DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 371 726 IR 016 680

AUTHOR Sivin-Kachala, Jay; Biala, Ellen R.TITLE Report on the Effectiveness of Technology in Schools,

1990-1994.INSTITUTION Interactive Educational Systems Design, Inc.., New

York, NY.SPONS AGENCY Software Publishers Association, Washington, DC.PUB DATE 94NOTE 47p.PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) Reports

Research/Technical (143)

EARS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; Comparative Analysis; Computer

Software Development; *Computer Uses in Education;Courseware; *Educational Research; *EducationalTechnology; Elementary Secondary Education;*Instructional Effectiveness; Intermode Differences;Literature Reviews; Student Attitudes; TeacherAttitudes; Teacher Student Relationship

IDENTIFIERS Learning Environments

ABSTRACT

This report summarizes the educational technologyresearch conducted from 1990 through 1994. It is based on 133research reviews and reports on original research projects from bothpublished and unpublished sources. This researcil varied inmethodology: some studies used a technique for synthesizing andanalyzing data from many different studies; some compared the use oftechnology to traditional instructional methods; some compared theuse of technology under different learning conditions; and someutilized classroom observation. The report is divided into threesections: (1) "Effects of Technology on Student Achievement"; (2)"Effects of Technology on Student Self-Concept and Attitudes aboutLearning"; and (3) "Effects of Technology on Interactions InvolvingTeachers and Students in the Learning Environment." A list ofconclusions drawn from the analysis is included, as well as abibliography of the research cited. (Contains 170 references.)(JLB)

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REPORT ON

The Effectiveness

of Technology

in Schools

1990-1994

CONDUCTID BY: Interactive Educational Systems Design, New York, NY

COMMISSIONED BY: Software Publishers Association, Washington, DC

MEM

MEM

Software Publishers Association

1730 M Street N.W., Washington, DC 10036-4510

(101) 452-1600 fax (201) 213-8756

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS:

Jay Sivin-Kachala and Ellen R. Bialo are Vice President and Presidentof Interactive Educational Systems Design (IESD), Inc., an educationaltechnology consulting firm in New York City. IESD provides a variety ofconsulting services related to the development and evaluation of education-al software and multimedia products, conducts research in the field of edu-cational technology, develops print materials that supplement educationalsoftware, and trains educators in the use of technology. IESD 's clientsinclude software developers and publishers, technology hardware manufac-turers, government agencies, non-profit institutions, and school districts.

Sivin-Kachala and Bialo can be contacted at 212-769-1715.

Special thanks to the following people who contributed to this report:

Charlene Blohm, Blohm and AssociatesCarole Cotton, CCA ConsultingJennifer House, Apple Computer; Inc.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

Goal of this Report 1

Conclusions 2

SECTION I: EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ON STUDENTACHIEVEMENT 3

Comparison StudiesCurriculum Areas and Student Achievement 4

Special Populations and Student Achievement 7

Software Design Characteristics and Student Achievement 9

Recent Technologies and Student Achievement 13

Instructional Decisions and Student Achievement 16

Conclusion 17

SECTION II: EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ON STUDENTSELF-CONCEPT AND ATTITUDES ABOUT LEARNING 19

Effects on Student Self-Concept 19

Curriculum Areas and Student Attitudes 19

Software Design Characteristics and Student Attitudes 21

Recent Technologies and Student Attitudes 22

Special Populations and Student Attitudes 23Instructional Decisions and Student Attitudes 24Conclusion 24

SECTION III: EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ON INTERACTIONSINVOLVING TEACHERS AND STUDENTS IN THE LEARNINGENVIRONMENT 25

Characteristics of a Desirable Technology-BasedLearning Environment 25

Effects of Technology on Teacher-Student Interactionsand Teachers' Instructional Behavior 26

Effects of Technology on Student Interactions 28Learner Characteristics 29Conclusion 29

BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

ENDNOTES 37

Report on the Effectiveness of Technology inSchools, 1990-1994: Executive Summary

In the 1980s, the United States experienced drarnat-ic growth in the use of computer-based technologyfor instructional purposes. According to the USCongress, Office of Technology Assessment, thepercentage of schools with one or more computersgrew from approximately 18 percent in 1981 to 95percent in 1987.1 It is estimated that as of the 1992-1993 school year, more than 4.4 million computerswere installed in the nation's more than 17,000school districts.2

During the 1980s, computer technology has gener-ally been credited with motivating students, aidinginstruction for special needs students, improvingstudent attitudes toward learning, and motivatingteachers and freeing them from some routineinstructional tasks, enabling them to better utilizetheir time.

In 1990, the Software Publishers Association pub-lished its first Report on the Effectiveness ofMicrocomputers in Schools. In that report, numer-ous research studies supporting the use of technolo-gy as a valuable tool for learning were described.These studies showed that the use of technology as alearning tool can make a measurable difference instudent achievement, attitudes and interaction withteachers and other students. The evidence suggestedthat positive effects of technology were dependentupon the subject area, characteristics of the studentpopulation, the teacher's role, how students aregrouped, the design of the software, and the level ofaccess to technology. Since then, research docu-menting the effectiveness of educational technologyhas continued to grow.

GOAL OF THIS REPORT

This report, commissioned by the SoftwarePublishers Association and conducted by an inde-pendent educational technology consulting firm,Interactive Educational Systems Design, Inc., sum-

marizes the educational technology research con-ducted from 1990 through 1994.

This report is based on 133 research reviews andreports on original research projects, from both pub-lished and unpublished sources. Of these 133 stud-ies, 58 were published in professional journals, and24 were doctoral dissertations.

These 133 studies were chosen from an original setof over 700. Studies were not included for a varietyof reasons. Some were weak in methodology (e.g.,comparisons of a computer-based instructionaltreatment to no alternative treatment). Some werenarrow, reporting on a single commercial softwareproduct. Some addressed topics not of concern inthis report (e.g., critiques of typical research meth-ods; research on the attitudes of student teachers;research on the design of the physical layout oftechnology-rich classrooms).

The research examined varies in methodology.Some studies use a technique for synthesizing andanalyzing data from many different studies. Somestudies compare the use of technology to traditionalinstructional methods. Others compare differentsoftware designs or the use of technology under dif-ferent learning environment conditions. Still othersare based on classroom observation and surveys ofteachers and students.

The report is divided into three sections:

Effects of technology on student achievement

Effects of technology on student self-conceptand attitudes about learning

Effects of technology on interactions involvingteachers and students in the learning environ-ment

Also included is a bibliography of the researchcited.

CONCLUSIONS

Technology is making a significant positive impact ineducation. Important findings in these studiesinclude:

Educational technology has demonstrated asignificant positive effect on achievement.Positive effects have been found for all majorsubject areas, in preschool through higher edu-cation, and for both regular education and spe-cial needs students. Evidence suggests thatinteractive video is especially effecdve whenthe skills and concepts to be learned have avisual component and when the softwareincorporates a research-based instructionaldesign.

Educational technology has been found tohave positive effects on student attitudestoward learning and on student self-concept.Students felt more successful in school, weremore motivated to learn and had increased self-confidence and self-esteem when using comput-er-based instruction. This was particularly truewhen the technology allowed learners to controltheir own learning.

The level of effectiveness of educational tech-nolou is influenced by the specific studentpopulation, the software design, the teacher'srole, how the students are grouped, and thelevel of student access to the technology.

Specific characteristics of the learning envi-ronment help to maximize the benefits ofeducational technology:

1. District-level involvement and the leadershipof a school-level computer coordinator arekey factors in developing a school environ-ment conducive to effective use of technology

2. Teachers are more effective after receivingextensive training in the integration of tech-nology with the curriculum.

3. Exemplary computer-using teachers benefitfrom a social network of other computer-using teachers at their school.

4. Exemplary computer-using teachers typi-cally have smaller class sizes and morefunds available for software acquisition.

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5. Teachers should carefully plan, and activelyparticipate in, learning activities that incor-porate tool software.

6. Teachers should offer students self-directedlearning experiences and activities thatencourage self-expression.

7. Students benefit from personal interactionamong class members.

University and in-service teacher trainingprovides teachers with greater comfort inusing computers, an increase in the desire touse computers and an understanding of howto integrate software into the classroom cur-riculum.

Introducing technology into the learningenvironment has been shown to make learn-ing more student-centered, to encouragecooperative learning, and to stimulateincreased teacher/student interaction.

Positive changes in the learning environmentbrought about by technology are more evolu-tionary than revolutionary. These changesoccur over a period of years, as teachers becomemore experienced with technology.

Courses for which computer-based networkswere used increased student-student and stu-dent-teacher interaction, increased student-teacher interaction with lower-performingstudents, and did not decrease the traditionalforms of communication used.

Greater student cooperation and sharing andhelping behaviors occurred when studentsused computer-based learning that had stu-dents compete against the computer ratherthan against each other.

Small group collaboration on computer isespecially effective when students havereceived training in the collaborative process.

This report provides software developers and publish-ers with research that will enable them to improveeducational technology so that it continues to have asignificant positive impact on student achievement,self-concept and attitudes, and on the interactions inthe learning environment for students of all ages,capabilities, socio-economic backgrounds, and areasof interest.

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Section 1:Effects of Technology on Student Achievement.

Original research reports and reviews of educationalresearch published between 1990 and 1994 confirmthat microcomputers and other educational tech-nologies have beneficial effects on student achieve-ment. Research indicates the effectiveness of usingtechnology to support instruction in a wide varietyof curriculum areas, including: reading, writing,spelling, mathematics, social studies, science, psy-chology, accounting, music appreciation, and cogni-tive skill development.3

A growing body of research shows, however, thatthe effectiveness of educational technology dependson a match between the goals of instruction, charac-teristics of the learners, the design of the software,and technology implementation decisions made byteachers.

In this section, we set out to accomplish threethings: (1) report on recent studies in which tech-nology-based instruction is compared to otherinstructional methods; (2) explore several well-researched curriculum areas in depth; and (3)review research that relates student achievement tolearner characteristics, software design, more recenttechnologies, and instructional decisions concerningtechnology implementation.

COMPARISON STUDIES

Several recent studies present meta-analyses of theeffects of technology-based instruction in compari-son with other instructional treatments (usually tra-ditional methods). Meta-analysis is a method ofassessing the effects of technology-based instruc-tion across many different studies, using a commonmeasurement scale, called effect size (ES). An ES of0.3 can be interpreted to mean that the technology-based instruction is 30 percent more effective thanthe control group instruction.

...in terms of grade-equivalent units[an ES of 0.3 is interpreted to

mean] approximately 3 monthsadditional gain.4

Thus, in three years, an instructional treatment withan ES of 0.3 per year would result in an additionalgain of almost 1 year.

According to Kulik and Kulik,5 an ES of 0.3 is con-sidered to be a "moderate but significant effect." Intheir meta-analysis of 254 controlled evaluation stud-ies covering students from kindergarten through high-er education, they found that computer-based instruc-tion (CBI) had an average ES of 0.3. Where differ-ences in achievement were statistically significant, thedifference favored CBI in 94 percent of the cases.

Ryan6 conducted a meta-analysis of 40 comparativestudies focusing on the use of computers in elemen-tary schools. She calculated an average ES of 0.309.Ryan found that the amount of technology-relatedteacher training was significantly related to theachievement of students receiving CBI. Studentsof teachers with more than 10 hours of trainingsignificantly outperformed students of teacherswith 5 or fewer training hours. (Survey research byCates, McNaull and Gardner7 lends support for theimportance of teacher training. Compared to teach-ers with less training, teachers with more than 3credit hours of university coursework and more than3 contact hours of inservice training rated them-selves significantly higher on scales of computerexpertise and computer comfort, had "significantlyhigher opinions of the usefulness of software," andreported significantly greater use of computers inthe classroom.)

In his meta-analysis of the effects of using a wordprocessor as an instructional tool, Bangert-Drowns8found an average ES of 0.27 for improvement ofwriting quality. He characterized this effect, basedon 20 studies, as small but statistically significant.However, nine studies that focused on word process-ing in the context of remedial writing instructionyielded an average ES of 0.49, a significantly largereffect.

Two meta-analyses suggest the instructional valueof interactive video (IV). In Fletcher's9 meta-analy-sis of 47 studies of higher education and miltaryand industrial training, it was found that studentsreceiving instruction via IV had achievement scoresthat averaged 0.50 standard deviations above thescores of students receiving conventional instruc-tional. McNeil and Nelson19 completed a meta-analysis of research on the cognitive achievementeffects of IV, resulting in an overail ES of0.502. They found significantly higher results whenteachers used IV as a supplement to traditionalinstruction than when IV was used to replace tradi-tional instruction.

These meta-analyses confirm that technology has apositive effect on student achievement. The studiesalso underscore the importance of the teacher's rolein the effective use of educational technology.

CURRICULUM AREAS AND STUDENTACHIEVEMENT

Reading and WritingReading and writing have been frequent focuses ofeducational technology research in recent years.Highlights are presented as follows.

Iteagiin . A tutorial and practice program calledDaisy Quest was developed by Foster, Erickson,Foster, and Torgeson to increase young children'sphonological awareness.11 Phonological awarenessis defined as "one's sensitivity to, or explicit aware-ness of the structure of sounds in one's language.The developers view the value of the programas helping "children understand the alphabeticprinciple during the early stages of reading instruc-tion." The majority of practice in Daisy Quest isin recognizing identical sounds or sound combina-tions across words (e.g., the initial sound in"fish" and "fat"; the final sound combination in"dog" and "log"). The program uses high-qualitydigitized speech.

In two separate studies and five different mea-sures of phonological awareness, the computer-based approach was found to be significantlymore effective than regular instruction.12 Theaverage ES of 1.05 is considered significant.

Reading and Writing. Green13 explored the effectsof three different approaches to writing instruction

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on achievement in reading for inner-city, Mexican-American third-graders. A writing process approachwith word processing resulted in significantly high-er reading achievement than a similar approachwithout word processing or a grammar-orientedapproach to writing.

Writing. Several researchers have found that studentuse of word processing software results in higherquality writing. Such results were reported for regu-lar education students,14 English as a SecondLanguage (ESL) students,15 and for special needsstudents.18

Bair17 found that emotionally disturbed students ingrades 6-12 who used computers demonstratedsuperior performance in writing maturity, reductionin spelling errors, and length of writing. Silver andRepa18 found that ESL high school students whoused word processing software in combination witha developmental learning sequence on the writingprocess evidenced higher quality writing than stu-dents receiving equivalent instructional withoutword processing. Owston, Murphy, and Wideman19found that regular eighth graders' computer-writtenpapers were rated significantly higher in qualitythan handwritten papers for overall writing compe-tence, focus/organization, support, and mechanics.They note, however, that

...students appear to bring theirown personal style of working tothe word processing environment;computers do not of themselvesdramatically change student writ-ing style. Instead, they appear tofacilitate whatever level of editingthe user wishes to engage in.

It was determined in a-recent study by Zellermayer,Salomon, Globerson, and Givon29 that a computerwriting tool that automatically provides ongoing,unsolicited guidance throughout the stages of thewriting process improved the quality of studentwriting even after the support structure wasremoved. Students who had used this tool expendedmore mental effort and demonstrated significantlygreater writing improvement than students who hadused a tool that provided guidance only uponrequest, or students who had practiced writing usingonly word processing software.

Several studies support the notion that teacherdecisions are critical in effective writing instruc-tion using a word processor. For example, Beyer21

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compared a process approach to writing with regu-lar word processing to writing instruction with onlylimited access to computers. The process approachwith word processing included daily teacher use ofthe process approach to writing; student use of com-puters on a rotating basis to work on writing assign-ments; daily teacher use of a short writing lesson;teacher-student writing conferences; and ongoingteacher monitoring of student computer use andprogress with writing assignments. Students usingthis approach significantly outperformed the groupwho had limited computer access on organization,development, standard writing conventions, andoverall writing quality.

A 1991 study by Dailey22 suggests that assigninghigh school students to small cooperative groupswhen writing with a word processor is superior tohaving them write on computers individually. Thestudents in small groups of three were preassignedroles of recorder, keyboarder, or checker. Studentsworking independently received whole class writinginstruction before proceeding to the computer.Results indicated significant differences in favor ofthe small groups across t'.e stages of the writingprocess.

Valeri-Gold and Deming,23 after reviewing researchon computers and basic writing instruction, aptlyconclude:

...the most effective utilization ofcomputer software in the basicwriting classroom combines thebest of writing instruction theorywith a creative use of computertechnology. Only well-informed,trained and caring compositioninstructors will help to bridge thegap between teCinology andhumani4;

In her review of research on writing with wordprocessors, Snyder24 found that when a soundmodel of teaching writing is implemented, stu-dents using word processing have demonstratedhigher levels of achievement than equivalent stu-dents writing without word processing.

Spelling

Two studies identified by Anderson-Inman25 sug-gest that keyboarding and keyboarding software

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can be used to improve spelling for low perform-ing students. In one study,26 students worked withkeyboarding software that allowed teachers to enterthe words to be used in typing drills; students used itto practice spelling words and take spelling tests. Inthe other study,27 students practiced spelling usinglaminated keyboards not attached to computers;McClendon found that significant improvement inspelling scores resulted from a combination of key-board-based practice and direct spelling instruction.

MathematicsSeveral recent studies compared instruction inmathematics using technology to instruction usingtraditional methods.

Two of the studies were designed so that instruc-tional time for the experimental and control groupswas approximately the same. Reglin28 focused on aseminar on mathematics skills, in preparation for anexam required for admission to teacher educationprograms. One group of students received ninehours of classroom instruction and nine hours ofcomputer-assisted instruction (CAI); the othergroup received 18 hours of classroom instruction.Students in the classroom instruction-plus-CAIgroup showed significantly higher achievementgains than the students in the classroom instruction-only group. In another study, third and fifth gradersreceived either CAI (Milliken Math Sequences) ortraditional math instruction for 71 days.29 At bothgrade levels, students receiving CAI scored signifi-cantly higher than students receiving traditionalinstruction on a test of basic math skills, as well ason an assessment of computer literacy. CAI wasrated as having greater cost utility. Since these twostudies were controlled for time spent on instruc-tion, their results suggest that the computerexperience, not merely time-on-task, accounts forthe differences in student achievement.

Two studies by researchers at the StevensInstitute of Technology30 demonstrated the posi-tive effects of commercially-available high schoolmathematics software on retention (i.e., perfor-mance on a delayed post-test). In one study, eachstudent received instruction for two geometry top-ics, one with supplement.al software and one with-out. One group used software for the first topic,and the other group used software for the secondtopic. For retention, student performance was sig-nificantly better when instruction included software.In the other study, two groups of students were com-pared. One received instruction that included sup-

plemental software, and the other group did not usesoftware. Once again, the group using softwaredemonstrated significantly better retention (70 per-cent better) than the group who did not use soft-ware. The researchers point to the technologyexperience of the teachers in the computer-medi-ated treatments as a critical factor. They note thatthe teachers "had been part of a computer-mediatededucation development project for more than twoyears."

Funkhouser found that high school algebra andgeometry students who used commercially-availableproblem solving software scored significantly high-er on tests of mathematics content than a compara-ble group of students who did not use the software.The students using the software also made signifi-cant gains in problem solving ability.31

In a study by Alexander,32 college algebra studentswho used software designed "to aid in the instruc-tion of functions using concrete visualization" plusa graphing calculator significantly outperformedstudents receiving conventional instruction in their"understanding of the concept of functions...and inmathematical modeling." The results in this studysuggest the power of the computer to provideconcrete visual support for the learning ofabstract concepts.

Two studies by the Cognition and Technology Groupat Vanderbilt University33 explored the effectivenessof The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury, a videoseries focusing on mathematical problem solving.

[The video series is] designed topromote problem posing, problemsolving, reasoning, and effectivecommunication. Each adventure isa 15-20 minute story. At the end ofeach story, the major character (orgmup of character's) is faced with achallenge that the students in theclassroom must solve .bc..fore theyare allowed to see how the moviecharacters solved the challenge.

Students in JaIper classes outperformed studentsreceiving traditional math instruction in solvingone-step, two-step, and multi-step word prob-lems. Jasper students demonstrated greater skill inplanning for problem solving and ge-terating "thesubgoals necessary to achieve a larger goal." Jasperis a good example of software that engages studentsin the construction of their own knowledge and that

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anchors instruction in the context of meaningful,real-world problems.

ScienceTwo recent studies demonstrated the advantagesof combining hands-on science instruction withtool and simulation software.

Gardner, Simmons, and Simpson34 found evidenceof the benefits of hands-on meteorology activitiescombined with content-specific tool software. Threegroups of third-graders were compared: one groupreceiving hands-on activities with software; onereceiving hands-on activities without software; andone receiving traditional classroom instruction. Thehands-on activities with software group siginficant-ly outperformed the hands-on activities only groupon a test of meteorology knowledge. Both of thesegroups scored signficantly higher than the studentsreceiving traditional instruction.

Lazarowitz and Huppert35 had similar results withhigh school biology students. One group receivedclassroom-laboratory instruction that included useof a software program that combined simulatedexperiments and laboratory analysis tools. The othergroup received classroom-laboratory instructiononly. The group using the software demonstratedsignificantly higher achievement in content knowl-edge and in the science process skills of graph com-munication, data interpretation, and controllingvariables.

English as a Second Language (ESL)Liu36 found that hypermedia software designed topermit exploration of semantic networks can helpinternational college and graduate students (non-native English speakers) in English vocabularydevelopment. A semantic network is the web ofinterrelated concepts that represents one's depth ofunderstanding of any given concept. For example, asemantic network for the concept lawyer couldinclude trial, judge, defendent, jury, etc. Studentswho used the software demonstrated significantgains in vocabulary knowledge.

Logo and Other Programming Langua gesThe effects of Logo and other computer program-ming languages on student cognitive abilities con-'inue to be a focus of research.

Meta-analyses. In two meta-analyses of the effectsof computer programming on cognitive perfor-

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mance (e.g., "reasoning skills, logical thinking andplanning skills, and general problem solvingskills"), programming had an average ES of 0.41when compared with non-computer instructionalmethods.37 This suggests that the "learning of pro-gramming can positively enhance students' cogni-tive performance."

Logo and cleativity. Clements38 compared Logo'seffect on the creativity of eight-year-olds with theeffects of other "creative" uses of computers and ascheduled school "activity period" for special inter-est activities.

As part of the Logo treatment, students wr:e intro-duced to basic Logo commands and presented withsimple "challenges." Later the concept of "proce-dural thinking" was introduced and encouraged asstudents engaged in programming. Componentprocesses of procedural thinking were given human-like identities, so that the students could betterrelate to them and remember them. Students chosetheir own projects and were prompted to "reflect ontheir use of componential processes."

The other computer group wrote compositions(using an integrated prewriting, word processing,and editing package) and created drawings (usinggraphics software). As with the Logo group, therewas a focus on processes, student selection of writ-ing and drawing projects, and "interpersonal inter-action with peers and (the same) teacher."

After 25 weeks, students in both computergroups significantly outscored the non-computergroup in verbal creativity. The Logo groupdemonstrated significantly higher performance infigural creativity than either of the other groups. Itis important to note that these positive effects werethe results of both a computer environment and ateacher-dependent instructional environment.

Logo and problem solving. A group of researchersfound that pairs of students engaging in Logoactivities achieved significantly higher gains inmetacognitive processing than pairs of studentswho used CAI problem-solving programs.39Metacognitive processes are those related to plan-ning and evaluating one's thinking while solvingproblems. The research suggests two characteristicsof Logo that may account for its effectiveness: (1) itstimulates students to make their own rules; and (2)its open-ended structure allows students to success-fully resolve their cognitive conflicts. Logo's abilityto stimulate resolution of cognitive conflicts based

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on "ideas relevant to the problem's solution" hasbeen confirmed in subsequent research.40Researchers found evidence that cognitively-basedresolution of cognitive conflicts helps promotehigher-order thinking.

Logo and geometry concepts. Two recent studiesdemonstrated that the use of Logo had a signifi-cant effect on students' understanding of basicgeometry concepts. In one study, fourth graderswho used Logo developed "mathematically 3ophisti-cated and elaborate ideas of angle, angle size, androtation."41 In the other study, seventh and eighthgraders who used Logo significantly outscored stu-dents who received traditional math instruction on atest of the concepts of poil:t, ray, line, and line seg-ment.42 The Logo students also demonstrated supe-rior conceptualizadon of these geometry concepts ininterviews.

Keep in mind that the Logo-based instruction stu-dents received in all of these studies required theactive participation of Logo teachers. The achieve-ment effects are the result of an interaction betweenthe software's characteristics and the classroomenvironment teachers create.

When considered together, the 23 studies describedabove suggest that the use of software and technolo-gy helps students to achieve in a variety of curricu-lum areas.

SPECIAL POPULATIONS AND STUDENTACHIEVEMENT

Early Childhood EducationTwo recent studies support the conclusion that well-designed computer-based activities, when presentedwith the active participation of a professionalteacher or trained tutor, can increase young chil-dren's cognitive abilities.

Goldmacher and Lawrence43 compared two groupsof Head Start preschoolers; one group received acomputer enrichment program (Computertots) andthe other group engaged in standard Head Startactivities. The computer-based activities involved awide variety of software, a professional teacher, andmonthly themes that integrated important skills thatare prerequisites for kindergarten attendance.Students in the computer group demonstratedimprovements in all academic skills tested, and

their growth in memory and visual perceptionwas significantly greater than that of the non-computer group.

Chang and Osguthorpe44 investigated the achieve-ment effects on kindergartners of reading instruc-tion involving picture-word processing software andhelp from specially trained older students (fourth-and fifth-graders).

The picture-word processor...allows users to write messages on acomputer by simply -ressingsquares of picture-win ; on anelectronic tablet withob aaving tospell woirls or use extensive hand-e, coordination.

The computer-using students performed signifi-cantly better than students receiving regularclassroom instruction on tests of word identifica-tion, picture-word identification, and passagecomprehension.

Special Needs StudentsSeveral researchers have recently examined theeffectiveness of technology-based instruction forstudents with special needs, including students iden-tified as learning disabled, low achieving, or inneed of special education.

Learning disabled students. Five studies provideevidence of the potential of writing software, expertsystems, videodisc, and hypermedia as educationaltools for use with learning disabled (LD) students.

Zhang45 compared the effects on LD elementarystudents of writing instruction incorporating awriting tool designed especially for LD students,writing instruction incorporating a commercially-available word processing package, and writinginstruction without computers. Special features ofthe LD writing tool include synthesized speech, adictionary of basic vocabulary words, teachers'and students' word lists, digitizeu photos of stu-dents, and the ability to provide immediate teacherfeedback. Students using the LD-specific writingtool made "significantly more progress" than stu-dents using word processing or no computers "interms of mechanical errors amd holistic quality" oftheir writing.

Garzella46 compared the effectiveness of an expertsystem for reading diagnosis and prescription

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(CAPER) to traditional methods of diagnosis andprescription. Elementary-level LD students ofteachers who used theexpert system significantlyoutgained students of teachers using traditionalmethods in word identification skills.

Woodward and Gersten47 report that whenteachers of LD high school students used avideodisc program to teach fractions, "almosttwo-thirds of the students reached or exceededcriterion performance."

Xin48 found that video technology gave learningdisabled elementary students a significantadvantage in vocabulary development andachievement in reading comprehen-ion com-pared to students not exposed to video. Videowas used to provide meaningful visual contextswhen learning new words.

A fifth study compared the effectiveness of two ver-sions of the computer-based Student Assistant forLearning from Text (SALT) in helping LD students''compensate for their reading difficulties."49 The"basic" version provided information elementsfound in a basic biology textbook (text passages,illustrations, an outline, and comprehension ques-tions) plus a computerized "notebook."

The enhanced version added speechsynthesis, i on-line glossary, linksbetween questions and text, high-lighting of main ideas, and supple-mentary explanations which sum-marized important ideas.

The enhanced version was designed to more fullytake advantage of the computer. Students scoredsignificantly higher on a comprehension testwhen using the enhanced software version withhypermedia features.

Low-achieving students. Four studies suggest thatlow-achieving students can benefit from computer-based training systems, from carefully designedmath basic skills drills, and from integrated learningsystems (ILSs).

Skinner50 investigated the effects of a sophisticatedcomputer-based training course on classroom man-agement for undergraduate physical educationmajors. The course components included the fol-lowing: (1) "students progressed through [tutorialand practice] material at a self-determined pace";(2) "a mastery criteria of 70% was set for each unit

quiz"; (3) "demonstrations and lectures were pre-sented to extend knowledge mastered via the textand CBI"; (4) "communication between instructorsand students was conducted via a computer bulletinboard"; and (5) "proctors and tutors were availableas needed by students."

Results on unit quizzes and the final examshowed the superiority of the computer-basedtraining to text-based instruction without com-puter (but with proctors and tutors available asneeded). The benefit of the computer-basedapproach was markedly greater for low-achievingstudents than for high achievers.

Researchers from the University of California SantaBarbara51 studied the effects of specially designedsoftware on students in grades 4-6 identified asneeding "extended practice of basic math facts onthe computer to increase their speed." The softwaretests for the time it takes each student to find andpress a key, and then factors this "response latency"into timed drills. The software also includes diag-nostic testing to determine an appropriate startinglevel for practice. After using the program to prac-tice on single-digit multiplication problems, stu-dents took a timed paper-and-pencil test. Resultsindicate that elementary age students needingextended math practice achieved automaticityfor single-digit problems and for double-digitproblems that required no added operations.

Swan, Guerrero, Mitrani, and Schoener52 reportedthe results of New York City's Computer PilotProgram, which was targeted to educationally disad-vantaged students across the elementary-through-high school grade span. The results indicate theeffectiveness of 13 comprehensive computer-basedinstruction programs, many of' which are ILS-based.Overall ESs were 0.8 for reading and 0.9 for mathe-matics. In another study, Schmidt53 found that a dis-tributed ILS resulted in significantly higherachievement gains in reading, math, and languagearts for low-achieving students compared to tradi-tional instruction. Swan et al.54 cite four featuresof computer-based instruction that make a differ-ence for educationally disadvantaged students: (1)it is "perceived by students as less threateningthan traditional...instruction"; (2) it provides"extensive drill and practice with immediate feed-back"; (3) it offers individualized diagnosis ofstudent strengths and weaknesses; and (4) imple-mentation of such instructional systems "providestudents with greater academic support."

Special education. Sartorio55 compared preschoolspecial educational instruction that incorporatedcommercially-available language development soft-ware to instruction without computers. The soft-ware programs could be used with "appropriateadaptive computer devices." Special educationpreschoolers in the class that used the softwareshowed significantly greater improvement in lan-guage development as measured by a standard-ized test.

SOFTWARE DESIGN CHARACTERISTICSAND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Research supports what experienced, computer-using educators observe every dayspecific designcharacteristics of software make a difference.Studies were identified underscoring the importanceof the type of software, instructional control (learn-er control versus program control), type of feed-back, the embedding of cognitive strategies, and theinclusion of animated graphics.

Type of Software

Wood56 explored the effects on mathematicsachievement of two different types of software: atutorial program and a tool program. The subjectswere high school students studying algebra.Whereas the students using the tutorial demonstrat-ed higher achievement in computational skills, thestudents using the tool evidenced higher achieve-ment in their understanding of algebra concepts.The study suggests that the best choice of softwaretype may depend on the instructional goal. Sincesuccess in mathematics requires both computationaland conceptual skills, students are likely to benefitfrom both types of software.

Some software is developed and assigned to stu-dents with the intent of improving general problem-solving abilities. McClurg57 found that differentgenre of problem-solving software have differenteffects on student abilities. One group of third andfourth graders used software programs that focusedon spatial patterning tasks (e.g., detect the pattern,continue a pattern). The other group worked on soft-ware challenges involving spatial rotation. The spa-tial rotation group experienced a significantlygreater gain in a test of figural classification thanthe spatial patterning group. The author attributesthe different gains to the specific conceptual

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skills required to solve the problems presented byeach software program. This research suggests theneed for educators to closely inspect the challengesprovided in problem-solving programs.

Instructional ControlFour recent studies suggest the importance ofinstructional control (learner control versus pro-gram control) as a software design issue.

Dalton58 explored the effects of an interactive videoon comets using two different instructional pacingstrategies. One group of fifth and sixth gradersworked through a fixed-sequence presentation inwhich text screens were presented "for a fixed lengthof time, based on the average reading rate of a groupof similar learners." The other group worked throughthe same fixed-sequence presentation, except thatthe students controlled the amount of time spent oneach text screen. For both groups, follow-up ques-tions were presented untimed. Students who usedthe learner-paced version significantly outscoredthose using the program-paced version on a test ofbasic facts and defmitions.

Shyu and Brown59 compared the effects on collegestudents of watching an interactive video under twodifferent learner control conditions. The videodemonstrated and explained, step-by-step, how tomake an origami crane. One group proceded in theixed sequence of steps, with the option to replay

the current step as many times as desired but withno opportunity to return to previous steps. The othergroup had total menu-based control over thesequence of steps, including replay of any step,stopping in the middle of a step, and returning toany previous step; this version of the program alsoincluded advisement in the form of a suggestedsequence of steps to view. Students assignee tothe total learner control with advisement condi-tion performed significantly better at folding thepaper into a crane.

Lee89 studied the effects of computer-based instruc-tion on Logo commands using two different strate-gies for controlling instructional review. Each les-son included a tutorial presentation and follow-upquestions. After responding incorrectly to a follow-up question, one group of third graders had theoption of reviewing instructional components orcontinuing on to the next question; students in thisgroup were also regularly encouraged to make aself-assessment of their understanding of the con-cepts presented. The other group automatically

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received a review presentation after each wronganswer. Students in the learner-control reviewgroup significantly outperformed the program-controlled review group in measures of metacog-nitive monitoring. The learner-control reviewgroup needed fewer prompts to identify errors inpresented information and fewer prompts to answerquestions correctly.

However, research by Kinzie, Sullivan, and Berdel81underscores the complexity of the phenomenon ofcontrol over instructional review. Two groups ofninth-graders received CAI covering science topicsunder different control-of-review conditions. Onegroup automatically received appropriate reviewpresentations following practice items and feedback(program control). The other group had the optionof choosing less review (learner control). Unlike theexperiment reported by Lee, students in the learner-control group were not explicitly directed to makeself-assessments of their understanding of the mate-rial. Male students using the program-control ver-sion significantly ouThieved males students usingthe learner-control version. No significant differ-ence was found for female students.

These last two studies, when considered together,suggest the importance of software that encour-ages student self-assessment when learner con-trol over instructional review is provided.

FeedbackRecent research suggests that the kind of feedbackprovided in technology-based instruction can havedifferent effects on learning.

One study compared the effectiveness of answer-until-correct (AUC) feedback and knowledge-of-correct-response (KCR) feedback.62

...when a student misses a question,the typical AUC feedback is "NO,TRY AGAIN."...KCR feedback prv-vides the learner with the correctanswer to a question after oneattempt.

Low-ability students in grade 11 receiving KCRfeedback during social studies reading compre-hension practice significantly outachieved stu-dents receiving AUC feedback. The KCR feedbackprovided information that students could use to clar-ify misunderstandings of what they had read, where-as the AUC feedback provided no such information,

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Two recent studies explored the impact of advise-ment as a form of feedback in hypermedia explo-ration programs. Klayder63 studied the impact oftwo levels of "time-and-scope" advisement whenusing a hypertext program covering more contenttopics than was the focus of the classroom instruc-tion. Static advisement consisted of a single printedpage explaining expectations about content onwhich to focus. Dynamic advisement added:

a constant display of time expecta-tions for the current section [of theprogram], (2) a continually updateddisplay of the current amount of timespent in the current section, and (3)a display of times remaining inadvised sections which appearfed]when the recommended time for asection had been exceeded.

Students receiving hypertext with dynamicadvisement performed signficantly higher onfactual questions on an achievement posttestthan did students using hypertext with staticadvisement. Lee and Lehman64 investigated theeffects of instructional cuing, another form ofadvisement feedback embedded in a hyperrnediaexploration program. College students were catego-rized as having an active, neutral, or passive learn-ing style, based on their performance on a learningstyles test. They were randomly assigned to one oftwo versions of a hypermedia "stack." One x-ersionmonitored student exploration of screens that elabo-rated on basic information. If a student tried toadvance without accessing the elaborative informa-tion, a message would appear advising to probe fur-ther; however, the student could choose to ignorethe advice. The other version of the program did notprovide advice about available elaborative informa-tion. Active learners achieved about the sameregardless of the hypermedia version used.However, passive and neutral learners demon-strated significantly higher levels of achievementusing the hypermedia version with instructionalcuing as feedback.

Santiago and Okey65 reported on the effects of twodifferent types of advisement feedback: adaptiveadvisement and evaluative advisement.

Adaptive advisement gives informa-tion related to the amount/sequenceof instruction the learners need todo based on their initial or currentperformance level.

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An example of adaptive advisement would be guid-ance such as "Review the Cell Division Tutorial.Then choose Ce ;1 Division Practice on the MainMenu and complete at least three problems."

Evaluative advisement [informsstudents] on current learning levelin relation to required mastery

An example of evaluative advisement would beinformation such as "You answered 6 of 10 ques-tions correctly. You must answer at least 8 of 10questions correctly to achieve mastery."

The subjects of the study were university students ina pre-service curriculum for prospective teachers.Students receiving adaptive advisement achievedsignificantly higher than students receiving eval-uative advisement. The results also indicate that"the effectiveness of adaptive advisement did notdepend on the learners' locus of control orienta-tion." Learners with an internal locus of controlbelieve that their circumstances are based on theirown behavior. Learners with an external locus ofcontrol believe that what happens to them is due tofactors outside of their control. (External locus ofcontrol is frequently cited as a characteristic of low-achieving students.)

Clariana66 studicd the achievement effects ofadvisement in the form of progress reports generat-ed by an integrated learning system (ILS). Theprogress reports showed each activity completed,the percent correct for each activity, the amount oftime spent on each activity, and the date the activitywas completed. Students receiving ILS progressreports demonstrated significantly higher math-ematics achievement than students who used theILS without receiving such reports.

Cognitive StrategiesThree recent studies suggest the learning effective-ness of software with embedded cognitive strategies.

Barba and Merchant67 explored the effectiveness ofscience software with embedded cognitive strategiessuch as repetition and rehearsal of content, para-phrasing, outlining and cognitive mapping, drawinganalogies and inferences, specific techniques forreading in the content areas, and using pictorialinformation. These researchers compared theachievement of 10th grade biology students usingtwo different versions of a HyperCard stack on

insect classification: one with embedded cognitivestrategies and one without. The students using theversion with embedded cognitive strategies sig-nificantly outperformed the other students on asubsequent insect classification task. The bene-fits of embedded cognitive strategies were morepronounced for low verbal learners than for highverbal learners.

Grossen and Carnine68 compared the effects onlearning disabled high school students of two ver-sions of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) on thelogic skills. One version embedded the cognitivestrategy of having students generate a diagram as aresponse to a logic problem before choosing thecorrect diagram from multiple choices. In the otherversion, students were presented with multiplechoice options immediately, without having to gen-erate a diagram. On a simple transfer task as a mea-sure of achievement, students receiving the pro-gram with the embedded strategy of first gener-ating a response significantly outperformed stu-dents who used the plain CAI version.Furthermore, the group that used the versionwith the embedded strategy significantlyoutscored the comparison group on the more dif-ficult logic tasks. Students using the embeddedstrategy version required fewer questions toreach mastery criteria throughout the programwithout requiring more total instructional time.

Johnsey, Morrison, and Ross69 investigated theachievement effects of embedded and detachedtraining in generating elaborations (i.e., illustrativeexamples) of concepts introduced during computer-based instruction. The students were adult employ-ees taking a computer-based professional devc-Aop-ment course. Students were divided into fourgroups, each of which received a different versionof the software: major content informationonly (the control group); major content withexperimenter-generated elaborations; preliminarytasks instructing students to generate theirown elaborations followed by major content Infor-mation only (detached training); and major contentinformation followed by an instructional unit onelaboration strategies, their value and features, andspecific techniques for applying the strategies(embedded training). Students receiving embeddedor detached elaborations training significantly out-performed the control group on recall of informa-tion. However, only the group receiving softwarewith embedded elaborations training showed sig-nificantly higher achievement on application ofthe content to new situations.

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Animated GraphicsThree studies found evidence for the benefits of ani-mated graphics.

Calvert, Watson, Brinkley, and Penny79 experimentedwith different versions of a graphic "microworld"designed for young children's language development.

...a computer screen depicted apark scene which had a greengrassy area, a blue lake, a blue sky,a black train track, and a brownmad. Twenty-four...oLjects... couldappear by... typing... the word forthe...object.

In one version, a still-frame object would appearaccompanied by a spoken verbal label (using syn-thesized speech). In another version, an animatedobject would appear without a spoken label. Poor-reading second graders who used the version withanimated objects recalled significantly more wordsthan similar students who used the version with spo-ken labels. The animated version "increased thepoor readers' verbal recall to the level of theirbetter reading peers."

Researchers at Texas A & M University studied theeffects of animated, computer-based instruction oncollege students' learning and retrieval in physics.71Groups of students were assigned versions of a les-son on Newton's first law of motion that differedaccording to the level of "visual elaboration" (ani-mated graphics, still-frame graphics, or no graph-ics). While there was no significant difference inachievement among the groups, students who hadir'aracted with animated graphics required signifi-cantly less time to answer post-test questions.

[This difference]...indicates thatalthough animation did not affectlearning, it helped to decrease thetime necessary to retrieve informa-tion from long-term memory andthen subsequently reconstruct it inshort-term memory

There are many skills in which it is advantageous tominimize one's information retrieval time (e.g., diag-nosis of medical problems or learning deficiencies).

In another study, Rieber72 examined the effects ofanimated and still-frame graphics on the intentionaland incidental learning of fourth graders."Intentional iearning" refers to the skills and con-

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cepts directly taught; "incidental learning" refers to"those objectives that are not directly taught butonly implied through contextual cues providedin... [the graphic] displays." Two groups of studentsworked through different versions of a lesson onNewton's laws of motion developed specifically forelementary grade students. One version includedanimated graphics and the other version includedstill-frame graphics. Using the animated graphicsversion resulted in significantly higher achieve-ment with respect to both intentional and inci-dental learning.

Video

One study found evidence for the advantages ofvideo as an instructional design element.

Researchers at the Learning Technolou Center73 atVanderbilt University studied the effects of dynamiccomputer-controlled video on the story comprehen-sion abilitiea of kindergarten students. They com-pared a video version of a story to an audio-onlyversion (enhanced to communicate information pre-sented in the video but not mentioned in its accom-panying narration). When retelling the story, chil-dren who received the video version made signifi-cantly more summary and inference statements(representing a meaningful translation of the gistrather than a literal retelling in the story's exactwords) and a wider variety of information (e.g.,character and setting descriptions; internal states ofcharacters) than children who listened to the audio-only version. The video group was also more likelyto include the story's key components (the begin-ning, the problem, the attempt to resolve the prob-lem, and the final resolution). These results weresimilar for at-risk and non-at-risk students. Theresearchers concluded that "video facilitates the for-mation of mental representations for stories" andsuggest that it may help children develop their gen-eral sense of story structure, an important pre-read-ing skill.

The 18 studies focusing on software design char-acteristics suggest that various types of software,learner control, informative instructional feed-back, embedded instructional strategies, animat-ed graphics, and video directly related to the con-cepts being taught can all contribute to studentachievement.

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RECENT TECHNOLOGIES AND STUDENTACHIEVEMENT

Several studies focused on three of the more recentapplications of technology to education: telecom-munications; videodisc; hypermedia; and adaptivetesting.

TelecommunicationsIn RielS74 review of research on the use of network-ing for collaboration across classrooms in differentgeographic locations, she found evidence ofimproved academic skills. Three recent studies fur-ther illustrate the merit of using online telecommu-nications for educational purposes.

Rie178 described a study by Spaulding and Lake,78in which low-achieving remedial writers in NewYork collaborated on writing projects with studentsfrom four other states, France, and Germany via atelecommunications network. According to Riel:

The network activity was effectivein increasing the writing skills ofstudents who were less socially ori-ented and less academically skilled,perhaps because of the increasedopportunities to interact with andlearn from their teachers and peers.

An evaluation of National Geographic (NGS) KidsNetwork telecommunications-based science activi-ties77 found C.iat fourth and fifth graders made sig-nificant achievement gains as a result of theirinvolvement. Students in the NGS Kids Networkgroup:

"...demonstrated significant increases in theuse of...graphs for organizing...observations,while [a] control group did not"

showed significant improvement in data inter-pretation skills

demonstrated significant improvement in placeknowledge, in the ability to identify map loca-tions using longitude and latitude, in their"understanding of factors contributing to acidrain and lin] their ability to reason about theimpact of these factors...."

Smith78 studied the achievement effects of integrat-ing a computer-based telecommunications networkwith university courses in education, sociology,

geology, and business. Students connected to thenetwork via personal computers to. submit assign-ments, and to interact with the instructor and otherstudents. Students using the network received sig-nificantly higher course grades than equivalentstudents who did not use the network.

These studies indicate the benefits of computer-based telecommunications to suppliment the cur-ricuhun and to communicate with other learners.

Another form of telecommunications involves real-time video and audio communication via interactivesatellite, used to make learning at a distance possible.Martin and Rainey79 compared the effectiveness ofsatellite-delivered anatomy and physiology instruc-tion to the same instruction provided face to face.Students from seven high schools received instruc-tion via satellite and students from another sevenhigh schools received instruction in class. Theschools were matched according to community popu-lation, geographical characteristics, student enroll-ment, race, gender, and socioeconomic status.Students in both groups were equivalent in scienceachievement prior to the start of instruction, and allschools involved in the study used the same instruc-tional materials. In all but two of the satellite schools,a local science teacher served as a class facilitator.Students who received satellite-delivered instruc-tion achieved at a significantly higher level thanstudents experiencing face-to-face instruction.Contributing factors may have included the local sci-ence teachers serving as facilitators and the particularabilities of the distance learning teacher.

VideodiscsSeveral recent research efforts found advantages tochoosing videodisc as an instructional medium forboth pre-college and college students.

Mathematics. Kitz and Thorpe" compared theeffectiveness of videodisc-based algebra instructionto conventional instruction using a textbook withlearning disabled adults preparing for college.Students using the videodisc significantlyoutscored the students using the textbook on twodifferent tests of algebra achievement.

Science. Three studies showed the benefits ofvideodisc-based instruction in science. McWhirter81investigated the achievement effects of a sciencevideodisc on sixth graders studying weather topics.When the same teachers each taught one groupof students using the videodisc and an equivalent

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group using textbooks, the videodisc group sig-nificantly outperformed the textbook group on atest of weather concepts.

Niedelman82 compared the effectiveness of an earthscience videodisc to textbook-based instruction plushands-on laboratory experience with 8th graders.The videodisc stressed "core concepts," focused on"causal relationships instead of topics," and usedcharts as "graphic organizers" to synthesize andorganize chunks of interrelated information.Students using the videodisc achieved at signifi-cantly higher levels than students receiving text-book plus hands-on instruction on a test of con-tent knowledge and a test of science problemsolving skills.

Researchers from the University of Oregonnexplored the effectiveness of videodisc instruction ineliminating common science misconceptions of 8thgraders studying earth science. The earth sciencevideodisc was designed to provide "in-depth, con-ceptually integrated instruction." The researchersreferred to misconceptions as alternative frameworks(AFs) common sense ideas and viewpoints aboutnatural phenomena that do not conform to a soundscientific understanding. Of 78 AFs held by students"prior to instruction, only 7 persisted," a statisticallysignificant conceptual change.

Only 4% of the high ability [stu-dents] showed evidence of possess-ing AFs on the posttest, comparedto 72% on the pretest....Only 6% ofthe [low ability] students showedevidence of AFs on the posttest,while 88% had AFs on thepretest....On the posttest, the stu-dents' responses were nonarbitrary,nonverbatim, and substantive, indi-cating that meaningful learning...had occurred.

Social problem solving. Bain, Houghton, Sah, andCarroll84 compared the effectiveness of three meth-ods for teaching social problem solving to elemen-tary and junior high school students: teacher-ledinteractive video-based instruction; teacher-led lin-ear video-based instruction; and teacher-led instruc-tion without video support. Students receiving thevideo-based instruction achieved at a significant-ly higher level than students experiencing eitherof the other approaches.

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Videodisc instruction with college students. Fivestudies indicate the potential of videodisc-basedinstruction with college students. A study byZiegler85 examined the effectiveness of three differ-ent methods of introducing university students tothe academic library: interactive video with learnercontrol; linear video; and traditional guided tours.Students who had used the learner-controlledinteractive video scored significantly higher thanother students on measures of recall learning andself-perceived effectiveness at using the library.

Woodruff and Heeler" reported on a unique appli-cation of interactive videodisc technologytoadminister aural tests to university students taking amusic appreciation course.

[Two]...groups were given studyguides that identified aural objec-tives and specified the location ofthe musical examples for study....[One group] was required to takeaural tests over each unit in asupervised computer laboratory....The [other] group did not takethe,..tests.

The testing followed a competency-based methoddeveloped by Keller87, which has proved successfulin science education.88 Students who took the auraltests received significantly higher grades on unitexams than the other students.

Johnson89 compared the effects of three instruction-al approaches for teaching college-level lessons inhuman resource development: conventional lecture-demonstration; interactive video with students han-dling the computer controls; and interactive videowith the instructor handling the computer controls.Both videodisc approaches resulted in signifi-cantly higher levels of student achievement thanconventional instruction in a test of initial learn-ing and a delayed test to measure retention.There were no significant achievement differ-ences between students who directly controlledthe computer and those who did not. This isgood news for instructors who wish to use inter-active video as a whole class activity.

Two recent studies provide evidence of the effec-tiv mess of videodisc-based instruction in teachereducation. Bitter and Hatfield" compared theeffects of two methods for teaching about the use ofgeoboards to elementary education majors, as partof mathematics methods courses. Both approaches

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began with instructor-led lessons. For one group ofstudents, this was followed by videodisc-basedinstruction. For the other group, the follow-up con-sisted of cooperative, hands-on experiences withgeoboards and discussion of the application ofgeoboards to classroom teaching. While bothgroups showed achievement gains in knowledgeof geoboards as an educational tool, studentsreceiving videodisc-based instruction demon-strated significantly higher gains. Vitale andRomance91 examined the effectiveness of videodiscinstruction plus supplementary activities focusingon core science concepts with female elementaryeducation majors. One group of students receivedconventional science methods instruction. The othergroup followed the same syllabus but also receivedvideodisc-based lessons, completed correspondingworkbook activities, and prepared and presentedmodel science lessons. The students who used thevideodisc and participated in the supplementaryactivities demonstrated significantly higherachievement on a test of application of scienceconcepts.

These ten studies suggest the effectiveness ofinteractive videodisc (and other multimedia)technology when the skills and concepts to belearned have a motion-visual or aural compo-nent. Note that the videodiscs used in these stud-ies incorporated carefully considered, research-based instructional designs.

One caveat. Research from Indiana University, how-ever, provides an important caveat the effectivenessof interactive video may depend on students' comfortlevel with technology.92 After receiving computer-assisted interactive videodisc instruction, juniors in abaccalaureate nursing program who were more com-fortable with the computer significantly outachievedstudents who were less comfortable. Based on thisfinding, the researchers recommended

...efforts to create an atmospherefor acquiring positive attitudessuch as orientation programs, fre-quent and repeated use, and avail-ability of faculOr and support per-sonnel....

They also found that students with a high need formobility while learning tended to be less comfort-able using interactive video. The researchers sug-gested that students with "...high mobility needsshould be encouraged to take frequent breakswhen using..." computers.

CD-ROMStine93 compared the effectiveness of whole lan-guage reading instruction with and without interac-tive CD-ROM, computer-based books with secondgraders eligible for Chapter 1 remedial programs.Students who used the CD-ROM books demon-strated significantly greater gains in vocabularyand reading comprehension than students whodid not.

HypermediaReed and Rosenbluth94 found support for havingstudents become creators of content-based hyper-media. High school seniors at a summer honorsacademy spent a month learning HyperCard andresearching the humanities of a period of fourdecades (including art, history, science, music, liter-ature, and technology). Students were divided intofour teams, with each team focusing on a differentdecade. Stude- .ts who developed hypermediahumanities entations demonstrated signifi-cant increases in their perceptions of how differ-ent cultural factors influenced their decade ofstudy and how each factor influenced other fac-tors. Students also showed a significant increasein knowledge of cultural values, historical events,and social reforms.

Adaptive TestingThree recent studies indicate the potential ofcomputer-based, adaptive testing in helping stu-dents to learn. Adaptive testing presents testitems based on the individual student's priorachievement level and/or his or her ongoing perfor-mance during testing.

Dalton and Goodrum95 compared the learningeffects of three pre-testing conditions: adaptive test-ing, traditional full-length testing, and no testing.The adaptive test would stop the student from con-tinuing as soon as it determined that the studentwould not reach mastery on the test. Theresearchers reported significantly higher post-test scores for students who had received adap-tive pre-testing.

A year-long project, Microcomputer AdaptiveTesting High-Risk Urban Students (MATH-R-US)resulted in "consistent improvement" of students'math scores after completing weekly adaptivetests.96

The project was used...by a class inan urban high school with an at-

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risk predominantly black popula-tion and a high rate of absenteeism.

The tests were designed to accept generative ratherthan multiple choice responses. The testing softwarewas able to generate practice worksheets tailored toeach student's diagnosed weaknesses.

Powel197 studied the effects of three different meth-ods of computerized testing: selecting items tomatch students' prior achievement level adap-tive); selecting items at random; or selectingthem based on student choice of difficulty level.It was found that adaptive testing "required sig-nificantly fewer items to reach decisions thandid the random-selection tests." Furthermore, stu-dents who measured high in anxiety during testingperformed significantly better when taking theadaptive test.

These studies suggest that adaptive testing ismore efficient than traditional testing (requiringexposure to fewer items to reach decisions), ishighly appropriate for students who suffer fromtest anxiety, and may result in greater studentachievement.

INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS ANDSTUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Research cited thus far strongly suggests thatteacher differences, and differences in the learningenvironments they establish, impact highly on theeffectiveness of educational technology. Severalrecent studies have highlighted the importance ofteacher decisions about student grouping.

Baron and Abrami98 compared the effects of threegrouping strategies when using language arts tutori-al software. They found no significant differencesin achievement among upper elementary stu-dents working individually, in pairs, or in groupsof four. However, Hooper99 had different resultswhen exploring the effects of computer-based math-ematics instruction using various grouping strate-gies. One group of fifth- and sixth-graders receivedtraining in how to learn cooperatively and thenworked in pairs and groups of four at the computer.Another group worked individually on computers.The students who had worked cooperativelyscored significantly higher on a post-test thatincluded factual, application, generalization, andproblem-solving questions. This learning advan-

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tage for cooperative groups trained in methods ofcooperation was confirmed in subsequentresearch by Hooper, Temiyarkarn, andWilliams 100, who also found that cooperativegroups were significantly more efficient learners.The cooperation training students received in thelatter two studies may explain the difference inresults. Support for this was provided in a study byRepman.lui She compared the effectiveness ofthree approaches to collaborative, computer-basedinstruction with seventh grade social studies stu-dents. In one group, students worked without anyguidance about collaborative learning process. Inanother group, students were given a sheet to guidetheir collaboration (structured condition); they wereencouraged to assign roles while working togetherand to take turns at each role. In the third group,students received the same guidance sheet butalso underwent training in collaborative learningbefore beginning computer-based instruction(training condition). Students in the structuredcollaboration and collaboration after trainingconditions achieved at a significantly higher levelthan students who collaborated on computerwithout guidance.

Researchers from Bar-Ilan University also foundadvantages to collaboration among sixth-gradersstudying math using computers in an Israelischool.102 Students working in pairs demonstrat-ed higher achievement than students workingindividually, as measured by both hnmediate anddelayed post-tests.

In his analysis of existing research on computer-based instruction (CBI) in small groups, Shlechter103found no consistent achievement advantage forsmall group learning. However, he did find thatsmall group CBI was significantly more instruction-ally efficient. In other words, less instructional timeper student was required for sMall groups than forindividuals. A study by Cockayne,104 involving uni-versity students in a biology class, confirms thisfinding.

Shlechter's analysis also indicated an advantagefor lower-ability students working in heteroge-neous groups without any disadvantage to high-er-ability students. He suggested, however, thatheterogeneous grouping may only be best "for stu-dents with extreme differences in their abilities."

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CONCLUSION

Recent research consistently demonstrates the valueof technology in enhancing student achievement.While several researchers have attempted to quanti-fy its achievement effects in isolation, actual use ofeducational technology does not and should notoccur in isoladon.

It is the decisions made by well-trained, profession-al educators that will determine the computer's ulti-mate instructional effectiveness. The research com-munity has begun to provide information useful inaddressing many of these issues.

The research reviewed in this section can informsoftware developers and publishers as they designsoftware, and can help educators as they attempt toincorporate technology-based learning experiencesinto the curriculum. Developers and publishers ofsoftware can use the findings related to instructionalcontrol, feedback, embedded instructional strate-gies, animated graphics, and video to improve thesoftware programs they produce. And educators canlearn how technology helps improve studentachievement in a variety of subject areas, and whichdesign characteristics to consider when selectingsoftware. They can also benefit from the researchon the positive effects of grouping students forcooperative learning with technology.

Section II:Effects of Technology on StudentSelf-Concept and Attitude About Learning

Recent research confirms the potential of educa-tional technology to improve students' attitudesabout themselves and about learning.

The results of several studies indicate that technolo-u has beneficial effects on student self-concept.108

In addition, a review of the literature finds positiveeffects on attitudes toward language arts, mathemat-ics, science, and social studies.108

This section of the report features recent studies ofeducational technology that address student self-concept and student attitudes toward specific cur-riculum areas, and reviews research that relateschanges in student attitudes to software design char-acteristics, specific technologies, and specific learn-er characteristics.

EFFECTS ON STUDENT SELF-CONCEPT

Three recent studies provide evidence of the posi-tive impact of educational technology on studentself-concept.

Rhyser1°7 examined the effects of integrating com-puter-based instruction (CBI) in an urban elemen-tary school. Students receiving CBI expressedstronger "feelings of success in school" than stu-dents in an equivalent school without CBI. Suchfeelings are an important component of a positiveself-concept.

DeGraw108 found that fourth graders grew in self-esteem and self-confidence when computers wereplaced in their homes and their school, as part of theBuddy System Project.

Reglinl°9 compared two versions ofa college-preparatory seminar onmathematics skills. One group ofstudents received classroominstruction plus computer-assisted

instruction (CAI); the other groupIrceived classroom instruction only.(Both groups received the sametotal amount of instructional time.)The classroom instruction-plus-CAIapproach resulted in significantlyhigher gains on a measure of self-concept of academic ability thanthe classroom instruction-onlymethod. The difference in improve-ment of self-concept was especiallysignificant for students of lowsocio-economic status.

Previous research suggests thatinteraction with educational tech-nology may lead to improved self-concept because: (I) Successfulexperiences with technology givestudents a feeling of control overtheir own learning.110 (2) Suchexperiences may increase students'sense of confidence in their abilitiesto perform in specific learning situ-ations.111

All of these studies point to the potential of educa-tional technology to help develop student self-confi-dence. Students who view themselves as successfulare more likely to enjoy school and to put forwardtheir best efforts.

CURRICULUM AREAS AND STUDENTATTITUDES

Recent research efforts provide support for theeffects of technology on positive student attitudesin a variety of curriculum areas.

Language ArtsFive research reports documented improvements instudents attitudes when they used technology as part

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of the language arts curriculum. In their review ofcomputers and basic writing instruction, Valeri-Gold and Deming112 found that "numerous studieshave reported improved student attitudes towardwriting while composing on the computer." In astudy by Green,113 inner-city third graders demon-strated significantly greater improvement in attitudetoward writing after experiencing a writing processapproach with word processing, compared to a simi-lar approach without word processing or a gram-mar-oriented approach to writing. Owston and oth-ers114 compared eighth graders writing on and offcomputer. When working on the computer, studentswrote significantly longer pieces, and their attitudestoward writing and editing were significantly morepositive. Bqer116 found a similar improvement inattitude toward writing among middle school stu-dents who experienced a process approach to writ-ing that included regular word processing.

Anderson-Inman116 reported on two studies inwhich keyboarding was found to be a highly moti-vating method of practicing spelling for low per-forming students.117 As a result, students devel-oped "a positive attitude toward spelling practice."

These five studies strongly sLagest that integrat-ing computers into the language arts curriculumwill help improve student attitudes toward writ-ing and spelling practice.

MathematicsThree recent studies suggest that technology canhave a positive impact on students' attitudetoward mathematics.

Webster118 found that black fifth graders in ruralMississippi who received supplemental CAI evi-denced significantly more positive attitudes towardmath than similar itudents who did not receive CAI.

A study by the Cognition and Technology Group atVanderbilt University119 assessed improvement inelementary school students' attitudes toward mathe-matics as a result of experiencing The Adventures ofJasper Woodbury, a series of video vignettesdesigned to stimulate mathematical problem solv-ing. Compared to a group of students who receivedtraditional classroom instruction, the Jasper students

...showed [significantly] less anxi-ety toward mathematics, were morelikely to see mathematics as rele-vant to everyday life, more likely to

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see it as useful, and more likely toappreciate complex challenges.

Yusuf120 compared the effects of Logo-based mathe-matics instruction to traditional math instruction forstudents in a predominantly black, urban, middleschool. Students receiving the Logo-based instructiondemonstrated significantly more positive attitudestoward geometry and toward mathematics in general.

ScienceFour recent studies suggest the beneficial effects oftechnology on student attitudes toward the study ofscience.

Geban, Askar, and Ilker121 compared the effects ofcomputer-simulated experiments and two otherapproaches to laboratory work on high school stu-dents' school attitudes toward chemistry. One groupof students engaged in computer-simulated experi-ments in which they were guided through theprocess of hypothesis development, data collection,data analysis, and drawing conclusions about theiroriginal hypotheses. Another group of students par-ticipated in conventional laboratory activities. Athird group participated in hands-on laboratoryactivities that stressed hypothesis testing and prob-lem-solving. The computer-simulated methodresulted in "significantly more positive attitudestoward chemistry than the other two methods, withthe conventional approach being the least effective."

MacArthur and Haynes122 found that learning dis-abled students preferred studying science topicsusing a computer-based Student Assistant forLearning from Text (SALT) that included synthe-sized speech and that took advantage of the comput-er's hypermedia capabilities (e.g., an on-line glos-sary, links between questions and text, supplemen-tary explanations). The students favored this"enhanced" version of SALT over a simpler versionthat more closely resembled a basic biology text-book and "thought that [the enhanced version]helped them learn the material better."

An atdtude that science educators typically seek tofoster in students is curiosity. Brusic123 explored theeffect of incorporating technology- based scienceactivities on the curiosity of fifth grade students.Students receiving instruction that included technol-ogybased activities measured higher in curiositythan students who received only traditional scienceinstruction ("primarily teacher demonstrations ofscience experiments").

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The TERC Star Schools science and math project124has been shown to positively effect student attitudesabout tackling unknown questionsone aspect ofcuriosity. The Star Schools project combined net-work communication among teachers, innovativecurriculum units, specially designed software, andteacher training. Over 900 teachers were involvedin the project. A sample of 80 students were inter-viewed before and after their involvement in theStart Schools curriculum regarding their attitudesabout tackling known and unknown questions.Before beginning the Star Schools curriculum,about 80 percent of the students favored knownquestions, but after the Star Schools treatment, only64 percent favored such questions. This change inattitude was found to be statistically signficant.

While it is possible to develop interactive scienceinstruction without technology, programs such ascomputer-simulated experiments, microcomput-er-based laboratories, and database softwareimprove students' attitudes toward and increasestudent curiosity about science.

Social StudiesA study by Yang125 suggests that a social studiescomputer simulation of presidential decisionmakingcan have a positive effect on student motivation.Eleventh-graders who had experienced the simula-tion scored significantly higher on a measure ofmotivation than students receiving traditional, print-based instruction.

This social studies study plus those cited abovefor language arts, mathematics, and science pro-vide a sense of the wide variety of software typesthat can positively effect student attitudes. Well-designed tutorial and practice and "enhanced"hyper-textbooks can make challenging concepts andprinciples easier to understand. For example, stu-dents who are visual learners can benefit from stilland motion graphics and video presentations includ-ed in instructional software. Tool software soft-ware that makes it possible to accomplish a taskmore easily or effectively (e.g., a word processor orspreadsheet package) can foster creativity andcuriosity and make the task easier to accomplish.For instance, revising an essay on computer meansworking on just the parts the student wants tochange, whereas revising without a computerrequires rewriting the entire essay. Simulation soft-ware can offer students highly interactive, intrinsi-cally rewarding experiences that textbooks cannotprovide. For example, technology can allow stu-

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dents to role-play the president of the United States,an 18th century American pioneer, or an interna-tional detective.

SOFTWARE DESIGN CHARACTERISTICSAND STUDENT ATTITUDES

Several studies focused on the issue of learnercontrol in softwarethe degree to which softwarelets students determine how they will learn. In addi-tion, one recent study focused on the softwaredesign characteristics found to be most motivatingby gifted students.

Learner Control. Three studies found support forgreater student control over the learning environ-ment. Kinzie, Sullivan, and Berde1128 compared twogroups of ninth graders who received different ver-sions of computer-assisted instruction in science.One group worked on a version in which the pro-gram automatically determined when to reviewinstructional material. The other group used a CAIversion in which students had control over reviewmaterials. The students' decisions about which ver-sion to use during a subsequent session indicatedsignificantly higher continuing motivation for thelearner-control version.

Shyu and Brown127 considered the attitudinaleffects of an interactive video under two differentlearner control conditions. The video demonstratedand explained, step-by-step, how to make an origa-mi crane. One group of college students wentthrough the steps in a fixed sequence, withthe option to replay the current step as many timesas desired before going on to the next step. Theother group had total control over instructionalsequence but was advised as to the preferredsequence of steps. Students using the version withtotal learner control plus advisement had signifi-cantly more positive attitudes toward instructionand felt more confident.

Tool software typically provides a dramaticallygreater degree of learner control than does tutorialsoftware. Wood128 compared the effects of tool andtutorial software on high school students' attitudestoward mathematics. Each software application wasintegrated with classroom instruction. Studentsusing the tool software scored significantly higheron a measure of positive mathematics attitudes.

In these research efforts, computer programsoffering students greater control over their learn-ing environment were found to have beneficialeffects on student attitudes.

Designing for Gifted Students. Burt129 completedsurvey research on the software design characteris-tics preferred by gifted elementary school students.Her findings suggest that gifted students are moti-vated by computer programs that:

offer students a sense of control over theinstructional activity

arouse curiosity

use multiple, appropriate levels of difficultyto provide a sense of challenge

provide feedback that builds the user's self-esteem

include an element of fantasy (i.e., make-believe situations that offer the "potentialfor taking on roles impossible in actual real-

have learning activities that incorporategame formats

Experience suggests that these design character-istics have motivational appeal for studentsacross the ability range.

RECENTTECHNOLOGIES AND STUDENTATTITUDES

Recent research indicates that computer-basedtelecommunications, videodisc, CD-ROM, andadaptive testing can positively effect student atti-tudes.There is also preliminary research suggest-ing the motivational appeal of virtual reality.

TelecommunicationsSpaulding and Lake139 studied the impact on reme-dial writers of a telecommunications network pro-ject in which they wrote collaboratively with stu-dents across the United States and Europe. Theresearchers found that "students were more motivat-ed to write when the projects were designed byother students than when similar projects weredesigned by the classroom teacher."

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A telecommunications project featuring collabora-tion between students in New York State and stu-dents in Moscow city schools131 had a positiveeffect on stadent interest in international issues andcurrent events. After participating in "student-gen-erated projects such as surveys, polls, articles,newspapers, research, analysis, and creative writ-ing," students involved in the telecommunicationsproject were found to spend significantly more timethan non-project students discussing political orsocial issues, discussing international events, read-ing news magazines at home, and reading books byforeign authors not assigned by their teachers.

Smith132 investigated university students' attitudesafter completing courses that took advantage of acomputer-based telecommunications network. Thepurpose of the network was to make it easy for stu-dents to submit assignments, and to communicatewith their instructors and other students. A compari-son group of students completed equivalent courseswithout the benefits of the network. Courses thatincorporated the network

...received higher overall evalua-tions and higher instructor ratingsthan did their traditional coursecounterparts. Nearly three out ofevery four students in the [network]gmup rated the response time, easein doing assignments, quantity ofteedback, quality of the course andtheir overall experience as better ormuch better than past courses [with-out] online computer interaction.

These two studies indicate that the use of com-puter-based telecommunications helps toimprove students attitudes toward learning.Telecommunications can serve as a motivatingfocal point of instruction (e.g., as a vehicle forstudent writing) or can provide a system of stu-dent support for traditional instruction.

Videodiscs

Four recent studies suggest the positive impact ofinteractive videodiscs on student attitudes.

Thorkildsen and Lowry133 found that elementarystudents using a videodisc on mathematics coreconcepts had significantly higher gains in math self-concept than students receiving conventionalinstructional.

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Niedelman134 compared an earth science videodiscto textbook-based instruction plus hands-on labora-tory activities. Junior high students receiving thevideodisc instruction were significantly more confi-dent in their science problem-solving skills, moreinterested in taking science classes, and more posi-tive about their learning experience overall.

Bain, Houghton, Sah, and Carroll135 found that ele-mentary and junior high school students receivingteacher-led, video-based instruction were signifi-cantly more positive about their instruction than stu-dents receiving teacher-led lessons without video.

Vitale and Romance136 found that videodiscinstruction plus supplementary activities can have apositive effect on the attitudes of college studentspreparing to become teachers. One group of stu-dents received videodisc-based lessons, completedcorresponding workbook activities, and preparedand presented model science lessons. The othergroup followed the same syllabus but received onlyconventional science methods instruction. The stu-dents who worked with the videodisc and participat-ed in the supplementary activities demonstrated asignificantly higher degree of confidence in theirknowledge of science concepts.

These studies suggest that videodisc can have anadvantage over conventional teaching methoils inimproving student attitudes toward instructionand toward the subject being taught.

CD-ROMNewbold137 compared the effects of CD-ROM andprint encylopedias on the attitudes of sixth graders.She found that students using the CD-ROM ency-clopedia were significantly more positive towardwriting and toward using the library. After stu-dents were given experience with both types ofencyclopedias, all students were "more positivetoward using electronic encyclopedias as com-pared to print encyclopedias."

Adaptive TestingDalton and Goodrum138 found that adaptive pre-testing on a computer (that halted testing as soon as"nonmastery was indicated") resulted in higher lev-els of motivation to continue instruction amongfifth and sixth graders than traditional, full-lengthpre-testing.

Students were more motivated ky computer-based, adaptive testing than traditional testing

because adaptive testing did not subject them tounnecessarily long periods of failure.

Virtual RealityPreliminary survey research by Bricken andByrne136 suggests the power of virtual reality (VR)to motivate students. Children of middle school ageattending a technology summer camp had theopportunity to use, design, and implement virtualreality environments. When given a choicebetween a VR experience and other familiartechnology-based activities, students almostalways preferred VR to using a favorite computerprogram on screen, to watching television, and toplaying video games.

SPECIAL POPULATIONS AND STUDENTATTITUDES

Early Childhood EducationTwo recent studies suggest that computers can havea positive effect on young children's attitudestoward basic academic skills and on their develop-ing self-concept.

Chang and Osguthorpe146 found evidence thatkindergartners who used a picture-word processorwhile working with trained older students (fourth-and fifth-graders) improved their attitudes towardreading. Based on a survey, it was found that theseyoung children hat. .gnificantly better attitudesabout reading than an equivalent group of childrenwho had not used computers.

Goldmacher and Lawrence141 studied two groupsof preschool children attending a Head Start pro-gram. One group followed the standard HeadStart program. The other participated in computerenrichment activities, in addition to standard HeadStart activities. The computer-based activities weretheme-based and were built around an assortmentof software. Students in the computer group exhibit-ed significantly more behaviors indicative of posi-tive self-concept than did students in the non-computer group.

Ia beth of these studies, students using comput-ers in early childhood education programsdemonstrated more positive attitudes than chil-dren who did not have access to computers.

Special Needs StudentsSeveral researchers have explored the effects oftechnology-based instruction on the attitudes of stu-dents with special needs.

Motivating emotionally disturbed students to remainon task is typically a challenge for special educa-tors. However, Ba1r142 found that emotionally dis-turbed students in grades 6-12 spent more time writ-ing and wrote longer compositions using a wordprocessor than using pencil and paper.

As part of a comprehensive evaluation of computer-based instruction (mostly integrated learning sys-tems) in New York City, Swan and others143 deter-mined that educationally disadvantaged studentswere more motivated and less threatened whenlearning on computers than when learning in regularclassroom settings.

Mevarech, Silber, and Fine144 compared the mathanxiety of a group of low-ability sixth-gradersworking with computers in pairs to an equivalentgroup working on computers individually. The stu-dent pairs showed significantly lower levels of mathanxiety than the students working individually.

Wepner145 reported on the effects of different kindsof reading software on the attitudes of at-risk, inner-city, middle school students. One group of studentsused drill software that focused on discrete readingskills and testing preparation software. The othergroup used software that practiced a complex ofreading skills in the context of stades built aroundthemes of likely interest to adolescents and youngadults. The attitudes of the latter group towardthemselves as readers and writers showed signifi-cantly greater improvement than the attitudes of thegroup receiving discrete skills ..,.actice.

From these studies, we can generalize that tech-nology can be an effective motivator and canimprove the altitudes of special needs studentstoward learning.

INSTRUCTIONAL DECISIONS ANDSTUDENT ATTITUDES

Recent research suggests that decisions about howstudents are groupevl when engaged in technology-based instruction can impact on student attitudes.

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Researchers from the University of Minnesota146found that elementary students using tutorial anddrill software in cooperative groups had significant-ly better attitudes toward their computer lessonsthan students working independently.

However, Repman147 found that not all computer-based collaborative learning experiences are alike.Middle school students who received training incollaboration and then engaged in computer-basedproblem solving rlemonstrated signficantly higherself-esteem than st.idents who received no collabo-ration training but solved problems on computerwith the aid of printed guidelines on collaboration.

This research suggests that collaboration mayenhance the positive effects that technology hason student attitudes and that it is advantageousto begin by training students in tbe process ofcollaboration.

CONCLUSION

The research cited in this section provides ampleevidence of the power of technology to motivatestudents and to improve their attitudes about them-selves and about learning. These positive effectswere found for special needs students and regulareducation students alike, for students in early child-hood education as well as higher education.

Perhaps the most important determinant of studentattitudes when using technology is the teacher. Onlythe teacher can create a friendly, caring environmentin which students feel secure and willing to acceptthe many learning challenges they will face.

However, technology will enhance the environmentcreated by the teacher. Carefully designed softwareproducts will afford students ample control overtheir learning environment, will excite students andhold their interest, and will provide engaging learn-ing experiences that are unavailable in the tradition-al classroom.

Quality teaching and quality software, together, canimprove student self-concepts and student attitudestoward learning.

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SECTION III:Effects of Technology on Interactions InvolvingTeachers and Students in the Learning Environment

Across the United States, educators are addressingthe need for restructuring the school learning envi-ronmentto make it more student-centered, moreinteractive, and more of a stimulus for cooperativeproblem-solving.

Recent research is beginning to shed some light onthe positive effects of technolou on schools, as asocial phenomenon, and on teacher-student and stu-dent-student interactions.148 These interactionswere found to make a difference in student academ-ic achievement.148

In this section, we report on recent research sug-gesting characteristics of a desirable technology-based learning environment, explore studies con-cerning the effects of technology on teacher-studentinteractions and teachers' instructional behavior,and review research on technology's effects on stu-dent interactions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A DESIRABLETECHNOLOGY-BASED LEARNINGENVIRONMENT

In her analysis of the effects of computer-basedinstruction on elementary school achievement,Ryan158 identified three characteristics of the mosteffective learning environments: (1) personal inter-action among the members of the class (i.e.,teacher-student and student-student interaction); (2)"curriculum integration by the teacher"; and (3)inclusion of activities in which students can directtheir own learning or express themselves. Thesecharacteristics were likely to result in effectivelearning regardless of grade level.

Ehman, Glenn, Johnson, and White151 synthesizedthe results of eight case studies on the use of data-base software in social studies. They concluded thatit is essential that the teacher provide structure whenstudents engage in complex problem-solving using

computers. Their recommendations to teachers areapplicable to problem-solving with a variety of toolsoftware programs:

Begin with a unit introduction.

Provide "clear expectations with a sequence ofactivities."

Explain and model essential elements of theproblem-solving process, and offer studentsopportunities to practice these elements.

Provide for "regular checking of studentprogress in accomplishing the milestone tasksof problem-solving."

Ehman et al. offer several examples of appropriatestructuring by the teacher:

Using examples, modeling stepsand processes, providing for stu-dent practice, debriefing studentlearning and sharing outcomes areall essential elements of effectiveinstructional structuring

These studies underscore the importance of theteacher's role in creating an effective, technolo-gy-based learning enviromnentan environmentthat is characterized by careful planning and fre-quent interaction among students and theteacher.

Given the importance of the teacher's role in com-puter-based learning, Becker's152 survey research onthe differences between exemplary computer-usingteachers and other teachers seems especially impor-tant. He found that the best computer-using teachersare more likely to add new curriculum topics to theircourses and eliminate or de-emphasize some exist-ing topics as a result of using computers. They alsotend to stress more classwork in small groups, toassign software on the basis of group needs, and toinclude students in the software selection process.

Becker identified personal characteristics that dif-ferentiate the best computer-using teachers fromother teachers.

First, exemplary computer-usingteachers spend more than twice asmany hours personally working oncomputers at school as do othercomputer-using teachers....The sec-ond largest difference...is thatexemplary teachers have had moreformal training in using and teach-ing with computers.

According to Becker, the following aspects of theinstructional environment increase the likelihood offinding an exemplary computer-using teacher at aschool:

the existence of a social network of computer-using teachers at the same school

sustained use of computers at the schooL..toaccomplish a goal other than learning: e.g.,writing and publishing, or industrial arts orbusiness applications

Organized support for computer-using teach-ers in the form of staff development activitiesand a full-time computer coordinator...

Acknowledgement of the resource requirementsfor effectively using computerssmaller classsizes and funds for software acquisition.

Becker153 also identified factors related to devel-oping a school environment in which desirablecomputer outcomes occur (e.g., many teachersusing computers, a variety of staff developmentactivities occurring, more curricular than recreation-al use of computers, stressing computers as academ-ic tools rather than as a delivery system for basicskills practice). His statistical analysis of surveydata suggests that "substantial district-levelinvolvement in school-level decision-making" and"the active...leadership of a school-level comput-er coordinator" are key factors.

These findings suggest the importance of dis-trict- and school-level administration in develop-ing a positive environment for educational tech-nology and in improving the quality of computer-using teachers and, thus, computer-basedinstruction.

EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ON TEACHER-STUDENT INTERACTIONS AND TEACHERS'INSTRUCTIONAL BEHAVIOR

Several studies explored the effects of technologyon the interaction patterns of a classroom and on thelearning environments that teachers create. In addi-tion, two research efforts focused on the effects ofintroducing computer networks into the learningenvironment.

Differences in Classroom Interaction PatternsResults of a study of Indiana's Model Applicationsof Technology project154 indicated that, after usingcomputers for 2 years," ...most of the teachers addedcooperative learning techniques to their teachingmethods." However, changes in teachers' instruc-tional and management styles depended on teacherattitudes about technology and the hardware config-uration at the school.

One group treated the computerproject as an "extra "...and theyused [the computers] to present stu-dents with isolated, fragmentedactivities using selected soft-ware...computer use was routine,sometimes boring, [and] remotelyrelated to the curriculum...[This]gimp was often found in... comput-er lab sites or sites that had turned[a mobile] mini-lab concept into a[stationary] computer lab.

The mini-labs were each equipped with eight com-puters and were intended to rotate from class toclass, for purposes of computer-assisted instructionor student multimedia development.

...the other group made greatstrides in finding ways to meaning-.fully integrate computer use withtheir curriculum and their dailyinstruction.... They looked for newways to teach.... They used morecareful planning...this more oftenoccurred in sites where there was a"computer presence" in the class-room and the restraints of [too fewcomputers per student] demandedthat the teacher find creative waysto integrate computer use.

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Bradley and Morrison155 studied the differencesbetween teacher-student interaction patterns in com-puter labs and in classrooms with less than fivecomputers. They discovered that in classrooms, 70percent or more of the teachers' time was spent withnon-computing students. In computer labs, over 40percent of the teachers' time was spent academicallymonitoring or providing explanations to computer-using students, whereas less than 5 percent of theteachers' time was spent on such activities in class-rooms. More questioning of computer-using stu-dents occurred in labs.

The different findings for classroom-based comput-er use in these two studies may be explained by dif-ferent levels of teacher experience and/or differentlevels of teacher training.

Two studies focused on teachers of learning dis-abled (LD) students. Woodward and Gersten156examined the effects of a videodisc-based fractionsprogram on the subsequent instructional styles ofLD high school teachers. After teachers and stu-dents completed the videodisc, teaching styles"became more interactive." Garzella157 investigatedthe effects of an expert system for reading diagnosisand prescription (CAPER). LD elementary schoolteachers who used the system reported that it helpedguide them in grouping students more effectively.

These four studies, when considered together,suggest that technology can have a beneficialeffect on classroom interaction patternstoward greater interaction among class membersand toward more collaborative learning experi-ences. The research indicates, however, thatteacher attitudes and the amount and arrange-ment of computer hardware are important fac-tors in determining how teachers and studentsinteract.

Technology-Rich Learning EnvironmentsSwan and others158 evaluated computer-basedinstruction (primarily integrated learning systems)in New York City and found that learning environ-ments that incorporated computers were

...more student-centered and coop-erative, that teachers were more thefacilitators of learning and thatlearning was more individualized[than the traditional classroomenvironment].

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A series of reports by the Apple Classrooms ofTomorrow (ACOT) Advanced Technology Groupaddressed the changes that teachers underwentas a result of long-term immersion (3 to 5 years) ina technology-rich teaching and learning environ-ment.159 The technolou-rich environment includedcomputers, printers, scanners, videodisc and video-tape players, modems, CD-ROM drives, and "hun-dreds of software titles."

The ACOT researchers have identified five stages ofinstructional change that occur gradually as a resultof radically transforming the technological aspectsof the learning environment:

Entry: Teachers struggled to cope with thechanged learning environment.

Adoption: Teachers moved from the initialstruggle to successful use of technology on abasic level (e.g., correlation of drill and prac-tice software to classroom instruction).

Adaptation: Teachers moved from basic use todiscovery of its potential for increased produc-tivity (e.g., use of word processors for studentwriting).

Appropriation: Having achieved completemastery over the technology, teachers used it"effortlessly" as a tool to accomplish a varietyof instructional and management goals.

Invention: Teachers are prepared to develop"entirely new learning environments that uti-lize technology as a flexible tool." (No teachersobserved by the ACOT group has reached thisstage yet.)

The researchers found that mirroring teachers'growth and development over time in their usesof technology were positive changes in teachers'beliefs about the instructional enterprise (towarda willingness to experiment), shifts in the rolesthey and students play (toward more student-centered instruction), and shifts in the relation-ships among teaching colleagues (toward teamteaching).

etworked Learning EnvironmentsTwo recent studies indicate the potential of com-puter-based telecommunications networks inimproving teacher-student interaction on collegecampuses.

According to research by Smith160, universitycourses that took advantage of a computer-basednetwork resulted in an increase in "the amount andquality of interaction outside of class" includingteacher-student interaction.

Hartman et al.161 found that over time, instructorsin networked courses substantially increased theiruse of electronic communication without decreasingtheir use of standard forms of communication.In comparing networked and non-networked sec-tions of the same course, these researchers observedmore teacher interaction with lower-performing stu-dents in networked sections and more teacher inter-action with higher-performing students in non-networked sections.

Rie1162 reviewed research on the use of network-ing for collaboration across classrooms in differ-ent geographic locations and found evidence ofimproved social skills and a lessening of ethnictensions.

Based on their review of network learning researchin a variety of educational settings, Riel andHarasim163 conclude that research should focuson how networks are used for educational purpos-es. They cite a study by Mel and Levin164 thatyielded several recommendations for the designof networks:

Network communities can becreated with a group of peoplewith established relationshipsseeking new ways to coordinatetheir collective work or with agroup...with no prior interactionswho share a strong commitment toa specific task.

Easy and reliable access to thenetwork is required for all groupmembers or there needs to besome external motviation forusing the system (low cost, job,class requirement).

Groups need some form of leader-ship. A group needs one or morepeople who take on the responsi-bility of monitoring and facilitat-ing group interaction.

EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY ON STUDENTINTERACTIONS

Recent research on educational technology and stu-dent interaction has focused on variables such as thelearning task, software characteristics, and learnercharacteristics.

The Learning TaskIn his review of research on small group comput-er-based instruction, Shlechter165 concluded thatthe demands of the computer-based learning taskmay help determine whether student cooperationoccurs. As an example, he cites a stucy in whichassigning learners the task of playing

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...against the computer promotedsharing and helping behaviorswhile having dyads play againsteach other fostered competitivebehaviors.

Software CharacteristicsTwo studies suggest that different software charac-teristics may have different effects on student inter-action patterns.

Nastasi, Clements, and Battista166 explored theeffects of the Logo programming language and ofmore narrowly focused, problem-solving softwareon elementary school students' problem-solvingability and their interactions. Logo afforded studentsfar greater control over their learning environmentthan did the other software included in this study.Students using Logo demonstrated significantlygreater growth in problem-solving ability, accompa-nied by higher frequencies of:

cognitive conflict [i.e., conflict aboutthe learning task], attempt at resolu-tion of cognitive conflict.., success-ful resolution of conflict, rule mak-ing... [and] seeking approval....

The researchers suggested that it is Logo's ability tostimulate successful resolution of cognitive conflictsthat may explain its superior impact on students'problem solving skills.

Dalton167 found that a learner-controlled version ofan interactive video science lesson resulted in sig-nificantly higher rates of interaction among studentsthan a lesson-controlled version.

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These two studies suggest that software offering ahigh degree of learner control may encourage posi-tive interaction among students.

LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS

Two recent studies addressed the effects of comput-er play on the social interactions of young children.Villarruel168 found that both special education andregular education preschoolers demonstrated moresocial discourse when playing on computers thanwhen playing with other age-appropriate toys.Children using problem-solving software evidencedsignificantly higher proportions of elaboration andword play than children using "discovery-based"software. Rhee and Chavnagri169 also documented

extensive social interactions" when preschoolersplay with computers, most of which is based on thechild's own initiation.

Another research effort focused on students withspecial needs. Hine, Goldman, and Cosden17° foundthat learning handicapped students who wrote onthe computer in pairs had lower error rates than stu-dents working alone. They found evidence for threedifferent explanations of this phenomenon:

One member of the dyad [i.e., theless error-prone member] woulddominate text entry with a productclosely resembling the error-ratecharacteristics of that individual.

...when students were in control ofthe keyboard and were enteringtext, they would use their partner asa solute of information.

...the non-typing member wouldremain active in the writing processby adopting the role of monitor andoffering correction information tothe typing member....

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CONCLUSION

The research cited above strongly supports the useof technology as a catalyst for changing the learningenvironment. Educational technology has beenshown to stimulate more interactive teaching, effec-tive grouping of students, and cooperative learning.However, technology as a catalyst is not sufficientby itself. Also essential are teachers who are well-prepared to function in a more open, flexible, stu-dent-centered environment. Meaningful change willoccur over a period of time. At first, teachers can beexpected to struggle with the change brought aboutby technology. However, they will adopt, adapt, andeventually learn to use technology effortlessly andcreatively.

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2SPA K-12 Market Study Report. Software PublishersAssociation, 1993.

3Beyer, "Impact of computers on middle-level student writingskills," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association, April 1992; Yong-Chil Yang,"The effects of media on motivation and content recall:Comparison of computer- and print-based instruction," Journalof Educational Technology Systems, 20(2), 1991-1992, 95-105;Chen-Lin Kulik and James A. Kulik, "Effect4veness ofComputer-Based Instruction: An Updated Analysis," Computersin Human Behavior, 7, 1991, 75-94; Yuen-Kuang C. Liao andGeorge W. Bright, "Effects of computer programming on cogni-tive outcomes: A meta-analysis," Journal of EducationalComputing Research, 7(3), 1991, 251-268; L. Anderson-Inman,"Keyboarding across the curriculum," The Computing Teacher,May 1990, 36; WA. Land and J.J. Haney, "The effect of com-puter assisted instruction and the academic achievement ofjunior college students," Mississippi State, MI: MississippiState University, College of Education (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED327223), November 1990; ErnestWoodruff and Phillip Heeler, "A study of the use of interactivevideodisc technology to present aural tests to college musicappreciation students," in Edwin Ellis (ed.), NationalEducational Computing Conference Proceedings (1 1 th,Nashville, TN), (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED329232), June 1990, 306-309; R.L. Bagert-Drowns, "Theword processor as an instructional tool: A meta-analysis ofword processing in writing instruction," Review of EducationalResearch, 63(1), 1993, 69-93.

4Ryan, Meta-analysis of achievement effects of microcomputerapplications in elementary schools. Educational AdministrationQuarterly, 27(2), 1991, 161-184.

5Kulik and J. A. Kulik, "Effectiveness of Computer-BasedInstruction: An Updated Analysis," Computers in HumanBehavior, 7, 1991, 75-94.

6Ryan, 1991.

7WM. Cates, P.A. McNaull, and C.M.Gardner, "Inservice train-ing and university coursework: Its influence on computer useand attitudes among teachers of learning disabled students,"Journal of Research on Computing In Education, 25(4),Summer 1993, 447-63.

8Bangert-Drowns, "The word processor as an instructional tool:A meta-analysis of word processing in writing instruction,"Review of Educational Researa 63(1), 1993, 69-93.

9Fletcher, Effectiveness and cost of interactive videodiscinstruction in defense training and education. Alexandria, VA:Institute for Defense Analysis, 1990.

°McNeil and K. R. Nelson, "Meta-analysis of interactivevideo instruction: A 10 year review of achievement effects,"Journal of Computer-Based Instmcdon, 18(1), 1991, 1-6.

1 'Foster, G. Erickson, D. Foster, and J.K. Torgeson, "Computeradministered instruction in phonological awareness: Evaluationof the Daisy Quest program," unpublished.

12Foster, G. Erickson, D. Foster, and J.K. Torgeson, unpub-lished.

13Green, "The effects of word processing and a processapproach to writing on the reading and writing achievement,revising and editing strategies, and attitudes towards writing ofthird-grade Mexican-American students," DissertationAbstracts International, 52/12-A (Order No. AAD92-12535),1991.

140wston, S. Murphy, and Fl. H. Wideman, Effects of wordprocessing on student writing in a high computer access envi-ronment (Technical Report 91-3) (North York, ON, Canada:York University, Centre for the Study of Computers inEducation, June 1991).

15Li Nim-Yu, "Writing with pen or computer? A study on ESLsecondary school learners," Paper presented at the AnnualWorld Conference on Computers in Education, July 1990.

16Bair, "The effects of word processing on the writing outputof emotionally disturbed students," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 51/08-A (Order No. AAD91-01600), 1990; M.R.Berman, "The word processor as an aid in the composingprocess of twelfth-grade learning-disabled students,"Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/03-A (Order No.AAD90-22331), 1990.

17Bair, 1990.

18N.W. Silvcr and J.f. Repa, "The effect of word processing onthe quality of writing and self-esteem of secondary schoolEnglish-as-Second-Language students writing without cen-sure." Journal of Educational Computing Researrh, 9(2), 1993,265-283.

190wston, S. Murphy, and H. H. Wideman, June 1991.

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29Zellermayer, G. Salomon, T. Globerson, and H. Givon,"Enhancing writing-related metacognitions through a comput-erized writing partner," American Educational ResearchJournal, 28(2), 1991, 373-391.

21Beyer, "Impact of computers on middle-level student writingskills," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association, April 1992.

22Dailey, "The relative efficacy of cooperative learning versusindividualized learning on the written performance of adoles-cent students with writing problems," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 52/07-A (Order No. AAD91-32758),1991.

23Valeri-Gold and M.P. Deming, "Computers and basic writers:A research update,' Journal of Developmental Education,14(3), Spring 1991, 10-14.

241. Snyder, "Writing with word processors: A researchoverview," Educational Research, 35(1), Spring 1993, 61.

25Anderson-Inman, "Keyboarding across the curriculum," TheComputing Teacher, May 1990, 36.

26Hollen, "The effects of keyboarding on the spelling accuracyof fifth grade students," Unpublished master's paper (Eugene,OR: University of Oregon, 1987).

27McClendon, "First grade spelling success with keyboarding,"The Computing Teacher, 17(2), 1989, 35-36.

29Reglin, "CAI Effects on Mathematics Achievement andAcademic Self-Concept Seminar," Journal of EducationalTechnology Systems, 18(1), 43-48, 1989-1990.

29Fletcher, D.E. Hawley, and P.K. Piele, "Costs, effects, andutility of microcomputerTm assisted instruction in the class-room," Paper presented at the Seventh International Conferenceon Technology and Education in Brussels, Belgium, March1990.

39M.P. Jurkat, RB. Skov, E.A. Friedman, R.S. Pinkham, andJ.J. McGinley, "A field study of student performance:Evaluating a model for introducing computer use in high schoolmathematics" (unpublished).

31Funkhouser and P. Djang, "The Influence of problem-solvingsoftware on student attitudes about mathematics," Journal ofResearch on Computing in Educadon, 25(3), Spring 1993, 339-346.

32M.P. Alexander, "The effective use of computers and graph-ing calculators h, college algebra," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 54/06-A (Order No. AAD93-28010), 1993.

33Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University,"The Jasper series as an example of anchored instruction:Theory, program description and assessment data, 1992," (inpress; to be published in the Educational Psychologist Journa));Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University, "TheJasper series: A generative approach to improving mathematicalthinking," This Year In School Science. (Washington, DC:American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1991).

38

34Gardner, PE. Simmons, and R.D. Simpson, "The effects ofCAI and hands-on activities on elementary students' atitudesand weather knowledge," School Science and Lfathernatics,92(0), October 1992, 334-336.

35R. Lazarowitz and J. Huppert, "Science process skills of 10thgrade biology students in a computer assisted learning setting,"Journal of 1?esearch on Computing in Education, 25(3), Spring1993, 366-382.

36M. Liu, "The effect of hypermedia assisted instruction onsecond-language learning through a semantic-network-based

iroach," Paper presented at the Annual Conference of theern Educational Research Association, February 1993.

37Liao and G. W. Bright, "Effects of computer programming oncognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis," Journal of EducationalComputing Research, 7(3), 1991, 251-268; Yuen-Kuang C.Liao, "Effects of computer-assisted instruction and computerprogramming on students' cognitive performance: A quantita-tive synthesis," Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/10-A(Order No. AAD91-07337), 1990.

38Clements, "Enhancement of creativity in computer environ-ments," American Educational Research Journal, 28(1), Spring1991, 173-187.

39Nastasi, D.H. Clements, and M.T. Battista, "Social-cognitiveinteractions, motivation, and cognitive growth in Logo pro-gramming and CAI problem-solving environments," Journal ofEducational Psychology, 82(1), 1990, 150-158.

4928a. B.K. Nastasi and D.H. Clements, "Motivationalsocial outcomes of cooperative computer education environ-ments," Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 4(1),1993, 15-43.

41Clements and M.T. Battista, "The effects of Logo on chil-dren's conceptualizations of angle and polygons," Journal forResearch in Mathematics Education, 21 (5),1990,356-371.

42Yusuf, "Logo based instruction in geometry." Paper present-ed at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western EducationalResearch Assoication in Chicago, IL, October, 1991.

43Goldmacher and R.L. Lawrence, "An experiment: computerliteracy and self esteem for Head Start preschoolers - Can weLeapfrog?" Paper presented at the Annual Conference ofNational Association for the Education of Young Children,1992.

44Chang and R.T. Osguthorpe, "The effects of computerizedpicture-wordprocessing on kindergartners' language develop-ment," Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 5(1),1990, 73-83.

45Y. Zhang, "Robo-Writer and Microsoft Word: Comparativeeffects on improvement of writing skills of primary grade LDstudents," Dissertation Abstracts International, 54/07-A (OrderNo. AAD93-33991), 1993.

41

46Garzella, "Using an expert system to diagnose weaknessesand prescribe remedial reading strategies among elementarylearning-disabled students," Dissertation AbstractsInternadonal, 52/09-A (Order No. AAD92-07011), 1991.

47Woodward and R. Gersten, "Innovative technology for sec-ondary students with learning disabilities," ExceptionalChildren, 58(5), March-April 1992, 407-421.

48E xin, "The effects of video-based macro-contexts in vocab-ulary learning and reading comprehension for students withlearning disabilities," Dissertation Abstracts International,54/04-A (Order No. AAD93-24263), 1993.

49MacArthur and J. Haynes, "The Student Assistant forLearning from Text (SALT): A hypermedia reading aide"(Research supported by a grant from the U.S. Department ofEducation, Special Education Programs), unpublished.

50Skinner, "The effects of computer-based instruction on theachievement of college students as a function of achievementstatus and mode of presentation," Computers in HumanBehavior, 6, 1990, 351-360.

51Semmel, M.M. Gerber, and D.S. Semmel, "Speed of retrievalof multiplication facts and the development of automaticity"(unpublished).

52Swan, F. Guerrero, M. Mitrani, and J. Schoener "Honing inon the target: Who among the educationally disadvantaged ben-efits most from what CBI?" Journal of Research on Computingin Education, Summer 1990, 381-403.

53S.C. Schmidt, "Technology for the 21st century: The effectsof an integrated distributive computer network system on stu-dent achievement.," Dissertation Abstracts International, 52/07-A., 1991.

54K. Swan et al., Summer 1990.

55V.J. Sartorio, "Effects on computer-based learning on the lan-guage development of preschoolers in special education class-rooms," Dissertation Abstracts International, 54/06-A (OrderNo. AAD93-31511), 1993.

56Wood, "An investigation of the effects of tutorial and toolapplications of computer-based education on achievement andattitude in secondary mathematics," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 52/06-A (Order No. AAD91-32517), 1991.

57McClurg, "Investigating the development of spatial cognitionin problem-solving microworlds," Journal of Computing inChildhood Education, 3(2), 1992, 111-126.

58Dalton, "The effects of cooperative learning strategies onachievement and attitudes during interactive video," Journal ofComputer-Based Instruction, 17(1), Winter 1990, 8-16.

59H.Y. Shyu and S.W. Brown, "Learner control: The effectsduring computer-based videodisc instruction," Paper presentedat the 1993 Annual Meeting of American Educational Research,Atlanta, Georgia, April 12-16, 1993.

60Lee, "Effects of different loci of instructional control on stu-dents' metacognition and cognition: Learner vs. program con-trol," in Proceedings of Selected Paper Presentations at theConvention of the Association for Educational Communicationsand Technology (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.323938), February 1990,

61Kinzie, H.J. Sullivan, and R.L. Berdel, "Motivational andachievement effects of learner control over content review with-in CAI," Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8(1),1992, 101-114.

62Kinzie, H.J. Sullivan, and R.L. Berdel, "Motivational andachievement effects of learner control over content review with-in CAI," Journal of Educational Computing Research, 13(1),1992, 101-114.

63J.R. Klayder, "The effects of time and scope advisementwithin a hypertext environment," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 54/09-A (Order No. AAD94-05754), 1993.

64Y.B. Lee and J.D. Lehman, "Instructionak -ling in hyperme-dia: A study with active and passive learners," Journal ofEducational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 2(1), 1993, 25-37.

65Santiago and J. R. Okey, "The effects of advisement andlociis of control on achievement in learner-controlled instruc-tion," Paper presented at the 32nd International Conference ofthe Association for the Development of Computer-BasedInstructional Systems in San Diego, CA (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED330332), October-November1990.

66R.B. Clariana, "The motivational effect of advisement onattendance and achievement in computer-based instruction,"Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 20(2), Spring 1993,47-51.

67Barba and L.J. Merchant, "The effects of embedding genera-tive cognitive strategies in science software," Journal ofComputers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 10(1), Fall1990, 59-65.

68Grossen and D. Carnine, "Diagramming a logic strategy:Effects on difficult problem types and transfer," Learn.ngDisability Quarterly, 13, Summer 1990, 168-182.

69A. Johnsey, G.R. Morrison, and S.M.Ross, "Using elabora-tion strategies training in computer-based instruction to pro-mote generative learning," Contemporary EducationalPsychology, 17, 1992, 125-135.

70Calvert, J.A. Watson, V. Brinkley, and J. Penny, "Computerpresentational features for poor readers' recall of information,"Journal of Educational Computing Research, 6(3), 1990, 287-298,

71Rieber, M.J. Boyce, and C. Assad, "The effects of computeranimation on adult learning and retrieval tasks," Journal ofComputer-Based Instruction, 17(2), 1990, 46-52.

72Rieber, "Animation, incidental learning, and continuingmotivation," Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 1991,318-328.

39 42

73K.M. O'Banion, S.R. Goldman, D.L.M. Sharp, J.D.Bransford, N.J. Vye, J. Beaty, and E. Saul, "Multimedia supportfor language comprehension skills in at-risk kindergarten stu-dents," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association in Atlanta, GA, 1993.

74M. Riel, "Educational change in a technology-rich environ-ment," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association in San Francisco, CA, April1992.

75Riel. "Making connections from urban schools," Educationand Urban Society, 24(4), 1992, 485-496.

76Spaulding and D. Lake. D.. "Interactive effects of computernetwork and student characteristics on students' writing andcollaborating," Paper presented at the annual meeting of theAmerican Educational Research Association in Chicago, April1991, as reported in M. Riel, "Making connections from urbanschools," Education and Urban Society, 24(4), 1992, 485-496.

77S. Weir, "Electronic communities of learners: Facts or fic-tion," Cambridge, MA: TERC Communications (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. 348990), January 1992.

78Smith, L., "New on-line education system nets better gradesfor college students and instructors," Paper submitted to theAssociation for College and University TelecommunicationsAdministrators, ACUTA News, August 1992.

79E.D. Martin and L. Rainey, "Student achievement and atti-tude in a satellite-delivered high school science course," TheAmerican Journal ofDistance Education, 7(1), 1993, 54-61.

8°W Kitz and H. Thorpe, "The effectiveness of videodisc andtraditional algebra instruction with college-aged remedial stu-dents," University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh, Summer 1992(unpublished manuscript).

81McWhirter, "The effect of Level One videodisc technologyon sixth-grade student achievement in science," DissertationAbstracts International, 52/05-A (Order No. AAD91-29725),1991.

82M, Niedelman, "Problem solving and transfer," Journal ofLearning Disabilities, 1991, 24(6).

83N. Muthukrishna, D. Carnine, B. Grossen, and S. Miller,"Children's alternative frameworks: Should they be directlyaddressed in science instruction?" Journal of Research inScience Teaching, 30(3), 1993, 233-248.

84A. Bain, S. Houghton, F.B. Sah, and A. Carroll, "An evalua-tion of the application of interactive video for teaching prob-lem-solving to early adolescents," Journal of Computer-BasedInstruction, 19 (3), 1992, 92-99.

85Ziegler, Jr., "The effect of interactive video on learning, per-ceived effectiveness, and user attitudes in academic library ori-entation programs," Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/09-A (Order No. AAD91-04797), 1990.

40

86Woodruff and P. Heeler, "A study of the use of Interactivevideodisc technology to present aural tests to college musicappreciation students," in Edwin Ellis (ed.), NationalEducational Computing Conference Proceedings (1 1 th ,Nashville, TN), June 1990, 306-309.

87Keller, "Good-bye teacher," Journal of Applied BehaviorAnalysis, 1(1), 1968, 79-89.

88Kulik, C.L. Kulik, and K. Carmichael, "The Keller plan inscience teaching," Science, 183, 1974, 379-383.

89M.L. Johnson, "The effects of instructional strategies on stu-dent perfomance (interactive video, lecture method, demonstra-tion method)," Dissertation Abstracts International, 54108-A(Order No. AAD93-34096), 1993.

90G.G. Bitter and M.M. Hatfield, Teaching mathematics meth-ods using interactive multimedia: The TMMUIV researchresults. Monograph 5 in the Monograph Series of TechnologyBased Learning and Research, Tempe, AZ: Arizona StateUniversity, Study 3.,1993.

91M.R. Vitale and N.R. Romance, "Using videodisk instructionin an elementary science methods course: Remediating scienceknowledge deficiencies and facilitating science teaching atti-tudes," Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(9), 1992,915-928.

92Billings and K.L. Cobb, "Effects on learning style prefer-ences, attitude and GPA on learner achievement using computerassisted interactive videodisc instruction," Journal ofComputer-Based Instruction, 19(1), Winter 1991, 12-16.

93H.A. Stine, "The effects of CD-ROM interactive software inreading sk:lls instruction with second-grade Chapter 1 stu-dents," Fissertation Abstracts International, 54/09-A (OrderNo. AAD94-00115), 1993.

94WM. Reed and G.S. Rosenbluth, "The effect of HyperCardprogramming on knowledge construction and interrelatednessof humanities-based information" (ERIC DocumentReproduction Services No. ED355908), 1992.

95Dalton and D.A. Goodrum, "The effects of computer-basedpretesting strategies on learning and continuing motivation,"Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 24(2), Winter1991, 204-213.

96Signer, "A study of black at-risk urban youth using comput-er-assisted testing," in Proceedings of Selected Research andDevelopment Presentations at the Convention of theAssociation for Educational Communications and Technologyand Sponsored by the Research and Theory Division (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED348024), February1992.

97Powell, "Test anxiety and test performance under computer-ized adaptive testing methods," Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of ihe American Educational Research Association inSan Francisco, CA (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED344910), April 1992.

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99L.J. Baron and P.C. Abrami, "Microcomputer learning with atutorial program-manipulating group size and exposure time,"Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 3(3/4), 1992,231-245.

99Hooper, "Effect of peer interaction during computer-basedmathematics instruction," Journal of Educational Research,85(3), January-February 1992, 180-189.

199S. Hooper, C. Temiyakarn, M.D. Williams, "The effects ofcooperative learning and learner control on high- and average-ability students," Educational Technology, Research, andDevelopment, 41(2), 1993, 5-18.

101J. Repman, "Collaborative, computer-based learning:Cognitive and affective outcomes," Journal -1 EducationalComputing Research, 9(2), 1993, 149-163.

192Mevarech, 0. Silbar, and D. Fine, "Learning with computersin small groups: Cognitive and affective outcomes," Journal ofEducational Computing Research, 7(2), 1991, 233-243.

193Shlechter, "What do we really know about small groupCBT?" Paper presented at the 33rd annual conference of theAssociation for the Development of Computer-BasedInstructional Systems, St. Louis, MO., (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED342381), November 1991.

194Cockayne, "Effects of small group sizes on learning withinteractive videodisc." Educational Technology, February1991, 43-45.

195DeGraw, "A study to determine changes in social interac-tion among students, teachers, and parents influenced by theplacement of microcomputers in the homes and school offourth-grade Fuqua students during 1988-1989," DissertationAbstracts International, 51/05-A (Order No. AAD90-26713),1990; G.R. Rhyser, "Effects of computer education on students'achievement, attitudes, and self-esteem," Dissertation AbswactsInternational, 52/01-A (Order No. AAD91-05649), 1990; GaryL. Reglin, "CAI Effects on Mathematics Achievement andAcademic Self-Concept Seminar," Journal of EducationalTechnology Systems, 18(1), 43-48, 1989-1990, 0. Geban, P.Askar, and 0. Ilker, " Effects of Computer Simulations andProblem-Solving Approaches on High School Students,"Journal of Educational Research, 86 (1) , 5-10,September/October 1992.

196Beyer, "Impact of computers on middle-level student writ-ing skills," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theAmerican Educational Research Association, April 1992;Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University, "TheJasper series as an example of anchored instruction: Theory,program description and assessment data," 1992, in press (to bepublished in the Educational Psychologist Jourria6; Yong-ChilYang, "The effects of media on motivation and content recall:Comparison of computer- and print-based instruction," Journalof Educational Technology.Systems, 20(2), 95-105, 1991-1992;S.A. Brusic, "Determining effects of fifth-grade students'achievement and curiosity when a technology education activityis integrated with a unit in science," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 52/09-A (Order No. AAD92-01134), 1991; M.Valeri-Gold and M.P. Deming, "Computers and basic writers: Aresearch update," Journal of Developmental Education, 14(3),10-14, Spring 1991; S.B. Wepner, "The effects of a computer-ized reading program on 'at-risk' secondary students," Paper

presented at the Annual Meeting of the College ReadingAssociation in Crystal City, VA, M.M. October-November1991; M.M. Yusuf, "Logo based instruction in geometry," Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-WesternEducational Research Association in Chicago, IL, October1991; L. Anderson-Inman, "Keyboarding across the curricu-lum," The Computing Teacher, 36, May 1990; Charles A.MacArthur and Jacqueline Haynes, "The Student Assistant forLearning from Text (SALT): A hypermedia reading aide"(Research supported by a grant from the U.S. Department ofEducation. Special Education Programs), unpubv.shed; 0.Geban, P. Askar, and 0. Ilker, "Effects of Computer simulationsand Problem-Solving Approaches on High School Students,"Journal of Educational Research, 86(1), 5-10, September/October 1992; S. Weir, January 1992..

197Rhyser, "Effects of computer education on students'achievement, attitudes, and self-esteem," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 52/01-A (Order No. AAD91-05649), 1990.

198DeGraw, "A study to determine changes in social interac-tion among students, teachers, and parents influenced by theplacement of microcomputers in the homes and school offourth-grade Fuqua students during 1988-1989," DissertationAbstracts International, 51/05-A (Order No. AAD90-26713),1990.

199Reglin, "CAI Effects on Mathematics Achievement andAcademic Self-Concept Seminar," Journal of EducationalTechnology Systems, 18(1), 43-48, 1989-1990.

119Fisher, The Influence of High Computer Access on StudentEmpowerment (ACOT Report #1), Apple Classrooms ofTomorrow Advanced Technology Group, Apple Computer, Inc.,1989; J.L. Wright and A.S. Samaras, "Play worlds andmicroworlds," in P.F. Campbell and G.G. Fein (Eds.), YoungChildren and Microcomputers, A Reston Book, EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986, 73-86.

111Graham and MacArthur, "Improving learning disabled stu-dents' skills at revising essays produced on a word processor:Self-instructional strategy training," Journal of SpecialEducation, 22(2), 1988, 133-152.

1 i2Va1eri-Gold and M.P. Deming, "Computers and basic writ-ers: A research update," Journal of Developmental Education,14(3), 10-14, Spring 1991.

113Green, "The effects of word processing and a processapproach to writing on the reading and writing achievement,revising and editing strategies, and attitudes towards writing ofthird-grade Mexican-American students," DissertationAbstracts International, 52/12-A (Order No. AAD92-12535),1991.

1140wston and others, On and off computer writing of eighthgrade students experienced in word processing (TechnicalReport 90-1). North York, ON, Canada: York University, Centrefor the Study of Computers in Education (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED3i9053), May 1990.

115Beyer, "Impact of computers on middle-level student writ-ing skills," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theAmerican Educational Research Association, April 1992.

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116Anderson-Inman, "Keyboarding across the curriculum,"The Computing Teacher, 36, May 1990.

117Ho1len, "The effects of keyboarding on the spelling accura-cy of fifth grade students," Unpublished master's paper,Eugene. OR: University of Oregon, 1987; S.L. McClendon,"First grade spelling success with keyboarding," TheComputing Teacher, 17(2), 1989, 35-36.

118Webster, "The relationship of computer-assisted instructionto mathematics achievement, student cognitive styles, and stu-dent and teacher attitudes," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 51/10-A (Order No. AAD91-03410), 1990.

119Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University,"The Jasper series as an example of anchored instruction:Theory, program description and assessment data," 1992, inpress (to be published in the Educational Psychologist Journa)).

120yusuf, "Logo based instruction in geometry," Paper present-ed at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western EducationalResearch Association in Chicago, IL, October 1991,

1210. Geban, P. Askar, and 0. Ilker, September/October 1992.

122MacArthur and J. Haynes, "The Student Assistant forLearning from Text (SALT): A hypermedia reading aide"(Research supported by a grant from the U.S. Department ofEducation, Special Education Programs), unpublished.

123Brusic, "Determining effects of fifth-grade students'achievement and curiosity when a technology education activityis integrated with a unit in science," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 52/09-A (Order No. AAD92-01134), 1991.

124s, Weir, January 1992.

125yang, "The effects of media on motivation and contentrecall: Comparison of computer- and print-based instruction,",Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8(1), 1992, 101-114.

126Kinzie. H.J. Sullivan, and R.L. Berdel, "Motivational andachievement effects of learner control over content review with-in CAI," Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8(1),1992, 101-114.

127H.Y. Shyu and S.W. Brown, April 12-16, 1993.

128Wood, "An investigation of the effects of tutorial and toolapplications of computer-based education on achievement andattitude in secondary mathematics," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 52/06-A (Order No. AAD91-32517), 1991.

129B.J. Burt, "Elementary gifted students' perceptions of moti-vating factors in computer software environments,"Dissertation Abstracts International, 54/07-A (Order No.AAD93-33078), 1993.

130Spauding and D. Lake, "Interactive effects of computer net-work and student characteristics on students' writing and col-laborating," Paper presented at the annual meeting of theAmerican Educational Research Association in Chicago, April1991, as reported in M. Riel, "Making connections from urbanschools," Education and Urban Socim, 24(4), 1992, 485-496.

131MAGI Educational Services, Inc., Evaluation of the NewYork State/Moscow Schools telecommunications project.Albany, NY: New York State Department of Education,February 1992.

132Smith, "New on-line education system nets better grades forcollege students and instructors," Paper submitted to theAssociation for College and University TelecommunicationsAdministrators, ACUTA News, August 1992.

133R Thorkildsen and W. Lowry, "The effects of a videodiscprogram on mathematics self-concept," Unpublished manu-script (Logan, UT: Utah State University, 1990).

134M. Niedelman, "Problem solving and transfer," Journal ofLearning Disabilities, 1991, 24(6).

135A. Bain, S. Houghton, F.B. Sah, and A. Carroll, "An evalua-tion of :he application of interactive video for teaching prob-lem-solving to early adolescents," Journal of Computer-BasedInstruction, 19 (3), 1992, 92-99.

136M.R. Vitale and N.R. Romance, "Using videodisk instruc-tion in an elementary science methods course: Remediatingscience knowledge deficiencie; and facilitating science teach-ing attitudes," Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(9),1992, 915-928.

137M.C. Newbold, "A comparison of sixth-grade students'access, retrieval, and utilization of information obtained fromCD-ROM and print sources," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 54/03-A (Order No. AAD93-20111), 1993.

138Dalton and D.A. Goodrum, "The effects of computer-basedpretesting strategies on learning and continuing motivation,"Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 24(2), Winter1991, 204-213.

139M. Bricken and C.M. Byrne, "Summer students in VirtualReality: A pilot study on educational applications of VirtualReality technology" (ERIC Document Reproduction ServicesNo. ED358853), 1992.

MC/Chang and R.T. Osguthorpe, "The effects of computerizedpicture-wordprocessing on kindergartners' language develop-ment," Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 5(1),1990, 73-83.

141Goldmacher and R.L. Lawrence, "An experiment:Computer literacy and self esteem for Head Start preschoolers

Can we leapfrog?" Paper presented at the AnnualConference of National Association for the Education of YoungChildren, 1992.

45BEST COPY AVAILABLE

142Bair. "The effects of word processing on the writing outputof emotionally disturbed students," Dissertation AbstractsInternational, 51/08-A (Order No. AAD91-01600), 1990.

143Swan and others, "Perceived locus of control and computer-based instruction," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting ofthe American Educational Research Association in Boston,MA., April 1990.

144Mevarech, 0. Silber, and D. Fine, "Learning with computersin small groups: Cognitive and affective outcomes," Journal ofEducational Computing Research, 7(2), 1991, 233-243.

145Wepner, "The effects of a computerized reading program on'at-risk' secondary students," Paper presented at the AnnualMeeting of the College Reading Association in Crystal City,VA, M.M. October-November 1991.

146S. Hooper, C. Temiyakarn, M.D. Williams, 1993.

147J. Repman, 1993.

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