DOCUMENT RESUME ED 316 764 CE 054 681 AUTHOR TITLE ... · per copy from the Materials Development Center, School of Education and Human Services, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie,

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 316 764 CE 054 681

AUTHORTITLE

Marr, John N.; Roessler, Richard T.Behavior Management in Work Settings. VocationalEvaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin. SpecialEdition. Richard J. Baker Memorial Monograph.

INSTITUTION Vocational Evaluation and Work AdjustmentAssociation, Washington, D.C.

SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Handicapped Research (ED),Washington, DC.

PUB DATE 86GRANT G0083c0010/02NOTE 44p.AVAILABLE FROM Materials Development Center, Stout Vocational

Rehabilitation Institute, University ofWisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI 54751 ($5.00).

PUB TYPE Collected Works - Serials (022) -- Reports -Research /Technical (143)

JOURNAL CIT Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin;n2 1986

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Behavior Modification; Coping; Employment

Experience; *Employment Potential; InterpersonalCompetence; *Job Skills; *Tenure; VocationalAdjustment; Vocational Evaluation; *VocationalRehabilitation; *Work Attitudes; Work Environment

IDENTIFIERS *Behavior Management

ABSTRACTThis monograph presents practical job retention

strategies that are appropriate for use by rehabilitationprofessionals working with disabled individuals. The first sectionprovides an introduction to assessing and enhancing job retentionskills. The second section presents a general description of 12 basicbehavior modification terms and techniques. The next six sections areorganized around six duties critical for retaining work. Material inthese sections provides specific applications of the approaches andstrategies defined in the second section to work adjustment problemsrelated to the six work duties. The six duties are (1) accepting thework tole; (2) responding satisfactorily to change; (7,A) being aproductive worker; (4) monitoring one's own work and work needs; (5)accepting supervision; and (6) working with coworkers. A sample workpersonality profile and a list of 51 references are included.(YLB)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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:71 VOCATIONALEVALUATION ANDWORK ADJ S MEuTBULLETIN

SPECIAL EDITIONRICHARD J. BAKER

MEMORIAL MONOGRAPH

0

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CENTER (ERIC)This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.

Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality

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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED SY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

THE PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL OF THE

VOCATIONAL EVALUATION AND WORK

ADJUSTMENT ASSOCIATION

2 661 COM AV A11.03LE

EDITORDAVID W. CORTHELL, :d.D.

University of Wisconsin-StoutMenomonie, WI

ASSOCIATE EDITORSKARL F. BOTTERBUSCH, Ph.D.


CHARLES C. COKER, Ph.D.University of Wisconsin-StoutMenomonie, WI

INNOVATIONS COLUMNRONALD R. FRY


TOPICAL REWEW COLUMNDARRELL D. COFFEY, Ed.D.


MANAGING EDITORCHRISTOPHER A. SMITH

University of Wisconsin-StoutMenomonie,WI

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EDITORIAL OFFICE: Vocatio:ial Evaluation and Work AdjustmentBulletin, School of Education and Human Services, University ofWisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751.

PUBLICATION: The Vocationa: Evaluation and Work AdjustmentBulletin is printed quarterly, January, April, July, and October, at theCareer Development Center, 1515 Ball Street, Eau Claire, Wisconsin54701, by the Vocational Evaluation and Work AdjustmentAssociation. ISSN 0160.8312 second class postage is paid at EauClaire, Wiscco sin 54701. POSTMASTER: Send address change toVocational Evaluation and Work Adjustnient Bulletin, School ofEducation and Human Services, University of Wisconsin-Stout,Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751.

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WILLIAM E. MARTIN, Jr., Ed.D.Northern ArizonaFlagstaff, AZ

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BETTYE SHOFNELHOFFMAN, Ph.D.University of ArkansasHot Springs. AR

CONSULTANT REVIEWERSRICHARD J. BECK

Dept. of Allied HealthEchnberg, TX

ANNE CHANDLER, Ph.D.Virginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmond, VA

GII.BERT FOSSUniversity of OregonEugene, OR

JULIET FRIEDUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreet', CO

JEFFERY A. HARRISVocational Research InstitutePhiladelphia. PA

LINDA MATHIAS KASSELChicago Jewish Vocational ServiceChicago, IL

KAREN PELLUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, MD

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ADVERTISING: For information concerning advertising in theBulletin, contact Christopher Smith, Managing Editor, 4 ocationalEvaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin, School of Education andHuman Services, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie,Wisconsin 54751. Advertisements are accepted on the basis of theirrelevance to the Bulletin's readership. Advertisement of products,materials, or services in theBulletin does not imply an endorsement byVEWAA.

INDEXING: Articles appearing in the Bulletin are selectively indexedin Psychological Abstracts, Rehabilitation Literature, and theannotated bibliographies on work evaluation and adjustment publishedby the Materials Development Center.

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Copyright, 1985, by the Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Association

VOCATIONAL EVALUATION AND WORK ADJUSTMENT BULLETIN

SPECIAL EDITION 1986 BAKER MONOGRAPH

TABLE OF CONTENTS

BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT IN WORK SETTINGSJohn N. Marr and Richard T. Roessler 3

ASSESSING AND ENHANCING JOB RETENTION SKILLS 4

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND JOB RETENTION 8

ACCEPTING THE WORK ROLE 12

RESPONDS SATISFACTORILY TO CHANGE 17

BEING A PRODUCTIVE WORKER 21

MONITORS OWN WORK AND WORK NEEDS 26

ACCEPTS SUPERVISION 28

WORKS WITH CO-WORKERS 32

REFERENCES 35

WORK PERSONALITY PROFILE 38

CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS 40

NUMBER 2

GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

The Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin is publishedquarterly in order to provide practitioners, consumers, and educators withan understanding of Information in vocational assessment and therapeuticadjustment services. The Bulletin concentrates mostly upon thepublication of articles pertaining to critical issues in theory. research,methodology, program innovations, and instrumentation developmentwithin the areas of vocational evaluation and work adjustment.

Potential authors should not hesitate to submit an artiNe on the gr, 'andsthat they do not know how to write for formal publications. The content ofan article is much more important than writing style. Editorial assistancewill be provided to clarify and correct inconsistencies in style which couldlead to misinterpretation by the readership. However, the contertt shouldbe well organized so that the development of ideas is logical and thesuggested conclusions are clear. Vocabulary should be simple and non-technical, except when technical language is essential to emalain the topicat hand.

All manuscripts must be typewritten and double-spaced, with margins ofnot less than one inch. The title of the manuscript should be at the top ofthe first page, with the name of the t ithor or authors immediately beneathtile title. Four copies of the manuscript and four copies of its abstract(approximately 150 words) should be submitted, along with a briefstatement of the author's name and address, organizational affiliation,degrees received, pertinent experience, and general interest in the field ofvocational evaluation or adjustment services.

Authors should follow the reference style used in this issue of theBulletin which closely follows practices suggested in the PublicationManual of the American Psychological Association. This manual may bepurchased, for approximately $15.00 per copy, from the AmericanPsychological Association, 130017th Street NW., Washington D.C. 20036.Footnotes should be avoided when possible, and should be used only tofurther explain the text of the article. The origin of ideas should beacknowledged by including their source in the references.

Manuscripts should be submitted directly to: Dr. David Corthell, Editor,VEWAA Bulletin. School of Education and Human Services, University ofWisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751. Manuscripts will beacknowledged upon receipt. Following a preliminary review by the editors,they will be sent to three members of the editorial board or selected guestreviewers.

Upon review by the editor and the editorial board, manuscripts will beeither accepted, rejected. or returned to the cu..hor for suggested revision.Approximately two months may elapse betwe an the acknowledgement ofreceipt of a manuscript and notification of its disposition. The editor willsubmit to the author for approval any substantial changes which arise Inediting. Acceptable articles are usually published in the order of theirreceipt

The author of an article will receive two tree copies of the issue in whichthe article appears

Vocational Eualuation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

Behavior ManagementIn Work Settings

JOHN N. MARR

RICHARD T. ROESSLER

Both authors are employed by the Arkansas Researchand Training Center in Vocational Rehabilitation at theUniversity of ArkansasFayetteville, ArkansasRehabilitation Services.

ABUTRACT: Because it provides strategies for specifying andremediating problematic work related behaviors, BehaviorManagement in Work Settings is an importaLit job maintenanceresource for use by rehabilitation professionals. Based on the premisethat behavior is influenced by its consequences, each behaviormanagement strategy included has proven to be effect(ve, either inincreasing desirable work behaviors or in decreasing undesirablework behaviors. The techniques for changing behavior are relevant tosix major work duties. Rehabilitation counselors, work adjustmentspecialists, educators, and supervisors in production settings canlearn to use these techniques to help workers become productiveemployees who have increased potential for job retentionand advancement.

From its inception, th state/federal vocationalrehabilitation program has stressed the goal ofemployment of disabled individuals. Employmentprovides handicapped people with productive andpositive social roles that not only enhance theirindependence but also their participation in society.Over the years many services have evolved to preparedisabled individuals for the work role. Unfortunately, farfewer resources address the problem of job retention.Therefore, this monograph, Behavior Management inWork Settings, presents practical job retentionstrategic: that are appropriate for use by rehabilitationprofessionals. The monograph discusses behaviormodification aoproaches designed to minimize workadjustment problems and maximize employability skillsto improve an individual's chances to keep a job and, wehope, advance on the job over time.

The contents of this monograph were developedunder a research and training center grant(G0083C0010/02) from the National Institute ofHandicapped Services, Department of Education,Washington, D.C. 20202. However, those contents donot necessarily represent the policy of that agency, andyou should not assume endorsement by the FederalGovernment.

All programs administered by and services providedby the Arkansas Research and Training CenterVocational Rehabilitation are rendered on a non-discriminatory basis without regard to handicap, race,creed, color, sex, or national origin in compliance withthe Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Title VI of the CivilRights Act of 1964. All applicants' for programparticipation and/or services have a right to filecomplaints and to appeal according to regulationsgoverning this principle.

We wish to thank Mary Drevdahl, Frank Lewis, andAnita Owen for their assistance in preparing themonograph for publication.

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Specie 1986 3

Assessing and EnhancingJob Retention Skills

Behavior Management in Work Settings is a

compendium of behavior modification strategies foreliminating specific work adjustment problems. Themonograph is organized around six duties critical forretaining work (Roessler & Bolton, 1983):

1) Accepting the work role: the ability to respondappropriately to basic demands of the work rolesuch as personal hygiene, dress, and self-control.

2) Responding satisfactorily to change: the ability toattend to and follow instructions in the worksetting that might require adopting new worktechniques or changing from job to job.

3) Being a productive wurker: the ability to arrive atwork promptly and to 'roduce at appropriatelevels of quantity and quality.

4) Monitoring one's own work and work needs: theability to identify one's own mistakes whileworking tind either correct them or seek help incorrecting them.

5) Accepting Supervision: the ability to listen to andaccept criticism of one's work.

6) Working with co-workers: the ability to ass ne aproductive role as a team member doing one'sshare and helping others as needed.

Specific work adjustment problems related to thesesix work duties can be remediated through the behaviormodification strategies presented in the manual.

Each behavior modification technique suitable forincreasing desirable behavior or decreasing undesirablebehavior is presented as a supervisory response in awork adjustment situation. The following behaviormodification strategies to enhance job retentioncapabilities are demonstrated:

1) Prompting2) Overcorrection-positive practice (verbal and

performance)3) Self-instruction4) Confrontation5) Positive reinforcement6) Modeling and role playing

7) Time out and response cost8) Negative practice9) Overcorrection-restitution

10) Instruction and practice11) Extinction12) Behavior Inoculation13) Incentives14) Feedback15) Stimulus control16) Team meeting17) Discrimination training18) Fading

An introduction to the principles of behaviormodification underlying each of the job retentiontechniques is provided in the section tided "BehaviorModification and Job Retention." Study of that sectionwill enable the reader to develop a greater understandingof each of the behavior change strategies. Materialin subsequent sections provides specific applications ofthe strategies to work adjustment problems related tothe six work duties.

Theoretical Orientation

Operant conditioning, the theoretical orientation ofthe Monograph, stresses that behavior is affected by itsconsequences. Behaviors that result in positive conse-quences are more likely to occur in the future; behaviorsresulting in negative consequences are less likely tooccur in the future. Selective use of the techniques in themonograph will enable the work adjustment professionalto apply this contingency model. For example, some ofthe strategies are designed to provide Positive contingen-cies or consequences for desirable work behavior, andothers, negative contingencies for undesirable workbehavior. Systematic application of the techniques,therefore, contributes to the development of certainbehaviors and the elimination of others. Behaviorssingled out for encouragement or discouragementshould shape the individual forward becoming a highlyvalued employee.

Purpose

The purpose of Behavior Management in WorkSettings is to provide pragmatic strategies for dealingwith problems encountered in retaining a job.Specifically, by using these management strategies,

1) Rehabilitation professionals and/or supervisorscan help new employees adjust to the establish-ment phase of work. The establishment phase ofwork requires that employees "learn the ropes,"e.g., adjust to company policies, supervisory styles,and expectations of co-workers.

2) Supervisors can teach new workers the behaviorsof desirable employees, behaviors that will helppeople advance on the job.

4 Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

Identification of Work AdjustmentStrengths and Weaknmses

In its most basic form, diagnosis of desirable and unde-sirable work behaviors can be done simply by insolatingthose behaviors or actions that interfere with theperson's capability to meet the demands of the sixwork duties:

1) Acceptance of the work role2) Response to change3) Productivity4) Self-monitoring5) Acceptance of supervision6) Cooperation with co-workers

Problematic behaviors in these six areas should beanalyzed in terms of their antecedents, those eventspreceding the behavior's occurrence; the consequences;the specific work duty affected; and the components ofthe behavior. Having identified the problem behavior,the work adjustment specialist could review thesubsection addressing that problem, selecting thebehavior modification technique that appears most suit-able for the setting and the problem. Multiple targetbehaviors and treatment responses could then be incor-porated in the work adjustment plan.

Another method for identifying specific work adjust-ment problems is to use a structured rating formdesigned for such a p-Irpose. One appropriate measurefor problem identification is the Work Personality Profile(WPP). The Work Personality Profile provided theoriginal organizational format for BehauiorManagement in Work Settings, i.e., the six work dutiesaddressed in the Monograph were selected fron: thedimensions of the Work Personality Profile.

The Work Personality Profile (Roessler & Bolton,1985) is appropriate for use vocational adjustmentworkshops and rehabilitation settings. The WPP canhelp rehabilitation professionals identify client deficitsand strengths in the fundamental work capabilitiesessential to retention of employment. Thesefundamental capabilities are expressed in 58 specificwork behaviors organized into 11 categories of workperform.-ace, e.g., acceptance of work role, ability toprofit from instruction and correction, work persistence,work tolerance, amount of supervision required, extenttrainee seeks assistance from supervisor, degree ofcomfort or anxiety with supervisor, appropriateness ofpersonal relations with supervisor, teamwork, ability tosocialize with co-workers, and social communicationskills.

By using the WPP, the work adjustment specialist canidentify specific behavioral problems related to the 11work dimensions. Because these WPP dimensionscorrespond closely to the six work duties in the

Monograph, the work adjustment specialist can use theMonograph's behavior modification techniques toremediate problems identified with the WPP.

The WPP should be completed after the client hasbeen observed in the vocational evaluation or worksetting for approximately 20 to 30 hours. This amount oftime usually ensures adequate opportunity for carefulobservation and planned interaction with the client.Based on these observations, the work adjustmentspecialist can identify specific problems to address withstrategies in the Monograph. A copy of the WPP isprovided in the Appendix.

ApplicationsBehauior Management in Work Settings is

appropriate for a number of uses. For example, itrepresents a concrete approach to post-employmentcounseling that could be offered by rehabilitationcounselors after clients have completed therestoration and training phases of their rehabilitationprograms. Strategies in the Monograph could be used toremediate specific behavioral problems that haveoccurred on the job during the trial employment periodor after placement during the post-employment phase.Rehabilitation counselors could also train supervisors inindustry to use these techniques to respondappropriately to work related behavior problems ofrehabilitation clients, thus giving supervisors a means fordealing with problems before they result in termination ofthe new worker.

The Monograph is also highly appropriate for othersettings such as sheltered workshops, rehabilitationfacilities, schools, correctional programs, and job train-ing programs. In workshops and rehabilitation facilities,the Monograph provides treatment alternatives thatcould be incorporated into individualized habilitation orrehabilitation plans. After an observational period, staffcould identify specific work adjustment objectives usingthe WPP and strategies for reaching those objectivesfrom the Monograph. This information could becombined in a plan that v.iuld structure one importantphase of a person's work adjustment program. Thesestrategies as well as any new ones needed could becontinued in vocational training settings if necessary.

Behauior Management in Work Settings is also avaluable resource for providing supported employmentservices in transitional programs for handicapped youthmoving from school to work. The behavioral problemsaffecting job retention outlined in the Monograph areexactly those problems needing remediation insupported employment efforts. By using the WPP andthe behavior modification techniques in the Monograph,the rehabilitation professional would have a structuredinstrument and set of responses to identify andremediate on-the-job problems.

In conclusion, the Monograph has uses in anyprogram attempting to develop positive work behaviors.Special education, cooperative education, vocational

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 5

education, and JTPA programs are but a few of the othersettings in which Behavior Management in WorkSettings could he used.

UseThe Monograph is designed to be used in the

following manner:

1) If unfamiliar with basic behavior modification tech-niques, the reader should first study "BehaviorModification and Job Retention";

2) Work adjustment problems that have beenidentified using the WPP or another diagnosticapproach can then be related to one of the six workduties.

3) The reader reviews the work task sections in eachsection to identify the work behavior that corre-sponds most closely with the observed problem;

4) The reader then studies the various behavior man-agement strategies and selects the one or onesmost appropriate for the individual, the specificproblem, and the setting in which the problem isoccurring. A twofold strategy may be suggested,e.g. use of one technique to enhance a desirablebehavior and another to eliminate an undesirablebehavior.

SummaryBecause it provides strategies for specifying and

remediating problematic work related behaviors,Behavior Management in Work Settings is an importantjob maintenance resource fot use by rehabilitationprofessionals. Based on the premise that behavior isinfluenced by its consequences, each behaviormanagement strategy included has proven to beeffective either in increasing desirable work behaviors orin decreasing undesirable work behaviors. Thetechniques for changing behavior are relevant to sixmajor work duties. Rehabilitation counselors, workadjustment specialists, educators, and supervisors inproductive settings can learn to use these techniques tohelp workers become productive employees who haveincrea, d potential for job retention and advancement.

To access material in the Monograph, the reader mayuse either the Table of Contents or the following detailedoutline

Accepting the work role

1. Maintain satisfactory personal hygiene habitsa. Promptingb. Contingency interventions

1. Overcorrection2. Other selected strategies

2. Dress appropriatelya. Confrontationb. Contingercies

3. Control tempera. On the job contingencyb. Preventive strategies by the rehabilitation

counselor1. Rationale for chancy.2. Assessment of anger-producing situations3. Assertiveness response training4. Self-instructional training5. Role play and follow-up

4. Obey rules and regulationsa. Overcorrection-positive practice-performe nce

5. Avoid horseplay and practical jokesa. Time-out and response costsb. Negative practicec. Overcorrection-restitution

6. Avoid obscenities and vulgaritiesa. Instruction behaviorb. Negative t ractice

Responding satisfactorily to change

1. Attend instructiona. Instructions in verification L. message is

understoodb. Teaching to attend through notes

2. Accept new assignments or instructions withoutargumentsa. Extinctionb. Confrontationc. Promptingd. Negative practice

3. Change work methods when instructed to do soa. Lack of knowledgeb. Overcorrection-positive practice: description

and performancec. Overcorrection-positive practice: undoing and

redoing4. Transfer previously learned skills to new

assignmenta. Skill analysisb. Prompting

5. Continue to work despite changes in environmenta. Prompting with instructionsb. Behavior inoculation

6. Move from job to job easilya. Proviptmgb. Practice

Being a productive worker

1. Arrive at work and return from breaks on timea. Modelingb. Incentivesc. Response costd. Prompting and instruction

2. Begin work without promptinga. Systematic reinforcement and ignoringb. Overcorrection positive practic?c. Response cost


3. Work steadily during work perioda. Reinforcement and practiceb. Feedback

4. Continue work until work period endsa. Prompting and reinforcementb. Stimulus controlc. Response cost

5. Produce sufficient quantity of worka. Incentivesb. Modelingc. FPedb3ck

6. Produce sufficient quality of worka. Prompting and reinforcementb. Changing the antecedentsc. Negative contingencies

Monitoring one's own work and work needs

1. Identify own mistakesa. Team meetingb. Discrimination trainingc. Feedback and positive reinforcement

2. Initiate action to correct mistakesa. Incentive planb. Response cost

3. Seek help or information when necessarya. Practice in seeking helpb. Systematic reinforcement and ignoringc. Overcorrectioeducation

Accepting supervision

1. Stay on task with supervisor presenta. Extinctionb. Reiaforcement and fading

2. Accept criticism of worka. Reinforcement and fadingb. Initruction and practice

3. Change work behavior consistent with criticisma. Modified point economyb. Negative practice

4. Interfere with the supervision of othersa. Practice with reinforcementb. Self-instruction trainingc. Extinction, prompting and education

5. Report relevant information to supervisora. Prompting with positive reinforcementb. Extinctionc. Negative practice

Working with co-workers

1. Work at assigned position in a group taska. Modelingb. Fading

2. Perform equal share of work loada. Modeling and reinforcementb. Confrontation and work isolation

3. Support and assist other workers when necessary.a. Prompting with reinforcementb. Overcorrection-positive practice

4. Respond appropriately to co-workers' teasing,harassment, or criticism

5. Restrict socialization to appropriate times andplacesa. Promptingb. Negative practicec. Response cost


Behavior. Modificationand Job Retention

An understanding of several basic behaviormodification terms and techniques is essential for theproper use of this monograph. These concepts include:

..'1. Positive reinforcemem2. Shaping3. Fading4. Chaining5. Modeling6. Schedules of reinforcement7. Token economy8. Extinction9. Time-out

10. Negative practice11. Overcorrc .on

a. Restitutionb. Positive practice

12. Selfinstruction training

This section provides a general description of the 12techniques or terms; the sections that follow apply theseapproaches in specific work adjustment situations.Readers unfamiliar with the techniques in general shouldfirst study the material in this section.

Positive Reinforcement,ve reinforcement in any event which takes place

immediately following tile target behavior and results inan increase in the p,obability of that behavior recurring.The reinforcement may be an object, an activity, orapproval from a person respected by the worker.Objects include money, tokens, food, drinks, andawards. Activities include assignment to a better workstation, permission to leave work early, and even anopportunity to talk with the supervisor about thingsother than work. Praise from the supervisor is the easiestreinforcer to deliver.

Although most appreciate the worker's need forreinforcement, some supervisors are better than othersat recognizing differences among their workers in termsof reinforcer preferences. Some individuals prefer a slapon the back accompanied by the words, "Great job".Others are embarrassed by such open praise but arereinforced by less conspir uous recognition such as briefcomment from the supervisor, e.g., "Keep up the goodwork."

Answers to the tollowing questions help identifypotential reinforcers for employees:

(1) What does the individual like to talk about?

8 Vocational

(2) What are the person's hobbies?(3) Who are the workers with whom the individual

likes to work?(4) What activities does the person participate in

during work breaks and at lunch time?(5) What would the worker like to receive as a small

present?(6) What would the worker buy with an extra $5 or

$10 a week?(7) What would the individual hate to lose?(8) What would the individual like to have, to do, or to

hear?

Whether an object, activity, or verbal praise,reinforcement must be delivered immediately after theappropriate behavior. Delayed reinforcement is far lesseffective than immediate reinforcement. In addition,individuals must understand why they are receiving thereinforcement. For example, if a worker who is talking toa co-worker and cleaning a tool receives a nod from thesupervisor, the worker may not know that thesupervisor's recognition is for cleaning the tool. Insteadthe worker may increase her talking to co-workers in thefuture. The supervisor should be specific whenreinforcing the individual, "Virginia, that is great the wayyou clean your tools at the end of each work day."

ExtinctionExtinction is the procedure used to decrease

inappropriate behaviors by removing all reinforcementfollowing the behavior. Thus, an individual may displaysome inappropriate behavior on the job as a result ofreinforcement such as attention. Under the extinctionprocedure, the worker would no longer receive anyattention for demonstration of the inappropriatebehavior.

ShapingShaping is the procedure of presenting positive

reinforcement immediately after art approximation of thetarget behavior. At first, positive reinforcement is givento any behavior bearing a resemblance to the desiredbehavior. Once that response is occurring frequently, acloser approximation of the desired behavior isreinforced. Reinforcing successive approximationscontinues until the only behavior that is reinforced is thetarget behavior. Thus, for an ii idividual who never makeseye contact, the supervisor would first reinforce theindividual's looking in the supervisor's general directionwhen the supervisor is talking to him. Next, thesupervisor reinforces the individual only when his gaze is:n the direction of the supervisor's face. When thatbehavior regularly occurs, the person is reinforced forgazing at any part of the supervisor's face. Finally, thesupervisor reinforces the worker for direct eye contact.Hence, reinforcing the person's successiveapproximations of eye contact finally results in theperson looking at the eyes of the person who isspeaking.

Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

10

FadingFading means gradually presenting more of some

stimulus that must be present when the behavior occursor gradually removing a stimulus needed to initiate abehavior but impractical to maintain over time. Theformer is referred to as fading in a stimulus and thelatter, as fading out a stimulus. Thus, for the employeewho can not work alongside other employees, thesupervisor starts the individual working ten feet fromanother worker. When the individual continuesworking in the presence of the other employee, thesupervisor reinforces her. Next, the supervisor movesthe worker within eight feet of the other's work stationand reinforces the person's appropriate behavior. After aseries of being moved closer to the other worker and ofbeing reinforced by the supervisor, the worker copeswell with working alongside another employee. Otherworkers could be faded in until the individual is able towork in a group situation without decreasing herproductivity.

One example of fading out a controlling stimuluswould involve an individual who is unable to operateequipment without reviewing written step by stepinstructions. Initially, explicit instructions would beprinted on a card easily seen by the employee. When theindividual successfully operates the machinery, thesupervisor would reduce the number of steps describedon the card. As soon as the worker maintainsappropriate work behavior in the presence of thereduced information, the card would be removed orreduced further in terms of explicit instructions.

ChainingChaining requires dividing a work task into separate

and sequential behavioral steps and then teaching thesteps one at a time in sequence. In forward chaining, theworker is taught the first behavioral step and all subse-quent steps in order until the task is completed. Theperson is taught, and reinforced for carrying out, the firsttwo steps, then steps 1, 2, and 3, then steps 1, 2, 3, and 4,etc. Teaching and reinforcement continue until theindividual can carry out all steps in sequence withoutan error.

In backward chaining, the individual watches theinstructor complete the steps in the task, and then she istaught to do the last step. Next, after observing theinstructor do all but the last two steps, the personcompletes these two steps herself. This processcontinues, e.g., the individual is taught the last threesteps, then the last four, etc. until the person follows thebehavioral steps in sequence without error. Thus, ifusing forward chaining to teach people to c1 ange the oilin a car, instructors would first place the oil collector canunderneath the car, select the proper wrench,demonstrate how to remove the oil plug with the wrench,etc. for individuals having difficulty in learning andremembering steps, the first three steps would be

repeated before further ones were taught.To teach the same job through backward chaining,

instructors would first demonstrate where to throw theempty oil cans after the oil had been poured into themotor. Next the trainee would pour the last can of oil intothe filler tube after watching the instructor pour the firsttwo or three cans. The trainee would next be taught howto pour all the cans of oil into an empty engine and thenthrow the empty cans away. Next she would be taughthow to put the oil drain plug into the engine beforefilling the engine with oil and throwing the cans away.Backward chaining would continue until the personlearned the entire sequence of steps for changing the oil.

ModelingModeling is the procedure of having the client learn by

first observing another person do the task and receivereinforcement. The instructor or a high status employeewould be appropriate models. The modeling sequenceshould clearly show the model being reinforced when thetask is correctly completed. Thus, modeling includesdemonstration and reinforcement.

Four factors critical to structuring a successfulmodeling program were described by Bandurs (1977):

1. Attention. The worker should be told what heshould look at and listen to in order to learn what isbeing modeled. If this is not done, the observer maybe watching the scrap material fall out of themachine instead of noticing where the model placeshands for safety purposes.

2. Retention. Individuals will better learn andremember what is observed if they are given familiarnames for what they are seeing. They will rememberthe steps better if the steps are labeled using famil-iar terms and if they are described in propersequence before they are modeled. It also helps if theobserver is asked to repeat step names before hesees the demonstration. Before starting each step,the model must state the step's name and sequencenumber, e.g., this is the first step, sanding the edges.Finally, the instructor should ask the observer torepeat the name and sequence number of eachcompleted step.

3. Motoric reproduction. Overt practice of what theobserver has seen and remembered is necessary ifthe person is to learn that he can do the stepsmodeled. The observer should practice the steps insequence, naming them if necessary, until hemasters the task.

4. Motivation. Although they may know how to dosomething, people v.rill often not do it unless theyexpect some payoff for their efforts. Therefore,during the modeling procedure, the observer mustsee the model receive praise for work performed.Reinforcement of the model creates an expectationfor similar outcomes in the observer. The instructor

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 198611

9

must also emphasize the relevance of what is beingmodeled to the employee's job so that the observerclearly understands the connection between thesteps modeled and an improved capability to do thetask properly which results in greater rewards forfor the employee.

If no stru.r...ture is provided, new employees will choosetheir own model. Unfortunately, they may imitate theworst worker if that individual happens to be friendly.Other employees who are effective workers may be poormodels because they complete the task withoutallowing the trainee to participate. Hence, experiencedworkers should be carefully selected for the modeling.They must demonstrate proper tool care, taskperformance steps, tool cleanup, and appropriate workbreak behavior. They must encourage the learner to trythe steps and reinforce him for improvements.

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of reinforcement refer to patterns in which

reinforcement is not given each time the response ismade. Selection of a schedule is important becauseresearch indicates that most behaviors performed dailyare only reinforced occasionally. Moreover, behaviorsreceiving reinforcement only some of the time tend topersist longer when reinforcement is withdrawn, i.e.,take longer to extinguish. It should, therefore, be notedthat, if an extinction procedure is used to decrease abehavior's frequency, the staff must never reinforce thebehavior when it occurs. Even an occasionalreinforcement of an inappropriate behavior will result init persisting for a much longer period of time.

Different intermittent reinforcement schedulesproduce different patterns of behavior. There are fourbasic types: the fixed ratio, the variable ratio, the fixedinterval, and the variable interval schedules ofreinforcement. A fixed ratio schedule requires that aspecific number of behaviors occur before the reinforce-ment is given. Thus, a fixed ratio of four means that theindividual must do something four times beforereinforcement is given. Reber than resulting in re n-forcement after a fixed number of occurrences (behavior, a variable ratio schedule refers to the fact tit,reinforcement is given on a specified average number oftimes. Thus, the reinforcement on a VR4 schedule isgiven the first time the individual makes the response,then after seven more responses, three more responses,and then, possibly, after five responses. In this example,the average number of resrons prior to reinforcementis four.

In a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement occurs afteran exact amount of time has passed since the individualhas made a response and received reinforcement for it.Thus, an FI60 means that the individuz, I receivesreinforcement for the first time she shows the behaviorafter 60 minutes have elapsed.

With an FI schedule, behavior occurs slowly at thebeginning of the interval and then very rapidly at the end

of the interval. A VI60 schedule would mean that theindividual is receiving reinforcement on the average ofevery 60 minutes. Steady rates of production would beproduced by either VR or VI schedules.

Token Ecomomy

In a token economy, individuals receive tokens fordemonstration of specific target behaviors. Thesetokens are redeemable for reinforcing objects oractivities. There usually are up to 5 target behaviors forwhich the individual can receive tokens. The tokens aregiven immediately when the individual shows any of thosebehaviors. Posted in a prominent plaice, a reinforce-ment tn% nu displays the cost in tokens of each of thedesirable objects or activities. If the individual agrees, thetokens can purchase some group activity such as a partyor a picnic that everyone in the work crew would enjoy.This group reinforcement technique enhances theindividual's popularity and increases the encour-agement from fellow workers to demonstrate the targetbehaviors. For a description of complex tokeneconomies and rules for operating .1 simpler one, seePetrak (1971), Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer (1977), andSchoeffer and Martin (1969).

Response cost is a procedure within the tokeneconomy by which individuals pay for inappropriatebehaviors. Listed on the reinforcement menu in terms oftoken cost, these items constitute a wide range ofinappropriate behaviors on the job, e.g., swearing at thesupervisor, fighting with co-workers, or returning latefrom job breaks.

Time-outTime-out decreases inappropriate behr,v;or by

removing the individual from an activity or a situation inwhich she wants to remain or by removing thereinforcing activity from the individual. If the person doesnot want to be in the situation in the first place, she willnot respond to the time-out procedure by changing herbehavior. Typically, time-out should be for relativelyshort periods of time such as ten or fifteen minutes.Durations longer than 30 minutes are no more effectivethan are shorter durations. It is the consistency of theconsequence that is effective, not the duration of thetime-out.

Negative PracticeNegative practice can be used instead of time-out

when an individual displays an inappropriate behavior.The person is instructed to repeat the inappropriateremark or activity a number of times as an immediateconsequence for its performance. Thus, if the workercursed the supervisor, he is instructed to continue thecursing and to increase its intensity until all the cursing is"out of his system". Negative practice is carried out forthree to five minutes. Again the consistency of theconsequence, not its duration, results in the decrease of

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inappropriate behavior.After completing the negative practice period, the

worker is told by the supervisor in a neutral tone of voicethat the next time he demonstrates the inappropriatebehavior he will have another opportunity to practice itfor a period of five minutes. Following the negativepractice procedure, the supervisor should reinforce theindividual for some type of appropriate behavior.

OvercorrectionOvercorrection resttution

This is the consequence for any behavior that resultsin damaging or dirtying the environment or oneself. Theindividual is instructed to correct the prol tm throughapproximately seven to ten minutes of cleaning. At theend of the cleaning period, the supervisor explains thatthe worker will repeat the cleaning every time the mess iscreated. Typically, the individual is required to restorethe affected area to a standard exceeding its asual levelof cleanliness. If the work takes longer than seven to tenminutes, the individual is assigned multi ale seven to tenminute periods and is reminded of the reason for therestitution before each time period. Upon completion ofthe overcorrection restitution procedure, the supervisortells the individual that any further unacceptable actionswill '3e followed be restitution. Shortly thereafter, theindividual should be given positive reinforcement forappropriate behaviors.

Overcorrection positive practiceThis technique teaches the person the correct

behavior as a consequence of demonstrating inappro-priate behavior. Thus, if a worker takes a short cutacross a danger area marked by red safety lines on thefloor, the supervisor requires thr person to practicewalking around the area a number of times. Theindividual does not demonstrate the appropriate behav-ior just once as a consequence of inappropriate behaviorbut a number of times. After no longer than five to sevenminutes of positive practice, the worker is told that thenext time she shows the inappropriate behavior she willhave another opportunity to practice appropriate safetybehavior. Shortly after the positive practice procedure,the supervisor should einforce the individual for someappropriate behavior.

asks, "Is that a good thing to do?", and answers, "Yes,that is a good thing to do because..." (the instructorexplains why it is a good thing to do in terms of positiveself-reinforcement).

In the second phase of the self-instructional training,the instructor describes the situation, asks the first ques-tion, but requires the individual to answer. A similarprocedure is used with the second and third questionswith the third question resulting in the self-reinforcing statement from the employee. If the workermakes a mistake, he must begin again. The instructorstarts over by redescribing the situation and asking thefirst question. When the individual can make all of thecorrect responses, the instructor redescribes thesituation and asks the persor, to repeat the questions andthe answers aloud, a procedure that continues until theemployee can ask all of the questions and give all theappropriate responses. At that point, the worker repeatsthe whole sequence in a whisper. Having mastered that,the worker goes through the questions and answerssilently without moving his lips. The instructor rein-fot ces the individual and urges him to practice theresponses learned through self-instructional training.Generalization is more likely to occur if several differentsituations are presented in a number of self-instructionalsessicns.

SummaryThe preceding general descriptions provide the reader

with an orientation to behavior modification techniquesapplicable in work settings. The information to followillustrates the use of these strategies in increasing ordecreasing work-related behaviors related to six centralwork duties.

Self-instructional TrainingSelf-instructional training is a self-control procedure in

which people change their own behavior through covertinstructions. The self-instructional trainer first de-scribes the situation in which the individual has behavedappropriately. Then the instructor describes thesituation and reviews a set of questions and answers,e.g., "What is the first thing you should ask yourself?"Without waiting for the employee's response, theinstructor answers the question. Then the instructorsays, "What should you do next?" Again the instructorsupplies the answer immedia+71y. Next the instructor

Vocational Euciluation sand Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 13 11

Accepting the Work Role

To assume the work role, the individual must respondpositively to a number of speciric situational demands. Insome cases, these demands are peculiar to the worksetting. In other cases, they are no different than theexpectations in other types of social situations. Failure tofollow some of these rules in social situations may causesomeone to lose friends, failure to follow these rules onthe job may result in termination. The followingimportant tasks comprise the work duty, "accepting thework role":

1. Maintain satisfactory personal hygiene habits2. Dress appropriately3. Control temper4. Obey rules and regulations5. Avoid horseplay and practical jokes6. Avoid obscentities and vulgarities

Maintain Satisfactory Personal Hygiene HabitsParents typically teach and require children to bathe,

brush their teeth, and comb their hair. However, somefamilies do not establish these personal hygiene habits. Inother cases, persons who have learned these personalcare habits as children may discontinue them because ofcarelessness or depression, a condition symptomatic ofpersonal problems which may require professional help.The behavioral programs to follow are directed at each ofthese reasons for personal hygiene problems.

PromptingSeveral studies have demonstrated that prompting is

an effective intervention for a number of vocationallyrelated behaviors (Johnson & Cuvo, 1981, Wacker &Berg, 1983). Using one approach to prompting, thesupervisor (S.) call the individual into a private office andbegins with a presentation about the employee's positivework behavior, i.e., "John, you are a good workerbecause you - -" or "Sue, you are dependable becauseyou---". In each case, S. is specific about work tasks thatthe employee does well (See other work tasks in thismanual to identify a worker's positive behaviors).

Next, S. specifically tells the worker that there is onething the person needs to improve, i.e., breath odor,body odor, dirty face, uncombed hair, etc. S. then asks ifthere i some reason why the person comes to work thisway. It there is an emotional reason for the personalhygiene problem, the worker will usually show it or sayso. Personal counseling and support for resultingchanges may be required.

S. should provide a rationale for change based uponthe person's health considerations, effect upon other

workers or the supervisor, and impressions on visitors.Should the worker protest or act resentful, S. should notargue, but rather describe again those work behaviorsthe worker does well and restate the need formaintenance of satisfactory personal hygiene habits. S.should end the session by informing the worker that he isexpected to change and that S. will monitor his progress.Improvements in these target behaviors must besincerely and discretely positively reinforced bythe supervisor.

Contingency InterventionsBecause it is easier not to bathe, brush teeth, or

comb hair, the person who arrives at work without per-forming those behaviors must learn that there aretedious and troublesome consequences for such care-lessness. Now, instead of u level of the target behaviorhaving 0 consequences, 0 level of the target behavior hasX consequences. The following strategies may be useful:

(1) Overcorrection - positive practice (see Marholin,Luiselli, & Townsend, 1980, for a review). "John, youhave come to work again with a dirty face (bad breath,body odor). You are not ready to work until you have ---.You must go to the wash room and clean up before youcan w,rk."

When the person returns, S. says, "Good. To makesure that you know how to do it in the morning beforeyou come to work, I want you to go practice it one moretime." When the person returns, S. says, "Good. Thenext time you come to work that way, we will have youpractice it some more until you have it right" (See rulesfor use of overcorrection/positive practice in BehaviorModification and Job Retention).

(2) Other procedures which might be used are self-instructional training (Meichenbaum, 1977), responsecost (Winkler, 1970), time out from preferred workstation (dirty job) (Kazdin, 1975, p. 155), and behavioralcontracting (Homme, Csanyi, Gonzales, Rechs,1969) (See Behavior Modification and Job Retention forspecific information on those procedures).

Al improvements in target behaviors should bepositively reinforced at the time they occur.Reinforcement should be thinned (decreased) slowlyuntil the appropriate behaviors are habits, and anyreturn to inappropriate personal hygiene behaviorsshould have immediate consequences.

Dress appropriately for workWhen starting a new job, the person must learn what

to wear and how to wear it. Typically, the employer tellsthe individual what the clothing requirements are whenthe person is hired. The new worker is then responsiblefor obtaining the proper clothes and maintaining them inproper repair. Although most individuals have learnedhow to maintain their clothes, some have never done itfor themselves. Occasionally, workers who wear dirtyclothes to work may simply have to be told 4o take their

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clothes to a launderomat.Another type of clothing problem occurs due to the

value system of the worker. This person selectsclothing to express a particular life style, i.e., beads orshirt tails that could become entangled in machinery,sneakers that will not protect toes from injury, or low cutdresses or bare midriffs resulting in sexual overturesfrom other workers. Improper dress habits for workresulting from a lack of knowledge or skills may be dealtwith by confrontation first, followed by contingenciesif necessary.

ConfrontationS. first calls the worker into a private office. As

described in the prompting section, S. reviews theworker's positive work habits and then the dress coderequired by the job. S. tells the person specifically howthe worker's dress is not meeting those requirements. Ifthe violation concerns cleanliness or disrepair ofclothing, S. should determine whether the personknows how to maintain the clothes in a proper state. Iflacking knowledge, the person should be directed tofamily or staff members who can arrange for the personto be taught.

If it is a case of clothing representing the person's life-style, the worker is told that the pr asent clothing style ormethod of wearing the clothes is not the style or methodrequired on the job. S. then states that inappropriatedress will not be tolerated and that any future clothingincident will result in a consequence which is describedexplicitly. S. ends the confrontation session by restatingthe worker's appropriate work behaviors and bystressing that S. has confidence in the worker's willing.ness and ability to dress appropriately in the future.Appropriate dress behaviors should be sincerelypositively reinforced in a clk.crete manner by S. (Cuvo,Jabobi, & Sipko, 1981).

ContingenciesIf the worker continues to dress inappropriately for

work, the supervisor should notify the rehabilitationcounselor to assist or carry out the intervention. Themore immediate the consequences, the more likely thedress b?havior will change. The contingencies are listedbelow according to immediacy and type of dressproblem, e.g., dirty, wrinkled, or torn clothes andinappropriate style of clothes.

S. should tell the worker in a neutral tone of voice:"Your clothes are dirty, torn, wrinkled, or thewrong style. People are not allowed to work here inclothes in that condition or style. You must go home andchange clothes before you will be allowed to work. Youdo not earn any pay when you are not working." Whenthe person returns in appropriate clothing, he sho.tld becomplimented and then told that the next time hereports to work in inappropriate clothes he will again besent home to change before being allowed to work. S.should then send the person to his work station. Appro-

priate dress should be positively reinforced onsucceeding days.

Other significant persons might be involved inhelping with the dress problem. For example, forindividuals with intellectual limitations, the counselor (C)may need to prompt the person, or teas h the family toprompt he person, by reminding the individual in theevening to prepare his clothes for the next day's work. C.might also give self-instructional training (SIT) to indi-viduals who are retarded (Burgio, Whitman, & Johnson,1980). This would consist of the following:

1. Describing the situation of taking off dirty,wrinkled, or torn clothes at home,

2. Asking the person to repeat what should be done,

3. T..-.4:0iing the person to say, "I must wash (mend orpress) the clothes",

4. Asking the person again to say how he is going to doit, and

5. Teaching the person to praise himself for doing it.

This is repeated until the individual uses self-instruc-tions on his own initiative. For a more completedescription of SIT, see Behavior Modification andWork Retention.

When clothes are worn in an inappropriate mannersuch as shirt tail out, shirt not buttoned, or skirt notzipped, an overcorrection positive practice procedure isrecommended as the most effective behavior changestrategy (Azrin & Besalel, 1980). S. calls the person to aplace of privacy, telling the person in specific terms whatis inappropriate about the manner of dress, and thensays, 'To make sure you know how to do it, show mehow you should do it". When the person does it, say"Good. Show me again, I want to make sure you getpractice in doing it the proper way." This should berepeate' about five times and then terminated with thestatement "Fine. The next time you leave your shirtunbuttoned, I will have you practice it some more." If itoccurs again, the practice is repeated for about eighttimes. No session should last longer than ten minutes.However, research reported by 011endick and Matson(1978) has shown that in sev,:tre cases, ovu-correctionpositive practice can be increased for longer durationswith successful outcomes.

Control TemperPeople who easily anger are likely to glare at others,

pound tables or desks, throw objects, scream at others,or strike others. Each of these behaviors disrupts thework place and therefore, cannot be tolerated.

First, the individual must be givers the rationale forchange and then told the consequences of any futureaggressive behavior. Next the rehabilitation counselor


should be notified and the contingency for displays oftemper should be initiated.

On the job site contingencyThe first time the individual displays inappropriate,

angry behavior after the warning, he should be sent to aquiet place for 15 minutes "to cool off" (Drabman &Spitalnik, 1973). At the end of the cooling off period, theworker should be informed of the consequences of thenext disruptive behavior. If another 15 minute cooling offperiod is necessary, his pay will be docked for theamount of time lost. If the person complains, argues, orblames personal behavior on somebody else, S. shouldnot argue but repeat the conser iences for the inappro-priate behavior and send the person back to thework station.

Preventive strategy by the rehabilitation counselorOften individuals outside of the job setting can help

workers learn to control their tempers. For example, C.can introduce the worker to strategies designed'.) resultin more appropriate expressions of anger. To preparethe person to inhibit displays of temper on the job site, C.should give the individual a rationale for change, identifythe situations that produce the behavior, give self-instructional training to the person using thosesituations, and develop an assertive response to replaceinappropriate anger responses.

(1) Rationale for change. "Aggressive behaviors andwords cause problems in work and non-work settings.Persons who fight, scream, and throw things when theyare angry will lose their jobs if the behaviors occur atwork. Fighting in non-work situations can result in notbeing able to show up for work because of physicaldamage received or as a result of being arrested...grthermore, others do not like to work with, live with,of even be with persons who are frequently insulting,arguing, hitting, etc." (Marr & Means, 1980, p. 42).

(2) Assessment of anger-producing situations. Forpersons to inhibit their inappropriate private displays ofanger, they must be able to identify the antecedents ofanger, i.e., when, where, who, and what. For example,they may only throw tantrums when teased, or they mayonly scream and curse when someone enters their workspace or uses their equipment or tools. This assessmentallows C. to restate the rationale for not overreacting tothe antecedents and to teach the individuals how to reactin an appropriate manner (see next section).

(3) Assertiveness response. The person should beaided in developing an alternative response to anger.Because the anger is real, it should often be expressedverbally, but not by striking, throwing, or screaming.Thus, a person should be taught and reinforced forsaying, "That makes me angry," to herself or to theperson who provokes the anger. The worker should betaught what to say or do that would be acceptable, i.e., "Iwould appreciate it if you would ask me before borrowingmy tools."

(4) Self-instmtional Training (SM. To use Srf, thesituations causing the person's anger are identifiedduring an assessment (Lewis, I' ,arr, Grannemann, &Beck, 1984). The situation which most frequentlyproduces the inappropriate behavior is described. Tomodel SIT for the person; C. then says, "What should Ido? I should say how I feel and ask for help, ask the otherperson not to say offending things, or simply overlookthe disturbance. Is that a good thing to do? Yes, becauseI am controlling my temper and people will like mebetter." These statements are repeated until the personcan say them silently.

(5) Role play and follow-up. C. should then present avariety of situations, ask the worker to use the self-instructional training skills and assertiveness responses,and reinforce the person for appropriate behaviors. Eachtraining session should end with an expression ofexpectation that the person will use the skills in work andnon-work situations.

C. should occasionally call the worker, inquire aboutuse of the skills, and reinforce positive instances of use. Atelephone call to the supervisor to prompt occasionalreinforcement on the job will increase the likelihood ofthe assertiveness response continuing as a habit.

Obey Rules and RegulationsSome workers may not obey rules and regulations be-

cause they do not know about them. Other workers maydisobey them because it is Eisler to work without fol-lowing the rules that were taught to them, e.g., notwearing safety goggles while working at a machine.When a person first starts a job, he usually receives allthe rules of the employment at one time. Hence,some of the rules will probably be forgotten, ::squiring thesupervisor or co-workers to repeat them as theindividual learns the job. The techniques that follow deal,with forgetting regulations and knowingly ignoring them.

Overcorrection-positive practice-verbalWhen the person is observed breaking a rule, S. ap-

proaches and states the rule clearly. S. then asks theworker to repeat ,he rule. S. tells the worker that thenext time the rule is broken, the worker will be requiredto repeat the rule a number of times until he has itcorrect. For example, when the worker is not wearingsafety goggles, S. approaches and states, 'When you areworking on this machine, you must wear safety gogglesbecause (the rationale is given)." S. continues, "Now youtell me the rule". The worker repeats the rule and thenS. says, "The next time, you will be required to repeat therule a number of times so that I can make sure youhaven't forgotten it.

In a variation of this procedure, the worker can readaloud the rule that is written on the machine or on thewall in the employment setting. When a worker finishesreading the rule, the supervisor asks him to read it one

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more time, and then says, "The next time you areobserved not following that rule, I will have you repeat it anumber of times."

Overcorrection-positive practice-performanceIf the worker persists in not following the rule, even

though he has had to repeat it or read it a number oftimes, S. should instruct the worker to perform the act anumber of times. To correct a person who fails to walkaround red lines that are marked on the floor to keepworkers away from dangerous machines, S. should statethe rule to the individual, explain the rationale, and havethe worker demonstrate walking across the shop whileavoiding the red lines. S. should have the worker repeatthe act a number of times. S. then says to the worker thathe will be given more practice in properly walking acrossthe shop without crossing the red lines whenever he isseen walking across a red line rather than around it.

Complex acts not being performed properly, such ascleaning up one's work area at the end of the workingday, may be treated in a similar manner. The workershould be asked to repeat the rule or read the rule andthen immediately to clean the work area in a mannerbeyond that normally expected. For example, instead ofjust sweeping the floor and cleaning off the workbench,the individual would be required to brush out the cornersand possibly wash off the workbench. At the conclusionof the act, S. would say, "The next time you fail toproperly clean up your area I will again have you sweep,brush, and wash it."

Avoiding horseplay and practical jokesIn a work setting, some individuals will exhibit be-

havior that could cause injuries or bad feelings amongworkers. Persons who play such practical jokes areseeking attention or stimulation to relieve boredom onthe job. There are three effective treatments forproblems of this type.

Time-out and response costsWhen observing someone indulging in horseplay, S.

immediately tells the person exactly what she is doingand why it was inappropriate. Next, S. says that, be-cause of the inappropriate behavior, the individual is togo to a designated place and take a 15 minute time-outfrom work. The person is also instructed that these 15minutes will be recorded. When the individual has used atotal of 1 hour of these 15 minute periods, 1 hour's paywill be deducted from her salary. At the end of the 15minute period, the supervisor tells the individual toreturn to the work station, again reminding the work thatthe 15 minutes have been recorded. If there are otherincidents of horseplay, the procedure will be repeated.

The time-out period is kept short because researchhas found that it is the consistency of this contingencyand not the duration that makes it effective insuppressing inappropriate behaviors (Barstow & Bailey,1969; White, Neilson, & Johnson, 1972). The first

instance of time-out for that type of behavior is usuallyenough, and the pay penalty should not occur unless thetimeout procedure must be used a total of four times.

Negative practiceNegative practice is also an effective procedure for

decreasing inappropriate behavior such as horseplayand practical jokes (Spiegler, 1983,p. 156). It consists ofsending the individual to another area of the room torepeat the inappropriate behavior a number of times "toget it out of her system". The procedure should becarried out so that it lasts no more than 10-15 minutes.After finishing the repetitions (negative practice), theperson should be informed that the next time sheengages in practical joking she will practice the joke anumber of times.

Overcorrection-restitutionThis procedure consists of having the individual cor-

rect for the result of horseplay or a practical joke (Foxx& Azrin, 1972). S. begins by specifically describing theinappropriate behavior to the worker. Then theindividual is told to "correct" the mess created by clean-ing up, sweeping up, picking up, or washing the affectedpart of the work environment. It should take the individ-ual approximately 10-15 minutes to correct for theinappropriate behavior. After the worker completes thecleanup, S. should restate the act and the consequencesto expect if the worker demonstrates the inappropriatebehavior again.

For maximum effectiveness, overcorrection-restitu-tion procedures must be used immediately andconsistently after occurrence of the inappropriate be-havior. Because workers play practical jokes and exhibithorseplay behavior to gain attention, these treatmentprocedures may cause a temporary increase in thehorseplay; however, this inappropriate behavior de-creases rapidly if the consequences are consistentlyapplied. It is important that sincere positive rein-forcement be given to individuals when they decreasetheir inappropriate behaviors.

Avoiding obscenities and vulgaritiesIf the person is cursing at others or at objects or tasks

in the work environment, the interventions described forcontrolling temper should be considered (see work taskabove). If the obscenities are to gain attention, one of theinterventions described below should be used. However,S. must first confront the individual with the fact thatobscene and vulgar statements in the work place areinappropriate. S. should also give the rationale as to whyverbal statements of this type are inappropriate.

Instruction behaviorBecause they are deficient in appropriate ways of

gaining attention, many individuals use obscene andvulgar language. S., therefore, should considerreferring the individual to the counselor for instruction


on socially acceptable ways of interacting with others(see Fredriksen, Jenkins, Foy, & Eisler, 1976). The coun-selor should also discuss the short and long term impactof obscene and vulgar language on relationships withothers. One method successfully used in teaching alter-native verbal language is to assign readings in books orpamphlets that describe how to win friends in social andemployment settings (Monti, Fink, Norman, Curran,Hayes & Cadwell, 1979). These reading assignments canbe topics of discussion in later sessions. The individualcan also be given assignments to try out discussing inter-esting events in his life with individuals at work. If theindividual is given reinfot moment for carrying out theseassignments and discovers that he can talk in anappropriate fashion with others and get their attention,the obscene and vulger talk will be more likely todecrease. Time permitting, the counselor might initiateconversation skill training with the individual (Lewis &Roessler, 1984; Roessler & Lewis, 1984) to increase theindividual's repertoire of socially effective behaviors.

Negative practiceUsing negative practice, S. confronts the individual

with the obscenity and then takes him into a privateoffice. a then tells the individual to repeat the vulgar orobscene statement to "clear his system." S. instructs theworker to increase the variety of obscene statements anumber of times. At the end of a 5 minute session, S. tellsthe worker that the next time he uses obscenities on thejob he will have to return to the office. The session isended with S. instructing the worker to return to the job.To vary the procedure, S. could finish the session bytelling the individual that time spent in the office will berecorded and deducted from his pay.

By monitoring the worker's verbal behavior in thefuture, S. can reinforce decreases in obscenitites andincreases in eocially appropriate language. As a result,workers will show considerable :.nprovement in theirlanguage on the job.

1


Responds SatisfactorilyChange

Flexibility is an important worker characteristic. If ismanifested in such behaviors as responding to .rewinstructions, accepting new assignments, and trans-ferring developed skills to new tasks. Without this abilityto adapt to changes in the work setting, the worker mayfall behind in work quality or quantity, thus becoming areal liability to the supervisor. This section discussesthe following work tasks related to respondingsatisfactorily to change: attends to instruction, acceptsnew assignments or instructions without arguments,changes work methods when instructed, transferspreviously learned skills to new assignments, and contin-ues to work despite changes in environment.

Attends to InstructionOften workers do not pay attention to instructions

because they are distracted by other thoughts or events.Thus, before giving instructions, S. should make certainthat the worker is paying close attention. This is done bytelling the person to stop working and to look at thesupervisor when she is talking. If the worker acknowl-edges the instructions (head nods, eye contact, etc.) butpersists in carrying out the tasks inaccurately, the:ollowing procedures are used (Gagne, 1977):

Instructions in verification that message isundea stood

Step 1. Clarity. S. gives clear instructions to theemployee about a number of tasks that must becompleted. Instructions irclude who, where, when, andwhat, if relevant.

Step 2. Repetition. S. asks employee to repeatinstructions. If any portion of the response is incori ect orincomplete, S. corrects and has the employee repeat thecorrection verbally.

Step 3. Reinforcement. S. completes this phase"Good, take care of it."

Step 4. Verification. S., or a second employee, checkson the accuracy and comp'eteness of tasks.

Step 5. Reinforcement. For those tasks completedcorrectly, S. gives the worker verbal reinforcement.

Step 6. Overcorrection restitution. For those tasks

not completed, not correct, or not done to necessarystandards, S. describes the problem to the worker in aneutral tone of voice, i.e., why the task was incomplete,inaccurate, or of poor quality. S. then has the employeerepeat the task with overcorrection, i.e., the task is mademore difficult. For example, if the work area was notswept properly, the worker is instructed to resweep andthen dust and, possibly mop the work area. S. then givesthe worker verbal reinforcement for the job when it isdone, and tells the individual that she will repeat the procedure if the job is not done correctly on the nextoccasion.

Teaching to attend through notesStep 1. S. asks the worker to carry a small notebook

and use it to record instructions including what, when,where, why, and how, if relevant.

Step 2. Whenever S. assigns tasks or responsibil-ities, S. verifies that the worker writes the assignment inthe notebook.

Step 3. After the person records the assignment, S.asks the person to repeat the instructions, referring tothe notes if necessary. Corrections are made if the notesare incomplete or incorrect.

Step 4. S. completes this phase with "Good, takecare of it."

Step 5. After the individual has repeatedlydemonstrated the ability to write down instructions andcorrectly read them back, S. should ask the person torepeat what she has been told without writing it down(See Step 4 in preceding list dealing with verification).Not carrying out instructions properly is evidence thatthe worker is returning to the habits of inattention, andthe notebook procedure should be reinstated.

Accepts new assignments or instructionswithout arguments

Workers have learned to argue when given assign-ments or instructions because their arguments haveworked in the past. For example, parents, teachers, oremployers have responded to the arguments by givinglengthy reasons or by changing their instructions orassignments. Even though the arguments may work onlyoccasionally, the intermittent reinforcement maintainsthe tendency of these individuals to argue.

S. must distinguish between arguments and newinformation. Sometimes employees possess informa-tion that will change the nature of the assignment orpreclude it all together. For example, S. would notinstruct a worker to clean out a storage room if theworker or someone else had already done so. Responsesnot containing new information, however, ntay beattempts to protest the assignment or interfere with S.'stask. In those cases the following interventions should beused:

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 19 17

;ExtinctionSince the worker has a long history of reinforcement

for arguing, extinction, ignoring the arguing behavior, is alengthy and difficult process to use. The difficulty occursbecause the technique is effective only if the worker doesnot get anyspecial attention because of her argument. Inmost cases extinction is lio'. possible on the job becausethe worker continues to get reinforcement for arguing inother areas of life. Hence, she tends to generalize thearguing behavior into the job situation (See Martin &Pear, 1983, p. 54 for guidelines for the effective acation of extinction).

ConfrontationThe worker is called into the supervisor's office and

told the positive things that she does on the job. S. thenpoints out one area of the person's work behavior that isnegative; she argues when given instructions or newassignments. This argumentative behavior isunacceptable on the job. S. should include specificexamples of arguments and be prepared for the workerto argue about whether or not she argues. S. should theninstruct the person to not argue when given new assign-ments or instructions. After reiterating that she expectsthe worker to make the necessary change, S. should giveexamples of new assignments or instructions that theindividual may receive in the future, then ask theemployee to role play appropriate behavior when giventhat assignment. When the individual demonstrates thecorrect way of accepting instructions, she is given rein-forcement for the appropriate behavior and sent back tothe job.

PrompiangS. gives the worker new instructions or assignments.

When the individual starts to argue, S. states in a veryclear tone of voice, "You are arguing, arguing isunacceptable; I will return in a few minutes and give youthe instructions again. At that time, I expect you to notargue." S. returns to give the instructions. When the indi-vidual does not argue, S. reinforces the individual. S.then says, "Let's make sure that you know the right thingto do in the future. I will come back again and say thesame thing; you respond without arguing." Again whenthe individual does not argue, S. says, "Good, you did notargue. I expect you to not argue in the future."

Negative practice (see Spiegler & Agigian, 1977)When the individual argues, he is told to go to a certain

location in the shop and to write the complaints orarguments on a sheet of paper. His complaints will beread at a later time. This method not only delays anyattention given to the argument, but it also makes theindividual expend extra effort every time he argues. Ifindividuals are required to write every complaint or

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argument, they will begin to inhibit that type of response.S. should positively reinforce the person for not arguing.

Changes Work Methods when InstructedIf an individual does not change the way he/she does a

job, it is usually for one of two reasons. The worker maynot understand the new method or may believe that thenew method is too difficult.

Lack of knowledgeIf the individual does not understand how to make the

change, instructions must be clearly given, and theworker should be allowed to practice the new methodslowly with frequent positive reinforcements. Specif-ically, S. should describe the change in detail to the individual. Next, S. or another employee should show theworker how to make the change. S. should select a goodrole model such as another employee who is already per-forming tasks using the different method. Then theindividual should practice the new method and be posi-tively reinforced for any portion of the work that is doneproperly. If the worker still has difficulty performing thetask using the new method, a chaining procedure shouldbe considered. Chaining consists of teaching the individ-ual the first part of a new method, then the second pari ofthe new method, and then the third part (See Craighead,Kazdin & Mahoney, 1981, p. 130). The chainingprocedure is more completely described in BehaviorModification and Job Retention.

Overcorrection-positive practice: Descriptionand performance

When the worker is observed using the old methodrather than the new method, S. interrupts the work andasks the person to describe the new method forcompleting the task. After the worker has described themethod correctly, S. asks her to demonstrate it. Afterthe worker has demonstrated the correct procedure, S.again asks the worker to describe and demonstrate themethod. After providing positive reinforcement for useof the correct method, S. then states that two things willhappen the next time the worker is seen using the oldmethod to perform the task. First, the worker will beasked to describe the proper way to perform the taskand then to practice the new approach several times.This additional effort is usually sufficient to convince theworker that resistance to change results in more workrather than less.

Overcorrection-positive practice:Undoing and redoing

This procedure could be used any time the task can beundone. When the individual knows how to do the taskbut resists doing it as instructed, the supervisor asks theperson to undo what he has done and then redo it usingthe correct method. After this is completed, S. tells theworker that he will not only undo the task anytime it has

2 0 Vocational Euuuation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

been done incorrectly, but will also redo it using the cor-rect method (Wells, Forehand, Hickey, & Green, 1977).

Any significant improvement shown by the worker inusing the new methods should be followed by positivereinforcement. S. should monitor the worker for severaldays and positively reinforce continued maintenance ofthe change in task behavior. If not supervised closely andreinforced for appropriate change, the worker mayreturn to old method of doing the job.

Transfers previously learnedskills to new assignments

Skill analysisThe easiest way for S. to teach workers to transfer

skills is to do a skill analysis of both the old and the ne.wjob (Gagne, 1977). A skill analysis requires the creationof a taxonomy of skills for each job. For example, S.might divide a task required on the worker's previous jobinto five skills. These skills are numbered from 1 to 5 andlabeled. S. then analyzes the second job, finds that thereare four skills, and numbers and labels those skills. Skillsfound in both of the jobs receive the same number andthe same label. Thus, if the first job (Job 1) has skillslabeled a, b, c, d, and e, and the new job (Job 2) has skillslabeled b, c, f, g, the worker changing from Job 1 to Job 2should be able to use skills b and c learned on Job 1 toperform part of Job 2. This means that the worker onlyneeds to learn skills f and g on the new task.

Once the skill analysis is completed, S. has the workerperform the old job while S. labels the skills the worker iGperforming. Then S. introduces the new job by havingthe person watch an experienced worker perform thetask. S. labels the skills on the new job which are identi-cal to those used on the previous job. S. or theexperienced worker teaches the person the additionalnew skills required. After teaching the worker the neviskills, S. tells her to perform the new job in one of twoways. S. might ask the worker to use the first skillrequired on the new job, a skill which transfers from theold job (skill b, in this case). On the other hand, S. mightask the worker to demonstrate the first new skill neededon Job 2 (skill f, in this case). Then the supervisor asksthe worker to carry out the next skill demanded andpoints out its similarity to one in the previous task if it isone that can be transferred. If the worker has difficultyordering the old skills and the new skills properly, thena chaining procedure is advised. Chaining is described inBehavior Modification and Job Retention.

PromptingPrompts can be used to facilitate skill transfer. For

example, machinery parts used in one job that requirethe same skills as those needed in a second job can becolor coded. Then the parts of new machinery usingthose old skills can be similarly color coded. Thus, a skillon the old job such as stapling could be color coded redwith the stapling portion on the new job also color coded

red. When the worker sees the color signifying stapling,he would perform stapling at the proper time or in theproper sequence. Color or sign prompts allow theindiv;ival to learn that old responses can be used on anew task that has different requirements.

Once the individual is using the old and new skills onthe new job in the proper sequence, he should receivepositive reinforcement frequently at first and then lessfrequently as familiarity with the job develops. The colorcodes or sign prompts can be faded out or removed afterthe individual has co; ectly carried out the procedureseveral times (Mosk & Butcher, 1984).

Continues to work despitechanges in environment

Some workers stop working whenever anything newhappens. When a visitor tours the workplace, or a newworker joins the work force, or modifications are made innearby machinery, these persons stop their work andwatch the activity. Sometimes they will get up, go over tothe visitor or new person, and begin asking questions.The two procedures recommended to change thesebehavioral patterns are prompting with instruction andbehavioral inoculation.

Prompting with instructionsOften verbal prompts are sufficient to attain desired

changes in target behaviors (Spiegler, 1983, p. 136).Prompting consists of telling the worker that she fails tocontinue to work when change takes place in theenvironment. S. should be specific, telling the personabout incidents during which the worker failed to con-tinue working. S. then tells the individual to pretend thatsomebody has entered the workshop and is being takenon a tour. S. asks the worker what should be done. S.answers for the worker and says, "You should continueworking." S. then asks the question, "Is this a goodthing to do?" Before the worker can answer, S. says,"Yes, this is a good thing to do because then I get mywork done." S. should repeat the questions, asking theworker to respond appropriately. When the worker canmake the responses, S. reinforces the individual. S. tellsher that S. will ask the worker to practice theseresponses; again if she stops working when somethinghappens in the work environment. Prompting withinstructions is a variation of self-instruction which isdescribed in more det il in the Behavior Modification andJob Retention section.

Behavior inoculationBehavior inoculation procedures are used for more

difficult cases in which workers have been toldrepeatedly to continue working when changes takeplace. Despite these instructions, they continue to bedistracted by visitors, new workers, or changes. Toimplement behavior inoculation, S. presents a graduatedset of distractors (ranging from insignificant to signif-icant) and reinforces the worker for continuing to work


while the change is occurring. For example, S. mighthave another person quietly open and close a door at theend of the room. When the worker continues workingbecause he has not noticed the door open and close, S.Jells the worker: "Someone just opened and closed thedoor; but you continued working. That is very good."Essentially, S. is reinforcing the individual for anappropriate response when the inappropriate responsesof looking up and stopping work were highly unlikely.

The next step is to have the door open and close with aloud bang, with S. reinforcing the individual forcontinuing to work. If the individual did look up and stopworking, S. should repeat the slamming of the door,preceded by instructions that the worker is to continueworking. When the worker does so, he is reinforced.

Next, a cart, box, or piece of machinery should bemoved by someone, with S. again reinforcing the workerfor continuing to work. If the person stopped working,the environmental change is repeated with instructionsto the worker to continue working. The worker isreinforced when the incident happens and he continuesto work. Next, S. could have somebody speak in a loudtone of voice at the other end of the shop, or actuallyhave a stranger enter while S. prompts the worker tocontinue working and reinforces him for doing so.

Next, they would role play a situation in which S.,simulating a new employee, is working next to theperson. S. would tell the worker to pretend that S. is anew employee. The worker is to show S. that he can con-tinue working even when there is a new person in theimmediate work area. Thus, S. is creating a number ofchanges in the environment with the worker instructedto continue working as these changes are being made.This inoculation procedure enables the worker to estab-lish a habit of continuing to work when changes takeplace in the environment. Reinforcement should becontinued, then gradually faded out as the worker main-tains productivity despite distractions. The behaviorchange is further facilitated if S. warns the worker priorto major distracting events such as installation of newmachinery nearby.

Moves from job to job easilySometimes work requires that a person move from job

to job during the same day. Having difficulty making thechange, some workers may either forget to go to thesecond job or they may linger over the first job. Whenthey make the change, they may take too long to startworking on the new job. Prompting and practice areinterventions that are successful in overcomingthis problem.

PromptingA signal system can be used to remind the worker that

it is time to stop a job and move on to another (Johnson& Cuvo, 1981). A second signal can be used to promptthe individual to start work on the second job. The

signals can be in the form of flashing lights or buzzersthat are activated when it is time for the person to movefrom one job to another. Most, but not all, workers areable to change jobs on schedule if a clock is available.Some, however, are less reliable in watching the clock.Hence, the signal system can be used to teach them tochange jobs and to start production. Once the individualis reliably doing this, the signal system can be faded outso that the individual can depend on the clock or on themovement of other employees who must also changejobs at the same time.

PracticeWhen workers demonstrate difficulty leaving one job

and moving on to another at the correct time, they canp lctice the process of changing jobs. S. explains theprocedure and then has the worker role play movingfrom one job to another and starting work. After theworker has done this successfully, S. asks that theprocedure be repeated, and again reinforces the workerfor closing one job, moving on to the next job, andstarting working. S. should have the individual repeatthis practice three or four times. At the end of thesession, S. says that the next time the individual showsany difficulty in moving from one job to another, they willagain carry out the practice sessions. S. should reinforcethe individual in the future whenever the person movespro: nptly from job to job and starts working.

2


Being a Productive Worker

The essence of the work role is production.Employees are expected to report to work on time andproduce at an acceptable level of quantity and quality.Without these capabilities, the worker is a drain on theemployer and, therefore, subject to termination or beinglaid off. By being a productive worker, the individual canearn more money for herself and, possibly, advance tobetter paying positions. Work tasks ad&essed in thesection include; arrives at work and returns from breakson time, begins work without prompting, works steadilyduring work period, continues work until work periodends, produces sufficient quantity of work, and producessufficient quality of work.

Arrives at work and returnsfrom breaks on time

Time lost to arriving late for work is time lost forproduction. Thus, workers must be punctual inarriving at work and returning from breaks. The mosteffective procedures for teaching individuals to be ontime are modeling (Miller, 1978, p. 125), incentives(Hermann, de Montes, Dominguez, Montes, & Hopkins,1973), and response cost (Iwata & Bailey, 1974).

ModelingIf workers see their supervisory staff or the

experienced workers arriving late, they quickly followthose examples. Thus, the easiest way for newemployees to learn to be on time is for their models to beon time. In addition, employers have found it helpful toinstruct senior employees to model punctual behavior.For example, at the end of break time, these senioremployees say loudly and clearly, "Well, it's time to goback to work; let's go." One construction engineer whosupervised six carpenter teams reported that when heinstructed his senior carpenters to return from breakspromptly, the other men did so as well.

IncentivesIn a study reported by Herman% et al., (1973), over

750 separate instances of lateness had been reportedamong 131 workers in one year. Therefore, the plantinitiated yearly awards to those workers' who had thebest punctuality and attendance records. Because thisreinforcement was not immediate for the appropriatebehavior, the bonuses had little effect on tardiness. Anew reinforcement procedure was instituted. Eachperson was given a slip of paper worth two pesos (16c)for each day the individual arrived at work on time. At the

end of the week, employees could exchange the slips ofpaper for cash. This procedure resulted in a decreasefrom 15 to 2 in the number of people arriving late, a con-siderable savings in lost work hours and productivity.

Another effective procedure is for each person whoarrives on time to draw a playing card from a deck. At thefirst break, each individual who returns from break ontime draws a second card. After lunch, those who returnon time draw a third card, and following the afternoonbreak, each individual who is on time draws a fourthplaying card. At the end of the day, any worker who osfour playing cards draws a fifth card. The person with thebest poker hand wins a prize or a slip of paper that can beexchanged for money at the end of the week. To avoidcheating, cards should be recorded as they are drawn.The only way a person could win would be to have all fivecards at the end of the day. An individual could win asoften as five times a week, depending upon the luck ofthe draw.

Another incentive plan is to allow those individualswho arrive on time to select the jobs they will do for theday. Thus, individuals who are continuously on time arethe ones who get the best work stations.

Response costEmployees who are consistently late are penalized

under a response cost system. For each period ofarriving up to 15 minutes late for work or from a break,the individual receives notice that a late mark has beenrecorded. Four marks cost the worker one hour's pay atthe end of the week. Because a late mark penalty is giveneven if workers are only one or two minutes late, theyquickly realize that they are working for free for a shortperiod every day due to accumulated late markpenalties.

Another response cost system is to require tardyindividuals to sit out for 15 minutes, an amount of time'which is then deduct( d from the person's pay at the endof the week. Thus, one or two minutes late results in a 15minute time out in which the individual cannot earn anypay. This method is more effective in changing on-timebehavior than is the practice of sending a person homefor the day when she is late.

Prompting and instructionIn some cases individuals have not formed the habits

at home which will allow them to leave for work on time.In such cases, the rehabilitation counselor would beasked to train the individual to prepare for getting towork on time. Self-instructional training, explained in"Behavior Modification and Job Retention," is a usefulstrategy for this problem.

Begins work without promptingSome workers arrive at work and return from breaks

on time, but they do not begin working promptly unlessthey are told to do so. The procedures most effective inteaching an individual to start work immediately are


systematic reinforcement and ignoring, overcorrection-positive practice, and response cost procedures.

Systematic reinforcement and ignoringWhen the individual does not start work after

arriving at work or returning from break, it may bebecause the work itself is less reinforcing than the activ-ities he participates in when not at work. If S. identifieswhat the individual does instead of working, and thenremoves the reinforcement from that situation, he ismore likely to find that the '..dividual will start workearlier (Miller, 1978). For example, the worker may talkto another person who is working at the next station in-stead of starting to work. S. shoL'ld instruct the otherworker not to talk with the individual who is having aproblem unless the individual is working. This is anexample of using systematic ignoring by removingthe reinforcement.

S. should not give the individual any extra attentionwhen he is away from work but instead should increasepositive reinforcement when the person begins working.If sincere appreciation, compliments, or requests forinformation are provided after the worker has startedwork, beginning work immediately after arriving at theworkplace should increase. It also helps if the workerwho is away from the station or who is not working hearsS. give sincere compliments to other workers who havestarted to work on time. Thi. modeling procedure canhave an impact on the individual's own work behavior.

Overcorrection-positive practiceThis procedure teaches individuals that they will have

to practice beginning work on time if observed not doingso. When S. observes the person off task, she instructsthe person to practice starting to work on time, e.g.,"Pretend that you just checked into work. Show me whatyou do first." The worker then goes to the work stationand starts working; S. reinforces the behavior by saying,"Good, you've started to work immediately." Then S.says, "Let's go over by the door you enter when you firstarrive at work" or "Let's go over to the place where youtake your tweaks." They go to that site, and S. says,"Pretend it is time to start work; show me what you do."The worker then proceeds to the work station and startsworking. S. says, "Good. It's important that you startwork immediately after arriving at your work station. Soyou won't forget, let's do it one more time." The workermoves to the other site, and S. says, "Pretend that youhave just ended the break; show me what you aregoing to do." When the worker goes to the job and startswork immediatley, S. reinforces her. Then the supervisorsays, "We will practice again the next time I see you notstarting your work at the end of your break or afterarriving at work. It is very important that you learn tostart work immediately when you arrive at your workstation." Although overcorrection-positive practice canbe repeated as often as necessary, it usually takes only 2or 3 occasions for a worker to begin to start work on

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time. At first the worker may like the attention but if S. isconsistent the practice becomes aversive.

Response costResponse cost, a punishment procedure, requires the

individual to pay for not starting to work on time (Miller,1;78, p. 198). The punishment can be in the form of lossof break time, lunch time, or money. In the first case, S.approaches the worker and says, "I see that you aretaking your break now." The worker is likely to ask whatS. means by that; S. replies, "Well, you are not workingbut it is not break time, so you must be taking your breaktime now. Because you are taking break time now, I willdeduct five minutes from your next break time, or I willdeduct 5 minutes from your lunch time. When breaktime arrives, and the other workers go on break, you cancontinue working for 5 minutes to make up for the timeyou were not working. Each time you fail to start workwhen you get to your work station, we will deduct thattime from your break or your lunch time tvc.its untilthe worker has started to work and then 3ilys. "Good,"and walks away.

In the case of loss of money, S. tells the w.)..4c that hehas not started work again upon returning to tile workstation. Failure to start work on time costs the companymoney. Therefore, S. will record this incident and deduct15 minutes of pay from the worker's salary. When fourpenalties have accumulated because of failures to startwork on time, the worker will lose one hour's pay.

In using overcorrection-positive practice andresponse-cost procedures, S. must reinforce theindividual for positive occurences of working. Whenworkers start work immediately after arriving at thework station, they should receive sincere positive rein-forcement statement from S. for their appropriatebehavior. Punishment procedures will produceresentment unless workers -also receive positive rein-forcement for acting appropriately.

Works steadily during work periodIndividuals who work steadily are valuable employees.

They disregard distractions and are more likely to finishtheir work. In some situations, people may work inspurts with very fast production rates for short periods oftime and then long pauses. It that is z..cceptable becausethe work quota is met, there is no behavioral problem. If,however, the job requires a steady work rate, theirregular pace is a problem which may be treated by rein-forcement and practice or by a feedback procedure.

Reinforcement and practiceVariable ratio and variable interval schedules of rein-

forcement produce steaey rates of behavior in almostany activity (Hill, 1982). Variable ratio reinforcementmeans that S. would reinforce the worker, first forcompleting three or four pieces, then six or seven pieces,then two or three, and then nine or ten, etc. Thus, rein-forcement is not occurring after every X number of

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986n4 (i

pieces are finished but after a variable number of piecesis finished. When the work rate is steady, the reinforce-ment is thinned so that it occurs only after greaterquantities are completed.

Variable interval schedules of reinforcement meansthat reinforcement is given after varying lengths of timeat work. At first, the worker is reinforced for workingsteadily for approximately 3 or 4 minutes, then forworking 5 or 7 minutes and then 22 minutes. When theindividual shows a steady pace at the short intervals ofreinforcement, the length of time demanded beforereinforcement occurs is lengthened. The time betweenreinforcements should not be extended too much or theworker will return to the previous start and stop form.When individuals receive reinforcement at 4',e end of 45minutes, and then after 2 hours, or 3 hours, rr even 5minutes, they do not know when the reinforcement willoccur, but they do associate it with working at a steadyrate. These different schedules of reinforcementproduce a very steady work pace. To reach the ideal, i.e.,enabling individuals to self-pace their work, it isnecessary to use the schedules of reinforcement untilsteady work rates of long duration are demonstratedwith little or no reinforcement.

S. should ask persons having difficulty working at asteady rate for longer than 5 or 10 minutes todemonstrate a steady work rate while S. stands besidethem. While they are practicing, they should be rein-forced by S. for durations of 5 to 10 minutes, then 10 to 15minutes, and then 15 to 20 minutes. Although thisprocedure requires the supervisor's time initially, iteventually produces a steady rate of performance. Oncethe individual shows that he can work steadily in thesupervisor's presence, S. should fade out of thesituation. S. does this by standing further and furtheraway from the worker but returning to reinforce onoccasion. If done slowly, but steadily, fading will producea steady rate of work without the supervisor beingpresent.

FeedbackSome individuals seem unaware of the fact that they

have stopped working. After working for a short periodof time, they stop and stare across the room or watchsomeone else work. Feedback mechanisms such as asignal prompt the individual to continue working(Panyon, Boozer, & Morris, 1970). A flashing lightprominently located in the shop can be used to signalthat someone is not working. When a worker stopsworking, S. flips the switch that turns on the flashinglight. The light flashes until all individuals return to work.Depending upon shop wiring, the flashing light can beplaced at the work station of the individual who tends tostop work. Thus, when that worker stops work, the lightlocated at her work station flashes until the individualresumes work. When this feedback technique is used toproduce a steady rate of performance among workers, itmust be combined with reinforcement by S., i.e., individ

uals who are beginning to show a continuous rate ofwork should receive reinforcement occasionally,preferably on a variable schedule as was described in theprevious section.

One vocational education instructor used the radio tosignal workers that someone was off task. Wheneverybody was working, the radio played so that all couldhear it. When an individual stopped working, theinstructor turned the volume down so that no one couldhear it. Othar workers then turned to the offendingworker and prompted him to resume work so that theinstn:ctor could turn up the volume of the radio. Thisprocedure resulted in workers continuing at a relativelysteady rate of performance during work periods.

Continues work until work period endsAlthough they may start work on time and work

steadily during the work period, some workers may stopworking 5 to 10 minutes prior to a break or to the end ofthe day. The following procedures teach individuals tocontinue working until the work period is officially over.

Prompting and reinforcementS. should tell the individual in very specific terms that

she is stopping work too early for breaks, lunch, or theend of the work day. S. should then stress thatemployees are being paid to work until the IA ork period isover. S. should conclude the session by telling theindividual to resume working and that S. will bewatching and expecting her to continue to workthoughout the work period. S. should reinforce the indi-vidual for continued work a number of times during theday. During the next few days, S. should gradually fadethe reinforcement while continuing to monitor theindividual. When the person has demonstrated for twoweeks the capability to work to the end oL the workperiods, S. should indicate pleasure with theperson's persistence.

Stimulus controlIf prompting is not effective, then a more intrusive

technique is needed. Stimulus control consists of S.appearing at the person's work station immediatelybefore she usually stops work. S. then says to the indi-vidual, "I see that you are working. That is very good." Z.remains at the work station until the end of the workperiod, at which time S. reinforces the individual forcontinuing to work while S. was there. For the next twodays, S. continues to control the individual's behavior atthe end of the work periods by standing next to her andreinforcing her for continuing to work. Then S. fades outby standing further away from the individual as the end ofthe work period nears. S. should occasionally reinforcethe individual for continuing to work. Eventually, S. isable to stop at the person's work station forreinforcement purposes only. S. might also recommendthat the worker time he work with other workers whowork to the end of work periods.


Response costWhen an individual persists in stopping work too early,

the punishment technique of response cost can be used(Miller, 1978, p. 1981). S. tells the worker that, since he isquitting work too early, he will have to makeup the timeat the end of the work day. S. informs the individual thatS. will record the amount of time "owed," i.e., the timethe individual will have to work at the end of the day.

Another response cost technique involves tellingindividuals that the amount of time they take off prior tobreaks is being recorded to determine how muchtheir paychecks should be reduced. S. tells the indi-vidual that this pay deduction will continue until the indi-vidual works to the end of all work periods. Whenindividuals show improvement, they should be sincerelyreinforced so that they continue to work in a positiverather than punitive atmosphere.

Produces sufficient quantity of workWhen workers are not meeting production quotas, the

supervisor's first step is to identify potential causes. Ifdue to the person's disability, the problem may be solvedby redesigning equipment or the work station. If due tothe individual's lack of skill, continued practice withreinforcement may solve the problem Instruction fromS. or from a productive co-worker may be needed.However, when the individual has the opportunity andthe ability to perform the task at the required rate but isnot doing so, the problem may be motivational. Anumber of motivational procedures effectively increaseproduction rates, e.g., incentive systems, feedback,and modeling.

IncentivesIf the individual receives the same amount of pay as

others, but for less work, she has little reason to increaseproduction. The simplest solution is to make paycorrelate with productivity (Dick, 1978), i.e., pay theperson only for the amount produced.

Token economies can also be used to improve bothquantity and quality of work. The individual receivestokens for each X number of products produced. Thesetokens can be redeemed for rewards such as money,preferred work assignments, movie passes, extrabreaks, or even productivity emblems that can be sewnon one's work shirt.

Behavioral contracts can also increase productivityrates. The behavioral contract specifies both theemployee's productivity rate and the rewards forattaining that quota (Gupton & LeBow, 1971). Everytime the person reaches the performance goal, she earnsthe reward. The written behavioral contract can beplaced at the work station so that the individual iscontinuously aware that a contract is in effect while sheis working.

242 1.

ModelingModeling requires the person to imitate the

appropriate work rate of another worker. Atterinforming the individual of an unsatisfactory work rate,S. takes the person to the work station of anotherworker who performs at an acceptable rate. S. then hasthe employee watch the individual's movements withparticular emphasis on learning how to maintain a fasterpace. i hen S. places the slower worker at an adjacentwork station so that he can attempt to match work rateswith that of the model. Faster work rates and improvedperformance should be reinforced.

A more effective o prestigous worker could be askedto monitor the work pace of the slower worker. First, themodel instructs the individual in how to do the job. Thenthe model reinforces the person for performing at ,.

faster rate, even prompting the person to work faster ifr .ssary. If the model is carefully chosen, a cooperativerelationship may develop between the two workers sothat they mutually reinforce each other for obtainingfaster rates of performance. A more detailed descriptionof effective modeling is provided in BehaviorModification and Job Retention.

FeedbackTo use feedback properly, S. must specify subgoals of

faster performance and reinforce the worker forattaining those subgoals (Luthans & Kreitner, 1975).Data on the worker's performance should be chartedso that the worker can see both his present rate andimprovements as they occur. If an individual is workingat 50% of the required rate, the first subgoal might be setat 60%; the next sut.goal, at 70%; and the next, at 80%.

Feedback as a factor affecting performance rate wasespecially apparent in a case where a deaf blind workerwas performing at approximately 30% of the necessaryrate of productivity in a sheltered workshop. The taskconsisted of filling up cardboard boxes with plastic forksmanufactured by other workers.

To establish a feedback system, S. first placed theindividual's hands on a filled, closed box. Then S. movedthe worker's hand to a tray containing small one-half inchwooden cubes. S. had the worker pick up one cube andplace it in a tray on his other side. S. patted the worker onthe shoulder and signed into his hand, "That's good". S.then repeated the process; S. had the worker place hishands on another filled box and move it to thecompartment containing the filled box's. Then S. hadhim move one more cube from one side to the other. Theworker continued this process until he associatedcompleting a box with moving a cube. The supervisorthen signed into the worker's hand the information thatthirty filled boxes signified by 30 cubes on the tray earneda work break. Thus, the worker was giving himselffeedback about the number of boxes he was completing,and S. was using the work break as an incentive for theworker to work faster. This procedure resulted in thisdeaf blind employee raising his productivity rate to over70% of the required level.


Produces sufficient qualityof work

Everyone's work varies in quality. Sometimes anindividual's output is perfect, and sometimes it containsdeficiencies. Factories typically hire inspectors tomonitor work quality. When a particular worker's errorrate is higher than that of other workers, a supervisoryintervention is necessary.

Prompting and reinforcementS. shows the worker the products she has completed

that are of acceptable quality and reinforces her forthem. Then S. shows the worker the products that areunacceptable in quality. S. specifies exw-lly what theproduct's imperfections are and what the worker did thatresulted in the errors. To identify steps in which theworker is making errors, S. asks the person todemonstrate the creation of the product. As the workercompletes each step, S. should reinforce her. S. shouldend the prompting session by telling the worker that S.will expect a lower rate of errors in the future. When thenumber of errors decreases, S. should quickly andregularly reinforce the worker for this improvement inquality (Brown, 1981).

Some employees have legitimate complaints thatsupervisors never tell them about the 88% of their prod-ucts that are right, but only about the 12% that arewrong. If reinforcement is given more regularly toemployees for their achievement rate, they are morelikely to produce better quality products.

A large error rate may also be due to working too fast.Instead of attending to the quality of the product, theperson attends to the number of products beingcompleted. Observation of the employee will reveal thesteps in which carelessness occurs due to too fast a workrate. Prompting individuals to work slower andreinforcing them for the slower rate and the improvedquality of the product will often reduce the errors.

Changing the antecedentsEspecially effective when the worker has unlimited

control of speed of production (Brown, 1981), changingof antecedents consists of rearranging the work flow sothat material reaches an individual at a slower rate, e.g.,by slowing down an assembly belt. If another worker isfeeding material to the employee who is producing poorquality products, the other worker's rate of deliveryis slowed.

A signal light on a timer may also direct the workerwhen to start working on a product. If the signal light istimed to slow production, workers learn the habit ofworking at slower rates so that their errors decrease. Ifthey hurry through the work, they must wait until thesignal light illuminates before they can start on theirnext product.

Negative contingenciesWhen prompting or controlling antecedent stimuli are

impossible or ineffective, S. may choose to impose penal-ties, provided that sincere positive reinforcement is givenfor improvements (McKelvey, Engen, Peck, 1973).Penalties can be in the form of decreased pay forunacceptable products, or individuals can be required torepeat the work until it is performed without error. Thus,a person who cleans a work area inadequately wouldreclean the untidy areas a number of times. If breakage isthe problem, individuals should clean up each objectbroken before starting on a new item. If paid on a piecerate, the worker loses pay because clean up timedecreases the time available to produce work. If theperson must complete a certain number of items beforetaking a break or leaving for lunch or home, the cleanuptime interferes with the worker's ability to complete theproduct quota witnin the necessary time span.

27Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 25

Monitors Own Workand Work Needs

Self-sufficiency as a worker is one of the hallmarks of agood employee. By monitoring their own work output,solving rroblems as they arise, and asking for help onlywhen it is needed, these individuals enable an entire workteam to produce efficiently. Presented in this section arebehavior management strategies which encourageworkers to display the following work task proficiencies:identifies own mistakes, initiates action to correctmistakes, and seeks help when help is needed.

Identifies own mistakesPoor work quality often results because the individual

does not recognize the errors he makes. In other cases,workers recognize mistakes but simply do nothig aboutthem, a problem dealt with in the next section. When S.decides that the individual's high error rate is due to auinability to identify errors, S. may use one of three inter-ventions; a team meeting to determine how to teach theperson to identify and correct mistakes, discriminationtraining, and positive reinforcement with feedback.

Team meetingIn this procedure, S. brings together all of the employ-

ees working on the product in which errors are beingmade. S. indicates that the errors are costing the com-pany money and causing unnecessary work. S. then asksthe employees for ideas about the causes of the errors. S.lists the reasons for the high error rate as they are pro-vided by the employees. After summarizing the causes,S. asks for suggestions as to what each worker does orcould do co reduce errors. Employees with lower errorrates are often able to verbalize the steps they take toreduce their own error rates. As individuals describewhat they do to reduce errors, S. reinforces theresponses. S. finishes the session by asking them whatthey should do when they see they are making an error inperforming their work. Again, S. reinforces theresponses that are made. Thus, in the team approach, S.is asking workers who have lower error rates to des, ;betheir work procedures. In this way, the team meetingteaches more error prone employees to recognizeerrors and to identify what other workers do to controlerrors. S. finishes the session by telling all of theemployees that they are expected to reduce their errors.S. might add a feedback system for the whole group byposting the number of quality and flawed productsproduced daily.

26 26 Vocational

Discrimination trainingFor workers who continue to have a high rate of

errors, S. may need to provide training in error detection(Retting, 1975). S. should choose a training time thatdoes not interfere with the flow of work. The employee isasked to examine the work she has produced during thelast hour or during the morning. S. then asks the individ-ual to divide the products into two piles, those that do nothave errors and those that do. S. then reviews theproducts that the individual considers error free andidentifies any that contain. laws. After pointing out thoseflaws to the individual, S. explains that the person'smanufacturing process caused the flaw. S. then asks theindividual to explain the nature and cause of the error ineach flawed piece. S. reinforces the person fordescribing the error and the cause.

S. then mixes the perfect and flawed materials andasks the worker to identify those with errors and thosewithout, reinforcing the individual for correctlyidentifying irregular pieces. Again, S. asks what in themanufacturing process caused the en-or.Correct answers are reinforced. Before leaving, S.promises to return later and critique the products. Ifmany , pier as have errors, another practice session isscheduled. After several repetitions of this discrimi-nation training, the employee will anticipate and avoidproduction mistakes.

Having two employees inspect each other's worktwice a day is another way to improve error discrim-ination. S. tells both workers that this is a check on theirquality and then reinforces them by occasionallychecking their inspection. By teaming one employee whomakes many errors with one who makes few, S. providesthe error prone worker with a desirable model as well asan incentive to decrease the number of errors.

Feedback and positive reinforcementTo use these two procedures, S. posts at the person's

work station the number of flawed items the individualhas produced (Komaki, Waddel, & Pearce, 1977). S.then tells the worker that the error rate should bereduced by X amount. On the next day, S. posts thenumber of irregular items produced and reinforces theindividual if there is any improvement. S. continues topost the error rate while, at the same time, reducing thenumber allowed until it reaches an acceptable rate.Improvements are reinforced. Feedback andreinforcement are proven methods for reducing errorsin products.

Initiates action to correct mistakesSometimes individuals detect errors but do nothing to

correct them. In this case, the person either does notknow how to decrease errors or has no concreteincentive to do so. When the person lacks the properknowlecl_a, the team meeting approach (see "Bei ig aProductive Worker," Section 1) can be used to teach theperson how other workers decrease their errors.

Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

S. should ask the employee to repeat aloud what must bedone to reduce this error rate The supervisor reinforcesthe employee's description of the corrective behavior.Should motivation be a problem, S. might institute anincentive plan or a response cost procedure.

Incentive planEquipment breakdowns due to careless maintenance

cost companies a great deal of money. A simple incentiveplan can decrease these unnecessary mechanicalfailures. For example, workers can be notified that theirmachines will be inspected on an irregular basis.Equipment in good working order will be tagged.Workers whose machines have received a tag will eitherearn a small monetary bonus or additional time off.These small incentives are more than compensated forby the decreased costs for machinery repair orreplacement.

Workers can also be encouraged to reduce theirerrors if they receive small bonuses for error rates belowX amount. During periodic inspection of products, S.can also reinforce workers by compliments that areheard by other workers as well as by time-off as rewardsfor producing high quality work.

lesponse costThe response cost strategy results in careless workers

paying for their mistakes. If no consequences forcarelessness have existed in the past, workers have noneed to improve the quality of their work. The responsecost procedure results in a reduction in wages or anincrease in the amount of time a person must work foreach flawed product produced. Workers who pay aresponse cost for their carelessness should also receivereinforcement for their improvements as theconsequences begin to take effect. If they are sincerelyreinforced for improvement, their motivation to do wellchanges from negative to positive contingencies. Theyare then working to earn rewards rather than toavoid punishment.

Seeking help when help is neededTwo types of help-seeking problems commonly occur

in the workplace. Some workers do not seek help when itis needed; others seek help almost continuously.

Practice in seeking helpS. must explain to the worker when it is appropriate to

seek help. For example, S. shows the worker that aproduct has not been produced properly or that a wo-ktask has not been completed satisfactorily. S. indicatesthat the worker did not seek help orinformation when itwas needed. After commenting on those tasks that theworker is doing well, S. should describe the problem inspecific terms, e.g., "When the feeder line put too muchmaterial at your station, you did not inform anyone of theproblem. Pretend that happens again and show me whatyou would do." If the person demonstrates no knowledge

of the proper procedure, S. should provide instructionssuch as, "Inform me or the person controlling thatmachinery." The worker should then walk through thecorrect procedure. S. reinforces the worker and saysthat he is expected to seek heip the next time that type ofproblem occurs. S. should then seek opportunities toreinforce the worker when help is sought or to repeatpractice sessions if necessary.

In the case of someone not seeking help, such as inlifting something heavy, S. modelsihe process of askingfor assistance. If machinery needs attention, S. has theindividual describe the signs indicating that theequipment is not working properly, then asks the workerto explain the necessary action. The worker shouldrehearse the procedure of asking for help. Reinforce-ment of the rehearsal and of future help seekingis critical.

Systematic reinforcement and ignoringSome workers seek help excessively. They must be

told very specifically that they are asking for unneces-sary help and why that help is unnecessary, e.g., theindividual has already been told what to do or where todo it or when to do it. While ignoring irrelevant orunncessary questions from the worker, S. reinforces theperson for working at her work station. If it is unclearwhether the individual is seeking appropriate help, S.should ask the person what she wants. If the request isunncessary, S. says, "You did not need to ask for that;return to your work station." S. then reinforces theindividual for working.

Overcorrection-educationTo use overcorrection-education (practice), S. gives

the person a structured educational experience whenshe asks for unnecessary help or information. Forexample, the supervisor has the individual complete aform with numerous questions (Spielger fiz Agigian,1977). "What information is being sought? What help isneeded? Why does the worker need this information?Where else could the worker obtain the information?What should be done in the future when this type of helpor information is needed?" Completing this form for eachinstance of seeking unnecessary information becomesso aversive that the individual soon discriminates be-tween the types of information that will be given and thetypes that will not.


Accepts Supervision

In addition to possessing a production orientation,workers must acknowledge the legitimate authority ofsupervisors to make decisions regarding use ofresources, worker assignments, and production pro-cedures. Although they should feel at ease with super-visors, employees must recognize the status and specialresponsibilities of supervisory staff. Work tasks relatedto acceptance of supervision discussed in this sectioninclude; stays on task with supervisor present, acceptscriticism of work, changes work behavior consistent withcriticism, avoids interfering with the supervision ofothers, and reports relevant information to supervisor.

Stays cn task with supervisor presentSome persons stop working whenever their

supervisor approaches their work st.iion. This paradox-ical and unproductive behavior may occur because theindividuals are attempting to gain their supervisor'sattention or because they are fearful of criticism fromthe supervisor.

ExtinctionTypical attention seeking behaviors include looking

up, smiling, speaking, or even standing up and movingfrom the work station toward S. whenever S.approaches. An extinction procedure requires S. toignore the person totally. If ignored by S. whenever hestops working and given attention by S. only when hestays on-task, the worker soon associates work withattention (reir.forcement). Off-task behaviorwill extinguish.

If the person persists in asking questions or makingremarks that cannot be ignored, S. should say, "This is awork period. See me during the break if you havesomething to say." S. should then walk away from theperson. If the worker appears at the break to make acomment, S. should wait until the break period is almostover, listen to the worker, and en send him back towor k on time. This type of worker is also likely to inter-fere with the supervision of others. If so, the treatrr.i.ntprovided in "Accepts Supervision, interference" with thesupervision of others should be used.Reinforcement an," fading

Some workers he. history of receiving so muchcriticism from authority figures that they either freezefrom fear when an authority is near or stop working forfear of making a mistake that would be criticized. When aworker stops work as S. e oproaches her work area butdoes not look up as if seeking attention, S. should leavethe area as soon as she has accomplished her duty in that

28

area. Later, S. should ask the employee to stay afterwork for a few minutes. She should first praise theemployee's appropriate work habits and then state thatshe has noted that the employee stops work when S. isnearby. Asking the employee whti she stops will benonproductive because she will only shrug her shouldersand either not answer or say she "doesn't know why."Instead S. should ask the worker to demonstrate howshe does her job. If the job requires the presence of otherworkers (an assembly line), S. should ask the person tosimulate the work. S. should frequently and sincerelyreinforce her work behavior. She should then tell theworker to continue work when S. approaches in thefuture and that they will practice tomorrow.

On the next clay, S. stands within twenty feet of theworker, with the other employees present. If the workercontinues to work, S. moves away and then returns towithin fifteen feet. If the worker continues to work butlooks up, S. nods her head in a reinforcing manner andmoves away. S. continues this procedure until S. iswithin 10 feet, then 5 feet, and then beside the worker,while the worker continues working. S. reinforces theperson and says they will practice again tomorrow.Using the same fading and reinforcement methods, S.repeats the procedure the next day but comes towardthe individual from a different direction.

Accepts criticism of workPeople with a habit of defending themselves and

arguing with others find it difficult to accept criticism oftheir work. In fact, they may react as if every statementmade by S. is a criticism of their work. Such oversensi-tivity is usually due to a history of parental criticismwhich they could only escape by arguing anddefending themselves. When individuals argue onlywhen their work is criticized, a reinforcement and fadingprocedure can be effective. When individuals argueregardless of what is said to them, an instruction andpractice procedure should be used.

Reinforcement and fadingS. approaches the worker, provides some nonthreat-

ening or positive information, and makes a reinforcingstatement such as, "I appreciate the way ye,u listen to theinformation I give ycu. It makes my job easier whenpeople listen carefully." S. continues this practice ofgiving positive or neutral information about the work-place (work hours, work conditims, worker'sproduction rates) and continues to reinforce theindividual in a sincere manner for listening carefully towhat the supervisor says. If the worker asks questionsabout what the supervisor has said,S. should answer hisquestions as completely as possible. When the worker isaccustomed to S. approaching and giving oositivecomments, S. then approaches the worker, says some-thing positive about the person's work, then makes avery short, minor criticism of an aspect of the person'sperformance. Following this mild criticism, S. should.

30Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special :986

immediately reinforce the worker for listening.The next time S. approaches the worker, S. should

give neutral or positive information first, then make somenecessary critical comments followed quickly byreinforcement to the worker for listening withoutbecoming defensive. On every second or third approach,S. should only present positive or neutral information sothat the worker does not associate compliments withcriticism. As critical comments are introduced grad-ually, S. prefaces them with positive or neutral commentsand reinforces the worker for listening carefully. If theworker becomes antagonistic, S. has faded in the criti-cism too fast. In such an event, S. should respondneutrally, being careful not to reinforce any defensive-ness on the part of the worker. If done systematically,this procedure can result in the worker acceptingcriticism appropriately.

Instruction and practiceInstruction and practice can be used with persons who

become argumentative about almost anything that thesupervisor might say to them. First, S. or the rehabilita-tion counselor discusses the problem privately with theperson. After commending the worker for positiveaspects of his work, S. explains that the individual has ahabit of not listening to constructive suggestions and ofreacting defensively to constructive criticism. If theperson argues this point, S. should respond in a neutralfashion, listening to the person until he finishes. S. thenrepeats the individual's positive work qualities butreemphasizes that this problem of constant arguing is ahabit the worker needs to change.

Ignoring any arguments or hostile comments, S.demonstrates an acceptable way for the worker torespond to supervisory correction. Before the demon-stration, S. repeats that the person is argumentative andthen describes how the worker could respond tocriticism. Following this description, and if the argumen-tative tone has decreased, S. leads a practice session."Let's pretend that I am criticizing the way you turn yourmachine on in the morning" (Select an activity that theworker actually does correctly). S. criticizes the workerand then compliments her for paying attention.S. then asks the person to respond to the criticism andreinforces the appropriate response. The workerpractices receiv... 3 criticism on some other matter withS. reinforcing the individual for responding properly. S.should then choose a third situation that is relateddirectly to the worker's duties, again reinforcingappropriate responses. S. closes by stating that sheexpects the worker to handle criticism better in thefuture and that she will appreciate seeing that change.Later the same day, S. should make a neutral commentto the worker and reinforce him paying attention asdescribed in the previous section. On the next day S.should mildly criticize the worker and then reinforce theindividual appropriate :y. The t emainder of theprocedure is as described in the previous section.

Changing work behaviorconsistent with criticism

When workers acknowledge S.'s criticisms but do notchange their behavior, S. should use the proceduresdescribed in "Responding Satisfactorily to Change". Forthose who complain and argue while directions are given,S. should use treatments such as the ones described in"Accepting Supervision", e.g., ignoring the complaint andreinforcing the person for not arguing while S. is givingdirections. S. should consider a modified point economyand negative practice for individuals who do not argue orcomplain when given directions but who do so most ofthe rest of the time (Kazdin, 1975; Spiegler &Agigian,1977).

Modified point economyFirst, the individual is confronted with the fact that she

complains excessively. S. then explains that the workerwill be placed on a point system, e.g., one point for notcomplaining during the first two hours of work, anotherpoint for not complaining during the last two hours of themorning, a third point for the first two hours after lunch,and a fourth point for the two hours before the end of theday. Points accumulated daily or weekly can be spent onsome type of reinforcer.To increase the probability thatthe point system will work, reinforcement from fellowworkers for complaining must be decreased. Tomotivate other workers to ignore this individual'scomplaining, S. could allow the person to spend thepoints earned on group reinforcements such as extratime off from work or changes in the work environment.Although it may seem simpler to start an individual withX number of points and remove a point every time shecomplains, this negative or response cost system canincrease rather than reduce the individual'scomplaining behavior.

Negative practiceWhenever the worker complains to S. or to other

workers, she is told that the complaining is inappro-priate. However, at the same time, S. says that theworker hould get all of the complaining out of hersystem, i.e., the person is told to speak the complaintinto a tape recorder for five minutes. At the end of thefive minutes, she is to return to work. Each time the indi-vidual complains, she should speak these complaintsinto the tape recorder until the tape is filled; then theperson must listen to five minutes of the complaintsevery time she complains. Needless to say, complainingis soon suppressed. As the worker reduces complainingbehavior, she should receive reinforcement for longerand longer periods without complaining.

To vary this negative prak..tice procedure, S. could tellthe individual to write down the complaints. Writtenentries should specify what is bothering the person,when it occurs, where it occurs, what should be doneabout the complaints and what she will do to resolve theproblems. Either of these negative practice procedures,

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 31 . 29

if constantly used, will decrease the frequency of com-plaining and increase the frequency of appropriate verbalbehaviors, especially if the latter are reinforced.

Interference with thesupervision of others

A worker can interfere with supervision in severalways. Some individuals attempt to usurp thy: supervisoryrole and direct their co-workers' activities, resulting inresentment and, often, production problems. A practiceand reinforcement procedure or a self-instructionaltraining approach should be scheduled to deal with thistype of problem. Other individuals may interjectcomments or criticisms into the supervieor's effort toinstruct, teach, or correct other workers. A combinationof extinction, prompting, anc negative practiceprocedures should be used to decrease this inter-ference with supervision.

Practice with reinforcementInitially, the individual is confror.'ed with the fact that

he has been attempting to direct others. Should theperson deny this type of activity, the supervisor shouldbe prepared to provide specific examples. If the denialcontinues, S. should ignore it and initiate the followinginstructions: "Pretend that another worker in your areais working in a way that you think is wrong. What wouldyou do?" S. should reinforce such replies as, "I wouldcontinue working and not say anything" or "I wouldreport this incident to the supervisor" (S. should deter-mine the appropriateness of reporting the problematicbehavior of the other worker). This practice should berepeated; the supervisor should give verbalreinforcement for proper responses. During the nexthour or two after this instruction, S. should reinforce theindividual for not directing or "bossing" others.Reinforcement of positive practices on the job willsuppress "bossiness" and increase appropriateresponses.

Self-instruction trainingS. or the counselor tells the worker that he has been

bossing others and reporting their behavior toofrequently. The instructor then asks the worker to listento the procedure to follow the next time the situationoccurs. "F irst, you should ask yourself, 'What's goingon'? Next describe to yourself exactly what is happeningand then ask yourself, 'What should I do?' Repeat silentlythe answer to that question, 'Just continue to work if theperson's action won't harm himself/herself, others, orthe equipment. Report any dangerous practices to thesupervisor.' Ask yourself, 'Is that a good thing to do?'The answer is 'Yes, that is a good thing to do.' Continueworking or inform my supervisor if necessary."

After the worker understands the self-instruction pro-cedure, S. practices with the person by repeating thequestions and having the worker make the appropriateresponses. S. reinforces the desired responses requiring

the worker to start cA. er if he gives any wrong answers.Practice continues until the worker provides not only thecorrect responses but also the appropriate questions.Once the worker has mastered the questions andanswers, he should whisper them and then just thinkthrough them. The worker must internalize the process,i.e., ask and answer the questions silently. To completethe training, S. reminds the person that future incidentsof interference with another's work will result in moreself-instructional training. Reinforcement is given forimprovements in not interfering with other people's work(Bryant & Budd, 1982).

Extinction, prompting, and over-correction-education

When S. is correcting or directing another person andan employee interrupts, comments, or complains, S.should first ignore the individual, hoping that theperson's inappropriate comments will extinguish. If theindividual does not stop, she should be prompted toreturn to work, and S. should talk to her privately aboutnot interfering in the future. For extinction to be.successful, S. must persist in ignoring the worker'scomments across a number of days. Improvements onthe worker's part should be reinforced.

If the individual persists in interfering, S. shouldimplement an overcorrection-education solution.Following the next interruption, S. should instruct theworker to complete in writing a form that has fourquestions: "What was occurring when the incidentbegan? What did the other worker do that was inappro-priate? What should she have done? What will you do inthe future when this occurs?" If required to complete thisform for each interference, the person will quickly learnto suppress this irritating behavior.

Reports relevant informationto supervisor

Some employees do not inform ti. supervisor ofimportant information; others constantly provide thesupervisor with information. For the former, proceduresdescribed in "Monitors Own Work and Work Needs,"are helpful. In addition, prompting with positivere.r iorcement is useful. For employees who give toomuch information too frequently, extinction and nega-tive practice procedures are effective.

Prompting with positive reinforcementS. lists the information she desires from the

employee, e.g., machine breakdown, defective tools orequipment, insufficient work materials, or specificinterpersonal problems such as fighting or pestering. S.stresses to the employee who has not reported thesetypes of information that these concerns are of utmostinterest to the supervisor. S. should describe each itemon the list concretely, supplementing the explanationwith demonstrations whenever necessary. After theworker indicates understanding of the points and of thereporting procedure, S. posts the list for the worker's

3032


future reference. If the list pertains to all workers, it canbe presented in a large poster visible to everyone.Worker reports of relevant information should bepraised. Systematic reinforcement for reporting relevantinformation will yield long-term positive results (seeBrown, 1981, for a discussion of prompting in the worksetting).

ExtinctionExtinction combined with positive reinforcement

(McKelvey, Engen, & Peck, 1973) is effective with theemployee who is constantly reposting unnecessary infor-mation. Whenever the person reports irrelevantinformation, S. should ignore the message and theworker. On the other hand, S. should reinforce reportsof relevant information. Consistent application of thisprocedure will help the individual discriminate betweenirrelevant and relevant information and to report onlythat which is relevant. If the employee persists inexcessive contacts, S. should say, "That information isirrelevant. Do not leave your work station to tell me thattype of thing. Return to work." Such a response willdecrease the worker's trips to the supervisor's desk.

Negative practiceEmployees who are compelled to report everything

may be on a high reinforcement ratio for doing this inother places. To suppress this behavior, S. mustimplement a strategy that costs the individual more ineffort than is received in attention. For example, theemployee could write this irrelevant information on asheet of paper. If the person persists in speaking about itto the supervisor, S. becomes like a broken record,saying, "Go write it down. I don't want to hear it. Go writeit down, and bring it to me." If the employee cannot write,he is told to speak for five minutes into a tape recorder.

After the worker completes the form and brings it tothe supervisor, S. puts it aside and sends the employeeback to work. It is important that the employee not seethe supervisor reading the information. If a tape recorderis used, S. follows a similar approach. The form and taperecording soon become aversive, causing the person tosuppress the behavior. S. should continue to reinforceappropriate work habits.

33


Working with Co-workers

For work to proceed smoothly, workers muss acceptassignments to group tasks and cooper ate incompleting those tasks. A number of importantteamwork behaviors are involved in such activities. Inaddition, it is important that workers have acceptablesocial skills so that they can build friendships at work.Important times to use these social skills include workand meal breaks. In this section, several behaviormanagement techniques are described that enhanceworker performance in such tasks as works at assignedposition in group task; performs equal share of workload; supports and assists other workers whennecessary; responds appropriately to co- workers'teasing, harassment, or criticism; and restricts social.ization to appropriate times and places.

Works at assigned positionin group task

Working with others on the same task or on anassembly line is an important ability. A variety ofproblems can occur in teamwork situations. Someworkers, distracted by what others are doing or saying,stop working; others become anxious whcr, workingwith co-workers, and some cannot tolerate the com-plexity involved in producing something jointly.Modeling and fading are two techniques to help peoplelearn how to work with others.

ModelingTo introduce a worker to a serial assembly task, S.

could first assign the person to someone who does thejob quickly and accurately. The choice of models shouldfollow the modeling rules described in BehaviorModification and Job Retention. The model workerdemonstrates how to (a) depend on the previous workerfor a certain phase cf production, (b) do that par of jobrequired of him/her, and (c) pass the product on tothe next person. The new worker should observe themodel, assume the model's role, and perform the task.The model should initially guide the individual throughthe task, reinforcing aspects of the job done properly andcorrecting those done improperly. Thus, the new workerpractices in a group while being helped to complete thetask. If S. praises both the model and the new worker,they will both associate working with the group withpositive reinforcement.

FadingSome may find sharing an assembly task a frightening

or threatening prospect. For those individuals, workingalone at first with another worker gradually faded in is a

preferred approach. Thus, S. teaches the person to workwith one other worker in a task that requires both ofthem to assemble different parts. When the worker isdoing that task acceptably, a third individual might beintroduced. S. continues to fade in more and moreemployees until the person is working with the teamrequired for the assembly task. If the job is not a serialtask but does require a number of workers at a station, S.can again use fading. First, the person works alone, thenwith one, two, etc. Productive teamwork behavior canbe supported by positive reinforcement from S. whichgradually yields to social support provided by othersworking alongside the worker.

Performs equal share of work 'oadAlthough they may work well alone, some people allow

others to do more than their share in teamwork situa-tions. Unequal work loads result in dissatisfaction andanger in other workers. To remedy this problem,behavioral procedures such as modeling and rein-forcement or confrontation and isolation may be needed.

Modeling and reinforcementWhen the supervisor observes the slower paced

individual working with others, he approaches one of theworkers and reinforces that person for doing his share ofthe work. The slower worker should be able to hear S.'sreinforcement. As soon as the person picks up his workpace or increases his share of the load, even though notto the level of the other workers, S. should quickly praisethe individual for working harder. Learning that onereceives reinforcement only for doing a fair share of workwill result in the person performing at a more acceptablelevel. The other workers also reinforce the person whenhe does an equal share of work.

Confrontation and work isolationS. confronts the worker with the fact that !-e is not

doing a proper amount of work. Ignoring any protests, S.ell:, the employee to increase tlis work pace and produc-

tion when working with the group. The rational for doingone's share is that others will respond more favorablyto the employee.

If the individual increases his share of the load, he andthe others should receive reinforcement. If, on the otherhand, this confrontation does not produce change, theworker should be reassigned to a separate work stationto work alone. S. should explain that the reason theperson is being reassigned is because he did not sharethe group work load fairly. Hence, the employee mustwork in isolation for a period of time. When the individ-ual does so acceptably, he would return to the group withthe understanding that failure to share the load will resultin reassignment. Any improvement should beimmediately followed by reinforcement.

In a variation of the work isolation technique, S. wouldassign the individual, after the isolation, to work with justone other person. The other worker would be trained to

32 34 Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

prompt the individual regarding proper production paceand rate when working with others. As soon as theperson carries an equal share of the work load with oneother worker, with reinforcement from S., the individualshould be placed in a group of three or more and praisedfor working hard.

Supports and assists otherworkers when necessary

When a worker must assist others on demand, e.g.,help lift heavy objects or assist in certain tasks, the indi-vidual must be willing to shift duties momentarily orindicate willingness to do so as soon as possible. The firstintervention for employees who refuse to help othersupon demand is prompting with reinforcement Ifprompting is unsuccessful, overcorrection-positive prac-tice should be implemented.

Prompting with reinforcementS. should explain that assisting others when they need

it is part of every worker's responsibility. Therefore, S.expects the worker to give help when required.Examples of such assistance should be reinforced. (SeeMiller, 1978, p. 119).

Overcorrection-positive practiceIf prompting is ineffective. S. should initiate an over-

correction-positive practice procedure. The individual istold privately that she has not assisted others when theyneeded it. As a result, she will be required to practicegiving assistance. Returning to the work station with theindividual, S. describes the proper response whenanother worker requests assistance. The worker is tostop work, turn off all machinery, and provideassistance. S. requires the individual to demonstratehow to stop working when asked for help. When theworker does this, S. reinforces her. S. then has anotherindividual call for assistance. S. prompts the individual tostop working and to help. When the individual does so,she is praised by tne supervisor. This procedurecontinues for approximately five minutes involvingseveral other menters of the woe, force. Every instanceof proper helping behavior is reinforced. To close thesession, S. tells the individual that failures to give supportwhen necessary will result in another practice session.The supervisor should then reinforce the person forfuture efforts to assist others without prompting.Repeated overcorrection contingent upon refusai to helpwill increase proper support behavior on the job.

Responding appropriately to co-worker'steasing, harassment, or criticism

"Accepting the work role" described procedures forteaching individuals to contrcl their tempers. Theseprocedures would also be appropriate for helping individ-uals respond to harassment or teasing. For example, theworker could first learn how to ignore other's comments.Through self-instructional training, the person could

then control inappropriate responses the these provoc-ative behaviors.

Broad-based social skills training may also be in order.This type of training can be secured through the localrehabilitation counselor or mental health center. A moredetailed description of social skill training can be tc.,und inthe work of Curran and Monti (1982), Goldstein (1981),Kelly (1982), and Roessler (1983).

Restricts socialization to appropriatetimes and places

Some employees waste their time and others' bysocializing at inappropriate times or in inappropriateways. In either case, this type of social interaction atwork disrupts other more important activity. Effectivetreatments for this problem are prompting, negativepractice, and response cost.

PromptingThe supervisor confronts the individual with the fact

that he is socializing in some inappropriate manner at thewrong time and place. Because that behavior interfereswith work, S. wants the worker to stop it immediately.Two contingencies may be applied in the individual doesnot stop the problematic behavior, e.g., negativepractice or response cost.

Negative practiceIn negative practice, the individual repeats the

inappropriate behavior for 5 minutes every time it isdemonstrated. In an actual case, a male worker left hiswork station, went to his girlfriend's work station, andproceeded to rub his body against her's. S. stopped thebehavior, took the man over to the side of the room, andexplained in a neutral tone of voice that such activity wasunacceptable at work. S. then pointed to a bag of ragsand told the worker to rub against it for 5 minutes. Afterfive minutes, the worker was told to stop. S. str:Issed thatany further incident would result in more practice withthe rag bag. Two applications of this procedureproduced complete suppression of the inappropriatesocialization behavior.

Similarly, if an individual was telling jokes or in someway disrupting another worker's production, theindividual would be called aside and asked to speak thejokes into a tape recorder for 5 minutes. This processwould be repeated as necessary. When the tape wasfilled, the person would listen to her own jokes for 5minutes as another form of negative practice. In usingnegative practice, S. should use a neutral tone of voice todirect the person back to her work station and toreinterate the further practice will follow any demon-stration of the inappropriate behavior. When the indi-vidual shows significant improvement in suppressingsuch behavior, she should be praised by the supervisor.

Response costBecause the individual's behavior is inappropriate and

Vocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 3 t) 33

disruptive, S. indicates that she will record the occur-ences and time lost when the individual is socializingduring working hours. The number of minutes or marksaccumulated will result in deductions from the person'spay. Therefore, the person loses money every time sheuses work time to socialize inappropriately. A responsecost procedure more quickly results in inhibition ofinappropriate behavior if, at the end of each day, thesupervisor tells the person the amount of time lost and,therefore, money deducted. Of course, positivereinforcement should be given when the worker showssignificant improvements (see Miller, 1978, pp. 198-199).

3G


WORK PERSONALITY PROFILE

Please describe the client's observed work performance using the five options listed below to complete the 58behavioral items.

(4) a definite strength, an employability asset(3) adequate performance, not a particular strength(2) performance inconsistent, potentially an employability problem(1) a problem area, will definitely limit the person's chances for employment(X) No opportunity to observe the behavior

1) Sufficiently alert and aware

2) Learns new assignments quickly

3) Works steadily during entire work period

4) Accepts changes in work assignments

5) Needs virtually no direct supervision

6) Requests help in an appropriate fashion

7) Approaches suuervisary personnel with confidence

8) Is appropriate;y triendly with supervisor

9) Shows pride in group effort

10) Shows interest in what others are doing

11) Expresses likes and dislike- appropriately

12) Initiates work-related activities on time

13) Accepts work assignments with instructions from supervisor without arguing

14) Improves performarze when shown how

15) Works at routine jobs without resistance

16) Expresses willingness to try new assignments

17) Carries out assigned tasks without prompting

18) Asks for further instructions if task is not clear

19) Accepts correction without becoming upset

20) Discusses personal problems with supervisor only if work-related

21) Accepts assignment to group tasks

22) Seeks out co-workers to be friends

23) Responds when others initiate conversation

24) Conforms to rules and regulations

25) Maintains satisfactory personal hygiene habits

26) Changes work methods when instructed to do so

27) Pays attentiort to details while working

28) Maintains productivity despite change in routine

29) Recognizes own mistakes

30) Asks for help when having difficulty with tasks

31) Comfortable with supervisor

32) Gets along with staff

33) Works comfortably in group tasks

34) Appears comfortable in social interactions


35) Initiates conversations with others

36) Displays good judgement in use of obscenities and vulgarities

37) Arrives appropriately dressed for work

38) Maintains improved work procedures after correction

39) Maintains work pace even if distraction occur

40) Performs satisfactorily in tasks that require variety and change

41) Initiates action to correct own mistakes

42) Performance remains stable in supervisor's presence

43) Supportive of others in group tasks

44) Joins social groups when they are available

45) Listens while otter person speaks, avoids interrupting

46) Expresses pleasure in accomplishment

47) Listens to instructions or corrections attentively

48) Moves from job to job easily

49) Needs less than average amount of supervision

50) Offers assistance to co-workers when appropriate

51) Is sought out frequently by co-workers

52) Expresses positive feelings, e.g., praise, liking for others

53) Displays good judgement in playing practical jokes or "horsing around"

54) Transfers previously learned skills to new task

55) Handles problems with on:y occasional help

56) Assumes assigned role in group tasks

57) Expresses negative feelings appropriately, e.g., anger, fear, sadness

58) Controls temper

Name of client

Name of rater

Date

36


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40

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4iVocational Evaluation and Work Adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986 39

Richard J. BakerMound MonographSeries

Ric. lard J. BakerMemorial Monograph Series

The Vocational Evaluation and Work AdjustmentAssociation has established the Richard J. BakerMemorial Monograph Series to provide timelyinformation to practitioners in the fields of vocationalevaluation and work adjustment on topics relevant to theprovision of services in these respective areas. TheVocational Evaluation and Work AdjustmentAssociation dedicated the monograph series as a livingmemorial to Dr. Richard J. Baker.

Just weeks before his death, at the Executive Boardmeeting of VEWAA in Boston, Massachusetts, Dr. Bakerpresented a manuscript, and proposed that VEWAApublish it in monograph form to disseminate to themembership as a service of the organization to themembership. Dr. Baker believed that VEWAA shouldprovide useful information and other professionaldevelopmental activities to the membership. It was aresult of his proposal that the initial decision was madefor VEWAA to provide this service to the membership.

Dr. Richard Baker served VEWAA in a number ofcapacities during his twenty-five year career inrehabilitation. In add:tion to serving as president, he waseditor of the Vocational Evaluation and WorkAdjustment Bulletin from 1980-1983, and he had servedon numerous committees at the national level. Dr. Bakerwas recognized for his many achievements andcontributions to VEWAA by being the recipient of thePaul R. Hoffman Award from VEWAA in 1982. The PaulR. Hoffman Award is the highest award bestowed uponindividuals by VEWAA. It is an understatement to saythat Dick Baker has had tremendous positive influenceon the evolution of VEWAA and the professions ofvocational evaluation and work adjustment. It is but amere token of our appreciation for Dr. Richard J. Bakerthat this monograph series is named for him anddedicated to the memory of his services to people withdisabilities, and to him as our beloved friend.

Contributor InformationCall For Manuscripts

The Richard J. Baker Memorial Monograph Seriesdisseminates materials in vocational assessment andtherapeutic adjustment services. The Monograph Seriesconcentrates mostly upon the publication of informationpertaining to critical issues in theory, research,methodology, program innovations, andinstrumentation development within the areas ofvocational evaluation and work adjustment.

Materials to be submitted for possible publicationwould include data which results in a far longer

compilation than would normally be submitted for aBulletin journal article. All submissions will however berequired to be in the same style and format as indicatedby the Bulletin. All submissions will be reviewed by theEditor and staff, and the number of monographs willdepend upon the fiscal status of the Association. Thereare no deadlines as the Series is a continuing VocationalEvaluation and Work Adjustment Association endeavor.

All materials should tle submitted to Dr. DavidCorthell, Editor, VEWA Bulletin, School of Educationarid Human Services, University of Wisconsin-Stout,Menomonie, Wisconsin 54751.

40 Vocational Evaluation and Work /adjustment Bulletin/Special 1986

PRESIDENTDoug SellerFraser Hall711 So. University Dr.Fargo, ND 58103(701) 2323301

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ARCHIVES COMMITTEEDarrell D. CoffeyResearch and Training CenterUniversity of Wisconsin-StoutMenomonie, WI 54751(715) 232.1370

AWARDS COMMITTEEMarsha AndersenVECTOR, INC.13822 Beach Blvd.Westminster, CA 92683(714) 898-5533

BULLETIN EDITORDave CorthellRehabilitation DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin-StoutMenomonie, WI 54751(715) 232.1309

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