DOCUMENT RESUME ED 416 273 AUTHOR Olsen, Laurie ... · DOCUMENT RESUME. ED 416 273 UD 032 136. AUTHOR Olsen, Laurie TITLE An Invisible Crisis. The Educational Needs of Asian Pacific

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 416 273 UD 032 136

AUTHOR Olsen, LaurieTITLE An Invisible Crisis. The Educational Needs of Asian Pacific

American Youth.INSTITUTION Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders in Philanthropy, New York,

NY.

PUB DATE 1997-00-00NOTE 53p.

PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative (142)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Asian Americans; Cultural Awareness; Cultural Differences;

Curriculum Development; *Disadvantaged Youth; ElementarySecondary Education; Ethnic Groups; *Immigrants; *LanguageMinorities; Multicultural Education; *Pacific Americans;Poverty; Racial Discrimination; Refugees

IDENTIFIERS *Model Minority Thesis

ABSTRACTAn urgent educational crisis threatens the futures of a

growing number of Asian Pacific American students, both immigrant andAmerican-born. This crisis is largely invisible to most Americans, even tomany in the teaching profession, because many see all Asian Pacific Americanstudents as members of a model minority destined to excel. This image is adestructive myth for the many Asian Pacific American children the schools arefailing. The number of Asian Pacific American students is large and growingrapidly, and the context for educating these students effectively ischanging. While immigrants who came to this country after 1965 werewell-educated and well-off, more recent groups of Asian Pacific Americans arepoor and poorly educated. The schools' task is complicated by historicproblems of poverty and racial discrimination. Language and literacy issuesare foremost in the problems of these students. In addition, most schools donot have curricula appropriate to educate multilingual and multiculturalstudent populations. Support for families and youth development isinadequate. Community groups and foundations can offer much-needed support toschool's efforts to help this underserved population. Recommendations forfoundation help to Asian Pacific American students center on: (1)

community/school/family partnerships; (2) institutional change andaccountability; (3) curriculum development; (4) language development researchand programs; and (5) teacher recruitment and training. Appendixes lists 19resource organizations for program information and 13 other resourceorganizationS. (Contains 4 tables, 2 graphs, and 61 references.) (SLD)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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AN VISIBLE CRISIS

ttf411

TheEducationalNeeds ofAsianPacificAmericanYouth

ASIAN AMERICANS!

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION°Mice of Educational Research end Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

XTros document has been reproduced eareceived from the person or organizationoriginating d

0 Minor changes have been made to imprOvereproduction Quality.

Points of new oPnien$ stated ", th.$ dOcu*ment do not necesseniy represent OfficialOERI position or policy.

U:0

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS

BEEN GRANTED BY

Mot:jot-16 F)1AA PLPTO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

O4f4,C-1S1.-ANIci IN PHILANTHROPY

2

BEST COPY AVM LITEI.

Li\dmicmiDecignierfAs

Vale pcodgira@upy aluZiago of this report is Laurie Olsen, co-director, California Tomorrow. The

report drew upon the research of Kenji Ima, Professor, San Diego State University, and Hanh Cao

Yu, Social Scientist, Social Policy Research Associates.

The report was guided by the dedicationand insights of the AAPIP education committeechaired by Dianne Yamashiro-Omi, formerlywith the Gap Foundation, composed of:Marjorie Fujiki, AAPIP; David Fukuzawa,Skillman Foundation; Unmi Song, JoyceFoundation; Ruby Takanishi, Foundation forChild Development; and Sylvia Yee, Evelyn &Walter Haas, Jr. Fund.

The report was skillfully edited and broughttogether by Lynne Constantine and SuzanneScott of Community Scribes. Julie Wong pro-vided swift proofreading skills.

AAPIP would also like to thank the follow-ing individuals for sharing of their time andexpertise during the various stages of develop-ment of this report (*affiliations are indicated atthe time of the individual's involvement withour report):O Amy Agbayani, Hawaii Community

Foundation0 Joe Aguerreberre, Ford FoundationO Cynthia Boynton, McKnight FoundationO Eleanor Clement Glass, San Francisco

Foundation1(0 Lucia Corral, consultant*

O Henry Der, California Department ofEducation

O Christine Green, Boston FoundationO Kenji Hakuta, Stanford UniversityO Bill Ong Hing, Stanford University*O Peter Kiang, University of Massachusetts,

BostonO Jane Kretzman, Bush FoundationtUi Nancy Latimer, McKnight FoundationO Stacey Lee, University of Wisconsin,

MadisonO Joe Lucero, AAPIPO Antonio Maciel, Emma Lazarus Fund,

Grantmakers Concerned with Immigrantsand Refugees

O Brian Malloy, Minneapolis Foundation6 Craig Mc Garvey, James Irvine Foundationt Don Nakanishi, University of California, Los

Angeles

Lallie O'Brien, Pew Charitable TrustsO Michael Omi, University of California,

Berkeleyt Wendy Puriefoy, Public Education NetworkO Jane Quinn, DeWitt-Wallace Reader's Digest

Fund

O Sophie Sa, Panasonic Foundation, Inc.0 Donna Sherlock, St. Paul Foundation*t- Ralph Smith, Annie E. Casey FoundationO Tani Takagi, formerly with the Ms.

FoundationO Lance Tsang, ARC Associates0 Ellen Walker, Zellerbach Family FundO Debbie Wei, School District of PhiladelphiaO Patricia White, New York Community Trust,

Association of Black Foundation Executives0 Katherine Kam, Beth Bernstein, Mamie

Chow-Wang and other staff of CaliforniaTomorrow.

This report was designed by Elaine Joe.Many of the photographs were provided cour-tesy of California Tomorrow, Asian PacificEnvironmental Network, and Oakland AsianCultural Center.

We would like to thank the Pacific TelesisGroup for its support towards the printing ofthis report, and general support from: The FordFoundation, Wallace Alexander GerbodeFoundation, Evelyn & Walter Haas, Jr. Fund,Edward W. Hazen Foundation, James IrvineFoundation, W.K. Kellogg Foundation, John D.& Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, CharlesStewart Mott Foundation, Pacific Telesis Group,David & Lucile Packard Foundation,Rockefeller Foundation and San FranciscoFoundation.

AN IiIMW:2111B'ai CRISIS:The Educational Needs of

Asian Pacific American Youth

0

0

ASIAN AMERICANS/PACIFIC ISLANDERS IN PHILANTHROPY

1997

4

Uzlhae cy0 Contents

al Executive Summary

7 Introduction: From Model Minority to Children in Crisis

0 0 The Changing Context of Effective Education for Asian Pacific Americans:Demographic Trends

0 0 Population Trends0 0 Income and Poverty Status0 33 Immigration Trends

0 6 Obstacles to Effective Education for Asian Pacific American Children

Language and Literacy20 School and Curriculum2S Support for Families and for Youth Development

3 0 The Challenge for Philanthropy: Recommendations and Conclusion

33 2 Recommendations33 Conclusion

339 Appendix I: Resources for Program Information

433 Appendix II: Resource Organizations

414 Endnotes

416 Bibliography

AAPIP PAGE 3

EmamatOwe Saammact7

n urgent educational crisis threatens the futures of a growing number of Asian Pacific

American students, both immigrant and American-born. Although schools should be

a nurturing, learning environment for all children, most schools are ill-equipped to

cope with the language needs of children who speak an Asian language at home and with

racial, cultural, and socioeconomic diversity in the classroom.

This crisis is largely invisible to mostAmericansmost significantly, even to manyin the teaching professionsbecause mostsee all Asian Pacific American students asmembers of a "model minority" destined toexcel. But for many Asian Pacific Americanstudents, this image is a destructive myth. Astheir schools fail them, these childrenbecome increasingly likely to graduate withrudimentary language skills, to drop out ofschool, to join gangs, or to find themselves inlow-paying occupations and on the marginsof American life.

The number of Asian Pacific Americanstudents is largeand growing rapidly.The Asian Pacific American populationdoubled between 1980 and 1990, and thenumber of Asian Pacific American school-age children grew sixfoldfrom 212,900to almost 1.3 millionbetween 1960 and1990. By the year 2020, it is estimated thatthere will be 4.4 million Asian PacificAmerican children between the ages of 5and 17. These children come from verydiverse backgrounds: the Asian PacificAmerican population includes members of34 ethnic groups who speak more than300 languages and dialects. Even withingroups, individuals and families differgreatly based on the conditions from

which they immigrated, their social, eco-nomic and educational status before andafter immigration, and the American com-munities in which they find themselves.

The context for effectively educatingAsian Pacific American students ischanging. Although many among the firstgroups of Asian Pacific immigrants whocame to the U.S. after restrictiveimmigration laws were changed in 1965were well-educated and well-off, morerecent groups of Asian Pacific immigrantsoften are poor and poorly educated. Mostof the new immigrant parents may not beaware of, or accustomed to, their role astheir children's advocate within theAmerican school system. Estimates are thatby the year 2000, 75 percent of AsianPacific American school-age children willbe foreign-born or the children of recentimmigrants.

1(G The schools' task is complicated byhistoric problems of poverty andracial discrimination. Overall, 14 per-cent of Asian Pacific Americans live belowthe poverty line, compared with 13 per-cent of the U.S. population. Althoughaggregate statistics place Asian PacificAmericans at the top of the family incomecharts, data are misleading unless the

6

AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE 4

number of wage earners per family, theaverage per capita earnings, and thepoverty level within a community aretaken into account. Poverty levels are dis-proportionately high among Asian PacificAmericans from Southeast Asia.Additionally, Asian Pacific Americans arediscriminated against on the basis of raceand immigrant status, and are frequent tar-gets of bias-motivated violence.

Despite the increased presence and grow-ing needs of Asian Pacific Americans in theclassroom, school districts, teachers, and par-ent-teacher associations have not yet begunto match needs with resources for these chil-dren. The most significant barriers facingAsian Pacific American students are in threeareas: language and literacy, school and cur-riculum, and support for families and foryouth development.

Langazage and Literacy

4 Bilingual education resources for AsianPacific Americans who need them arelargely unavailable.

( There has been little research into the spe-cific language development challenges ofchildren whose home language is anAsian language.

4 The diversity of Asian Pacific Americanscomplicates language instruction and bilin-gual education, particularly when schoolshave small numbers of students whospeak a range of Asian Pacific languages.

4 Highly motivated children may excel inmath and sciencesubjects that requireless sophisticated language skillswhiletheir lack of proficiency in reading, writ-ing, and speaking skills is neglected.

4 Asian Pacific American students often aremisclassified. Learning disabilities oftenare attributed to the student's limited pro-ficiency in English, and children with nolearning problems except language-relat-ed ones may find themselves in specialeducation classes.

4 There is little support for children's main-taining proficiency in their home lan-guage, although research suggests thatstrong literacy in the home language pro-motes literacy in a second language.

School] and Caarrticuknon

4 Most schools do not have curricula appro-priate to educating multicultural, multilin-gual student populations. Few schoolsoffer students opportunities for serious

AAPIP PAGE 5

study of multigenerational Asian PacificAmericans. Instead, they hold Inter-national Days that are intended to honorstudents' home cultures but that may rein-force stereotypes.

4 There is a major shortfall of bilingual,bicultural Asian Pacific American teachers.Even fewer Asian Pacific Americans areschool administrators and counselors.

4 Teachers, administrators, and counselorsgenerally do not have training to under-stand Asian Pacific cultures and languages.

4 Even when teachers make efforts to teachabout Asian Pacific cultures, they have dif-ficulties locating appropriate teachingmaterials to support the curriculum.

4 School personnel do not understand howto integrate the teaching and learningstrategies of the child's home culture.

4 Schools have not yet developed adequateinstitutional responses to issues of raceand racial violence, class, and gender, all ofwhich deeply affect Asian Pacific students.

$aapport Vag° Famines and garVogath DeveDoponent

t Asian Pacific children struggle to balancebicultural identities, maintaining their ties totraditional family and cultural values whilelearning the ways of American culture.

4 Many Asian Pacific children struggle withfamily problemssome resulting fromconditions in their home countries, othersfrom the violence and poverty common inneighborhoods where many Asian PacificAmericans livethat teachers and coun-selors are unaware of or oblivious to.

4 Schools rarely have ties to Asian Pacificcommunity organizations that can helpMeet students' and families' needs.

Such obstacles can only be overcomethrough initiatives that understand educationas a process that does not stop at the school-house door. AAPIP believes that strengthen-ing families and fostering community leader-ship are critical facets to ensure healthydevelopment for all youth. Communitygroups can serve as culturally competent,bilingual resources to help Asian Pacificyouth bridge home and school cultures andbecome the well-educated, bicultural, bilin-gual leaders needed in an increasinglydiverse nation. Such community groups canserve as resources for schools committed toeducational equity. In addition, they canhold schools accountable for meeting theneeds of Asian Pacific American students andtheir families and for their progress (or lackof progress) toward the goal of equal educa-tional access for all children.

IReconnmendatOons

AAPIP recommends that foundationsrespond to the needs of Asian PacificAmerican students by funding initiatives infive areas:

1. Community/school/family partnerships,

2. Institutional change and accountability,

3. Curriculum development,

4. Language development research and pro-grams, and

5. Teacher recruitment and training.

AAPIP views efforts in the area of com-munity/school/family partnerships as funda-mental to the success of the other recom-mendations. Such efforts reduce barriers toeducational equity and create an enrichedlearning environment for children by bring-ing together the full complement of a com-munity's resources for each child's benefit.

8

AN INVISIBLE CRISIS 011111.`, PAGE 6

2f.1: , ry

I. COMMUNITY/SCHOOL/FAMILYPARTNERSHIPS

Recognize and develop Asian PacificAmerican community, parent, and youthleadership, and support the development ofcommunity-based service organizations thatfocus on providing extended opportunitiesfor youth and their families. Support effortsto partner these resources with their localschools.

2. INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE ANDACCOUNTABILITY

Encourage efforts that commit schools tomake institutional responses to issues affect-ing Asian Pacific American children's educa-tional equityincluding language needs ofthe limited English proficient, racism andanti-immigrant bias, class, and genderissuesand fund efforts that monitor schoolaccountability for meeting the educationalneeds of Asian Pacific American students.

3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENTPromote research, development, and staff

training in the use of multicultural curriculathat portray the history and culture of Asian

Pacific Americans, and of anti-racism curricu-la that supports direct and honest dialogueamong students.

4. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENTRESEARCH AND PROGRAMS

Support research, program development,and evaluation in the area of language devel-opment for Asian Pacific Americans to betterinform schools and improve teaching strate-gies. As an essential adjunct, more fundingshould be directed to community-basedefforts focused on dual literacy and languagedevelopment.

S.TEACHER RECRUITMENT ANDTRAINING

Fund recruitment and training of moreAsian Pacific American teachers, administra-tors, and counselors, with particular empha-sis on those with bilingual skills and knowl-edge of new and unrepresented Asian PacificAmerican populations. Also, fund training fornon-Asian Pacific teachers to develop theknowledge and skills they require to under-stand and be responsive to Asian PacificAmerican students' needs.

AAP I P ., PAGE 7

ElritT©daagtOgIlinFT0E1) MgasEl MongrOtv t 0 ChnOdogen on Cdr Ossos

n urgent educational crisis threatens the futures of a growing number ofAsian Pacific American students, both immigrant and American-born. These

Asian Pacific American students, like children of other ethnic and racial backgrounds,

look to their schools to help them learn to read, write, and think, to prepare them for high-

er education or for a good job, and to equip them to be happy, productive adults.

All too often, however, their schools are ill-equipped to cope with racial, cultural, andsocioeconomic diversity in the classroom andwith the language needs of children whospeak a language other than English athome. As their schools fail them, these chil-dren become increasingly likely to graduatewith rudimentary language skills, to drop outof school, to join gangs, or to find themselvesin low-paying occupations and on the mar-gins of American life.

This crisis is largely invisible to mostAmericanseven to many in the teachingprofessionsbecause they find it hard tobelieve that Asian Pacific American studentsare at risk. For nearly three decades,American media have created a one-dimen-sional image of Asian Pacific students as"model minority" students: quiet, hardwork-ing, smart, self-sufficient, and high achiev-ers.1 The myth that all Asian PacificAmericans are alike and that all will experi-ence the same success in school obscures thestruggles of recent immigrants, of average orbelow-average students, of students from dis-advantaged backgrounds or troubled fami-lies, and of students who have difficulty find-ing their place as bicultural Americans. Thesestudents need help to succeed in school

but they often don't find it.Asian Pacific American students often are

placed in the wrong grade level, placed inthe wrong bilingual classroom, or misplacedin special education. Teachers do not havethe training and resources to deal with lan-guage and cultural differences in their class-rooms. School administrators do not knowhow to reach non-English-speaking parentswho may not be aware of, or accustomed to,their role as their children's advocates withinthe American school system.

WG"Dv $11vOadd this tinvOstaDecrisis lye og pressOng concernto gmanclatton grantmakers?

The number of children potentially atrisk is largeand growing rapidly.The Asian Pacific American populationdoubled between 1980 and 1990, and thenumber of Asian Pacific American school-age children grew sixfoldfrom 212,900to almost 1.3 millionbetween 1960 and1990.2 Estimates are that, by the year2020, there will be 4.4 million AsianPacific American children between theages of 5 and 17.3 In some school districtsin Northern California, Asian Pacific

10 BEST COPY AVAILABLE


Americans already consti-tute nearly 50 percent ofthe student population.4

t The context for effec-tively educating AsianPacific American stu-dents is changing. Thelast 30 years have seensuccessive waves of AsianPacific immigration. Thefirst waves consisted large-ly of educated, well-to-dofamilies with some priorcontact with Americans.Withwave,levels

each successivehowever, incomeand educational

PARTNERSHIPS WITH

COMMUNITY-BASED

INSTITUTIONS CAN

BRING TO SCHOOLS

THE BENEFITS OF

CULTURALLY

COMPETENT,

BILINGUAL PEOPLE

WHO CAN SERVE AS

BRIDGES BETWEEN

THE SCHOOLS AND

ASIAN PACIFIC

AMERICAN FAMILIES.attainment have dropped,while poverty rates have risen. For exam-ple, a recent report published by theAmerican Council on Education on thestatus of minorities in higher educationnoted that "although 42 percent of AsianPacific Americans had attained bachelor'sdegrees, almost twice the proportion forthe general population, 9.8 percent ofadults of Asian and Pacific descent hadnever progressed beyond the eighthgrade, compared with 6.2 percent ofwhites." In 1990, 54.9 percent ofAmericans of Hmong descent, 40.7 per-cent of Cambodians, and 33.9 percent ofLaotians had not completed the fifthgrade.5

The schools' task is complicated byhistoric problems of poverty andsocial discrimination. Even the minimalefforts that schools are making to assiststudents with limited proficiency inEnglish may fuel a community's smolder-ing anti-immigrant sentiments. The per-ception that students with limited profi-ciency in English receive more funds for

their programming than otherstudents in schools that areextremely underfunded oftenleads to resentment withinschools and communities.Compounding the tensionfrom cuts in education spend-ing are the cuts in publicassistance benefits, pittingimmigrant non-citizen recipi-ents of benefits against citizenrecipients of benefits. Thepolitical climate surroundingthe welfare reform debatesfilters down to the play-ground, where one will findsix-year-olds telling eachother to "speak English" as ataunt.

t' The Asian Pacific American popula-tion is extremely diverse. It includesmembers of 34 ethnic groups who speakmore than 300 languages and dialects.6Yet most research that includes AsianPacific Americans fails to break out find-ings fully enough to give detailed infor-mation about this diversity. There areespecially large gaps in knowledge aboutPacific Islanders, South Asians, andSoutheast Asians.7

American schools face their most difficultchallenge in meeting the needs of a studentpopulation with an unprecedented mix oflanguages, cultures, and experiences. Themost important finding of this AAPIP reportis that schools cannot and need not attemptthis task alone. Partnerships with communi-ty-based institutions (social service agencies,churches, temples, after school programs, lit-eracy/language programs) can bring toschools the benefits of culturally competent,bilingual people who can serve as bridgesbetween the schools and Asian Pacific Amer-

I i

AA PIP PAGE 9

ican families. Such partnerships can givecommunities a new and more approachablesetting in which to provide needed servicesto Asian Pacific American families andchildren.

Until now, only a small fraction of philan-thropic dollars has been specifically targetedto address issues confronting Asian PacificAmerican communities. Asian PacificAmericans comprise 4 percent of the totalpopulation of the United States, but only 0.3percent of philanthropic dollars in 1995 wentto organizations working in these communi-ties.8 Only a small percentage of these grantsdirectly addressed education. From 1983 to1990, $1.6 million, or just 4 percent of grantsmade to Asian Pacific Americans, were foreducation. 9 By comparison, more than 25percent of grant dollars reported to the Foun-dation Center for 1995 were for education.1°

i4.

As this report will show, this level offoundation activity is far from commensuratewith the need. The foundation communitycan take a vital leadership role by helpingcommunities, educators, and Asian PacificAmerican organizations work together to findinnovative solutions for the invisible crisisaffecting Asian Pacific American students.


The Changing Context of a= ffectiveEducati n for Asian Pacific Americans:

Demographic Trends

e live in the midst of a demographic revolution that is dramatically changing

the population of the United States. Immigrants from all over the world, but

mainly from Asia, the Pacific Islands, and South and Central America, are trans-

forming our already diverse nation into a land increasingly rich in languages, cultures, nation-

al backgrounds, and traditions.

These changes are already having a signifi-cant effect on the nation's educational sys-teman essential institution in the lives ofthese immigrants and their children, as wellas in the lives of American-born Asian Pacificpeople.

Popubition TrendsThe Asian Pacific American

population is diverse and isgrowing rapidly. Asian PacificAmericansthe fastest-growingpopulation group in the UnitedStatesconstitute a total of 10million, or 4 percent, of the U.S.population.11

Within and among the 34 sep-arate Asian Pacific American eth-nic groups, there are significantdifferences of culture, history,immigration history, and socioe-conomic status. Asian PacificAmerican students reflect the het-erogeneity of the Asian PacificAmerican population.

The percentage of Asian Pacific Amer-icans who are foreign-born is rising dra-matically. In 1990, some 65 percent of theAsian Pacific population in the United Stateswere foreign-born. More than 40 percent oftoday's school-age Asian Pacific populationare foreign-born. By the turn of the century,--

CHARACTERISTICS OF ASIAN PACIFICAMERICANS, BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1990

% OF TOTAL ASIAN PACIFICNATIONALITY POPULATION IN U.S. % FOREIGN BORN

Chinese 22.8 69.3Filipino 19.6 64.4Japanese 12.0 32.4Asian Indian 10.9 75.4Korean 11.0 72.7Vietnamese 8.2 79.9Laotian 2.0 79.4Cambodian 2.1 79.1Thai 1.3 75.5Hmong 1.3 65.2Pakistani 1.1 77.3Indonesian 0.4 83.1

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1990

12

AAPIP PAGE I I

STATES WITH THE LARGESTASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN POPULATIONS, 1990

RANK STATE

ASIAN PACIFICAMERICAN

POPULATION,1990

% OF STATEPOPULATION

% INCREASE,1980-1990

% OF TOTALASIAN PACIFIC

AMERICANPOPULATION

California 2,845,659 9.6 127.0 39.1

2 New York 693,760 3.9 123.4 9.5

3 Hawaii 685,236 61.8 17.5 9.4

4 Texas 319,459 1.9 165.5 4.4

5 Illinois 285,311 2.5 78.7 3.9

6 New Jersey 272,521 3.5 162.4 3.7

7 Washington 210,958 4.3 105.7 2.9

8 Virginia 159,053 2.6 140.2 2.2

9 Florida 154,302 1.2 171.9 2.1

I0 Massachusetts 143,392 2.4 189.7 2.0

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 1990

an expected 75 percent of Asian PacificAmericans of school age (ages 3 to 24 years)will be immigrants or the children of immi-grants who arrived after 1980, and will facelanguage, cultural, and social adjustments.12

Among Asian Pacific Americans, 73.3percent speak a language other thanEnglish, compared with 13.8 percent ofthe total U.S. population.13 For AsianPacific persons born in America, English istheir first (and often only) language. Themajority of newly arrived immigrants live innon- to limited-English-speaking environ-ments. A segment of the immigrant AsianPacific American population is multilingualor bilingual, and some speak more than onedialect of an Asian language.

The Asian Pacific American popula-tion is geographically concentrated,largely in urban areas and in westernstates. In 1990, 90 percent of all AsianPacific Americans lived in urban areas, withthree out of five living in the western UnitedStates. California has the highest percentage,

followed by Hawaii, Illinois, New York, andTexas. However, significant rates of growthare occurring rapidly in other regions,although absolute numbers may remain low.Rhode Island, for example, has had anincrease of 245 percent in its Asian PacificAmerican population in only ten years.Among U.S. cities, those with the fastestgrowing Asian Pacific American populationsinclude Atlanta, Dallas, Boston, Houston, andSacramento.14

The tendency of Asian Pacific Americansto cluster geographically means that, in theseareas, a far greater response will be requiredof schools, social services, and communityorganizations than might be expected if onewere to consider only the Asian Pacific Amer-ican presence in the U.S. population at large.

[Income and Poverty StatilasFamily income statistics paint a mis-

leading picture of Asian PacificAmericans' economic status. Asian PacificAmericans statistically are reported to have ahigher median family income than other

14

AN INVISIBLE CRISIS PAGE I 2

POVERTY RATES AMONG ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN GROUPS, 1990

70%64%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

0E

43%

35%

C+0

-J

a.)

U

1

12%10%

I 1 i7%

to

01to

140/0 13%

6%

0

0a_

To0I

Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,1 990 Census of Population, Social and Economic Characteristics, (CP-2- I ), 1 993.

Americans do. The data are misleading, how-ever, unless the number of wage earners perfamily, the average per capita earnings, andthe poverty level within a community aretaken into account.15

4 Compared with other groups, Asian PacificAmericans reported the highest percent-age of families with three or more wageearners. Within the Asian Pacific Americanpopulation, Filipino and Vietnamese Amer-icans report the highest percentage offamilies with three or more wage earners.

4 Per capita income levels differ significantly

among Asian Pacific American ethnicgroups. For example, per capita incomeamong Japanese Americans is $19,373,compared to $14,420 among Hmong,Filipino, Southeast Asian, and KoreanAmericans.16

4 Overall, 14 percentAmericans live below the poverty line,compared with 13 percent of the U.S. pop-ulation.Those who arrived in the U.S. after1985 are significantly more likely to bepoor. Economically, Samoan, Vietnamese,Cambodian, and Laotian households lagfar behind Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Fili-

of Asian Pacific

15

AAPIP PAGE 13

pino, and Asian Indian American house-holds. Among Southeast Asians, 49 per-cent live in poverty, compared to fewerthan 10 percent of Japanese, Chinese, andAsian Indians. Among Asian Pacific Amer-icans, there are significant pockets of eco-nomic hardship exceeding even that expe-rienced by other communities of color.17

Whenever data are collected on AsianPacific Americans, the data must be disag-gregated to break out figures for each AsianPacific American group. As the data onincome and poverty levels demonstrate,group data can mask important intergroupdifferences.

OmmOgratOon 'Trends

To understand the changing needs offoreign-born Asian Pacific Americans, itis important to understand the differ-ences among the groups of recent immi-grants. Recent Asian Pacific immigrants

comprise two very different groups. The firstgroup emigrated mainly for family reunifica-tion from countries with large populationsalready in the U.S. (mainly China, Korea, andthe Philippines). The second group consistslargely of immigrants and refugees fromSoutheast Asia, who arrived in the U.S. inseveral waves following the Vietnam War.Each succeeding wave had less successfuleducational outcomes. Educational needs,support needs, and the resources and familyor community capacity to welcome newcom-ers differ greatly between these two groups.

Historically, the United States has placedsevere restrictions on immigration from Asiancountries that were not placed on immigrantsfrom European nations. A turning pointoccurred when the 1965 Immigration Actabolished the National Origins quota sys-tems, which had discriminated against immi-grants from Southeast Asia and East Asia. Inits place, the U.S. adopted a new immigrationpolicy that focused on family reunificationand specific job skills needed in certain occu-

6 BEST COPY AVAILAEiLL


pations. Consequently, the number of new-comers from Asia rose dramatically. In 1960,none of the ten countries sending the largestnumber of immigrants to the U.S. wereAsian; by 1985, four of the five largest send-ing nations were Asian Pacific. In fact, duringthe 1980s, peoples from Asian and Pacificregions constituted nearly 42 percent of allnew immigrants to the U.S.18

In 1975, the war in Southeast Asia ended,prompting an unprecedented flight ofrefugees from that part of the world to theUnited States. More than 2 million peoplewere displaced from Vietnam, Cambodia,and Laos, and more than half eventuallycame here, doubling the Asian Pacific

10

8

6

4

2

0

American population.The diversity among the refugee waves

was significant. Earlier groups were often theurban elite, primarily from Vietnam, withexperience working alongside Americans.Later waves brought the poorest people,including great numbers of Hmong, Mien,lowland Laotians, and Cambodians. Manywere farmers and villagers with minimalexperience with Western culture and tech-nology. Each successive wave had a higherincidence of post-traumatic stress syndromeand health problems caused by years of warand dislocation, less prior contact with theEnglish language or with Americans, andmore fragmented families. Likewise, educa-

PERCENTAGE OF ASIAN PACIFIC ISLANDERSAMONG IMMIGRANTS TO THE U.S., 1871-1990

1870s 1880s 1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s

n

1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s

Asian

Other

Source: INS Statistical Yearbook 1990; INS Statistical Branch, Advance INS Report. 1992.

Note: Figures for 1980s include almost 3 million immigrants granted amnesty under 1986 legalization aNs.

AA PIP PAGE I5

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF THEASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN POPULATION OVER 25, BY SELECTED

ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICAN GROUPS IN THE U.S., 1990

TOTAL

LESS THANBACHELOR'S

(PERCENT)

BACHELOR'SDEGREE

(PERCENT)

MASTER'SDEGREE

(PERCENT)DOCTORATE

(PERCENT)

Chinese Americans 1,074,009 59.3 21.7 15.6 3.5

Filipino Americans 866,022 60.3 31.9 7.3 0.5

Japanese Americans 623,511 65.6 24.4 8.8 1.3

Asian Indian Americans 461,631 41.6 25.3 27.3 5.8

Korean Americans 452,333 65.6 21.9 10.6 1.9

Vietnamese Americans 300,999 83.2 12.4 3.9 0.5

Cambodian Americans 62,367 93.6 4.8 1.2 0.4

Hmong Americans 27,114 96.8 2.2 0.7 0.3

Laotian Americans 65,002 93.4 4.6 1.8 0.2

Thai Americans 57,443 66.8 19.9 12.3 1.0

Other Asian Americans 136,082 58.3 21.9 17.4 2.4

Hawaiian Americans 107,185 88.7 8.0 2.9 0.3

Samoan Americans 23,977 91.8 8.4 2.3 0.5

Tongan Americans 7,467 95.1 3.6 1.2 0.1

Guamanian Americans 25,512 89.9 7.1 2.5 0.5

Other Pacific Islander Americans 12,303 89.5 7.7 2.4 0.4

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990, 5 Percent Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS). Copyright © 1996,

Larry Hajime Shinagawa, Ph.D., Department of American Multi-Cultural Studies, Sonoma State University.

Reprinted with permission of the author

tional levels fell with each consecutive wave.For example, those who came before 1978had an average of almost ten years' school-ing. Those who arrived in the 1980s typical-ly had six years.19

Despite responsibility for the refugees' sit-uation, the federal government committeditself to their aid only for a short term, andthe resettlement process was chaotic and inmany cases inadequate. At first, the federalgovernment provided resettlement and emer-gency immigrant education programs, but bythe mid-1980s, almost all responsibilities,financial and otherwise, fell on state andlocal agencies. Not only did these entitieslack money, but also few schools or commu-

18

nities had the language capacities, training,or cultural awareness to ensure the inclusionof the newcomers. Refugee children arrivedin communities woefully unprepared toassist them.

The differences among Asian Pacificimmigrant waves are reflected in statisticson educational attainment. For example, 58percent of Asian Indians hold at least a bach-elor's degree, compared to only 3 percent ofHmong.2°

Many of the immigrants received theirdegrees from foreign universities. Suchdegrees often are not treated comparably todegrees from U.S. universities.


gbss.Cmzges to lEggsztowe Macogaigngngor G\soarm Palc 6.060 ni\ametl¢an CM Damn

iven the diversity of the Asian Pacific American population, the stereotype

of Asian Pacific students as a homogenous model minority, with all Asian

Pacific students bound for academic success, is clearly inaccurate. Though

large numbers of Asian Pacific students excel in the classroom (as measured by traditional

benchmarks of grades and math scores), significantand often hiddenpockets of Asian

Pacific students are at high risk for academic failure.

This latter group has a high dropout rateashigh as 60 percent in one urban school dis-trict for Southeast Asian immigrant youth.21Because schools are often unprepared toeducate Asian Pacific students with limitedproficiency in English, many such studentswill not develop adequate English skills, andtherefore have few prospects of entering themainstream economy.

Even Asian Pacific youth who are high-achievers or advantaged may be at risk, asthey too face increasing hostility toward thegrowing number of Asian Pacific immigrants,little support for bridging cultures and devel-oping strong multicultural identities, and adearth of culturally and linguistically appro-priate services to help them become fullyinvolved in school and community. Personal,social, and educational pressures threaten torelegate increasing numbers of bothAmerican-born and foreign-born AsianPacific Americans to the margins of society,depriving the United States of the talents of agrowing proportion of its young people anddepriving those young people of the fullpromise of adulthood in the mainstream ofAmerican life.

To understand and respond to these chal-

lenges require looking beyond the narrowdefinition of education as only what takesplace in school. Issues of culture, language,race, and family support that affect AsianPacific students are fundamental contributorsto a child's educational success or failure.This section discugses the most importantissues affecting the education of Asian Pacificstudents, whether American- or foreign-born,and the implications of these issues forchanges needed in schools and communities.The concerns fall into three general areas:language and literacy, school and curricu-lum, and support for families and for youthdevelopment.

language and Eigerrarif

LANGUAGE BARRIERS ANDBILINGUAL EDUCATION

"There is lots of teasing me when Idon't pronounce right. Whenever I openmy mouth I wonder, I shake and worry,will they laugh? They think if we speakTagalog that we are saying somethingbad about them, and sometimes theyfight us for speaking our language. Iam afraid to speak English. I am afraid

AAPIP PAGE 17

to try. And I find myself with fear aboutspeaking Tagalog.

10th-grade Filipino boy,immigrated at age 14

The ability to understand and to feelunderstood is fundamental to a child's abilityto learn. In 1970, Chinese parents sued theSan Francisco Unified School District, argu-ing that placement of their non-English-speaking children into classes taught only inEnglish denied them the federal constitution-al right of equal access to an education. Inthis landmark case, Lau v. Nichols, the U.S.Supreme Court agreed with the parents. Itstated:

"There is no equality of treatment merelyby providing students with the same facili-ties, textbooks, teachers and curriculum;students who do not understand English areeffectively foreclosed from any meaningfuleducation. "22

Twenty-five years after the Lau v. Nicholsdecision, vast numbers of schools still lackthe commitment, teachers, materials, or

n.o

understanding of second language acquisi-tion to make the promise of educational ac-cess real for non-English-speaking students.Many of these children are American citizens;but because they are raised in non-English-speaking households, they come to publicschools with limited proficiency in English.

Although most such students learn con-versational English relatively quickly, theygenerally need three to five years to becomefluent enough to fully comprehend the lan-guage and use it as a medium of academiclearning. During this period, students need away of learning all their other subjectsorthey will fall further and further behind.Immigrants, particularly those coming fromwar-disrupted nations or very poor and ruralareas, are in greatest danger of being seri-ously hampered because they often beginschool already behind academically.

Nationwide, two-thirds of the studentswho need bilingual services still are notreceiving them. These services are even lessavailable to students from language groupsthat are more geographically dispersedthroughout the U.S. and represented insmaller numbers at any one schoo1.23 MostAsian Pacific immigrant students receive alimited amount of English as a Second Lang-uage instruction and spend the rest of theirschool day in regular English-taught classesthat do not offer them special support tohelp them understand what is being taught.

School districts often do not properly cat-egorize Asian Pacific American students andtherefore do not receive funds that are avail-able to serve these students' language needs.Many school districts with relatively smallnumbers of Asian Pacific American studentsstill categorize all their Asian PacificAmerican students as "other," making no dis-tinction between American-born AsianPacific American students and the foreign-born Asian Pacific American students in need

BEST COPY AVAILABLE


of bilingual services.Districts that makesuch distinctions oftenfail to disaggregatethese Asian PacificAmerican students byethnicity (or languagegroups). A NationalCenter for EducationStatistics study found /that 73 percent ofAsian Pacific Amer- 1ican eighth grade stu-dents were language minorities, but only 27percent were recognized as such by theirteachers. In 1990, the Council of Chief StateSchool Officers estimated that only 36 per-cent of all U.S. students who had limited pro-ficiency in English had been identified assuch.24

Some school districts are reluctant to pro-vide bilingual education classes despitegrowing numbers of Asian Pacific Americanstudents in need of these services. The rea-son most often cited is a lack of teachersqualified to provide that instruction. Many ofthese schools feel little parental pressure tofully implement bilingual education for AsianPacific American students. The parents ofthese students may have little informationabout the premises of bilingual educationand about the school's responsibility to edu-cate all children equitably. Lacking suchinformation, some immigrant parents fight tokeep their children out of bilingual educationprograms because they feel strongly that theonly way their children will learn English(and this is viewed as their ticket to successin America) is to immerse themselves in thelanguage. Their views are bolstered by theinadequate language performance of AsianPacific American students who are placed ininadequately implemented bilingual educa-tion programs, particularly when these stu-

tai

dents are misplaced inSpanish bilingualclasses because thereis no Asian languagebilingual program atthe school.

Among educatorsand researchers con-cerned about secondlanguage acquisition,there is growing con-sensus that develop-ing strong literacy in

one's native language first is an effective andappropriate strategy to promote both Englishfluency and academic achievement.Nevertheless, very few Asian Pacific immi-grant students have had access to the prima-ry language instruction and support theyneed in order to take advantage of the fullcurriculum.

In the field of second language acquisi-tion, educators have begun to amass a strongbase of knowledge about program modelsfor Spanish-speaking immigrants, but therehas been comparatively little research ormodel development for Asian Pacific lan-guage speakers.25 Schools that are strugglingto educate the new populations of AsianPacific immigrants do not have the capabili-ties and the support to serve their students'needs.

..cr. BOOSTING LITERACY ANDEDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT

Students' poor writing skills, and theirinability to speak in class discussions, fre-quently stand in the way of academicprogress. Because of strong family and com-munity emphasis on academics and hardwork, many determined Asian Pacific stu-dents do many hours of extra homework,looking up word after word in the dictionaryin an attempt to make sense of lessons taughtthem in English.26 These strategies allow

r?

AAPIP PAGE 19

such students to learn the curriculum despitethe unavailability of native language teach-ing, but seldom enable them to use Englishas a medium of academic expression. Oftensuch students will receive high grades inmath and science, where language skills arenot as important, but will be struggling insubjects such as literature or history, wherereading, writing, and speaking are para-mount. Sometimes these students' deficien-cies will remain hidden because teachersreward their hard work and good behavior,and because of the assumption by manyteachers that all Asian Pacifics are smart.

Widespread weakness in English languageskills persists among many Asian Pacificimmigrant students, evenyears after their arrival in theUnited States. A dispropor-tionate number of AsianPacific American students areincorrectly tagged as learningdisabled and placed in spe-cial education because teach-ers do not understand theirlanguages or the process of language devel-opment. Conversely, Asian Pacific Americanstudents with learning disabilities are notidentified because their academic strugglesare labeled as related to their limited profi-ciency in English.

Even students considered proficient inEnglish face tremendous literacy problems inmainstream English-speaking classes. Morethan two-thirds of Asian Pacific Americanhigh school graduates had taken collegeprep courses, yet their average verbal SATscore was the lowest of any group.27 As theK-12 school system moves increasinglytowards standards and proficiency tests asengines of educational reform, more andmore Asian Pacific immigrant and languageminority students are unable to pass the writ-ing portions of their high school proficiency

FAMILIES F

tests. Of those Asian Pacific American stu-dents who manage to graduate from highschool and go on to college, many experi-ence problems in college-level English lan-guage courses and tests. On the CaliforniaState University campuses, more than half ofthe Asian Pacific Islander language minoritystudents fail to pass writing proficiencytests.28

D., SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISMWhether people who learn a second lan-

guage continue to use their home languagemay depend, in part, on society's valuationof that home language. In "additive" bilingualsituationsas with the Swiss learning

German or French, wherethe status of the Swiss lan-guage is highthe nativelanguage retention is secure,and the second languageserves as enrichment. In"subtractive" bilingualism,home language usage haslow status, is not institution-

ally supported, and is assumed to be tempo-rary until replaced by the dominant languageas the group assimilates. Many immigrantand refugee youth follow a pattern of sub-tractive bilingualism: as they learn English,they lose their native language. The youngerthe age of arrival in the United States, thegreater the tendency to lose the home lan-guage.29 Such a loss cuts them off from thepast, from family, from their homeland, andfrom a major individual and societalresource.

This pattern can appear as early as tod-dlerhood. Because immigrant mothers areoften compelled to work outside the home,many children spend time in child care out-side the family. Of all language/culturalgroups in the U.S., Asian Pacific children arethe least likely to be cared for by child care

EAR THEIR

CHILDREN WILL LOSE

THEIR CULTURE AND

THEIR LANGUAGE-

THE GLUE THAT HOLDS

THEM TOGETHER.


providers who speak their family lan-guage.3° This severely hampers their earlylanguage development in the home languageand contributes to the weakening of theirconnections to their families.

Families fear their children will lose theirculture and their languagethe glue thatholds them together. Some communitiesestablish Saturday Schools to provide bothcultural and language maintenance, but thereis little mirroring support for the maintenanceof home languages in the public schools ofthis nation.

0*- LACK OF RESEARCH IN LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT

There has been relatively little research oneffective, appropriate models for languagedevelopment and bilingual education forAsian Pacific American students. It is unclearhow applicable the large body of research onbilingual education of Spanish-speakingimmigrants might be to speakers of Asianlanguages. Asian languages bear far less sim-ilarity to English than do Spanish or otherEuropean languages. Most Asian languagesare tonal; words are pronounced with differ-ent tones to express different meanings.

Research also is needed regarding thesocial context for learning. School learning isa social as well as a cognitive process, influ-enced by the relationships between studentand teacher and among students.

Samoa and Cazirolca.dunD

D.r LACK OF APPROPRIATECURRICULUM

"I was so excited when my historyteacher talked about the Vietnam War.Now at last, I thought, now we willstudy about MY country. We didn't real-ly study it Just for one day, though, mycountry was real again."

11th-grade Vietnamese girl,immigrated at age 15

As public schools enroll more and morestudents of color and immigrants fromthroughout the world, teachers face the ardu-ous and creative task of having to reshapetheir teaching approaches and curricula tomake them appropriate to the new multicul-tural, multinational, and multilingual studentpopulation. This task is complex. It includesfinding materials representing the national,cultural, and immigration experiences oftheir students, developing approaches tobuild on the rich range of human experi-ences among their students, and findingways to teach the appropriate curriculum tobuild strong literacy in first and second lan-guages. In this era, when our textbooks andformal curricula are still lagging behind theneeds of a diverse society, it falls most oftento teachers to inject a broader range ofhuman experience into the curriculum byadding supplementary materials and encour-aging students to speak about, write about,and share their experiences with others.

Few students know about the historicaland contemporary realities of Asian PacificAmerican communities and other communi-ties of color. In cases where a multiculturalcurriculum exists, it sometimes is reduced to"honoring" Asian Pacific Americans throughInternational Days on which students weartheir "native dress." Such an approach mayperpetuate stereotypes and may seem irrele-

2 3

AAPIP PAGE 21

vant to Asian Pacific American students. Athird- or fourth-generation Japanese Amer-ican, for example, is removed from the tradi-tions of children in Japan and does not viewthat as an accurate reflection of who he orshe is. Such an approach should be re-exam-ined, with strong participation from AsianPacific American communities, in an effort toensure that the curriculum reflects the fullAsian Pacific American experience, includinggenerational differences among differentAsian Pacific American groups.

icr. LACK OF TRAINED EDUCATORS ANDSCHOOL PROFESSIONALS

To teach and to provide neededsupport services, Asian Pacificimmigrant youth require profession-als who speak their language andwho understand their culture andthe challenges faced in making thetransition to a new land. Yet, thereis a major shortfall in the numbersof bilingual and bicultural teachersand counselors, and the numbers ofAsian Pacific American students en-tering the teaching force are slowlyshrinking.

In 1990, Asian Pacific Americanstudents made up 3.2 percent of allchildren between the ages of 3 and 17nationally, but only 1.2 percent of thenation's teaching force was Asian PacificAmerican.31 In California, for example, whilethe Asian Pacific American student popula-tion has climbed dramatically to 11 percentof the school children, the percentage ofAsian Pacific American teachers hasremained at just over 4 percent for the lastten years. The majority of these Asian teach-ers are not bilingual. In 1990, only 2.5 per-cent of all bilingual teachers and paraprofes-sionals in the California schools spoke Asianlanguages. There is one bilingual teacher forevery 561 Asian Pacific students with limited

proficiency in English.32 Although 15 per-cent of all college students major in educa-tion, only 6 percent of Asian PacificAmericans do. In addition, very few of theadministrators and counselors in the publicschools are Asian Pacific Americans.33

Without well-trained, culturally compe-tent, bilingual Asian Pacific American teach-ers, administrators, and counselors, stronglanguage programs cannot be delivered, stu-dents in need of mental health or health ser-vices to support their involvement in schoolare neither identified nor served, and Asianimmigrants become increasingly at risk foreducational difficulties.

RATIO OF BILINGUAL TEACHERS TOSTUDENTS WITH LIMITED PROFICIENCY

IN ENGLISH, CALIFORNIA

CHILD'S HOME LANGUAGE TEACHER-STUDENT RATIO

Spanish 1:81

Cantonese 1:108

Vietnamese :662Hmong 1:1,1

Khmer 1:4,129

Cambodian :21,000+

Source: California State Department of Education, as cited inNguyen-Lam ( I 997).

Teachers of all cultural backgrounds mustbecome knowledgeable about the strengthsof the diverse Asian Pacific cultures and howa child's home culture contributes to learningand development. For example, in recentyears, teachers noticed that some Hmongand Mien kindergartners and first-graderslagged behind other children in the develop-ment of memory skills, motor skills, eye-hand coordination, and concentration skills.The teachers were surprised. Only ten yearsago, Hmong and other Laotian children hadappeared very advanced in these areas. Thenteachers discovered that the families were nolonger teaching their children these skills


through traditional means: participation inoral rituals, embroidery, and silver work. Thefamily patterns had been broken up by themany years in refugee camps and theprocesses of dislocation and relocation in theUnited States. Few immigrant families teachthese skills the way many other Americanfamilies do: with crayons and coloringbooks, scissors and cutouts, and by readingto their children nightly.34

Educators must find ways to tap into thetraditional wisdom of communities and tooffer immigrant parents more access to theAmerican ways of teaching children.Educators who have a deeper understandingof the practices and beliefsof Asian Pacific families andcommunities are better ableto support Asian Pacific stu-dents and enable others tobenefit from the knowledge,skills, and insights of theircommunities.

P., RACISM AND RACIALVIOLENCE

"My memories throughthese three years areactually full of tears.Many of my friends are new immi-grants. When we talk about the firsttwo years we were here, we are sad-dened by the experiences. Workingextremely hard didn't make us feel sad,facing challenges didn't make us feelsad, but some of the Americans' atti-tudes towards us did break our hearts.Before I came to America, I had a beau-tiful dream about this country. At thattime, I didn't know that the first word Ilearned in this country would be adirty word. American students alwayspicked on us, frightened us, made funof us, and laughed at our English. They

broke our lockers, threw food on us incafeteria, said dirty words to us. Manytimes they shouted at me, `Get out ofhere you chink, go back to your owncountry' I have been pushed, I had gumthrown on my hair. I have been hit bystones, I have been insulted by all thedirty words in English. All this reallymade me frustrated and sad. I oftenasked myself; `Why do they pick on me?"

Christina Tien,Chinese immigrant high school student,

Public testimony, Los Angeles

Asian Pacific

AMERICAN SOCIETY

LARGELY CONSTRUES

RACIAL JUSTICE AS A

MATTER OF BLACKS

VERSUS WHITES,

EXCLUDING THE REALITY

OF RACE RELATIONS

INVOLVING ASIAN PACIFIC

AMERICANS

NATIVE A

, LATINOS, OR

MERICANS.

American students oftenenter unwelcoming, evenhostile and violent, schoolcampuses and communi-ties. In the last ten years onschool campuses, there hasbeen a startling rise in hatecrimes and other harass-ment, much of it anti-immi-grant and anti-Asian. Nodistinction is made betweenforeign-born and American-born Asian Pacific Amer-icans; both groups becometargets of anti-immigrant

harassment. Schools have not yet developedan adequate institutional response to this vio-lence.

Xenophobic attitudes have swelled aspolitical leaders have increasingly blamedthe nation's economic woes on immigrants.The passage of Proposition 187 in California(which, if it survives legal challenges, wouldprohibit undocumented immigrants from re-ceiving public services), followed by federallegislation cutting off both undocumentedand legal non-citizen immigrants from publicservices, were fueled in part by images ofboatloads of Chinese immigrants landing onour shores. This anti-immigrant sentiment

AAP IP PAGE 23

was manifested in the increase in number ofanti-Asian violence incidences reported for1996.35

In schools, there have been several well-known tragedies. In 1989, in Stockton,California, five Southeast Asian children weremurdered and many others injured at an ele-mentary schoolyard by Patrick Purdy, whoaimed an AK-47 rifle at Southeast Asian chil-dren and gunned them down as they played.The killings of 13-year-old middle school stu-dent Vandy Phorng in Lowell, Massachusetts,in 1987, and of high school student Thong HyHuynh in Davis,California, in 1983,by white classmatesare the most visibletip of a growing ice-berg of hate crimesand intolerance to-ward Asians and im-migrants in general.

In one study ofmore than a thou-sand immigrant stu-dents in California,93 percent cited vio-lence, harassment,American friend as

school campuses. Peter Nien-chu Kiangnotes that some gangs are formed "specifi-cally and explicitly to defend themselvesagainst racial harassment in school or in theneighborhood. A 21-year-old former Cambo-dian gang member states unambiguously:`Racism has shaped my life, my experienceever since the first day I set foot in this coun-try...In the gang, I watch your back, youwatch my back. We look out for eachother.'"38

These prejudices are even more difficult toaddress because many non-Asian Pacific

Americans do noteven recognize thatracism and discrimi-nation affect AsianPacific Americans.In one national poll,81 percent of non-Asian Pacific re-spondents said theybelieved Asian Pa-cific Americans suc-ceed because ofhard work and highachievement, and

about half said they simply do not believethat Asian Pacifics really suffer from discrim-ination. Yet, in a study conducted by theNational Conference, approximately onethird of non-Asian Pacific Americans feelAsian Pacifics are wary, suspicious, andunfriendly toward non-Asian PacificAmericans, are unscrupulously crafty anddevious in business, and feel superior topeople of other groups and cultures.39

American society largely construes racialjustice as a matter of blacks versus whites,excluding the reality of race relations in-volving Asian Pacific Americans, Latinos, orNative Americans. Educational institutionsview race similarly, leaving little room forconsideration of or acknowledgment of

a wish for anmajor concerns.36

Violence, whether actual or threatened,affects students' opportunities for learningEnglish, their confidence, and school partici-pation. A survey of Vietnamese students at aBoston high school indicated that everyonesurveyed had witnessed or experiencedracial harassment as part of their dailylives. These students developed survival stra-tegies: "I try to keep myself very, very care-ful, you know, I think about where I'mgoing before I'm going there...my eye open...so I can get out of some situation quicklyas I can."37

Youth violence and youth gang activity areoften a response to the racial harassment on

BEST COPY AVAILABLE


racism against Asian Pacific Amer-icans. This leaves Asian Pacific stu-dents with little support as they faceracial hostility in school.

Teachers must be trained to facil-itate open and honest conversationsamong students about race andracism, instead of ignoring differ-ences or promoting "color-blind-ness." Racism, racially motivatedviolence, and anti-immigrant senti-ment have common roots, regard-less of the racial or ethnic group thatis the target of a particular act of vio-lence or harassment. Once this acknowledg-ment occurs, schools must develop programsto help all children unlearn prejudice andracism, develop the skills of reaching acrosscultures and languages, and assist them toconnect and learn from others who are dif-ferent from them. Such efforts are essential tothe future of our increasingly diverse demo-cratic society.

Research on cooperative learning andinterracial contact in schools with white,African American, and Mexican Americanstudents confirms that cooperative interracialcontact has positive effects on both studentinterracial behavior and minority students'academic achievement. An essential charac-teristic of this learning was that in suchplanned contact, students needed to have astructured intervention ensuring all studentshad "equal status." This meant breakingdown society's imposed lower status ofminority groups.

Researchers found that both minority andwhite students attributed higher status towhites, perpetuating white dominance. Suchprograms must therefore have an essentialcomponent that helps students understandand discuss status judgments based on race,class, and gender. Without such interven-tions, research has consistently found that

C

4

intergroup interactions will increase ratherthan reduce intergroup tensions.°

03- SCHOOL GIRLS: GENDER ROLEEXPECTATIONS AND EDUCATION

"My family has such stuck values, andthey hold on to the old ways. It is verydifficult to explain something to themabout my life now. We end up alwaysarguingabout school, religion, how Idress, what I can and cannot do. Theyget mad at me for arguing. They say Ishouldn't talk back. I hate my family.We fight all the time."

11th-grade Cambodian girl,immigrated at age 10

Just as there is little institutional response torace and culture issues in schools, there is lit-tle understanding of the potential effects ofgender role identity on an Asian Pacific Amer-ican girl's chances to get an education. Cultureand history play out in the classroom and inthe roles that individual students have in thecontext of their families and communities.

Foreign-born Asian Pacific American girlsmay face especially hard adolescent years ifthe gender role expectations of their homeculture clash dramatically with those of theirnew land. For example, the Hmong placecultural value on girls marrying and bearing

AAPIP PAGE 25

children during the early teen years. Thispractice arose to help ensure the biologicalsurvival of the Hmong, who have beentremendously threatened through war andnow through dislocation. In the U.S., manyHmong girls still marry and have babieswhen they are as young as 13 to 15.

However, this gender role conflicts with U.S.educational practices, in which girls that agestill attend school. Teenage Hmong motherswho go to school find that they and theirfamilies must make tremendous sacrifices.Ultimately, most Hmong mothers fail to grad-uate from high school. Many do not make itout of middle school, and almost all aredependent on Temporary Assistance toNeedy Families (formerly known as Aid toFamilies with Dependent Children).41

Like Hmong girls, foreign-born Cambo-dian girls also face significant cultural barri-ers in their pursuit of education. In her studyof Cambodian refugees in Boston, NancySmith-Hefner found that heavy householdresponsibilities and the family's intense con-cern for not losing face, with a primary focuson maintaining "female virtue," negativelyaffected school achievement among adoles-cent Cambodian girls.42 Some research sug-gests that even American-born Asian Pacificgirls experience such conflicts and pres-sures.43

Because few teachers or counselors aretrained or sensitized to understand the reli-gious values and cultural practices amongAsian Pacific ethnic groups, they cannot pro-vide support and counseling to girls facingsuch cultural dissonance; nor can they helpimmigrant parents understand the conflicts orbridge the gap. Instead, they may uninten-tionally undermine parental authority andfamily harmony, and increase pressure onthese girls by simply encouraging a kind ofindependence prized in the United States butdisruptive of some cultural systems.

&Lippert goo.' Pandines and goo.,Ycya.ath Devellorment

LIVING IN THE CROSSFIRE OFCULTURES

"I don't know who I am. Am I the goodChinese daughter? Am I an Americanteenager? I always feel I am letting myparents down when I am with myfriends because I act so American, butI also feel I will never really beAmerican. I never feel really comfort-able with myself anymore."

10th-grade Chinese girl,immigrated at age 12

Immigrant and refugee youth must com-prehend a whole new culture and integrate itwith the old. With a foot in two nations, twocultures, two worlds, immigrant children facea wrenching struggle to create bicultural,bilingual selves. Often they do so with littlesupport, and amidst great pressures.

The experience of being marginal is cen-tral in the lives of most immigrant childrenand continues to affect first- and second-gen-eration children of immigrants. They live inthe crossfire of culturesfacing the chal-lenge of determining what their home cul-tures and traditions will mean for them intheir new land, while also coming to termswith the way their new culture views themand other Asian Pacific Americans.

They soon learn that few non-AsianPacific students or teachers understand thedistinctions among the many national, ethnic,cultural, and language groups that compriseAsian Pacific Americans. Often, these stu-dents are treated as one conglomerate mass:Asian immigrants. A Laotian child may findherself being called "Jap" or "Chink" on theschoolyard. She may be placed in a class-room with other Southeast Asian immigrantswho do not speak English, despite the fact

ti


that she does not share a language or culturewith them.

At the same time, the process of accultur-ation involves painful, sometimes uncon-scious, but oftentimes agonizing decisionsabout what to save from their old ways, whatto sacrifice, what to adopt, and what toreject. "How American can I be and still beme?" is a constant question in the minds ofmany immigrant children.

U.S. schools are the major and sometimesonly public terrain in which immigrant chil-dren confront "American"face the social challenges ofcoming to understandthemselves and others, aswell as challenges in com-prehending the schoolingsystem. Some adjustmentsare simply the immediateorientation to a new soci-ety. Many students are inlarge, industrialized, urbanareas for the first time. Inlarge schools, they have tolearn the oddities of bellsringing, lockers, and cafe-teria lines. More difficult isthe adjustment to U.S. methods of teachingand learning. For example, the relationshipbetween U.S. students and teachers is moreinformal than that in many Asian countries.The tests that are given do not determine thedirection of one's future, as they often do intheir home countries. Another big adjust-ment for many Asian Pacific immigrant stu-dents is being expected to speak up in classand voice their opinions and perspectives.Many Southeast Asian schooling systemshave students recite as a group, discourag-ing individuality.

At school, most immigrant children faceenormous pressures to reject or soften theirhome ways and to act "American"a term

life. Here, they

that immigrant children increasingly come toequate with being white, being Christian,and speaking English without an accent. Athome, they feel pressure to remain part ofthe family and community fabric. Often,because the ways of immigrant communitiesdiffer vastly from the larger American culture,young immigrants may feel that traditionalnorms belong to a world that no longerexists except in the behavior of their elders.Painful rifts can divide immigrant families aschildren see-saw back and forth between thenew and the old, caught somewhere

between their grandmoth-ers and MTV.

Asian Pacific students arenot only caught in thecrossfire of cultures as theybalance bicultural identi-ties. Often they also findthemselves confronting thedifferences within andamong Asian Pacific ethnic-ities. As generations ofAsian Pacifics claim anAmerican identity, the gulfwidens between American-born and foreign-born,

though they may be from the same ethnicgroup. Historical differencesand even ani-mositiesthat are not well understood bynon-Asian Pacific people may for the firsttime become of personal significance. Forexample, Chinese immigrantsoften lumpedtogether in the same classrooms and cate-gories, and addressed as if they have thesame traditions, histories, and culturesinfact, may come from very different situationswith tensions between them. The education-al, social, and political systems of China andTaiwan provide different versions of what itmeans to be Chinese to young people.Nationalists in Taiwan promote traditionalConfucianism; Communists from the main-

WITH A FOOT IN TWO

NATIONS,TWO CULTURES,

TWO WORLDS, IMMIGRANT

CHILDREN FACE A

WRENCHING STRUGGLE

TO CREATE BICULTURAL,

BILINGUAL SELVES. OFTEN

THEY DO SO WITH LITTLE

SUPPORT AND AMIDST

GREAT PRESSURES.

AAPIP PAGE 27

land emphasize nationalistic sentiments.Hong Kong, which was a British colony until1997, is another different kind of Chineseexperience. Chinese Vietnamese have theexperience of being an ethnic minority in anation that did not accept them fully asVietnamese, while their distinctness fromother Chinese is marked. Here in the UnitedStates, they find themselves labeled as one,grouped as one, and they begin to confrontand comprehend the complexities of identity.

The sense of being forced to choose is anunderlying theme in the lives of newcomers.There is a critical shortage of bilingual/bicul-tural counselors or community forums andsupports to help youth negotiate betweentheir worlds, to hold onto bicultural or bilin-gual identities, and to form comfortable,resilient identities as Asian Pacific Americans.

os THE NEED FOR FAMILY SUPPORTSERVICES

"I worry a lot about my mother. She'sgone crazy now. Her mind is gone. Shewon't eat anything, just drinks waterand is old and sick. She can't get up andsometimes she doesn't know me. Shethinks the soldiers are outside waiting.She thinks we are still back there."

9th-grade Laotian girl,immigrated at age 11

"The tragedy during the war hurtsinside when I remember what hap-pened in the past. I try to not thinkabout it, but at night I dream and seemy brother who they killed. I dreamabout him trying to find us. I dreamthey keep shooting and shooting himuntil I wake up."

10th-grade Cambodian boy,immigrated at age 12

Asian Pacific American youth often carrythe burden of family problems that frequent-ly are well-kept secrets.

Many Southeast Asian refugees are chil-dren of war. They and their families havebeen victims of violence and chaos, andhelpless witnesses to the horrors of warfare.Most have lost family members or been sep-arated from them in the displacement warcreates. Post-traumatic stress syndrome is fre-quent among both the children and theirfamilies. Even members of the second gener-ation, who may not have been eyewitnessesto war, are still scarred as children of sur-vivors. Young people who suffered emotion-al traumas often have physical problems, too,because hardships deprived them of healthcare beginning early in their lives.44

The communities in which many suchimmigrants settle are themselves war zonesof another kind: economically disadvantagedareas with high levels of street crime and vio-lence. Children of refugees with post-trau-matic stress syndrome are likely to be affect-ed by the dysfunction of their parents and


families. In many AsianPacific American communi-ties, the incidence of alco-holism, drug addiction,domestic abuse, and gam-bling addiction is high.

Immigrant children alsomust establish a new senseof family as they arrive tojoin relatives who cameearlier and as they leavebehind others who havebeen dear to them.

In many communitieswith large concentrationsof refugees and immi-grants, schools serve anincreasingly large group ofChinese and Vietnamese

A COMPREHENSIVE SET OF

SUPPORTS MUST BE IN

PLACE FOR CHILDREN AND

THE FAMILIES IN WHICH

THEY LIVE.YOUNG PEOPLE

MUST BE ABLE TO

PARTICIPATE AND LEARN IN

SCHOOL AND TO FIND THE

POSITIVE ROLE MODELS

AND SOURCES OF MORAL

GUIDANCE THEY NEED TO

BECOME PRODUCTIVE,

HAPPY PEOPLE.

unaccompaniedminors. Teenagers from Taiwan and HongKong may be sent here alone to get an edu-cation. Families from China and Vietnamwith limited resources may manage to sendonly one family member to the United States,often a teenage boy, to live with relatives orfriends who may, in fact, be unable to sup-port him. The young people may move outon their own, live in group houses with otherunaccompanied minors, or may end up infoster care. The absence of family membersprofoundly affects the social and educationaldevelopment of youth and increases theirlikelihood of getting involved in delinquen-cy, gangs, and crime.

As immigrant youth strive to be acceptedby their peers in the American world, theysometimes get into trouble by imitating thebehavior of students who seem "cool." Theyfeel pressured not to be academic.Furthermore, some young people from war-torn countries or refugee camps learned tosurvive through physical defense and vio-lence or theft. Repeating these survivalbehaviors in the United States lands them in

trouble with their teachersor the law.

Problems can becomeworse when young immi-grants lose the motivationor the ability to speak theirhome language, or neverdevelop it. As they rejecttheir parents' traditionsand language in a quest tobecome American, com-munication between par-ents and children breaksdown. No longer is there acommon language to talkabout expectations, moral-ity, ethics, beliefs, andbehavior. Yet these youth

are in critical need of positive role modelsadults they can relate to for moral guidance.

Families concerned about their children'sfutures often place extreme pressure onyouth to succeed in school, while giving lit-tle recognition to children's emotional needs.Family expectations can be excessive, espe-cially for immigrant youth who have fewsupports available to them in school to helpthem achieve. As one extreme but notuncommon example, a report by the AsiaSociety tells of a Korean American sentencedto six months in jail for beating his daughterbecause her grade point average was 3.83rather than a perfect 4.0.

Family disruption, the difficulties of livingbetween two cultures, and the pain of beingmarginal in this new land result in high ratesof depression and mental illness, particularlyamong females. The rate of suicide amongAsian Americans has risen threefold in thelast two decades. The suicide rate amongChinese American young people is 36 per-cent above the national average, while Japa-nese Americans rates are 54 percent higher.In one study of immigrant young women,

AAPIP PAGE 29

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nearly half of the Filipinas had suicidal pre-occupations. Vietnamese females had highrates of suicide attempts. Asian PacificAmerican youth also show significantlylower levels of self-esteem when compared toCaucasian and African American youth.45

Whether or not immigrant Asian Pacificyouth and their families have access to socialsupports to help them cope with the pres-sures of life in their new country varies,because the presence of community institu-tions differs widely among Asian Pacificimmigrant communities, as well as the capac-ity of community organizations to get fund-ing for their programs. Some more estab-lished ethnic groups, such as Chinese andJapanese, have an infrastructure of organiza-tions and agencies to support children andfamilies in geographic areas in which theirpopulation is concentrated (such as the WestCoast). However, these programs are seldomcoordinated with the schools. In other cases,there are community-based institutions,structures, and networks, such as MutualAssistance Associations, that provide neededsupports to youth and families, recreating inmany ways the familial village relationshipsfrom homelands that are so critical in sup-porting and reaching new immigrant groups.Yet, these organizations and their potential

for providing essential links be-tween schools and communitiesare often overlooked, becausethey do not follow a traditionalUnited States model of a commu-nity organization that would befamiliar to funders or to schoolpersonnel. In many Asian PacificAmerican communities, theresources for responding to theneeds of youth and families are ata crisis low.

All of these problems may affecta child's ability to succeed in

school. A child who is suffering from cultureshock, from post-traumatic stress syndromeas a result of war-related experiences or oflife in a violence-ridden community, or fromthe break-up of families that often accompa-nies immigration seldom has the resources toconcentrate on learning academic subjects. Acomprehensive set of supports must be inplace for children and the families in whichthey live. Young people must be able to par-ticipate and learn in school, and to find thepositive role models and sources of moralguidance they need to become productive,happy people.

o=- LACK OF INSTITUTIONAL EFFORTTO INVOLVE ASIAN PACIFIC AMERICANPARENTS IN EDUCATION

Most parents from Asian Pacific nationsview school as a separate realm from thehome, with parental involvement unneededand undesired. In Cambodia, for example,the schools are traditionally in complete con-trol of a child's education; parents simply donot question the teacher or school policies.Immigrant parents carry with them their tra-ditional views, and so they never doubt theschool's authority. Few immigrant parentseven have a relationship with their children'steachers because of language barriers, longwork hours, difficulty arranging transporta-


tion, and the responsibilities of caring forother children may make it difficult for themto go to the school.

Schools can be a critical initial place inwhich immigrant parents discover that ademocracy requires effective advocacy andparticipation. Although bridging the gapbetween home and school is critical to AsianPacific families and schools, strong partner-ships between Asian Pacific parents andschools are not the norm. Few schoolsactively work to ensure that immigrant par-ents are connected to the life of the school.Most schools exclude immigrant parentsfrom participating by failing to be culturallysensitive, by failing to reach out throughnewsletters or forums, and by having fewstaff members who can speak the families'home languages. Few schools invite immi-grant parents to participate, and even fewerexplain the reasons why it is desirable. Evenin school districts where there is a large pop-ulation of Asian Pacific Americans, AsianPacific American parents often are not repre-sented on policy-making bodies such asboards of education or PTA groups.

Consequently, immigrant parents oftenhave to rely on their children to translate forthem (literally and figuratively) about school

expectations, traditions, and needs. Suchinformation is not always effectively con-veyed. Children are also put in the positionof representing their adult parents and fami-lies when translating for government servicesor other bureaucratic systems. Conflicts arisein some families when children, by virtue oftheir English language facility, gain authorityover their parents. Schools feed these pat-terns by providing information only inEnglish and by relying on young people tobe the conduit of essential informationbetween home and school.

Stronger connections are needed betweenschools and the community groups that workwith Asian Pacific families, such as AsianPacific churches or religious groups, culturalsocieties, youth service providers, healthclinics, refugee resettlement agencies, andmany more. Such groups typically employstaff or are operated by volunteers withknowledge of Asian Pacific languages andcultures, and they may also be able to pro-vide information to Asian Pacific familiesabout the ways they might advocate for theirchildren in school. These agencies have thepotential to serve as liaisons between schoolsand parents and represent tremendouslyunderutilized resources.

/13

AAPIP ... PAGE 3 I

4he Chanenge .g©T PhoDanthrropygne¢grromendatOgns and Condaasogn

sian Pacific American children and youth clearly have educational requirements that

are not currently being met. For the most part, schools do not have the resources,

the cultural understanding, and the commitment to address these requirements. They

also are without a vital connection to the Asian Pacific American communities they serve and

to the organizations within these communities that might act as bridges between the cultures

of home and school for children and their families.

There is an urgent need to build strongerpartnerships between schools, families,Asian Pacific American community groups,and both public- and private-sector organi-zations to develop a comprehensive supportsystem for Asian Pacific American students.Such partnerships could help to bring valu-able knowledge and resources to schoolsthat are ill-equipped to meet their AsianPacific American students' needs.Partnerships also take advantage of thepotential contribution that schools could bemaking to the health and well-being of AsianPacific American families and communities.Community-wide partnerships recognize thateducation is much more than what goes onin the classroom, and that the job of educat-ing America's youth cannot be accomplishedby the schools alone. Through such partner-ships, the educational process can becomefully integrated into the texture of a commu-nity's life.

For philanthropy to take a leadership rolein forging new partnerships and fosteringnew understandings to benefit Asian PacificAmerican studentsand, indeed, students ofother ethnic and cultural groups who face

educational barriers, language barriers,racism, and violence in schoolsfunders willhave to rethink and stretch beyond tradition-al patterns of giving. For example, in takinginto account the cultural and family environ-ments, funding initiatives in both the com-munity and school arenas may require thatgrantmakers blend funding streams withinand across program areas, and across foun-dations as well. Funders also should consid-er proactive efforts, such as issuing requestsfor proposals and increasing the number ofplanning grants. Grantmaking can therebybecome a means to encourage collabora-tions, partnerships, alignments, and coordi-nated efforts between schools and AsianPacific American communities.

Issues affecting Asian Pacific Americanstudents in the classroom are integrally con-nected to what is going on in their familiesand communities, and to how they viewthemselves or are viewed by mainstreamsociety. For this reason, AAPIP urges fundersto cast a wider net when considering projectsto fund. The recommendations in this reportare directed not only to foundations that sup-port education, but also to those that fund

4-4

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children, youth, and family issues, race rela-tions, immigration, and community building.

AAPIP views efforts in the area of commu-nity/school/family partnerships as funda-mental to the success of the other four recom-mendations in this report. Such partnershipsreduce barriers to educational equity forAsian Pacific American children and createan enriched learning environment by bring-ing together the full complement of a corn-

P

munity's resources for each child's benefit.The rest of this section provides a brief

rationale for each of these recommendations.Projects that address the issues raised in therecommendations are included in AppendixI. Appendix II lists resource organizations thatcan provide information about educationalequity, bilingual education and other subjectsrelated to the education of Asian PacificAmerican children.

Recommendations1. COMMUNITY/SCHOOL/FAMILY PARTNERSHIPSRecognize and develop Asian Pacific American community, parent, and youthleadership, and support the development of community-based service organi-zations that focus on providing extended opportunities for youth and their fam-ilies. Support efforts to partner these resources with their local schools.

2. INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE AND ACCOUNTABILITYEncourage efforts that commit schools to make institutional responses to issuesaffecting Asian Pacific American children's educational equityincluding lan-guage needs of the limited English proficient, racism and anti-immigrant bias,class, and gender issuesand fund efforts that monitor school accountability formeeting the educational needs of Asian Pacific American students.

3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Promote research, development, and staff training in the use of multiculturalcurricula that portray the history and culture of Asian Pacific Americans, and ofanti-racism curricula that support direct and honest dialogue among students.

4. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND PROGRAMSSupport research, program development, and evaluation in the area of languagedevelopment for Asian Pacific Americans to better inform schools and improveteaching strategies. As an essential adjunct, more funding should be directed tocommunity-based efforts focused on dual literacy and language development.

5.TEACHER RECRUITMENT AND TRAININGFund recruitment and training of more Asian Pacific American teachers, admin-istrators, and counselors, with particular emphasis on those with bilingual skillsand knowledge of new and unrepresented Asian Pacific American populations.Also, fund training for non-Asian Pacific teachers to develop the knowledge andskills they require to understand and be responsive to Asian Pacific Americanstudents' needs.

a.; A

AAPIP PAGE 33

0 o ComovimanOty/Schoo0/17anday0:DartnershOps

Recognize and develop AsianPacific American community, par-ent, and youth leadership, and sup-port the development of community-based service organizations thatfocus on providing extended oppor-tunities for youth and their fami-lies. Support efforts to partnerthese resources with their localschools.

Education includes far more than theevents that occur in the classroom.healthy, and learningchildren are rooted instrong, healthy fami-lies and communities.

Schools are formany groups an ideallocation for socialsupports and ser-vices. Asian PacificAmerican familiesmay be more open tolinguistically accessi-ble services on theschool grounds be-cause the school is arespected community institution and oftendoes not bear the stigma of some other ser-vice organizations. Because schools areopen to all children and youth, not just tothose identified as requiring services, educa-tors also may be able to detect concernsrelated to a student's physical, social, ormental health before a problem becomes acrisis. Most effective is a coordinated systemthat cuts across community agencies and thatinvolves the school site as both a means ofoutreach and delivery to children and theirfamilies. Services should be delivered in thelanguages of the families, and in culturally

Strong,

appropriate ways. Teachers and counselorsmust be prepared and trained to link AsianPacific children and families with the servicesthey require. Administrators must build bridgeswith community-based organizations that canassist in efforts to build parent participation.

To make community/school/family part-nerships work, school staff must identifyand involve the range of leadership withinAsian Pacific American communities.Schools seldom tap into the existing leader-ship in immigrant communities. One Chinesemother on a school committee does not rep-resent the entire Asian student population.Each ethnic/language/national group may

well have its ownstructures of leader-ship. Every schoolsite should have acommunity map ofthe important ethnic,national, and lin-guistic groups in itsneighborhood, in-cluding the major

12 community institu-tions and the formal

F1 and informal leader-3ca,) ship of those commu-

nities. This knowl-edge should be the basis for all communityoutreach and involvement efforts.

Activities that offer parents, communitymembers, and youth opportunities for lead-ership development are essential elements inany comprehensive approach to promotingeducational success among Asian Pacificstudents. Possible sources for such programsare Saturday schools, camps, youth groupsrun by community institutions, MutualAssistance Associations, temples, churches,and community-based organizations. So, too,are activities that promote a sense of well-being, community ownership, and civic

Ink r%

6


pride for young people and their families.Particularly important are programs specifi-cally designed to help immigrant studentsbecome oriented to their new culture, facethe challenges of bridging cultures, andmake friendships with young people whohave been in the United States longer.

A vital part of this effort is the develop-ment of school readiness programs designedspecifically to meet the needs of Asian PacificAmerican families. Linked to schools, suchprograms can provide support for childrenand their families during critical transitionsfrom child care to elemen-tary school to secondaryschool and can prepareparents for their roles in thepublic education system.

To learn and to growinto productive, happyadults, children must feelthemselves to be part of atotal environment support-ive of their education.Linking the resources avail-able at school with those at

cational needs of Asian PacificAmerican students.

Educational equity for Asian Pacific Ame-rican children will not just "happen" as theirnumbers in the student population grow.Meaningful change requires a positive com-mitment on the part of the school adminis-tration, at the school district level, as well asat the level of the individual school. Suchcommitments must not be just empty state-ments. They must be backed by resources,short- and long-term planning, and, above

all, by school officials pub-licly making themselvesaccountable to AsianPacific students and theirfamilies.

Because Asian PacificAmericans historically havebeen excluded from themainstream of Americanculture, it is imperative tocreate accountabilitymechanisms that monitorAsian Pacific American stu-

IT IS IMPORTANT TO FUND

PROGRAMS THAT TRAIN

COMMUNITY-BASED

GROUPS TO ADVOCATE

EFFECTIVELY FOR THEIR

LEGAL RIGHTS AND TO

BUILD THEIR CAPACITY TO

MONITOR AND ENFORCE

THOSE RIGHTS OF ACCESS.

home and in community-based service orga-nizations can give studentsand their par-entsthe resources they need to becomeleaders in their communities.

2 [InstOteztOonma Change andAczoaantabOraty

Encourage efforts that commitschools to make institutionalresponses to issues affecting AsianPacific American children's educa-tional equityincluding languageneeds of the limited English profi-cient, racism and anti-immigrantbias, class, and gender issuesandfund efforts that monitor schoolaccountability for meeting the edu-

dents' participation and achievement inschool. Statistics should be reported for spe-cific ethnic groups and should include infor-mation on national origins, English languagefluency, and generational status to create amore informative and accurate picture ofAsian Pacific American communities. Suchdata allow educators, parents and communi-ty advocates to assess the effectiveness ofschool programs for the various Asian PacificAmerican groups, so that the individual cir-cumstances of each group do not becomelost in the aggregate picture.

It is important to fund programs that traincommunity-based groups to advocate effec-tively for their legal rights and to build theircapacity to monitor and enforce those rightsof access.

AAPIp PAGE 35

School officials must rec-ognize that educational suc-cess for Asian Pacific childrenrequires a two-way flow ofinformation and responsibil-ity between parents- andschools. A comprehensiveeffort to strengthen relation-ships must include parentand community involvementin children's learning.Teachers and school adminis-trators must be aware thatimmigrant parents need basic information onthe U.S. school system. To encourageparental involvement and advocacy, schoolsmust actively reach out to Asian Pacific fam-ilies, and therefore must have staff who canspeak the students' home languages.

EVEN THE BEST-

PREPARED AND MOST

KNOWLEDGEABLE

TEACHERS ARE

HAMPERED IF THEY DO

NOT HAVE THE

MATERIALS TO TEACH

ABOUT ASIAN PACIFIC

AMERICAN GROUPS.

33. CaarrOmaknom DD evegopment

Promote research, development,and staff training in the use of mul-ticultural curricula that portray thehistory and culture of Asian PacificAmericans, and of anti-racism cur-ricula that support direct and hon-est dialogue among students.

To prepare students adequately for anincreasingly global economic and politicalworld, schools must transform curricula andpractice to reflect the diverse history and ex-periences of people in the United States andthe world. Such curricula must 'include theexperiences and contributions of AsianPacific Americans, as well as of other com-munities of color. Efforts to broaden the cur-riculum should go beyond just academic sub-jects to include such areas of instruction asart and music. Proficiency in languages otherthan English and an understanding of differentcultures should be held as important values.

Even the best preparedand most knowledgeableteachers are hampered if theydo not have the materials toteach about Asian PacificAmerican groups, their litera-ture, histories, and traditions.New materials are needed ina variety of formats, includingaudio tapes, books, comput-er-aided instruction, videos,and other media. Texts basedon the folklore and stories of

immigrant communities written in the lan-guages of Asian Pacific groups should bedeveloped to document those experiencesfor future generations. Such texts can helpthe "bridge generation" deepen its under-standing of and ties to its culture and nationof origin. Asian Pacific American studiescenters in universities are excellentresources for multicultural curricula andresearch. Support is needed for the smallcommunity presses and ethnic curriculumprojects that often are the publishers ofauthentic materials by and for Asian PacificAmerican communities. Better disseminationmechanisms must be established to ensurethat such community-generated materialsreach the teachers who need them.

Clearly, the dramatic shift in classroomdemographics requires Asian PacificAmericans to be part of the public discourseregarding race and education. The view ofrace as simply a question of black and whiteis no longer a reality, and new thinking andapproaches must receive funders' support toaddress the new face of education in thiscountry.

In schools, children learn the norms ofsocial relationships beyond their families,including those with people of other racialgroups. To address the alarming increase ofhate crimes, intolerance, and anti -immi-

0

w


grant sentiment, schools and communitiesmust develop strong programs that engagestudents in an active process aimed atstrengthening human relationships. Anessential component of such programmingmust be an intervention that recognizes,addresses, and eliminates perceived racialand ethnic group status differences. Unlessprograms contain this vital element, theincreased contact among the groups mayserve only to increase intergroup tensions.

Because divisions among young peopleoften reflect those of adults around them, allschool staff from the principal to the jani-tors and lunchroom monitors, must havethe benefit of training. Professional develop-ment programs for all staff should includesuch training.

Anti-racism efforts should also includeprograms to develop: (1) personal awarenessand communication skills; (2) cross-racialdialogue and prejudice reduction; (3) conflictresolution and mediation programs; (4)engagement of students in changinginequitable and harmful policies and prac-tices; (5) a curriculum that helps studentslearn each other's histories; and (6) anti-vio-lence projects, particularly in neighborhoodsmarked by gangs and youth violence.

4. Language DD eueDopmentResearch and Programs

Support research, program devel-opment, and evaluation in the areaof language development for AsianPacific Americans to better informschools and improve teaching stra-tegies. As an essential adjunct,more funding should be directed tocommunity-based efforts focusedon dual literacy and languagedevelopment.

For students with limited fluency inEnglish, the Lau decision requires schoolsto provide access to the core curriculum,whether through bilingual programming orthrough English as a Second Language(ESL). ESL is most effective when combinedwith a focus on academic language re-quired for understanding the curriculum.School programs should emphasize literacyand language development across the cur-riculum, with particular attention to oralexpression, reading comprehension, andwriting skills for Asian Pacific immigrantand refugee students.

School libraries and community associa-tions should have take-home reading materi-als in both English and in the languages ofthe immigrant or refugee communities. ESLprograms for adults, and family literacy pro-grams for children and parents, shouldemphasize speaking, reading, and writingskills. These programs are most effectivewhen they combine the development ofEnglish literacy skills with efforts to docu-ment and write the oral histories, family sto-ries, and traditions of a communityprod-ucts that contribute to learning about andpreserving culture.

Beyond formal literacy programs, after-school clubs and recreational activities canbe important opportunities to reinforce kin-

C21

AAP IP PAGE 37

guage arts skills. Incorporating languageskill-building into such activities must bedone consciously, as part of an overall lan-guage development plan.

In addition, it is essential to foster devel-opment in a child's home language. Com-ponents in supporting the retention andvalue of the home language include SaturdaySchools, community-based home languageprograms, availability of books in the homelanguages prevalent in the community, andbasic literacy and literature courses using thehome language.

Major demonstration projects and basicresearch efforts are needed to fill the gaps inknowledge about effective educational ap-proaches for Asian Pacific Americans.Research is needed in second language liter-acy and in methods of developing content-area learning among students with limitedproficiency in English. Researchers shouldfocus on new program models for servingAsian Pacific Americans when the numbersof students from each language and culturalgroup are relatively small. Of particular inter-est are research initiatives that include suchelements as innovative uses of technology,flexible grouping, cross-school site programs,and community-based instruction. Anothersubject worthy of investigation is how to usehome language literacy as a bridge to Englishliteracy when the home language is not aRomance language and is ideographic.

Well designed and implemented programsserving Asian Pacific Americans should bewell documented and formally evaluated.They should also include strategies for dis-semination and program replication.

Foundation and government fundersmust take greater responsibility to includeAsian Pacific American students in researchstudies, especially national surveys, and todisaggregate data to allow for a compara-tive look at the experiences among Asian

40

Pacific Americans. Furthermore, Asian PacificAmerican communities themselves must beempowered with the knowledge and skills toconduct systematic research and policyanalysis on educational issues.

Solreacheno RecrazOtment andIroga6n6ng

Fund recruitment and training ofmore Asian Pacific American teach-ers, administrators, and coun-selors, with particular emphasis onthose with bilingual skills andknowledge of new and unrepresent-ed Asian Pacific American popula-tions. Also, fund training for non-Asian Pacific teachers to developthe knowledge and skills theyrequire to understand and beresponsive to Asian Pacific Amer-ican students' needs.

The critical shortage of teachers, adminis-trators, counselors, and other professionalswith knowledge of Asian Pacific Americancultures and languages calls for immediateand aggressive implementation of targetedstrategies for recruitment, training, and pro-fessional development of Asian PacificAmerican college students. Outreach targetsshould include Asian Pacific American com-munity agencies and leaders. Career pathprograms and incentives to enter the teach-ing field may help to attract Asian PacificAmerican candidates with linguistic or cultur-al expertise. In the area of teacher recruit-ment, programs should be developed thatbuild on and broaden existing foundationprogramming support for recruitment ofminority teachers to include recruitment ofAsian Pacific American teachers from thevarious Asian Pacific ethnic groups. Similarrecruitment programs are needed to encour-

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age Asian Pacific Amer-icans to enter doctoralprograms for administra-tors and counselors.

Professional develop-ment programs areneeded for all teachers,to immerse them inknowledge of secondlanguage acquisition andbilingual teaching skills,to prepare them to 0assemble and teach astrong multicultural cur- Hriculum using AsianPacific American litera-ture and history, toengage them in inquiry,and to connect them tothe communities. Such efforts would be fur-thered by policies that insist on teacherpreparation in these areas as a basis forteacher assignment and that support ongoingprofessional development in these areas.

An essential but underutilized resource isthe immigrant community itself. In someplaces, schools that have recognized andrespected the valuable language capabilitiesof the Asian Pacific American communitieshave very successfully recruited teacherassistants from the immigrant communities,and then provided training support toenable the assistants to pursue their teach-ing credentials. Immigrant adults, some ofwhom may have been teachers in theirhomelands, provide not only the bilingualskills so desperately needed to deliver strongeducational programs, but also can serve asessential cultural bridges and supports forimmigrant youth.

Conehavion

The invisible crisisamong Asian PacificAmerican students is areal and urgent one.This report has soughtto illustrate howschools have largelyignored the plight ofthese students, as thefalse assumption thatAsian Pacific Americanstudents always suc-ceed in school has pre-vailed. AAPIP urgesphilanthropy to exerciseleadership to revampthe educational res-ponse to Asian Pacific

American students and their families. Thisresponse must include meaningful partnershipswith Asian Pacific American communities.

Without a major change in the education-al response to Asian Pacific American stu-dents' needs, these students will continue tobe denied an equal education. This crisisportends serious ramifications for the future,as increasing numbers of Asian PacificAmerican students make their way throughan inadequate educational system and fallfurther and further behind, unprepared toengage fully in and contribute to Americansociety as adults.

As the demographics of our country con-tinue to shift, and the margins become themainstream, once-marginalized people willincreasingly challenge our democratic tenets.We must ensure that we have a diverse poolof leaders to meet those challenges. It is insociety's interest to create a truly equitableeducational system that will benefit not justAsian Pacific American children but all chil-dren, and our diverse nation, operating with-in our global society.

AAPIP PAGE 39

/6\ppendheResgaunges 'goy' Prggrtmum DuAgnmattign

genikyudatz pringfrEIMIS demonstrate the many ways in which foundations can work

successfully with Asian Pacific American organizations, schools, school boards, communitygroups, and other groups to improve educational access and equity for Asian Pacific Americans.

Although some of these projects were not designed for Asian Pacific American students, families,

and communities, they are included because elements of the program may be adapted to orexpanded to include the needs of Asian Pacific Americans. Each project is listed alphabetically

under the appropriate recommendation of this report.

0. Cenramaanfity/SchooH/Panro011yPartnerships

ASIAN AMERICANS UNITED801 Arch StreetPhiladelphia, PA 19107(215) 925-1538.Contact: Ellen Somekawa

The Community Youth Leadership Projectworks with low-income and working class highschool age Asian Pacific American youth. Theyare trained to tutor children with limited profi-ciency in English and to work as communityactivists, building relations with neighborhoodparents to facilitate their active involvement inschool and community efforts. Funded by thePhiladelphia Foundation.

NATIONAL ASIAN FAMILY/SCHOOLPARTNERSHIP PROJECTNational Coalition of Advocates for Students100 Boylston Street, Suite 737Boston, MA 02116(617) 357-8507Contact: Buoy Te

Works with six community-based organiza-tions nationally to improve the education ofimmigrant students and to provide support forparents to monitor children's education, advo-cate for educational services, and participatemore fully in the life of the school. The pro-ject's constituents are Cambodian, ethnicChinese, Hmong, Laotian, Tai Dan andVietnamese parents. A project of the NationalCoalition of Advocates for Students, the initia-

tive operates in Chicago, Philadelphia, DesMoines, Seattle and Minneapolis. Funded bythe DeWitt Wallace-Readers Digest Fund.

ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENTOF HMONG WOMEN1518 East Lake Street, Suite 209Minneapolis, MN 55407(612) 724-3066Contact: Ly Vang

A full-service organization that focuses atten-tion on the needs of newly arrived Hmongwomen, children and teens in the Minneapolisarea. The organization helps them adjust toAmerican culture while honoring and continuingtheir own heritage. Provides training for self-suf-ficiency, employment, and leadership positions.

BICULTURAL TRAINING PARTNERSHIPIN NONPROFIT MANAGEMENTThe Wilder Foundation919 Lafond AvenueSt. Paul, MN 55104(612) 642-2067Contact: Vijit Ramchandani

A collaboration between the Amherst H.Wilder Foundation and the Metropolitical StateUniversity in St. Paul, provides intensive train-ing in nonprofit management, leadership, andadvocacy for the staffs, boards, and volunteersof the area's Southeast Asian Mutual AssistanceAssociations. It also provides management con-sultant training for Southeast Asian communitymembers who will become resources for theircommunities. In its second phase of operations,


the project was established in 1993 by the St.Paul Foundation and is supported by morethan 20 local and national funders.

THE CHILDREN'S AID SOCIETY105 East 22nd StreetNew York, NY 10010(212) 949-4800Contact: Philip Co ltoff

Operates three community schools inWashington Heights for recent immigrants fromLatin America and the Caribbean with a com-prehensive program of innovative educationalpractices and in-house health and social ser-vices. The schools are supported by a partner-ship among parents, schools, community-basedorganizations, health care providers, local busi-nesses, and universities. Technical assistance isprovided to more than 80 schools nationwide.Funded by the Carnegie Corporation of NewYork, Charles Hayden Foundation, HasbroChildren's Foundation, the Jacob BleibtreuFoundation, Inc., and the Clark Foundation.

COALITION FOR ASIAN PACIFICAMERICAN YOUTH (CAPAY)c/o Institute for Asian American StudiesUniversity of Massachusetts, Boston100 Morrissey BoulevardBoston, MA 02125-3393(617) 287-5658Contact: Trinh Nguyen

The only statewide network in the countrythat focuses on leadership development amongAsian Pacific American youth, this youth-runmembership organization provides peer sup-port, networking, mentoring, community ser-vice opportunities, and leadership for an annu-al Asian Pacific American Heritage Month inlocal high schools. Funders include the BostonFoundation, the Hyams Foundation, the ReebokFoundation, the Haymarket People's Fund, theLenny Fund, and the Massachusetts Office forRefugees and Immigrants. The Institute forAsian American Studies at the University ofMassachusetts, Boston provides in-kind support.

THE LAOTIAN GIRLS HOPE INITIATIVEAsian Pacific Environmental Network310 Eighth Street, Suite 309Oakland, CA 94607(510) 834-8920Contact: Grace Kong

In Richmond, California, located in ContraCosta County, site of four SuperFund toxiccleanup areas, ninth-grade girls develop envi-ronmental awareness, leadership skills, andcommunity activism skills designed to helpbuild their community. Funders include theCalifornia Wellness Foundation, the Ms.Foundation and Vanguard Public Foundation.

PARENTS AND CHILDREN TOGETHER1475 Linapuni Street, Suite 117aHonolulu, HI 96819(808) 847-3285Contact: Haaheo Mansfield

A 29-year-old organization in the largest low-income housing project in Hawaii; among itsprograms are four that directly address cultur-ally-appropriate early childhood education andparenting and include a lending library. Allsites serve immigrant children and NativeHawaiians who speak English as a second lan-guage. PCT's Family Literacy Project is fundedby the Hawaii Community Foundation.

CHINATOWN BEACON CENTERSAN FRANCISCO BEACON INITIATIVE777 Stockton Street, Suite 202San Francisco, CA 94108(415) 391-4721Contact: Sylvia Horn

Located in the heart of Chinatown and serv-ing a population that is 75 percent Asian PacificAmerican, the Chinatown Beacon Center is partof the San Francisco Beacon Initiative to trans-form public schools into neighborhood centers.Wu Yee Children's Services leads the center, incollaboration with eight community agencieswith bilingual and bicultural staff. Fundersinclude the Evelyn and Walter Haas, Jr. Fund,the S.H. Cowell Foundation, the San FranciscoFoundation, and the Gap Foundation.

AAPIP PAGE 4I

2 Onstitaationa0 Change amiAccasantabOOlity

EDUCATION LAW CENTER OFPHILADELPHIA801 Arch Street, Suite 610Philadelphia, PA 19107(215) 238-6970Contact: Len RieserDa' An advocacy organization working to holdthe Philadelphia School District accountable foreducational services to Asian Pacific immigrantstudents. Offers professional developmentopportunities for teachers to learn about sec-ond language acquisition, recruits Asian Pacificteachers, develops and identifies texts andmaterials in Asian Pacific languages, and reach-es out to Asian Pacific parents. The Centerworks to ensure that the district's overall schoolreform agenda is designed and implemented inways that take account of the needs of AsianPacific students and families. Funded by thePhiladelphia Foundation.

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION,TRAINING AND ADVOCACY, INC.240-A Elm Street, Suite 22Somerville, MA 02144(617) 628-2226Contact: Roger Rice

A national organization specializing in therights of Asian Pacific, Latino, Haitian, andother immigrant linguistic minority groups.Informs students and parents about their edu-cational rights, helps parents advocate onbehalf of their children, evaluates state andlocal programs and policies related to immi-grant education, and promotes the develop-ment of policy initiatives to advance immigrantstudents' rights. Support has included theRosenberg Foundation, the CarnegieCorporation of New York, the Joyce Mertz-Gilmore Foundation, the ARCO Foundation,the Ford Foundation, the Public WelfareFoundation, the Charles Stewart MottFoundation and the James Irvine Foundation.

4

33. Caarrficaaguzum DDevegopment

BAY AREA IMMIGRANT LITERACYINITIATIVESan Francisco State University, English Dept.1600 HollowaySan Francisco, CA 94132(415) 338-3103Contact: Gail Weinstein

Assists San Francisco Bay Area community-based organizations in developing curriculathat address the needs of immigrant andrefugee families. Fosters collaborations amongESL/literacy providers, nurtures connectionsbetween the university and the community,and creates opportunities for university ESLteacher trainees to teach in community settingswhile learning about family and communityissues in immigrant neighborhoods. Fundedthrough San Francisco State University by theLila WallaceReaders Digest Fund.

STOCKTON YOUTH VIOLENCEPREVENTION INITIATIVEBoys and Girls Club of StocktonP.O. Box 415Stockton, CA 95201(209) 466-1264Contacts: Lincoln Ellis and Conway Hill

The Rites-of-Passage curriculum is part of thismultiethnic collaboration, whose objective is toreduce the incidence of violence, enhance self-esteem, develop leadership skills, and teachcritical thinking and conflict resolution amongLatino, African American, and Asian PacificAmerican youth between the ages of 11 and 24.The primary Asian Pacific American groupsserved are Laotian and Filipino. Funded by theJames Irvine Foundation in collaboration withthe California Wellness Foundation's ViolencePrevention Initiative.

YOUTH TOGETHERArt, Research and Curriculum Associates (ARC)1212 Broadway, Suite 400Oakland, CA 94612(510) 834-9455Contact: Margaretta LinP.- Youth Together is a youth development andschool-based violence prevention project

AN INVISIBLE CRISIS .11111.. PAGE 42

developing the leadership of youth from fivehigh schools in Berkeley, Oakland, andRichmond. A multicultural, multiracial, andmulti-agency collaboration between establishedyouth development and education agencies,the goal is to address rising racial and ethnicconflicts between Asian Pacific, Latino, andAfrican American students. Funded by the U.S.Department of Education with support fromprivate sources.

4. Language Deue0opmentResearch and Pvograms

CLEARINGHOUSE FOR IMMIGRANTEDUCATIONCHIME/NCAS100 Boylston Street, Suite 737Boston, MA 02116(800) 441-7192Contact: Karen Hartke

A free, interactive clearinghouse and net-working service offering customized databasesearches, free information packets, referrals,bibliographies, and other resources thataddress how schools can improve educationalaccess for immigrant and other vulnerable stu-dents. Funded by the Ford Foundation and theAndrew W. Mellon Foundation.

THE DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLUniversity of Massachusetts, Lowell1 University AvenueLowell, MA 01854(508) 934-4660Contact: Ann Benjamin

An observation, research, and demonstrationfacility in which children from English-,Spanish-, and Khmer-speaking homes learnand play together. Native-speaking teachers ofthe same three languages strive to model thebest educational practices in language acquisi-tion and multicultural education. Operatesunder the joint auspices of the Lowell PublicSchool System and the College of Education,University of Massachusetts, Lowell.

THE PROGRAM IN IMMIGRANTEDUCATIONCenter for Applied Linguistics1118 22nd Street, NWWashington, DC 20037(202) 429-9292Contact: Donna Christian

A national research effort coordinated by theCenter for Applied Linguistics in Washington,D.C., with the goal of creating effective pro-grams for immigrants in middle and highschools. A series of publications for policymak-ers, practitioners, and the public will bereleased in 1998. Funded by the Andrew W.Mellon Foundation.

SHUANG WEN ACADEMYNew York New Visions SchoolVictim Services, Inc.2 Lafayette StreetNew York, NY 10007(212) 577-3898Contact: Larry Lee

Shuang Wen Academy is a newly establishedelementary school (K-5) rooted in a commit-ment to language proficiency and cultural liter-acy in both Chinese and English. The programwill document strategies to address differencesin learning styles and intellectual processingbrought to the classroom by Chinese-speakingchildren. Extended hours provide tutoring, folkdancing, music, calligraphy, art, drama, chorus,martial arts, with strong parent involvement.

S. 'Teacher Dleznafitoment andVra5nOng

PATHWAYS TO TEACHING CAREERSPROGRAMDeWitt WallaceReader's Digest Fund2 Park Avenue, 23rd FloorNew York, NY 10016(212) 251-9710Contact: Jane Quinn

Provides grants to participating universitiesand colleges to support training of teaching can-didates with the goal of increasing the numberof highly qualified teachers, particularly minori-ty teachers, working in public schools. Fundedby the DeWitt WallaceReaders Digest Fund.

5

AAPIP PAGE 43

AppencAKnes©118M8 grganOE2tOgns

Mils 11'3550 :111303 01%189 far from being complete, is provided for informational and

referral purposes.ART, RESEARCH, AND CURRICULUM(ARC) ASSOCIATES310 Eighth Street, Suite 220Oakland, CA 94607(510) 834-9455

ASIAN AMERICAN COMMUNITIES FOREDUCATION2012 Pine StreetSan Francisco, CA 94115(415) 921-5537

ASIAN AMERICAN CURRICULUMPROJECT234 Main StreetSan Mateo, CA 94401(650) 343-9408

ASIAN AMERICAN STUDIES CENTERUniversity of California, Los Angeles3230 Campbell Hall304 Hilgard AvenueLos Angeles, CA 90095(310) 825-2974

ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN AMERICANSTUDIESDept. of Educational FoundationsHunter College, City University of New York695 Park AvenueNew York, NY 10021(212) 772-4736

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ONEDUCATIONAL DIVERSITY ANDEXCELLENCEUniversity of California, Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA 95064(408) 459-3500

CIVIL LIBERTIES PUBLIC EDUCATIONFUND, WEST COAST OFFICEc/o U.S. Equal Employment OpportunitiesCommission901 Market Street, Suite 500San Francisco, CA 94103(415) 356-5020

INDOCHINESE REFUGEE STUDIES CENTERGeorge Mason University4400 University DriveFairfax, VA 22030(703) 993-3722

LEADERSHIP EDUCATION FOR ASIANPACIFICS (LEAP)327 East 2nd Street, Suite 226Los Angeles, CA 90012(213) 485-1422

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR ASIANAND PACIFIC AMERICAN EDUCATIONARC Associates310 Eighth Street, Suite 220Oakland, CA 94607(510) 834-9455

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOREDUCATION AND ADVANCEMENT OFCAMBODIANS, LAOTIANS ANDVIETNAMESE AMERICANSDepartment of Comparative Ethnic StudiesUniversity of California, Berkeley506 Barrows HallBerkeley, CA 94720(510) 643-0796

NATIONAL CLEARINGHOUSE ONBILINGUAL EDUCATION8737 Colesville Road, #900Silver Spring, MD 20910(800) 647-0123

POLYCHROME PUBLISHINGCORPORATION4509 North FranciscoChicago, IL 60625(773) 478-4455

BEST COPY AVAILABLE


Mndrigtes

1 In 1971, Newsweek magazine (June 21, 1971) fea-tured a groundbreaking story on AsianAmericans, entitled "Success Story: Outwhitingthe Whites." A subsequent article by AnthonyRamirez in Fortune magazine (November 24,1986) focused on Asian Americans as "America'sSuper Minority" of the 20th century. In 1987,Time magazine touted the academic success ofAsian Americans in an article entitled "The NewWhiz Kids" (August 31, 1987).

2 Paul Ong and Linda Wing, "The Social Contractto Educate All Children," in The State of AsianPacific America: A Public Policy Report. LosAngeles: LEAP Asian Pacific American PublicPolicy Institute and the UCLA Asian AmericanStudies Center, 1996, p. 226.

3 Ong and Wing (1996), p. 226.

4 For example, according to an article in the SanFrancisco Chronicle (May 12, 1997) entitled"Bridging the English Gap," 48 percent of stu-dents at Union City's Pioneer Elementary Schoolare Asian Pacific American.

5 Shirley Hune & Kenyon S. Chan, "Special Focus:Asian Pacific American Demographic andEducational Trends," in D. Carter & R. Wilson(eds.), Minorities in Education (Vol. 15)Washington, D.C.: American Council onEducation, 1997.

6 Included among Asian Pacific Islanders are: EastAsians (Chinese, Japanese, Korean); Filipinos;Pacific Islanders (Fijian, Carolinian, Chamorro,Chuukese, Hawaiian, Marshallese, Melanesian,Palauan, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Trukese,Yapese); Southeast Asian (Cambodian, Hmong,Khmer, Indonesian, Laotian, Malayan, Mien,Singaporean, Thai, Vietnamese); and SouthAsians (Bangladeshi, Bhutanese, Burmese,Indian, Nepali, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Sikkimese).

7 Unfortunately, the scope of this report does notallow a discussion of the complexities of the edu-cational needs of Pacific Islanders or SouthAsians.

8 Foundation Center, Foundation Giving, 1997.United States Bureau of the Census, PopulationEstimates and Projections, Washington, D.C.,1996.

9 Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders inPhilanthropy, "Invisible and In Need:Philanthropic Giving to Asian Americans andPacific Islanders." San Francisco, 1992.

10 Foundation Center, Foundation Giving, p. 65, 1997.

11 United States Bureau of the Census, PopulationEstimates and Projections, Washington, D.C.,1996.

12 Kim-Oanh Nguyen-Lam, "Meeting the Needs ofOur Asian American Students," CaliforniaAssociation for Bilingual Education Newsletter(p. 33), February 1997.

13 Hune and Chan (1997).

14 Larry H. Shinagawa, "The Impact of Immigrationon the Demography of Asian Pacific Americans,"Reframing the Immigration Debate, (pp. 59-126).LEAP Asian Pacific American Public PolicyInstitute and the UCLA Asian American StudiesCenter, 1996.



17 Stanley Karnow and Nancy Yoshihara, AsianAmericans in Transition. The Asia Society, NewYork. 1992. Also Rumbaut, R. and J. Weeks,"Fertility and Adaptation: Indochinese Refugeesin the United States," International MigrationReview, 20(2), (pp. 428-466), 1986.

18 F. Arnold, U. Minocha, and J. Fawcett, "TheChanging Face of Asian Immigration to theUnited States" in J. Fawcett and B. Carino (eds.),Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asiaand the Pacific Islands (p. 111). Staten Island:Center for Migration Studies, 1987.

19 Rumbaut and Weeks (1986). See also WendyWalker-Moffat, The Other Side of the AsianAmerican Success Story. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995.

20 Shinagawa (1996).

21 Most school districts do not report dropout ratesfor southeast Asians as a discrete population.Several studies, however, have reported figuresaround this level. Ruben Rumbaut and KenjiIma's The Adaptation of Southeast Asian RefugeeYouth: A Comparative Study, Vols. I and II of theSoutheast Asian Refugee Youth Study,Department of Sociology, San Diego StateUniversity, December 1987, reports numbersconsistent with McNall, M. and T. Dunnigan."The Educational Achievement of the St. PaulHmong," Anthropology and Education Quarterly,Vol. 25: No. l(pp. 44-66), March 1994.

22 Lau v. Nichols, 414 US 563, 39 L. Ed 2d 1.Decided January 21, 1974.

/.1.

AAPIP PAGE 45

23 National Center for Education Statistics, "A Profileof Policies and Practices for Limited EnglishProficient Students: Screening Methods, ProgramSupport and Teacher Training." SASS 1993-94.Washington, D.C., 1997. Also, United StatesDepartment of Education, Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement. NCES 97-472.Washington, D.C., 1997.

24 Ong and Wing (1996), p. 236.

25 National Research Council, Improving Schoolingfor Language-Minority Children: A ResearchAgenda, Diane August and Kenji Hakuta (eds).National Academy Press, 1997.

26 Ruben Rumbaut, "The Crucible Within: EthnicIdentity, Self-Esteem and Segmented Assimilationamong Children of Immigrants." In AlejandroPortes (ed.), The New Second Generation. (16-17). New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1996.Also Laurie Olsen and Marcia Chen, Crossing theSchoolhouse Border: Immigrant Children inCalifornia Schools. San Francisco: CaliforniaTomorrow, 1988.

27 Marsha Hirano-Nakanishi, "It Ain't NecessarilySo," paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe American Educational Research Association,San Francisco, CA April 1992.

28 Conversation with the office of Robert Suzuki,President, California State Polytechnic Universityat Pomona, in April 1997.

29 National Research Council (1997), p. 31.

30 Hedy Chang, Affirming Children's Roots:Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Early Careand Education, San Francisco: CaliforniaTomorrow, 1993.

31 Viadero, Debra, "Asian-American Teachers on theDecline, Study Finds," Education Week, June 10,1997.

32 Nguyen-Lam (1997).

33 Victoria Jew, "The Shortage of Asian LanguagesBilingual Teachers in the United States andCalifornia," presented at the National Forum Con-ference in Pomona, California in August 1994.

34 Walker-Moffat (1995).

35 National Asian Pacific American LegalConsortium, Audit of Violence Against AsianPacific Americans, Fourth Annual Report, 1997.

36 Olsen and Chen (1988). See also Joan First andJohn Wilshire Carrera, New Voices: ImmigrantStudents in U.S. Public Schools. Boston: NationalCoalition of Advocates for Students, 1988; and

PSO COPV BLE

United States Civil Rights Commission, "CivilRights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the1990s," (pp. 88ff), Washington, D.C. February1992; and Rumbaut and Ima (1987).

37 Peter N. Kiang and Jenny Kaplan, "Where Do WeStand? Views of Racial Conflict by VietnameseAmerican High-School Students in a Black andWhite Context," The Urban Review, Vol. 26, no. 2(p. 109), 1994.

38 P. N. Kiang, "When Know-Nothings SpeakEnglish Only: Analyzing Irish and CambodianStruggles for Community Development andEducational Equity," in Karin Aguilar-San Juan(ed.), The State of Asian America: Activism andResistance in the 1990s (pp.125-145). Boston:South End Press, 1994.

39 Lou Harris poll, "Tensions and Hopes in America:A Survey of How Minorities and the WhiteMajority Perceive Each Other and Steps toAchieve Intergroup Harmony." Prepared for theNational Conference, January 1994.

40 National Research Council (1997), p. 97.

41 Walker-Moffat. See also S.J. Lee, "The Road toCollege: Hmong Women's Pursuit of HigherEducation." Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 67No. 4, 1997.

42 Nancy Smith-Hefner, "Education, Gender, andGenerational Conflict Among Khmer Refugees."Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 24, (2),(pp. 135-158), 1993.

43 Hune and Chan (1997), p. 56.

44 Various research literature discusses this phe-nomenon, including Michael Aronowitz's "TheSocial and Emotional Adjustment of ImmigrantChildren: A Review of the Literature,"International Migration Review, 1984; CarolAscher, "The Social and PsychologicalAdjustment of Southeast Asian Refugees,"ERIC/CUEDigest, Number 21, National Institute ofEducation, Washington, D.C., April 1984; NeilBoothby, "Children and War," Cultural SurvivalQuarterly, Vol. 10: No. 4, Cambridge MA 1986;J.E Carlin, "The Catastrophically Uprooted Child:Southeast Asian Refugee Children," BasicHandbook of Child Psychiatry, Vol. I, New York:Basic Books, 1979.

45 Rumbaut (1996). See also "Youth Risk BehaviorSurvey," San Diego City School's Report to theSchool Board, February 22, 1994; and ValerieOoka Pang, "Caring for the Whole Child: AsianPacific American Students," paper presented atDefining the Knowledge Base for Urban TeacherEducation Conference, Emory University, Atlanta.1996.

;.)U


ObOuograpliv

Aronowitz, Michael. "The Social and EmotionalAdjustment of Immigrant Children: A Reviewof the Literature," International MigrationReview. 1984.

Ascher, Carol. "The Social and PsychologicalAdjustment of Southeast Asian Refugees,"ERIC/CUE Digest, no. 21, April 1984, NationalInstitute of Education. Washington, D.C.

Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders inPhilanthropy. Invisible and In Need:Philanthropic Giving to Asian Americans andPacific Islanders. San Francisco, CA, 1992.

Boothby, Neil. "Children and War," CulturalSurvival Quarterly, Vol. 10, no. 4, Cambridge,MA, 1986.

"Bridging the English Gap," San FranciscoChronicle. May 12, 1997.

"Language BarriersAre Blacks BeingShortchanged?" California Department ofEducation and San Francisco Examiner analy-sis. May 14, 1997.

Handbooks for Teaching Japanese-SpeakingStudents, Hmong-Speaking Students, Korean-Speaking Students, Khmer-Speaking Students.California Department of Education,Sacramento, CA, 1988.

Caplan, Nathan, Marcella Choy and JohnWhitmore. "Indochinese Refugee Families andAcademic Achievement," Scientific American,(36-42). February 1992.

Carlin, J.E. "The Catastrophically Uprooted Child:Southeast Asian Refugee Children," BasicHandbook of Child Psychiatry, Vol. I. NewYork, NY: Basic Books, 1979.

Chang, Hedy. Affirming Children's Roots:Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Early Careand Education. San Francisco, CA: CaliforniaTomorrow, 1993.

First, Joan and John Wilshire Carrera. "NewVoices: Immigrant Students," U.S. Public

Schools. Boston, MA: National Coalition ofAdvocates for Students, 1988.

Foundation Giving. Foundation Center, 1997.

Gibson, Margaret and John Ogbu. Minority Statusand Schooling: A Comparative Study ofImmigrant and Involuntary Minorities. NewYork, NY: Garland Publishing, 1991.

Hing, Bill. Making and Remaking Asian AmericaThrough Immigration Policy, 1850-1990. PaloAlto: Stanford University Press, 1993.

Hirano-Nakanishi, Marsha. "It Ain't NecessarilySo," a paper presented at the Annual Meetingof the American Educational ResearchAssociation, San Francisco, CA, April 1992.

Hune, Shirley & Kenyon S. Chan. " Special Focus:Asian Pacific American Demographic andEducational Trends," in D. Carter & R. Wilson(eds.), Minorities in Education, Vol. 15.Washington, D.C.: American Council onEducation, 1997.

Ima, Kenji. "Testing the American Dream: CaseStudies of At-Risk Southeast Asian Students inSecondary Schools," in Ruben Rumbaut andWayne Cornelius (eds.), California'sImmigrant Children: Theory, Research andImplications for Educational Policy (191-208).San Diego: Center for U.S. Mexican Studies,University of California, 1995.

Jew, Victoria. "The Shortage of Asian LanguagesBilingual Teachers in the United States andCalifornia," a paper presented at the NationalForum conference. Pomona, CA, August 1994.

Karnow, Stanley and Nancy Yoshihara. AsianAmericans in Transition. New York: The AsiaSociety, 1992.

Kiang, Peter N. "Southeast Asian and LatinoParent Empowerment: Lessons from Lowell,Massachusetts," in Catherine E. Walsh (ed.),Education Reform and Social Change:Multicultural Voices, Struggles and Visions (59-69). Matwah, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates, 1996.

/7 9

AAPIP PAGE 47

Kiang, Peter N. "When Know-Nothings SpeakEnglish Only: Analyzing Irish and CambodianStruggles for Community Development andEducational Equity," in Karin Aguilar-San Juan(ed.), The State of Asian America: Activismand Resistance in the 1990s (125-145). Boston,MA: South End Press, 1994.

Kiang, Peter N. and Jenny Kaplan. "Where Do WeStand? Views of Racial Conflict by VietnameseAmerican High-School Students in a Black andWhite Context," The Urban Review, Vol. 26, no.2 (95-119). 1994.

Kiang, Peter N. and Vivian Wai-Fun Lee."Exclusion or Contribution? Education K-12Policy," The State of Asian Pacific America:Policy Issues to the Year 2020, (25-48). LosAngeles, CA: LEAP Asian Pacific AmericanPublic Policy Institute and UCLA AsianAmerican Studies Center, 1993.

Kim, Heather. Diversity Among Asian AmericanHigh School Students, Princeton, NJ:Educational Testing Service, January 1997.

Lee, Lee C. Asian Americans: Collages ofIdentities. Cornell Asian American StudiesMonograph Series Number 1. 1992.

Lee, Stacey J. Unraveling the 'Model Minority"Stereotype. Teacher's College Press, 1996.

Lee, Stacey J. "The Road to College: HmongWomen's Pursuit of Higher Education.Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 67, no. 4,1997.

Lou Harris poll. "Tensions and Hopes in America:A Survey of How Minorities and the WhiteMajority Perceive Each other and Steps toAchieve Intergroup Harmony," prepared forthe National Conference. January 1994.

Low, Victor. The Unimpressible Race: A Century ofEducational Struggle by the Chinese in SanFrancisco. San Francisco, CA: East/WestPublishing Company, Inc., 1982.

McKay, Sandra Lee and Sau-ling Cynthia Wong.Language Diversity: Problem or Resource?Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers,1988.

COPV QV LSE

Mc Nall, M. and T. Dunnigan. "The EducationalAchievement of the St. Paul Hmong."Anthropology and Education Quarterly,. Vol.25, no. 1, (44-66). March 1994.

Nakanishi, Don T. and Tina Yamano Nishida(eds.). The Asian Pacific AmericanEducational Experience. New York, NY:Rout ledge, 1995.

National Asian Pacific American LegalConsortium. Audit of Violence Against AsianPacific Americans. Third Annual Report. 1996.

National Center for Education Statistics. "A Profileof Policies and Practices for Limited EnglishProficient Students: Screening Methods,Program Support and Teacher Training." SASS1993-94. Washington, D.C., 1997.

National Research Council. Improving Schoolingfor Language-Minority Children: A ResearchAgenda. Diane August and Kenji Hakuta(eds.), National Academy Press, 1997.

Nguyen-Lam and Kim-Oanh. "Meeting the Needsof Our Asian American Students," CaliforniaAssociation for Bilingual Education Newsletter(33). February 1997.

Okihiro, Gary. Margins and Mainstreams, Asiansin American History and Culture, Is It Yellowor White? Seattle, WA: University ofWashington Press, 1994.

Ooka Pang, Valerie. "Caring for the Whole Child:Asian Pacific American Students," a paper pre-sented at Defining the Knowledge Base forUrban Teacher Education Conference. Atlanta,GA: Emory University, 1996.

Olsen, Laurie and Marcia Chen. Crossing theSchoolhouse Border: Immigrant Children inCalifornia Schools. San Francisco: CaliforniaTomorrow, 1988.

Ong, Paul and Suzanne J. Hee. "The Growth ofthe Asian Pacific American Population: TwentyMillion in 2020," The State of Asian PacificAmerica: Policy Issues to the Year 2020 (11-23).Los Angeles, CA: LEAP Asian Pacific AmericanPublic Policy Institute and the UCLA AsianAmerican Studies Center, 1993.


Ong, Paul and Linda Wing. "The Social Contractto Educate All Children," The State of AsianPacific America: A Public Policy Report. LosAngeles, CA: LEAP Asian Pacific AmericanPublic Policy Institute and the UCLA AsianAmerican Studies Center, 1996.

Ramirez, Anthony. "America's Super Minority,"Fortune. November 24, 1986.

Rumbaut, R. and J. Weeks. "Fertility andAdaptation: Indochinese Refugees in theUnited States," [20(2), (428 -466)] InternationalMigration Review. 1986,

Rumbaut, Ruben. "The Crucible Within: EthnicIdentity, Self-Esteem and SegmentedAssimilation Among Children of Immigrants,"in Alejandro Portes (ed.), The New SecondGeneration, (16-17). New York, NY: RussellSage Foundation, 1996.

Rumbaut, Ruben and Kenji Ima. The Adaptationof Southeast Asian Refugee Youth: AComparative Study, Vols. I and II of theSoutheast Asian Refugee Youth Study,Department of Sociology, San Diego StateUniversity, December 1987.

Saint Paul Foundation, Bicultural TrainingPartnership, Voices and Visions: Snapshots ofthe Southeast Asian Communities in the TwinCities. St. Paul, MN, July 1996.

Shinagawa, Larry H. "The Impact of Immigrationon the Demography of Asian PacificAmericans," Reframing the ImmigrationDebate (59-126). LEAP Asian Pacific AmericanPublic Policy Institute and the UCLA AsianAmerican Studies Center, 1996.

Smith-Hefner, Nancy. "Education, Gender, andGenerational Conflict Among KhmerRefugees," in Anthropology & EducationQuarterly, 24, (2), (135-158). 1993.

"Success Story: Outwhiting the Whites,"Newsweek. June 21, 1971.

Takaki, Ron. Strangers from a Different Shore.Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1989.

Te, Buoy, Joan May, T. Cordova, Wendy Walker-Moffat and Joan First. Unfamiliar Partners:Asian Parents and U.S. Public Schools. Boston,MA: National Coalition of Advocates forStudents, 1997.

"The New Whiz Kids," Time. August 31, 1987.

Turbo, Henry, Lisle Jacobs and Elizabeth Kirton.Cultural Conflict and Adaptation: The Case ofthe Hmong Children in American Society.Basingstroke, UK: Falmer Press, 1990.

United States Civil Rights Commission, "CivilRights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the1990s," (88ff) Washington, D.C., February 1992.

United States Department of Education, Office ofEducational Research and Improvement. NCES97-472. Washington, D.C., 1997.

Viadero, Debra. "Asian-American Teachers on theDecline, Study Finds," Education Week. June10, 1997.

Walker-Moffat, Wendy. The Other Side of theAsian American Success Story. San Francisco,CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995.

Wang, Ling-chi. "Lau v. Nichols: History ofStruggle for Equal" and "Quality Education," inAsian Americans: Social and PsychologicalPerspectives, Vol. 2, (181-216). Russell Endo,Stanley Sue and Nathaniel Wagner (eds). PaloAlto, CA: Science and Behavior, 1980.

Wong-Fillmore, Lily. "When Learning a SecondLanguage Means Losing the First," in EarlyChildhood Research Quarterly, Vol. 6, (323-346). 1991.

"Youth Risk Behavior Survey." San Diego CitySchool's Report to the School Board. February22, 1994.

Zhou, Min and Carl Bankston III. "Social Capitaland the Adaptation of the Second Generation:the Case of Vietnamese Youth in NewOrleans," in Alejandro Portes (ed.), The NewSecond Generation. New York, NY: RussellSage Foundation, 1996.

AAPIP MISSION

To help transform U.S. philanthropy to include Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders and toserve the community's needs.

AAPIP'S GOALS ARE TO

tU Educate grantmakers about and advocate for Asian Pacific Islander issues, communities andconcerns to increase philanthropic resources to the Asian Pacific Islander communities.

tU Develop and implement strategic efforts to increase Asian Pacific Islander trustee and staffrepresentation in philanthropy.

AAPIP BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Jon Funabiki, ChairProgram Officer, The Ford Foundation

Dianne Yamashiro-Omi, Vice ChairFormerly Program Officer, Gap Foundation

Unmi Song, SecretaryProgram Officer, Joyce Foundation

Joe Lumarda, TreasurerVice President of Development, CaliforniaCommunity Foundation

Jessica ChaoSenior Advisor, Open Society InstituteU.S. Programs

Gerry ChingDistribution Committee Member,The Mclnerny Foundation

Mallika DuttProgram Officer, Ford Foundation

Laurie GarduqueProgram Officer, John D. & Catherine T.MacArthur Foundation

Stewart KwohTrustee, The California Endowment

Adrienne PonConsumer Affairs Director, Pacific TelesisGroup

Peggy SaikaTrustee, New World Foundation

Ruby TakanishiPresident/CEO, Foundation for ChildDevelopment

Lori VillarosaAssociate Program Officer, C.S. MottFoundation

Richard WooExecutive Director, Levi Strauss Foundation

Sylvia YeeVice President of Programs, Evelyn &Walter Haas, Jr. Fund

STAFF

Marjorie FujikiExecutive Director

Joe LuceroManager, Program Services

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Documents

DOCUMENT RESUME ED 416 273 AUTHOR Olsen, Laurie ... · DOCUMENT RESUME. ED 416 273 UD 032 136. AUTHOR Olsen, Laurie TITLE An Invisible Crisis. The Educational Needs of Asian Pacific