifelong endeavor, not something thatwill be over with for your students when they leaveyour class. You can help prepare them for lifelonglearning by helping them to develop independence.You should be careful, however, not to force themtoo abruptly into changing their expectations. Someadults may need to begin with the traditional depen-dent role and gradually adopt more independentways.

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Help adults learn to learn on their own. The par-ticipatory environment goes a long way in activelyinvolving the learners in setting their own goals, mak-ing decisions, and accepting responsibility for theirown learning. It is important to give them as muchchance to "be in the driver's seat" as you can.

For example, using the members of the class aslearning resources helps them develop confidencein their abilities. It also gives them practice at beingthe giver as well as the receiver in an adult learningnetwork. Adults need to be able to work together withother adults in the work place to provide mutualreinforcement.

In addition, you need to assign work that requiresstudents to plan and carry out learning activities ontheir own, such as research projects and reports,discovery activities, and brainstorming. When a fieldtrip, guest speaker, or other activity involving out-side resources is planned, involve the class in plan-ning and organizing it.

Serve as a role model. Muff learners gain im-measurably from seeing an example of an adult con-tinuing the learning process and managing his or herown life in the face of change. You can serve as sucha model simply by demonstrating that you are stilla learner and that you, too, must deal with change.

The way you talk about your own experiencesperhaps mentioning a class you are taking, or aproblem you are wrestling with in trying to balancedifferent Rs rolescan send an important messageof "I'm a learner, too. I don't have all the answers.And it's okay." The way you respond to students'questions can send a similar message. For exam-ple, when a student asks you something you can'tanswer, you can respond, "I don't know. Can any-one else help us out with this question? Well, then,let's see what answer we can come up with . . . "

Similarly, you can share with students some of theways you deal with the forces of change in your life.This is a good way of breaking down barriers forstudents who are anxious about learning new skills.For example, some adults regard computers asfrighteningly complicated and difficult to operate,while their children play and experiment and learnfrom computers as if computers were extensions oftheir own bodies. You might be able to share someanecdotesfor instance, about your own computerfears and your teenager's patient tutoring as youtried your hand at word processingor some otherpertinent example that shows how you face someof the same challenges as your students.

Teach decision-making and problem-solvingtechniques. Adults need the ability to make gooddecisions, set realistic goals, and solve problems in

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order to take responsibility for their own lives andlearning. They need to be able to find the help theyneed in orde, to solve the problems they encounter.

In any new class, the learners will desire varyingamounts of autonomy. Their ability to make deci-sions for themselves will also differ. You will needto work with them, starting from their current levelsof dependence or independence (some learners mayinitially need a good deal of structure, some not), andbring them gradually to a point of self-direction andself-determination. You can use such techniques asthe following:

Teach the process o:. decision makingsProvide opportunities for practicing thedecision-making process through class activi-ties and assignmentsEncourage learners to think critically aboutsituations and apply their own values to themWork with individual learners to help them settheir own learning goals for your programShare examples of problem situations you havefaced and how you solved themFocus group discussions on experiences in thelearners' lives that have required problem-solving skills and encourage them to share theirprocess and solutions with other class membersProvide materials in a resource center on goalsetting, decision making, and problem solving

The more experience adults have in applyingproblem-solving skills in the classroom, the betterprepared they will be for self-direction after theyleave the class.

Provide for Individual DifferencesThere are as many differences among adult

learners as there are among younger students. Eachadult learner will have his or her particular needs,interests, abilities, experiences, learning styles,motivations, physiological characteristics, socio-cultural differences, and personality differences. Itis important that teachers accommodate these dif-ferences in students of any age. But it is vital withadults, who may be somewhat less flexible than theiryounger counterparts.

Use a variety of techniques. The key to dealingwith individual differences is variety. You should usea variety of instructional techniques and also, withinthat variety, give the learners choices to encourage

1. To gain skill in helping students develop decision-making skills, you maywish to refer to Module C.8, Direct Students in Applying ProblemSolvingTechniques, and Module L-11, Assist Exceptional Students in DevelopingCareer Planning Skills.

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self-directed learning. Instructional techniquesshould be varied in terms of grouping, learningmodality, study skills required, type of assignmentgiven, level of conceptual skills required, andteacher-student roles.

Provide appropriate and varied instructionalmaterials. Students' individual differences will callfor variety in the materials you use for instruction.For example, you might include textbooks, referencematerials, magazine articles, instruction sheets andother teacher-made materials, workbooks, pam-phlets, programmed instruction materials, computer-based materials, and audiovisual materials.

Whenever possible, it is a good idea to includetechnological resources, such as audiovisualmedia, computer-based programs, and other equip-ment. Firsthand experience can help to break downthe fears some people have about electronicgadgetry. In a sense, the experience can help themto "shake hands with the enemy" before they faceit on the job.

Giving learners choices in the materials they willuse and suggesting supplementary readings aregood techniques to ensure variety. Another excellentway of providing variety and choice is to set up aclassroom resource center containing a widerange of materials related to program topics. Youcan continually add new materials, such as news-paper and journal articles. The class should be en-couraged to use the center freely and to suggest ormake additions to the collection.

Materials also need to be appropriate for adt,ltlearners. Unfortunately, you're not likely to have listsof books appropriate for adult learners, and corn-prehension levels are seldom specified in adult texts.So you will have to determine whether materials arewritten at an appropriate level. When appropriatematerials are not available, you will need to developmaterials or modify those that are available.

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Materials for adults should be clear, written in astraightforward manner, and interesting. To someextent, this does invclve readability, and you needto be aware of the level at which the material is writ-ten. But you also need to use caution in relying onword count, sentence length, or other indicatorsused in traditional readability formulas.

The "readability" of a given piece of material mayhave little to do with comprehension and more to dowith high interest level. For example, a learner mightbe able to read a complicated technical manual thatinterests him or her. Yet the same learner might finda simple work of fiction too difficult if its subject isnot of interest.

With adult learners, for materials to be readable,they must be palatable:

Language simplification techniques should beused to modify difficult materialsLayout and presentation should be visually ap-pealing to an adultWriting should be clearnot obscure, wordy,or floweryGraphics should be used to help make the texteasier to read

However, the "simple" materials that are availableare often too basic for adults and, as a result, offen-sive. To take an extreme example, let's say that youhave some adult learners reading at about the fourth-or fifth-grade level. Yet a book written for a fourthor fifth grader would probably be totally inappropriatefor these adults because of the way it is presentedand the conceptual level of the content. You wouldneed to use materials that are both written at areadable level and appealing to adults.

Relate instruction to learners' experiences.Your students will bi ing a rich background of ex-perience to every class you teach. It is important touse those experiences as examples in your teaching.In a participatory environment, you can easily en-courage learners to offer illustrations from their ownexperience that relate to what you are discussing.

This is true for very important reasons. First,research has shown that, while the learning processtends to slow down with age, most adults actuallylearn faster and more easily than their teenagecounterparts when the relationship between newcontent and prior experience is shown. Relating newcontent to an existing frame of reference is an im-portant method of helping learners comprehend andinternalize new material. Second, drawing on per-sonal experience helps the learners apply the con-cepts to their own situations and thereby meet theirneeds as individuals.

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Adjust the pace of Instruction. Adults will havedifferent needs for instructional pacing. Some willnot keep up if instruction moves along too fast, andothers may feel that they are wasting valuable timeif instruction moves too slowly.

In a competency-based program, self-pacing isusually built into the design. In more traditional pro-grams, you should be aware of learners' needs andtry to find a good balance. For those who need ityou can offer additional help, such as individualreview and discussion or use of study guides. Forthose who move quickly, you can enrich the learn-ing experience through opportunities for more in-depth study and supplementary assignments.

Accommodate special/exceptional differences.Adult learners sometimes have physiological andpsychological needs related to the aging processthat can affect their interaction and the ease withwhich they learn. You should be sensitive to theseneeds and make sure the classroom environmentis comfortable and conducive to learning. Forexample:

Be sure the room is comfortable (i.e., adequatespace; furniture comfortable, adult-sized, andcomfortably arranged; room temperatureneither too hot nor too cold; good lighting: andgood ventilation).Vary the physical nature of the learning a Aivi-ties so that the learners don't spend an entireclass session either sitting, standing, or physi-cally exerting themselves.Create a relaxed atmosphere in which learnersfeel free to move around, voioe their needs, ex-cuse themselves as necessary, and otherwisemake themselves comfortable.

In addition, you should be aware of some learners'specific physiological conditions and adjust thephysical environment and the instructional tech-niques accordingly. Examples of such conditions in-clude the following:

Impaired eyesightImpaired hearingImmobility (e.g., restricted use of hands due toarthritis; general discomfort or stiffness)Intolerance of temperature extremesSlower physical responsesNeed for frequent movement to imprcva circula-tion or reduce crampingNeed for frequent bathroom breaksFatigue from working all day

For learners with poor vi ion, you could do thefollowing: Write larger and make sure they get aclear view of what is going on. Be sure lighting in

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the room is good. Provide as many audio supple-ments (e.g., audiotape cassettes) to your instructionas possible. If using visual techniques, such as thechalkboard, flip chart, or transparencies, don't be tooquick to move ahead (e.g., erase the board, turn toa new sheet of paper, or change transparencies).Make sure the learners get handouts of importantvisuals.

For learners with hearing problems, you could dothe following: Speak a little louder, more clearly, anddirectly toward the learner. Be sure that distractingbackground noises are kept to a minimum. Use alot of visual aids in your instruction. Encouragelearners to ask speakers to repeat or talk louderwhen they cannot hear.

You can't assume, howaver, that adults will alwaysmake their needs known. Sometimes they will hideimpairments so you should be alert to signs of spe-cial instructional needs (e.g., squinting the eyes, cup-ping the ear, turning an ear toward sound). By beingaware of such signs, you can work individually withlearners to meet their needs through alternativelearning activities or other special arrangements.

You should also be aware of any socioculturaldifferences that learners may have so that you caninterpret them correctly, be sensitive to them, andif necessary, accommodate them in your instruction.For example, in oriental cultures, one beckons withthe palm down and fingers waving inward; the up-turned beckoning finger often used by Americans islikely to offend.

In some cultures, what we consider cheating isconsidered acceptable; one is, in fact, expected to"cheat" if it can help one's relatives or friends. This,of course, can be a problem when it comes to tradi-tional testing situations. Although a person withthese cultural values should be helped to learnAmerican expectations, you as an instructor shouldrecognize the source of the problem and not over-react to an incident of cheating.

Similarly, some Eastern subcultures are disposedto teamwork rather than to working individually. Youcould accommodate this preference through small-group learning activities, while at the same time help-ing them to understand that, in this culture, individualwork is or may be expected on some things (suchas tests).

You may also need to develop some skill (shortof English-as-a-Second-Language instruction) inworking with people who have limited English profi-ciency and helping them to develop employmentskills. This is critical if you work in an area that hasa large immigrant population, for it is the adult educa-tion programs that will be called upon to help foreign-born individuals who need to prepare for immediateemployment.

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Increase Learners' ConfidenceFor all the reasons we have discussednegative

images of earlier educational experiences, longabsences from the learning environment, jobdisplacement caused by changes in technology,midlife crises, and a variety of othersreturningadults often lack self-esteem and confidence inthemselves as learners. To gain the most from theirlearning experience in your program and in subse-quent learning situations, they will need to increasetheir self-confidence.

Many of the strategies you will be using for otherreasons will also help to build confidence. For ex-ample, a participatory environment constantly rein-forces the idea that what the learner has to say isimportant. Using the learner as a resource persongives him or her a chance to put skills to use andbe recognized for them. Put another way, nothingsucceeds like success. Often, finding through ex-perience that you're not so bad at something canbuild self-confidence tremendously.

Relating instruction to learners' prior experienceshelps to demonstrate how old skills provide a strongfoundation for new ones. And dealing with learnersas peers (addressing them as equals, sharing per-sonal perspectives) encourages them in developingindependence and self-direction. In short, the wayyou interact with learners on a daily basis can haveconsiderable impact on how they see themselves aslearners.

Provide positive reinforcement. Every time yougive a word of encouragement, an appreciative nod,or a high rating on a learner's work, the positive rein-forcement you are providing heaps to build the learn-er's positive self-image. With adults, you should becareful not to go overboard with lavish praise, forthey tend to see through empty flattery in a minute.But immediate, frequent, sincere encouragement ona small scale is quite effective and very muchneeded.

Some instructors reinforce superior work (perhapsa paper, a report, or a project) by asking the learner'spermission to use it as a model with the next classoffered (not with peers in the same class, whichmight be embarrassing).

Provide success experiences. Adults who haverecently returned to the classroom and who do notyet have confidence in themselves may need to begradually brought along to a state of believing inthemselves and being able to take risks. By beingsensitive to who they are, what they can do now, andwhat they are willing to do now, you can build onthose strengths.

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Give learners a chance to succeed by starting withskills they already have and then gradually challengethem to attempt higher-level skills. For example, ifa learner is not ready for full participation in a largegroup, you can provide small-group or even one-to-one opportunities for self-expression. Then, you canexpand the size of the group as the individual gainsconfidence.

Increase Group CohesionA sense of group cohesion is important in creating

a participatory environment. It makes it easier forlearners to take part in group decision making andother group activities. Efforts aimed at generatingparticipation very often will also serve to further ce-ment the cohesiveness of the group. There are alsosome specific ways you can encourage the groupto work together comfortably and with a sense of jointpurpose.

Use ice-breaking techniques. At the first session,it is often effective to break the ice with activities thatget dialogue started. This will help adults feel morecomfortable in the learning environment and partici-pate more actively. Framegames can be effective,as can interactive activities. For example, you mighthave learners tell about themselves to the personnext to them. That person then introduces them tothe class, citing a few notable things about them.

Assign group projects. Assigning projects or ac-tivities that require learners to work together is anatural way to generate group cohesion. Group dis-cussions, small-group projects, committees, peertutoring and coaching, simulations, role-plays, jointcommunity surveys, joint planning of a field trip, andmany other such team activities can be used to getlearners working together.

Use the Nominal Group Technique. TheNominal Group Technique is a structured decision-making strategy designed to generate the greatestamount of input on decisions, with the least amountof personal conflict within the group. There are fourmain steps in the technique: (1) individuals silentlylist their ideas in writing; (2) group members sharetheir ideas in round-robin fashion, and they arerecorded briefly on a flip chart; (3) each item is brieflydiscussed by the group, to clarify and evaluate; and(4) the items are rank-ordered or rated by group vote.The steps may be repeated in the same activity.

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Provide Needed Support ServicesAdult learners bring with them a host of potential

needs and problems related to their various life roles.Often, the very situation that has caused them toreturn to education creates the need. For example,a displaced homemaker who needs to develop sale-able skills in order to support her family may havevery little income and need day care. An individualwho is searching for new career directions may feeltremendous anxiety about the unknown future.

An underemployed worker seeking to upgrade oc-cupational skills may not be able to afford transpor-tation. A recent immigrant trying to learn new jobskills may not be proficient in reading or writing theEnglish language. An adult in retraining may haveproblems associated with midlife, such as identitycrisis, a rocky marriage, or teenagers in trouble.

As an instructor, you may be able to help learnerswhen problems arisethrough friendship, by link-ing them with sources of assistance, by helping themlearn to solve their own problems, and throughcareer counseling.

Be a friend. One of the things that distinguishesyou, as an instructor of adults, from other teachersis the role of friend and counselor. You are nearerin age to your students, and if you are clearly a car-ing person, they can IJIate to you as a friend.

It has been said that adult instructors need to be"skilled friends" to their students. They need to havehighly developed listening skills. They need to bewilling to hear a person's concerns and to deal withthe learner as a whole persona person with otherlife roles besides that of student.

As a skilled friend to your students, you may alsoneed some basic counseling skills. You do not needthe skills of a professional counselor, certainly. Butyou need the ability to talk over a problem, onehuman being to another, and to understand. Youmay need to point the person in the right directionto get help.

Sometimes no trained counselor is available anda student really needs someone with whom to talk.If you have shown yourself to be a warm and caringperson, you may just be the one the student wantsto talk to. In these situations, if a student wants totalk, you need to be there for him or her.

Imagine, for example, that an individual sees youbefore class and tells you that his mother had a heartattack this week . . . or that he may not be able toconcentrate today because his teenage daughter ranaway last night . . . or that he has heard he is goingto be laid off . . . or whatever. You will need to listenwith sincere concern.

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However, it is essential that you realize that thereis a limit to the extent of your involvement. A trulyskillful friend knows the boundarieswhen you canhelp just by lending an ear, and when you need toget some qualified help for the individual. There maybe some policies where you teach that govern whatyou can and can't do in regard to helr,ng individualswith nonacademic problems.

Maintain close linkages with support servicepersonnel. Support services are those services pro-vided to enable learners to attend class and other-wise profit from their education. Referral servicesdeal with pressures and problems external to theeducational experience. You should have a list ofall the support services available in your institution.They might include such services as the following:

Day careTransportationFinancial assistance, credit unionsPeer support groups (e.g., religious, ethnic,foreign, national)Help in identifying and compensating for prob-lems with vision, hearing, and the likeRemediationEnglish-as-a-Second-Language/Limited EnglishProficiency (ESULEP) programsTime management counselingStress management counselingEmployee assistance programs

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Personal /social counselingNutritional counselingInstruction in test-taking skillsCareer informationPlacement servicesOrganizational support for employees (e.g., tui-tion reimbursement)

You need to stay in contact with representativesof support services such as these so that you haveready access when an individual needs assistance.Depending on your institution's policies, you may bedirectly responsible for providing certain kinds ofsupport to learners who need it. For example, someinstitutions require instructors to telephone individ-uals who have missed two classes in a row to findout why they aren't coming to class. A few programseven require instructors to transport individuals toclass if needed.

Refer learners for help. In addition to maintain-ing contact with support services, you need to stayabreast of assistance groups in your community,what kind of assistance they offer, and to whom.Most large communities distribute directories of socialservices and other sources of assistance, to whichyou can refer. Sample 1 shows a simple, locallydeveloped matrix of available services that an in-structor could use to determine some general cate-gories of help available from local agencies.

Encourage Independent problem solving.There's an old saying, "Feed them, and they'll eatfor a day. Teach them how to find food, and they'lleat for a lifetime." This adage certainly applies tothe matter of helping people with their problems.Adults who are working on becoming independentlearners also need to become independent problemsolvers. One of the greatest services you can pro-vide a learner is to teach him or her where to lookfor help.

However, one could just as easily respond to thesaying with, "Yes, but if they're hungry, you haveto feed them first. No one can learn on an emptystomach." Learners will depend on you, in variousdegrbes, for help in actually obtaining help. Just asin classroom learning skills, you should be preparedto offer as much assistance as is needed to get im-mediate help, while at the same time weaning theindividual to greater self-reliance in seeking out andobtaining help.

Provide career information. As part of your oc-cupational instruction, you should be providing in-formation on possible careers, career ladders, andsimilar matters. It may also be appropriate to discusssuch matters as what it means to make a midlifecareer change and how to apply past experience tojob hunting efforts in a new field.

33

At times, you might also need to do a little careercounseling with a studentperhaps someone whodoesn't really belong in your class, or someone whois concerned about future directions in light of whathe or she has learned in your course.2

Provide a resource center. If you have set up aclassroom resource center, it will provide a naturalmeans of giving learners information on career op-portunities, career decision-making processes,career change issues, adult training and retrainingopportunities, adult support group networks, andsimilar topics.

Learners can help to maintain the resource centerby bringing in current employment notices, articles,and other materials for display and sharing. As newitems are added to the center, you can draw learn-ers' attention to them with a short announcementduring class and invite them to browse during breaksor after class.

Be an Advocate for Adult LearnersAs you are modifying the learning environment to

meet your students' needsworking hard to provideadequate variety, interest, individualization, andsupportyou may come across situations that arebeyond your control. The room is hot and there's nothermostat. The lighting is poor. The room is at thetop of three flights of stairs. The furniture is uncom-fortable and in poor repair. There's no parking withinmiles of the building. There's a buzz coming fromthe lights that causes half the class to be distractedand irritated.

What do you do? If you're used to being assignedpoor facilities, you might be tempted to accept it aspar for the course. But consider this. An uncomfort-able environment may or may not be tolerated byadults. They are often voluntary participants, and ifthe conditions are bad, you might just end up withoutstudents.

Every teacher of adults must learn to be an ad-vocate for his or her studentsto go to the ad-ministrators or the company managers and say, "Wehave a problem. We can't treat people like this!" Itis your responsibility to inform the administration ofproblems and to work with them on getting thenecessary changes made. There is, of course, a sec-ondary benefit of this course of action. In takingcharge and standing up for your students' rights, youwill be modeling desirable adult behavior for yourstudents: self-confjent, assertive pursuit of a solu-tion to a problem.

2 To gain skill in providing career information and counseling, you maywish to refer to Module F-4, Provide information on Educational and CareerOpportunities; and Module L.11, Assist Exceptional Students in Develop-ing Career Planning Skills.

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Finally, you will need to be an advocate for adultlearners by encouraging support through internaland external linkages. As you maket your program,you will be establishing linkages not only with theinternal support services, but with external services,such as job services and the department of socialservices. By encouraging their support of your pro-gram in general and of your students specifically,you will be serving in an advocacy role. You will beensuring the continued support of a program thatserves the needs of adults and ensuring that yourstudents are treated properly by the variousagencies.

You may need to take up the cause of one of yourstudents with a certain agency to ensure that he orshe doesn't get lost in the bureaucracy. You mayneed to convince the occupational advisory commit-tee that your program desperately needs new equip-ment to stay current in the field. You may need tosecure their help in identifying a local business will-ing to give or lend equipment. In these and manyother ways, you can make your voice heard in sup-port of adults and adult education programs.

OptionalActivity

14444121

You may wish to arrange through your resource person to visit a classroomor other teaching situation in which a variety of instructional techniques arebeing used with adult learners. During this visit, you could observe the tech-niques being put into action. You could also see how adults respond to thevarious activities.

35

7

The following case studies describe how instructors modified the learningenvironment for adult learners. Read each case study and then critique inwriting the instructor's performance. Specifically, you should explain (1) thestrengths of each instructor's approach, (2) the weaknesses of each instruc-tor's approach, and (3) how each instructor should have modified the learn-ing environment.

CASE STUDIESCase Study 1:

"Good evening. My name is Mr. Guyer; I'vespelled it on the board for you. As you probablyknow, this is the first session of an 11-week coursein day-care administration. I'm going to cover a lotof material in this course, and I'm sure that you'llfind it both interesting and challenging. If you workhard and keep up with the readings, I'm sure you'lldo just fine.

"Before we get started, I'd like to get a few house-keeping details out of the way. We'll meet for an hourand a half each class, with a break about halfwaythrough the class. I noticed as I came down the hall

36

that a couple of you smoke, and I imagine you'd feelmore comfortable if you can smoke during class (Iknow I would!), so I'm going to permit smoking dur-ing class activities except when were working withthe computers.

"And speaking of comfort, it's pretty hard foreveryone to see each other's faces with all of youfacing front, so let's take a minute to bring the chairsaround in a circle. Let's see on the class roster here. . . who's Bob? and Hank? Great. Will you give mea hand with the chairs? Thanks."

"18

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Case Study 2:Annette Stribling was meeting with the office

management class for the first time. To get thingsstarted, she passed out 3 x 5 cards and asked themto jot down the following information about them-selves:

Why they are taking the course and what theyexpect to get out of itWhat their main occupational experiences havebeenThree significant facts about themselves notdirectly related to the course

Case Study 3:At the fourth class session, Annette Stribling

began by asking the learners for some feedback.

"How do you feel the course is going? What doyou like? What don't you like? Do you have any preh-lems with what we're doing that we should work out?I'd like to hear from each el you in turn, to be sureeveryone has their say. Dick, how about you goingfirst?"

After Dick's response, Annette called on eachlearner and jotted pros and cons and other keypoints on the board as they were mentioned. Mrs.Boland, as usual, wouldn't say anything, but other-wise everyo;le gave Annette some good ideas.

Then she had the learners exchange cards with theperson next to them and conduct three-minute in-terviews with each other to find out more about theperson. At the end of that time, each learner wasasked to introduce the person he or she had inter-viewed to the rest of the class and to tell a little aboutthem.

Following the introductions, Annette collected thecards for her own information and passed out thecourse syllabus and readi^g list. After a shortdescription of the goals of the course and the typesof activities she had planned, Annette assigned thefirst reading and dismissed the class.

A discussion of the list on the board grew out ofthe activity, because it seemed that most of the conshad to do with the kinds of learning activities beingused. The general consensus was that they wouldIIY.c io have more activities in which they could applywhat they were learning.

Annette encouraged them to suggest some learn-ing activities, and by the end of the session, they haddeveloped a plan for the remainder of the course.Annette knew she would have to do some quickpreparations for the new activities, but she realizedthat it was worth it because the class seemed quiteenthusiastic about the plans.

37

9

Case Study 4:Mike Langley's class was finishing a group discus-

sion on job-hunting problems and solutions. He wasabot.2 to go right into an illustrated talk on letters ofapplication and follow-up, to be followed by small-group work involving practice letter writing and peercritique. However, he noticed that Nelson May wasshifting in his seat a lot and kept bending andstraightening his right leg.

So, realizing that the class had been sitting a longtime and Nelson's sciatica was probably botheringhim, Mike decided to change the agenda a little.

38

"Well, we came up with a lot of suggestions foreach other about finding job leads. If anyone hasother problems they would like the group to thinkabout, why don't you jot them on a piece of paperand give them to me after class, and I'll bring themup at the next meeting.

"Now, if you don't mind, I'd like to take an earlybreak today, stretch a little, and get some coffee outof the machine. Then we'll get together in smallgroups to continue the interview role-plays we beganlast time. When you get back in the room, I'll havehandouts for you to guide the activity."

40

Compare your written critiques of the instructors' performance with the modelcritiques given below. Your responses need not exactly duplicate the modelresponses; however, you should have covered the same major points.

MODEL CRITIQUESCase Study 1:

It is admirable that Mr. Guyer is so concernedabout the comfort of the learners and that he seemsto recognize the need for their feeling as relaxed aspossible during class sessions. Rearranging thechairs is one goon way to promote a relaxed envi-ronment.

However, rearranging furniture is not likely to govery far in establishing adult-to-adult rapport with thelearners after the beginning Mr. Guyer has made.His actions betray an attitude of not really respect-ing the learners as mature individuals. First, there'sthe matter of names: he is Mr. Guyer, but tney areBob and Hank. This differentiation right away putsdistance between the instructor and the class. Andto reinforce this distance, he speaks in terms of "I"and "you"never "we."

Then there are Mr. Guyer's very first comments,about keeping up with the readings and doing justfine. These condescending remarks would makemost adults feel as if Mr. Guyer were really talkingdown to them.

To make matters worse, he missed a good oppor-tunity to create a participatory environment by notinvolving the class in deciding on class managementprocedures. Although he and a couple of othersmight have wanted to smoke, it is just as likely thatsome members of the class would object, and thisshould have been discussed. The same is true ofbreaks.

On the brighter side, Mr. Guyer is evidently plan-ning to use computers in the course, and this shouldbe helpful to individuals who have not had a chanceto become comfortable with them.

Case Study 2:Annette's ice-breaking technique was well

planned and served several purposes. First, it gotthe class started in a relaxed fashion, with allmembers participating. Undoubtedly, the learnersleft this class recognizing that it was not going to bejust another series of lectures. (Although we cannottell how the learners responded to the exercise, onehopes that Annette was sensitive to individual reac-tions and was ready to provide alternative ways ofparticipating if necessary.)

Second, it helped the learners get to know eachother, which would contribute to group cohesion.And third, it provided Annette with information abouther students that would enable her both to considerthe design of the course in relation to their needsand expectations and to draw upon their experiencesduring the course.

Unfortunately, Annette did not use the input shegot about learners' needs and expectations in ad-justing the design of the course, nor does it appearthat she ever meant to. There she was with asyllabus and reading list already prepared, the deci-sions apparently irrevocable.

A group discussion would have been a naturalfollow-up to the ice-breaker. It would have encour-aged further participation and exploration of thelearners' and the instructor's experience and in-terests. Such a discussion also would have been agood time to get their input on course content, in-structional activities, readings, and so on. As it is,it appears that they have no choices, no say in whatkind of experiences this course will involve.

4139

Case Study 3:Annette's effort to monitor learners' satisfaction

at this class meeting may help compensate for ig-noring the input earlier. Perhaps the outcomes ofthe discussions will make her realize the importanceof inviting learners' suggestions from the very be-ginning.

The ways in which Annette did a number of thingsare commendable. She involved the class in mak-ing decisions about the remainder of the course. Shegave them multiple learning options. She used avisual aid to guide the discussion. And she was will-ing to do the extra work to make it all happen. Herobvious interest in the learners' needs makes herinsensitivity to Mrs. Bolandand perhaps otherlearners as wellall the more surprising.

If Mrs. Boland has a history of never speaking inclass, she obviously is not comfortable with theclass, and one suspects that something is not be-ing done that should be. Annette should be talkingto her to try to find out what the problem is, not justcontinually accepting her silence. Perhaps positivereinforcement, carefully planned success ex-periences, or personal encouragement would helpMrs. Boland feel more sure of herself.

If Annette was aware of Mrs. Boland's discomfortabout speaking up in class, it was insensitive to setup the discussion in the way she did, putting eachlearner on the spot. In fact, other learners might alsohave preferred not to participate in this manner. Par-ticipation should have been voluntary, and optionsfor giving input in other ways should have beengiven, such as small-group discussions, one-to-oneconferences, and written responses.

Case Study 4:It's hard to find fault with Mike's performance. For

starters, his rapport-building skills are quite good.His tone is relaxed, he's sensitive to the learners'needs, he uses "we" to reinforce the commonground between instructor and learners, and heacknowledges the value of the suggestions thelearners have given each other.

Mike also uses a good mix of instructionalstrategies, including group discussion, illusVatedtalk, small-group practice, peer critique, colalaywith instruction sheets, and undoubtedly manyothers. Further, he gives learners options in the man-ner of their participation, as illustrated by his sug-gestion that those who have additional suggestionsshould put them in writing. This would be helpful toany learners who may not have been comfortabletalking about their job-hunting problems in the group.

But the most notable qualities Mike has shown inthese few minutes are his sensitivity to individual dif-ferences and his willingness to be flexible in deal-ing with them. He made it his business to know thatNelson has problems with his sciatic nerve and thatprolonged sitting aggravates the condition. He calledfor a break to give Nelson a chance to walk aroundand relieve the discomfort and then substituted anactivity that would allow him more freedom to movearound as needed. And he was tactful in ascribingthe change in agenda to his own needs rather thanto Nelson's.

One can assume from this brief episode that Mikehas a great deal of respect for people's feelings andthat his attitudes help to make him quite successfulat working with adults.

Level of Performance: Your written critiques of the instructors' performance should have covered the samemajor points as the model critiques. If you missed some points or have questions about any additionalpoints you made, review the material in the information sheet, Modifying the Learning Environment for Adults,pp. 24-35, or check with your resource person if necessary.

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TEACHER PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT FORMWManage the Adult Instructional Process (N-5)

Directions: Indicate the level of the teacher's accomplishment by placingan X in the appropriate box under the LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE heading.If, because of special circumstances, a performance component was not ap-plicable, or impossible to execute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

0$44Pla varying the instructional techniques, the instructor: 1 , 4*

1. provided variety in the nature of the learning activitiesoffered, including:a. grouping

b. learning modality

c. study skiils required

d. type of assignment

e. level of conceptual skills required

f. learner and instructor roles

2. offered the learners alternatives from which to choose illIn establishing adult-to-adult rapport, the instructor:3. was sensitive to the multiple roles of learners

4. avoided talking down to learners

5. created a nontraditional room arrangement

6. shared information about self

7. demonstrated willingness to meet with students outsideclass, as well as in class El 0

in creating a participatory environment, the instructor:8. involved learners in decisions about course content and

management

9. involved learners as instructional resources

10. monitored learner satisfaction

In facilitating adult independence, the instructor:11. helped students learn to learn on their own El 012. served as a role model of continuing learning

13. taught decision-making and problem-solving techniques

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In providing for individual differences, the instructor:14. provided appropriate materials

15. provided varied materials

16. related instruction to learners' experiences

17. adjusted the pace of instruction

18. accommodated special/exceptional differences

in increasing learners' confidence, the instructor:19. provided positive reinforcement 111 020. provided success experiences

In increasing group cohesion, the instructor:21. used ice-breaking techniques El22. assigned group activities

In providing needed support services, the instructor:23 acted as a friend

24 maintained linkages with support service personnel

25. referred learners for help as needed

26. encouraged independent problem solving 111

27. provided career information

28. provided a resource center

In being an advocate for adult learners, the instructor:29. acted upon needed changes in the environment

30. encouraged support through internal and external linkages

Level of Performance: All items must receive N/A, GOOD, or EXCELLENT responses. If any item receivesa NONE, POOR, or FAIR response, tLe instructor and resource person should meet to determine whatadditional activities the instructor needs to complete in order to reach competency in the weak area(s).

444 6

ABOUT USING THE NATIONAL CENTER'SPBTE MODULESOrganizationEach module is designed to help you gain competency in aparticular skill area considered important to teaching suc-cess. A module is made up of a series of learning experi-ences, some providing background information, some pro-viding practice experiences, and others combining thesetwo functions. Completing these experiences should en-able you to achieve the terminal objective in the finallearning experience. The final experience in each modulealways requires you to demonstrate the skill in an actualteaching situation when you are an intern, a student teach-er, an inservice teacher, or occupational trainer.

ProceduresModules we designed to allow you to indivi_ Jalize yourteacher education program. You need to take Go ly thosemodules co nring skills that you do not already possess.Similarly, you need not complete any learning experiencewithin a module if you already have the skill needed tocomplete it. Therefore, before taking any module, youshould carefully review (1) the introduction, (2) the objec-tives listed on p. 4, (3) the overviews preceding each leam-ing experience, and (4) the final experience. After compar-ing your present needs and competencies with the informa-tion you have read in these sections, you should be ready tomake one of the following decisions:

That you do .tot have the competencies indicated andshould complete the entire moduleThat you are competent in one or more of the enablingobjectives leading to the final learning experience and,thus, can omit those leaming experiencesThat you are already competent in this area and areready to complete the final learning experience inorder to "test out"That the module is inappropriate to your needs at thistime

When you are ready to complete the final learning experi-ence and have access to an actual teaching situation,make the necessary arrangements with your resource per-son. If you do not complete the final experience success-fully, meet with your resource person and arrange to (1)repeat the experience or (2) c. mplete (or review) previoussections of the module or other related activities suggestedby your resource person before attempting to repeat thefinal experience.

Options for recycling are also available in each of thelearning experiences preceding the final experience. Anytime you do not meet the minimum level of performancerequired to meet an objective, you and your resource per-son may meet to select activities to help you reach compe-tency. This could involve (1) completing parts of the modulepreviously skipped, (2) repeating activities, (3) reading sup-plementary resources or completing additional activitiessuggested by the resource person, (4) designing your ownlearning experience, or (5) completing some other activitysuggested by you or your resource person.

.../1,:wilb.

TerminologyActual Teaching Situation: A situation in which you areactually working with and responsible for teaching sec-ondary or postsecondary vocational students or other oc-cupational trainees. An intern, a student teacher, an in-service teacher, or other occupational trainer would b.tfunctioning in an actual teaching situation. If you do nothave access to an actual teaching situation when you aretaking the module, you can complete the module up to thefinal learning experience. You would then complete thefinal learning experience later (i.e., when you have accessto sin actual teaching situation).

Alternate Activity or Feedback: An item that may substi-tute for required items that, due to special circumstances,you are unable to complete.Occupational Specialty: A specific area of preparationwithin a vocational service area (e.g., the service areaTrade and Industrial Education includes occupational spe-cialtieb such as automobile mechanics, welding, and elec-tricity.

Optional Activity or Feedback: An item that is not re-quired but that is designed to supplement and enrich therequired items in a learning experience.

Resource Person: The person in charge of yt .i: educa-tional program (e.g., the professor, instructor, administrator,instructional supervisor, cooperating/supervising/class-room teacher, or training supervisor who is guiding you incompleting this module`.Student: The person who is receiving occupational i-struction in a secondary, postsecondary, or other trainingprogram.Vocational Service Area: A major vocational field: agri-cultural education, business and office education, market-ing and distributive education, health occupations educa-tion, home economics education, industrial arts education,technical education, or trade and industrial education.You or the Teacher/Instructor: The person who is com-pleting the module.

Levels of Performance for Final AssessmentN/A: The criterion was not met because it was not appli-cable to the situation.None: No attempt was made t' meet the criterion, al-though it was relevant.Poor: The teacher is unable to perform this skill or has onlyvery limited ability to perform it.Fair: The teacher is unable to perform this skill in an ac-ceptable manner but has some ability to perform it.Good: The teacher is abie to perform this skill in an effec-tive manner.Excellent: The teacher is able to perform this skill ,:-. a veryeffective manner.

1 7

Titles of the National Center's Performance-Based Teacher Education Modules

Category A: Program Planning, Development, and EvaluationA1 Prepare for a Community SurveyA-2 Conduct a Community SurveyA-3 Report the Findings of a Community SurveyA-4 Organize an Occupational Advisory CommitteeA-5 Maintain an Occupational Advisory CommitteeA-6 Develop Program Goals and ObjectivesA7 Conduct an Occupational Ank jarsA-8 Develop a Course of StudyA9 Develop LongRange Program PlansA10 Conduct a Student FollowUp StudyA-11 Evaluate Your Vocational Program

Category B: Instructional PlanningB-1 Determine Needs and Interests of StudentsB-2133B-4B-5

Develop Student Performance ObjectivesDevelop a Unit of InstructionDevelop a Lesson PlanSelect Student Instructional MaterialsPrepare TeacherMade Instructional Materials

Category C: Instructional ExecutionC1 Direct Field TripsC-2 Conduct Group Discussions, Panel Discussions, and SymposiumsC-3 Employ Brainstorming, Buzz Group, and Question Box TechniquesC-4 Direct Students in Instructing Other Students

Employ Simulation TechniquesC-6 Guide Student StudyC-7 Direct Student Laboratory ExperienceC-8 Direct Students in Applying ProblemSolving TechniquesC-9 Employ the Project MethodC-10 Introduce a LessonC11 Summarize a LessonC12 Fe ',ploy Oral Questioning TechniquesC-13 Employ Reinforcement TechniquesC-14 Provide Instruction for Slower and More Capable LearnersC15 Present an Illustrated TalkC-16 Demonstrate a Manipulative SkillC-17 Demonstrate a Concept or PrincipleC18 Individualize InstructionC19 Employ the Team Teaching ApproachC-20 Use Subject Matter Experts to Present InformationC-21 Prepare Bulletin Boards and ExhibitsC-22 Present Information with Models, Real Objects, and Flannel BoardsC-23 Present Information with Overhead and Opaque MaterialsC-24 Present Information with Filmstrips and SlidesC -25 Present Information with FilmsC-26 Present Information with Audio RecordingsC-27 Present Information with Televised and Videotaped MaterialsC-28 Einp My Programmed InstructionC-29 Present Information with the Chalkboard and Flip Chad

Category D: Instructional EvaluationD-1 Establish Student Performance CriteriaD-2 Assess Student Performance KnowledgeD-3 Assess Student Performance. AttitudesD-4 Assess Student Performance SkillsD5 Determine Student GradesD6 Evaluate Your Instructional Effectiveness

Category E: Instructional ManagementE1 Project Instructional Resource NeedsE-2 Manage Your Budgit ng and Reporting ResponsibilitiesE-3 Arrange f ff Improvement of Your Vocational FacilitiesE-4 Maintain L Filing SystemE-5 Provide for Student SafetyE-6 Provide for the First Aid Needs of StudentsE-7 Assist Students in Developing Self-DisciplineE8 Organize the Vocational LaboratoryE-9 Manage the Vocation:1 LaboratoryE10 Combat Problems of Student Chemical Use

Category F: GuidanceGather Student Data Using Formal Data-Collection Techniques

F-2 G,ther Student Data Through Personal ContactsF-3 Use Conferences to Help Meet Student NeedsF-4 Provide Information on Educational and Career OpportunitiesF-5 Assist Students in Applying for Emp1oyment or Further Education

RELATED PUBLICATIONSStudent Guide to Using Performance-Based Teacher Education MatorialsResource Person Guide to Using PerformanceBased Teacher Education MaterialsGuide to tl 3 Implementation of Performance-Based Teacher EducationPerformanceBased Teacher Education. The State of the Art, General Education and Vocational Education

Category G: School-Community RelationsG-1 Develop a SchoolCommunity Relations Plan for Your Vocational ProgramG2 Give Presentations to Promote Your Vocational ProgramG-3 Develop Brochures to Promote Your Vocational ProgramG-4 Prepare Displays to Promote Your Vocational ProgramG-5 Prepare News Releases and Articles Concerning Your Vocational ProgramG-6 Arrange for Television and Radio Presentations

Concerning Your Vocational ProgramG-7 Conduct an Open HouseG8 Work with Members of the CommunityG9 Work with State and Local Ed matorsG10 Obtain Feedback about Your Vocational Program

Category H: Vocational Student OrganizationHO Develop a Personal Philosophy Concerning

Vocational Student OrganizationsH-2 Establish a Vocational Student OrganizationF13 Prepare Vocational Student Organization Members for Leadership Rolestif 4 Assist Vocational Student Organization Members in Developing and

Financing a Yearly Program of ActivitiesH-5 Supervise Activities of the Vocatic.iai Student OrganizationF16 Guide Participation in Vocatioral Student Organization Contests

Category I: Professional Role and Development1-1 Keep Uptodate Professionally1.2 Serve Your Teaching Profession1.3 Develop an Active Personal Philosophy of EducationI.4 Serve the School and Community1.5 Obtain a Suitable Teaching Position1-6 Provide Laboratory Experiences for Prospective Teachers1-7 Plan the Student Teaching Experience1.8 Supervise Student Teachers

Category J: Coordination of Cooperative EducationJ-1 Establish Guidelines for Yon Cooperative Vocational Program

2 Manage the Attendance, Tra,,sfers, and Terminations of Co-op StudentsJ3 Enroll Students in Your Co-op ProgramJ-4 Secure Training Stations for Your Co-op Program

Place Co-op Students on the Job.16 De -( lop the Training Ability of Onthe-Jcb InstructorsJ7 coordinate On-the-Job InstructionJ8 Evaluate Co-op Students' On-the-Job PerformanceJ9 Prepare for Students' Related InstructionJ-10 Supervise an Employer-Employee Appreciation Event

Category K: Implementing Competency-Based Education (CBE)K1 Prepare Yourself for CBEK-2 Organize the Content for a CBE ProgramK3 Organize Your Class and Lab to Install CBEK4 Provide Instructional Materials for CBEK-5 Manage the Daly Routines of Your CBE ProgramK-6 Guide Your Students Through the CBE Program

Category L: Serving Students with Special/Exceptional NeedsPrepaio Yourself to Serve Exceptional Students

L2 Identify and Diagnose Exceptional StudentsL-3 Plan Instruction for Exceptional StudentsL-4 Provide Appropriate Instructional Materials for Exceptional Students1.5 Modify the Learning Environment for Exceptional Students1.6 Promote Peer Acceptance of Exceptional StudentsL-7 Use Instructional Techniques to Meet the Needs of Exceptional Students1.8 Improve Your Communication SkillsL-9 Assess the Progress cf Exceptional StudentsLi0 Counsel Exceptional Students with PersonalSocial ProblemsL-11 Assist Exceptional Students in Developing Career Planning SkillsL-12 Prepare Exceptional Students for EmployabilityL-13 Promote Your Vocational Program with Exceptional Students

Category M: Assisting Students in Improving Thel, Basic Skillsm1 Assist Students in Achieving Basic Reading SkillsM-2 Assist Students in Developing Technical Reading SkillsM3 Assist Students in Improving Their Writing SkillsM-4 Assist Students in Improving Their Oral Communication SkillsM5 Assist Students in Improving Their Math SkillsM6 Assist Students in Improving Their Survival Skills

Category N: Teaching AdultsN-1 Prepare to Work with Adult LearnersN2 Market an Adult Education PrograniN-3 Determine Individual Training NeedsN-4 Plan Instruction for AdultsN-5 Manage the Adult Instructional ProcessN-6 Evaluate the Performance of Adults

For information regarding availability and prices of these materials contactAAVIM, American Association for Vocational InstructionalMaterials, 120 Driftmier Engineering Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, (404) 542-2586