DOCUMENT RESUME ED 291 956 CE 049 845 · DOCUMENT RESUME ED 291 956 CE 049 845 AUTHOR Blankenbaker, E. Keith, Ed.; Miller, Aaron J., Ed. TITLE Technological Literacy: The Roles of

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 291 956 CE 049 845

AUTHOR Blankenbaker, E. Keith, Ed.; Miller, Aaron J., Ed.TITLE Technological Literacy: The Roles of Practical Arts

and Vocational Education. Proceedings from anInternational Symposium on Technological Literacy(Columbus, Ohio, May 13-15, 1987).

INSTITUT-3N Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Coll. of Education.PUB DATE 87NOTE 240p.; Co-sponsored by the American Vocational

Association, the International Technology EducationAssociation, the International Vocational Educationand Training Association, and the National Center iorResearch in Vocational Education.

PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021) --Viewpoints (120) -- Reports = Research/Technical(143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Pits Postage.DESCRIPTORS Curriculum Development; Educational Needs; Foreign '

Countries; Needs Assessment; Postsecondary Educatioh;*Practical Arts; School Role; Secondary Education;Statewide Planning; *Teacher Education;*Technological Advancement; *Technological Literacy;*Vocational Education

IDENTIFIERS China; New YorkABSTRACT

The following papers are included: "TechnologicalLiteracy: What? Why? For Whom?" (K:anzberg); "Techniliterate vs.Technilliterate (There's an L of a Difference)" (Stone);"International Perspectives on Technological Literacy" (Dyrenfurth);''Technology and the Liberal Arts: Are We Producing Technopeasants?"(Brockway); "Study on the Justification of Technology Education asGeneral Education" (Chang); "A Case for Technological Literacy"(Martin); "Technology: The Newest Liberal Arts" (Kowal); "TheUnderside of Technological Literacy" (Pilotta); "Impacts ofTechnology" (Balistreri); "Christian Relational Theology as aFramework for Assessing for Moral and Social Implications ofTechnology" (Arnett, Ramer); "Social Consequences of TechnologicalInnovation" (Pucciano); "Socioteehnical Literacy: An Alternative tcthe Technological Perspective" (Pratzner); "A Global Model ofTechnological Literacy" (Hameed); "Defining, Determining, andContributing to Technological Literacy: Getting There from Here Usingthe Technology of a Research Paradigm" (White); "What Price Progress?The Social Impact of Technology on Society" (Meyers); "AnInternational Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study ofTechnology" (Barnes); "An Instructional Model for ElectronicsTechnology in the Republic of China" (Shih); "'Jackson's Mill' and'Industry and Technology Education' Project Reports as a Guide forOrganizing Content for Technology Education" (Wright); "The Future ofWork in America: Workers, the Workplace, and Technological Literacy"(Charner); "New Technology, New Lifestyls, and the Implications ofPreservice and Inservice Vocational Teacher Education" (Worms,Worms); "Technology and Education: The Appropriate Threads for aComputer Tapestry" (Thomas); "Computer Literacy: An Essential Elementof Technological Literacy" (Welty); "Computer Anxiety Levels Relatedto Computer Use and Teacher Inservice Educational Needs" (Malpiedi);"Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to ThoughtfulUncertainty" (Singletary); "Florida's Assessment of VocationalTeachers' Training Needs: The First Step in a Five-Year StatewideInservice Plan" (Patterson); "The Impact of Computer Technology onGraphic Communication" (Boyer, Bertoline); "Dichotomies,Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy"(DeVore); "Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave It toChance" (Harris); "Implications: Technological Literacy andVocational Education Service Areas" (Ressler); "Machine VisionLiteracy" (Andrews); "Technology Education in New York State"(Hacker); "Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts andVocational Education" (Maley); and "Technological Literacy: The Roleof Vocational Education" (Moss). (MN)

Technological Literacy:The Roles of

Practical Arts andVocational Education

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Technological Literacy:The Roles of

Practical Arts andVocational Education

Edited by:E. Keith Blankenbaker

Aaron J. Miller1987

Copyright © 1987

The Ohio State UniversityCollege of Education

Columbus, Ohio

All Rights Reserved

4

Preface

Work, leisure, education and lifestyles have changed radically since theturn of the century. Central to these changes ha.e been the development ofvarious new systems of technology and the consequences of their impact onour daily lives. Basic literacy skills have long been recognized as essential forall citizens to understand and live fulfilling lives in this cutture. However, withthe current and growing interrelationship of society and technology it nowbecomes essential that our citizenry become technologically literate. We mustunderstand the basic principles and relationships of technology to the way welearn, live and work.

The International Symposium on Technological Literacy: The Roles of thePractical Arts and Vocational Education provided a national forum forexamining some of the most critical issues related to the teachirg of contentnecessary for technological literacy in our nation's schools. Further, it providedfor the examination of these issues and their implications for appropriatecurriculum development and program planning for students who chose either avocational education curriculum or a college preparatory program at the highschool level.

On May 13-16, 1987, The Ohio State University sponsored a symposiumwhere papers on these significant issues were presented and discussed by abroad spectrum of both national and international experts in fields related tosymposium topics. The proceedings contained in this document provided theessence of these major presentations and discussions.

E. Keith BlankenbaketAaron J. Miller

Acknowledgements

We, the symposium co-directors, wish to express our sincere appreciationto the College of Education at The Ohio Stela University for the financial supportof this enterprise; also, our special gratitude and recognition is given to the foursymposium sponsors for their special assistance and endorsement. Thesesponsors were The American Vocational Association, The InternationalTechnology Education Association, The International Vocational Education andTraining Association, and The National Center for Research in VocationalEducation.

We would also like to acknowledge the following individuals for theirassistance and hard work in preparing this document: Ms. Eilene M. Reece forword processing; Dr. Paul E. Post for the layout design and being the "problemsolver"; and Ms. Donna K. Trautman for editing, layout, and productioncoordination.

E. Keith BlankenbakerAaron J. Miller

Table of Contents

Preface iii

Acknowledgements v

Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?Melvin Kranzberg 1

Characteristics of Technologically Literate Citizens

Techniliterate vs Technilliterate (There's an L of it Difference)Robert D. Stone 13

International Perspectives on Technological LiteracyMichael J. Dyrenfurth 19

Technology and the Liberal Arts: Are We Producing Technopeasants?John P. Brockway 39

Technological Literacy - One of the New Basics

Study on the Justification of Technology Education as General EducationSuk-Min Chang 49

A Case for Technological LiteracyLoren Martin 53

Technology: The Newest Liberal ArtsJerome J. Kowal 59

Social Values/Consequences of Technological Innovation

The Underside of Technological LiteracyJoseph J. Pilotta 67

Impacts of TechnologyJerry P. Balistreri 77

Christian Relational Theology as a Framework for Assessing forMoral and Social Implications of TechnologyHarold Arnett & Hebor Ramer 79

Social Consequences of Technological lnrovationJohn G. Pucciano 87

Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological PerspectiveFrank C. Pratzner 93

identifying and Organizing the Content of Technology

A Global Model of Technological LiteracyAbdul Flamed 109

Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy: GettingThere From Here Using the Technology of a Research Paradigm

Michael R. White 113

What Price Progress?: The Social Impact of Technology on SocietyAlbert Meyers 121

An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of TechnologyJames L. Barnes 127

An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of ChinaChun-Hsieh Shih 137

"Jackson's Mill" and "Industry and Technology Education" Project Reportsas a Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education

R. Thomas Wright 151

The Future of Work in America: Workers, The Workplace, andTechnological Literacy

Ivan Charner 159

Technological Literacy Needs in Preservice and Inservice TeacherEducation

New Technology, New Lifestyles, and thA Implications of Preservice andInservice Vocational Teacher EducationCarolyn Litchfield Worms & Allan J. Worms 171

Technology and Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer TapestryJohn C. Thomas 175

Computer Literacy: An Essential Element of Technology LiteracyKenneth Welty 179

Computer Anxiet:' Levels Related to Computer Use and Teacher InserviceEducational Needs

Barbara J. Malpiedi 183

Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to ThoughtfulUncertainty

Thomas A. Singletary 191

Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs: The First

8

Step in a Five-Year Statewide lnservice PlanMarvin D. Patterson 197

The Impact of Computer Technology on Graphic CommunicationEdwin T. Boyer & Gary R. Bert° line 203

Implications of Technological Literacy for Vocational Service Areas

Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological LiteracyPaul W. DeVore 209

Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave it to ChanceRobert C. Harris 223

Implications: Technological Literacy and Vocational Education Service AreasRalph Ressler 229

Machine Vision LiteracyAl L. Andrews 231

Technology Education in New York StateMichael Hacker 235

Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocational EducationDonald Maley 243

Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational EducationJerome Moss, Jr. 249

9

Technological Literacy Symposium 1ii.......................

Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

Dr. Melvin KranzbergCallaway Professor of the History of Technology

Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, Georgia

The title of my talk--"Technological Literacy:What? Why? For Whom?"--consists of a series ofquestions. That befits a historian, because history isa series of questions we ask of the past in order tolearn how our present world came into being, andalso to see if the past can provide guidance for thefuture. The questions in my title are designed to findout it the past can shed some light on the roles of thepractical arts and vocational education in producingthe world of the future.

But every question leads to others. Thus whenwe ask, "What is technological literacy?", two addi-tional questions immediately come to mind: "What istechnology?" and "What is literacy?". Putting the an-swers together should tell us what is meant by"technological literacy."

But that is not so easy as it seems. For there aremany different definitions of technology, and there isalso some question about what constitutes literacy.

In the popular mind, technology is synonymouswith tools, machines, devices, and processes; andone widely accepted description of technology isthat it deals with how things are done or made andwhat things are done or made. But that broad defini-tion encompasses many items that can scarcely beconsidered technological. Thus Congress "makes"laws--but that kind of making has little to do with tech-nology. Hence a definition of technology might per-haps include the ends to which the making and do-ing of things is directed.

Some definitions of technology do stress a pur-posive element, describing it as "man's rational andordered attempt to control nature." Here the defini-tion is too tight, for while it would include much oftechnology, many technical activities and productswould not fit within it. The making of toys, for exam-ple, does not constitute an attempt to control nature,but rather tu teach or amuse children. Similarly,weapons are developed to control our fellow man,but not to control nature- -and, indeed, certain tech-

nological actions despoil nature. Besides, much ofour technology is devoted to elements of our physi-cal environment that are not part of nature. For ex-ample, we devise various means to nontrol the flowof traffic in congested cities; that is because man,with the aid of his technology, has created a man-made environment, not just a natural environment.

Technology, then, must also be viewed as a pro-cess as well as a group of artifacts. It deals with hu-man work, with man's attempts to satisfy his wants byhuman action on physical objectives. Notice, I usethe term "wants" instead of "needs," for humanwants go far beyond the basic needs of food, cloth-ing, and shelter. Technology ministers to those, ofcourse, but it also helps man fulfill many other wants.

However, mention of the work aspect adds stillanother uimension to our definition of technology,for it implies the organization of tools and labor.These in turn involve production and distributionsystems, which are also essential elements of tech-nological activity.

To many people technology is simply "appliedscience." Science is defined as man's attempt to ur-derstand the physical world, while technology's roleis to apply that knowledge to control the physicalworld. Science, then, is "know-why," and technolo-gy is "know-how."

While there can be no doubt that technology isindeed a form of knowledge--a special kind of know -ledge of how to make and do certain kinds of things- -the definition of technology as "applied science" ig-nores the historical evir ence. For the fact is thatthroughout most of history, men made machines andproducts without understanding why they worked orcomprehending their physical or chemical makeup.Besides, during the past century science and tech-nology have been coming closer together, and, in-deed, where does science end and technology be-gin in such fields as nuclear power, bio-engineering,and the like? Nowadays the sciences that rely so

10

A.

2 Technological literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

much upon technological instrumentation and de-vices that modem physics, chemistry, and biology, tosay nothing of modem medicine, might well be called"applied technology."

Obviously, technology Is not a simple thing. In-stead, it involves distinctive modes of thought andaction to serve diverse human needs, not only inmaking physical objects, but also in designing struc-tures and environments to achieve varied goals. itutilizes varying rules, procedures, and forms of or-ganization in order to accomplish a multitude of pur-poses.

All the difficulties that beset us in attempting todefine technology actually lead to a very simple con-clusion, namely, that technology is a very human ac-tivity--and, as such, it reflects all the complexities ofthe human condition.

Yet, to many humanists, technology is viewed assomething divorced from mankind. Indeed, today'sbleeding-heart humanists posit some sort of conflictbetween man and his technology, as if the two weresomehow opposed to each other and locked in mor-tal combat.

I find that somewhat strange because the histori-cal and, indeed, the prehistorical facts indicate quitethe opposite: namely, that man and his technologyare inextricably intertwined, that technology hasserved as one of man's chief tools as he sought toachieve his goals, both glorious and ignoble.

This symbiotic relationship between man and histechnology goes back to the very beginning of ourspecies. Anthropologists, seeking to differentiatebetween "almost-man" and the genus "man," findthat man employed tools. Man as we know him couldnot have evolved or survived without tools; he is tooweak and puny a creature to fight nature with only hishands and teeth. The lion is stronger, the honefaster, the giraffe can reach higher; but tools servedas extensions of man's hand and amplifiers of hismuscle power, enabling him to adjust his hereditaryorganic equipment to an almost infinite number ofoperations in virtually any environment.

It is not surprising, therefore, that some anthro-pologists define the human species on the basis oftool-using and tool-making, or to be more exact, tooldependency. Modem physiology, psychology, evo-lutionary biology, and anthropology - -all comb!ne todemonstrate to use that homo sapiens (man thethinker) cannot be distinguished from homo Caber(man the maker). Indeed, we now realize that mancould not have become a thinker had he not at the

same time been a maker. Thus we find that technol-ogy is perhaps one of the earliest and most basic ofhuman cultural characteristics. As far back as 1836,Thomas Carlyle recognized this when he said in Sar-tor Resartus, "Man is a tool-using animal. Withouttools he is nothing; with tools he is all."

From savagery to barbarism to civilization, man'smaterial progress throughout the ages has 1,aenbound up with his technology. Indeed, we have be-come so accustomed to it that we take our technolo-gy for granted, failing to realize how unique and sig-nificant it is until a storm causes an electrical malfunc-tion or some technical device goes on the blink. I'mreminded of an airplane, one of the technical marvelsof our time: "No siree," she said, "not for me. I'm go-ing to sit right here on earth and watch temvision, justthe way the good Lord intended me to."

Despite the role of technology in the vast pano-rama of human history, we constantly come upagainst those who regard technology as somethingdivorced from the essence of humanity. My human-ist colleagues ask: Wnat is human about a monkeywrench, a lathe, a computer? What repels themabout technology is what they term the "inhumanity"of its objects, for example, the industrial robots whichthey fear will make man expendable, or the "anti-humanity" of its by-products, such as the pollutionwhich threatens our environment.

It is true that we ordinarily think of technology assomething mechanical, yet the fact is that all techni-cal processes and products are the result of the hu-man creative imagination and human skills, mind andhands working together.

Technology is inseparable from men and com-munities. The technologist is concerned with the ap-plications of science and other forms of knowledgeto the needs and wants of man and society; he is upto his neck in human problems whether he likes it ornot.

The significance of technology lies in its use byhuman beings--what it does. Take, for example, thetelephone. If we regard the telephone only as a col-lection of wires through which current passes fromtransmitter to a receiver, the telephone would seemto have little interest, except for telephone techni-cians and repairmen and the successors to AT&T.But the real significance of the telephone lies in itsuse in transmitting messages. It is the communica-tions function of the telephone that gives it imoor-tance--and the function of all technology is its use byhuman beings--and sometimes, alas, its misuse andabuse.

Technological Literacy Symposium 3JIMEN111111

You see, machines are not something apart frommankind. Behind every machine I see a face, in-deed, many faces: the workers, the scientist, the en-gineer, the businessman or business woman, andsometimes the General or Admiral.

But because technology is such a thoroughlyhuman activity, it is constantly evolving. Human insti-tutions, human activities, human capabilities, humanwants and desires have changed over timeand thisis largely due to technological advances. The tech-nology necessary to wrest a living from nature in theStone Ages is quite different from that required tokeep a highly complex, urbanized society alive andfunctioning. Learning to chip flakas of flint in order tomake spears and arrowheads--the vocational educa-tion of the Stone Age--will no longer suffice to obtaina food supply, keep warm and comfortable, and en-joy living in today's "Technological Age."

I shall return to this subject of today's sophisticat-ed technology--and the education needed for it--later. But first we must define "literacy," in order tosee what is meant by "technological literacy."

The dictionary does not give us much help. Itdefines "literacy" as "the state or condition of beingliterate," and "literate" is defined as "having a knowl-edge of letters; able to read and write."

Extending that definition to the field of technolo-gy, literacy would mean something like, "able to dotechnology." But, as we have just seen, the techno-logical enterprise involves many varying activities.

The Pennsylvania State University Program onScience Through Science, Technology and Societyhas sponsored two national conferences on Techno-logical Literacy during the past few years, and atthese conferences a plethora of cefinitionsemerged. That is not surprising, considering themany and varied activities of technology itself.

The difficulty of nailing down what is meant by"technological literacy" was compounded when theSloan Foundation generated its "New Liberal Arts"program at the beginning of the 1980s. Most of theSloan grants focused on the computer, with the re-sult that technological literacy became identified withcomputer literacy. While the computer is one of thefundamental artifacts of our present age, it is far frombeing the sole technological component of ourtimes. Computer literacy involves skill in learninghow to use a sophisticated tool, but it certainly doesnot constitute full acquaintance with the many para-meters of technical activities nor with the technologi-cal dimensions of society.

At the end, I was forced to attempt to distill myown--but still incompletedefinition. To me, techno-logical literacy has two major and interrelated compo-nents. First, is the understanding of the character oftechnology itself - -the type of problems which it ad-dresses and the various modes of thought and ac-tion applied to resolving these problems. This re-quires understanding of some basic technical princi-ples, and aho some hands-on experience in order torecognize the practical problems encountered intechnological design and practice.

The second major component of technologicalliteracy involves comprehension of the nor-technicalfactors entering into technical problems and their so-lutions, which includes the impacts. -both benefitsand risks--of varying designs and decisions. This re-quires some larger understanding of technology's in-teractions with society.

Now let us see how this bipartite technologicalliteracy might apply to some specific cases. To manypeople, the technological devices which form somuch a part of our daily lives are "black boxes" whoseinternal operations are mysteries, and whose resultsare frequently viewed with a mixture of awe and fear.Technological literacy would include knowledge ofthe operations going on within it. More than that, itwould also require appreciation of the input and out-put factors of the black boxes, which in turn would in-volve some understanding of the implications oftechnology for the individual, society, and the envi-ronment- -and an awareness of the ethical and moralquestions which have recently been raised regard-ing our enlarged technological capabilities.

Of course, those actually engaged in makingand using it most know what is inside the technologi-cal "black box," but even those not directly involvedshould acquire some comprehension of the basicconcepts and practices of the technology if theywish to participate meaningfully in our technologicalworld. Such comprehension should not impose in-superable difficulties, for one canunderstand techni-cal devices, problems, and practices without beingan expert in making, repairing, or operating them.For example, lots of us are reasonably aware of haw aplane flies, for we have at least a rudimentary under-standing of the principles of aerodynamics, not ne-cessarily from studying physics but from having flownkites or model planes as kids. But even if we under-stand how a plane flies, that does not mean that weare qualified to fly one and certainly not to designone.

What I am saying is that the underlying concepts

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4 Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

and operations of technical objects, including thebaffling innards of microchip devices, can be under-stood by most American students. And eventhough we can utilize many technical devices withoutknowing exactly what goes on inside the "black box,"we can do still better'" kossess some technicalknow-how. For exal can drive an automobilewithout knowing the p,...optes of thermodynamics orthe exact workings of an internal-combustion en-gine. Nevertheless, if we do have some knowledgeof how the engine actually runs, how the braking sys-tem works, and the like, we can drive the car more ef-ficiently and safely and see to its proper mainte-nance.

But if we can use our cars, watches, microwaveovens, television sets, and all the other technical ap-paratus of our daily lives without having full compre-hension of their technical operations, why is techno-logical literacy so desirable? Because technologicalliteracy includes more than comprehension of thetechnical elements themselves; it also requires un-derstanding of the ways in which technology inter-acts with society. After all, technology affects howand where we work, live, think, play, and pray--and it

cs an important bearing on the future. We call oursa Technological Age, and if we want to understandthe times in which we live, we must acquire techno-logical literacy.

The point is that every technological activity hasnon-technical ramifications, and not everyoneagrees that these are beneficial to mankind. Whilewe can point to many wonderful things that technolo-gy has brought to society, many sensitive individualsfear that this very human activity -- technology- -hasgrown so large and has presented mankind withsuch awful by-products that it threatens to engulfman. They point to the inhuman use to which tech-nology has been put. What about the devastationv xight by wars throughout the centuries, and thep.osent possibility of destroying much of our planetthrough nuclear warfare? What about the deteriora-tion of our environment by air and water pollution,the spoliation of the countryside, the rot of our cit-ies? Technology, they claim, has destroyed the eco-logical balance between man and nature; not onlythat, but we are robbing future generations of theirinheritance by ptundering the earth of irreplaceablenatural resources.

Now the interaction of technology with both thesocial and natural ecology is not always easy to trace.Yet that is necessary if we wish to understand the so-ciety in which we liveand, very importantly, seek to

better its future.

Understanding the interactions of technologywith society is advanced by knowing the principlesand operations of the technology itself. And thatputs a special burden on those involved with voca-tional and technical education at all levels.

Let me put the problem this way. Because oursis a technological society, there is need for techno-logical knowledge and skills of many different kindsto serve the diverse needs of modem society. Andbecause technology is constantly changing, techni-cal education must also keep changing. And we cansee these changes occurring at every level of techni-cal training.

Forty years ago everybody knew that an engi-neer was a man who wore hip boots and a mackinawand who built bridges, dams and roads, laid powerlines, constructed electric generating plants and fac-tories, and designed and made the machinery thatwent into them.

Engineers still do that, but they also do muchmore. They design and build delicate and complexinstruments and machines that explore the depths ofthe earth and probe the farthest reaches of our solarsystem. The venture into the nucleus of the atomand extract power from it, they reach into the heart ofan individual cell and change its genetic character sothat it can produce materials and resources in infinitemeasure and replacement amounts. They createelectric devices that transform communications andtransportation, affect our collection and use of knowl-edge, and which alter our daily lives and work incountless ways.

Because these new tasks require heightenedmathematical ability and deeper scic.,ufic under-sanding, engineering education has been thor-

oughly transformed in the decades since World WarII. Instead of the hands-on, skill-oriented trainingwhich had characterized the earlier eng .leering cur-riculum, more courses in mathematics and the basicsciences were required. Engineering colleges ovenbegan requiring a healthy dosage of the humanitiesand social sciences, so as to enable their graduatesto understand the context of the society in whichthey carried on their technological activity.

But just because engineers were engaged inthese newfangled activities did not mean that ourindustrial society was no longer building dams.bridges, and roads; that we were no longer engagedin constructing power plants, factories, and ma-chines to produce goods. Furthermore, we still must

13

Technological Literacy Symposium 5...W.

maintain our functioning technical operations.

Besides, even the new "high-technology"fields -- computers, robotics, genetic engineering,and the like--require skilled technical personnel.Gene-splicers can develop new strains of disease-resistant and fast-growing plants and animals, buttheir researches would be ineffective unless therewere also trained individuals to apply these to actualfood production. Computer scientists and engi-neers can design highly-sophisticated machines, butunless there are skilled programmers, trained techni-cians and reliable maintenance personnel, theirwork would go for naught. In Addition to the familydoctor our health services require laboratory techni-cians and operators of intricate diagnostic and life-maintenance devices in order to perform the miraclesof modern medicine.

It is no wonder that in the past few decadesthere has sprung up a whole new body of technicalprofessionals upon whom we rely for the effective-ness of the science and technology which are so es-sential to our lives. We give the title of "engineeringtechnology," "vocational education," and "industrialeducation," to their curricula. They are necessary tomaintain our society, not just its technical aspects,but also its sociocultural elements. Referring to theties between the intellectual aspirations of a societyand its materials and mechanical foundations, JohnGardner, a former Secretary of Health, Education,and Welfare, said: "Our ideas won't hold water if weallow our plumbing to leak." Or, as industrial educa-tor P. Cousins has written, "Technology can't get usto where we want to be unless we learn how to de-velop, train, manage, and support the 'human re-sources' who work with the technology."

In brief, the smooth functioning of our techno-logical society and our ability to meet the sociotech-nical problems of the future depend upon a highstandard of education for teanical personnel at alllevels of our technological society. In contemporaryAmerica's "Technological Age," every member of so-ciety--whether or not he or she is employed directlyin technical activities- -must have some acquaintancewith the basic "know-how" of our industrial technolo-gy. In brief, we should all be versed in the industrialand vocational arts, engineering and engineeringtechnology, and all their relatives--and this educa-tional process should extend from our earliest yearsthroughout our lives.

To underline the importance of this kind of tech-nical know-how, we need only to look at the plight ofsome of the developing countries today. Many of

them, such as India, have highly-skilled engineers,but the lack of vocational and technical educationthroughout their society prevents them from beingable to utilize their engineers most effectively. Whatthey are missing is the wide range of skilled industrialpersonnel--the foremen, the skilled workers, themiddle-level managerial personnelwho play so im-portant a role in the American industrial scene.These are the sergeant-majors of the industrial process, and they are essential for productivity. B a-cause these developing nations do not have this im-portant middle group of technologists--just the kindthat vocational, engineering technology, and indus-trial education programs prepare in this country- -theirproductivity suffers. Unless they can overcome thisgreat educational gap, they are doomed to remainbehind. On the other hand, some Asiatic nationswhich have made great industrial progress recently--South Korea, Taiwan, and, of course, Japan--concentrated on developing such technical skills intheir population.

An interesting characteristic of American societyis that some technical know-how is the commonproperty of all our citizens -- largely because we havebeen trained in and exposed to technical devicesthroughout our lives.

This starts in the nursery. If you don't believeme, look at all the "creative" toys, the building blocks,the erector sets, the model kits, and the like whichare part of growing up in America and have few coun-terparts elsewhere. In ...Jr secondary schools wehave "shop" courses in making things, and we gainfurther technical familiarity through our informal andrecreational activities, such as the computerizedgames in the shopping malls. Computerized toysand devices are commonplace nowadays, and, asthe advertising unwittingly proclaims, "Toys 'R' Us," inthe sense that technical gadgets are an integral partof our daily lives, both young and old.

What I am saying is that contemporary Americansociety provides us with a familiarity with technologywhich provides a basis for obtaining the knowledgeof technical principles and practices that Is essentialfor technological literacy.

Compare this with the situation in those parts ofthe globe which have not yet fully entered into to-day's Technological Age. Several years ago I had oc-casion to speak at the University of Bandung in Indo-nesia. My hosts graciously gave me a tour of thearea, and they took particular pride in showing me anew factory, owned by the Phillips Company of theNetherlands, where electronic components were be-

4

6 Technobglcal Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

ing assembled. At the entrance to the factorygrounds was a gigantic tree trunk, some 30 feet longand a yard in diameter, lying or its side. This treetrunk was almost completely studded with nails.

My guide asked me if I knew the purpose of thetree trunk with all the nails in it. Having been told at acocktail party the evening before of the persistenceof animistic beliefs on the nearby island of Bali, I re-plied that the nails were probably hammered in tokeep the evil spirits away from the factory.

"That is a very perceptive observation, Dr. Kranz-berg," my host replied, "but you are wrong. Thosenails represent the entrance examination for employ-ment in this factory."

"What do you mean?" I asked.

His response made my jaw drop. "Well," he said,"most of the common workers in this factory comefrom the nearby villages, which are still quite primi-tive-- indeed, almost back in the Stone Age. Theyhave never used a hammer and nail, so when theyapply for a Job here, we show them how to hammer anail into this tree trunk. Then we give them a hammerand three nails; if they can drive these nails straightinto the trunk whin five minutes, we know that theypossess sufficient hand-eye cooruination and thatthey are teachable enough to learn how to put to-gether electronic components. That means theyhave passed our entrance examination, so we hirethem and put them into our training program at thefactory."

Compare that with our technologically-orientedAmerican society, where kids are pounding and put-ting things together in pre-kindergarten classes andwhere adults attend 'how-to" evening classes tolearn how to refinish furniture, repair engines andhousehold appliances, work with computers, ano thelike.

The fact is that the technical arts are pervasivethroughout all levels of our society. But that doesnot necPsdarily mein that we understand the princi-ples and operations of the technical devices and arecognizant of their interactions with our society, thatis, that we possess technological literacy.

Yet we are attempting to remedy this grave omis-sion. I find it both heartening and significant that in-dustrial, technological, and vocational educationhave been keeping pace with the changing needs ofour technological society and have been moving inthe direction of technological literacy. Many yearsago, industrial arts and vocational education taughtthe handicraft skills belonging to a pre-industrial soci-

ety; in a sense they were a continuation of the oldapprenticeship training. Some sixty years ago when Itook "manual training," as we called it then, we weretaught carpentering skills, and I made a breadboardand a birdhouse.

Such carpentering skills are still useful, but weneed many others. Today, newer and more sophisti-cated technologies are being taught in practical artscurricula. More than that, vocational and technologi-cal educators have responded to the need for a gen-eral understanding of our industrial system by innov-ative programs which endeavor to impart that knowl-edge and also give their students some sense ofpride and identity. Thus the original "skills" missionof vocational and technical education has under-gone enlargement; it now also provides career ex-ploration, occupational orientation, and pre-vocational experience.

But what good are industrial and vocational edu-cation, engineering technology, and engineering ina country which seems to be rapidly going downhill interms of industrial production?

In the 19th century America moved from anagrarian society to an industrial one, but within recentdecades we have moved from a manufacturing soci-ety to one that is service dominated. In the 1950s,the number of people engaged in service occupa-tions for the first time exceeded those employed inproducing goods. Furthermore, the introduction ofautomation and the growth of foreign imports hasmeant a further decline in industrial employment.

In the face of this structural change in employ-ment and in light of growing foreign competition,some economists suggested a few years back thatwe write off our heavy industries, such as steel andautomobiles, which had been the cornerstone of ournation's industrial growth. They claimed that Ameri-ca's industrial future lay in "high technology," mean-ing electronic and computerized devices of manykinds. Since America had led in developing comput-ers, transistors, microchips, and integrated circuits, itwas argued that we should abandon our oldersmokestack industries and concentrate on this newtechnology. This would usher in the "InformationAge," wherein information would be the main prod-uct of our revitalized industrial system.

But wait a elute. We can't eat information, wecan't drink it, we can't wear it, we can't drive it, and wecan't live in it. Information is essential in producingbetter and cheaper food, shelter, clothing, and awhole host of other wants and needs, but to do that,it has to be used in connection with other productive

15

Technological Literacy Symposium 7

technologies. I do not mean to belittle the impor-tance of the Information Revolution, but to put it in itsproper perspective: informs Lion is a means to helpus in the production of more ar1 better goods andservices, in making life more comfortable but certain-ly not an end in itself.

The new informational expertise, if embodied Incomputerized devices, including robotics, couldhelp Increase production, reduce prices and improvequality, thereby enabling us to compete on an inter-national scale. But then we discovered that the Jap-anese were outstripping us even in electronic pro-duce!

Are we doomed then, like tne British at the closeof the 19th century, to dissipate our industrial leader-ship by failure to modernize aging facilities and em-bark on innovative paths?

In response to the threat from abroad, politicianshave begun resurrecting old shibboleths such as"protectionism" and inventing new battle cries, suchas "competitiveness."

Nevertheless, despite the politicians, we are be-ginning to make American industry competitiveagain. This is being done by introducing more auto-mation into indurtriel production and by bettertrained workers who are careful about quality.

Robotic production changes in the nature ofwork. The previous Industrial Revolution hadchanged the simple handcraft worker to a machineoperator. The skill was built into the machine, and asemi-skilled worker could operate ii. With the robotperforming the manufacturing operation, however,the production worker is no longer a machine opera-tor but a machine supervisor. He sits in front of acontrol panel luolIng at dials, while the robot's com-puterized program actually operates ft. The worker'srssponsibility Is to monitor this complex and expen-sive equipment.

But I am talking as If robotic devices are alreadythe norm in American manufacturing. The fact is that,while they are being rapidly introduced, the currentgeneration of industrial robots are still in a relativelyinfantile stage of development.

For we have not reached the point where robotscan completely replace human beings in the work-place. Although robots can perform repetitive tasksmuch faster than human beings, they sometimesbreak down. After all, if all our machines worked per-fectly, we would not need repair shops nor "fit-it"people. So we need skilled workers who can backup the robots and maintain their productivity.

In a sense this represents a turnabout of the oldassembly line, where the tasks were fragmented, re-quiring title skill on the part of the worker, and wherethe planning function was carried on by engineeringspecialists separated from the physical work. But weoverdid the principle that work should be brokendown Into the smallest operations, and that the work-er should not have to utilize any intelligence what-soever; tha, system began deteriorating in the1960s, producing goods that appeared shoddy ascompared to imported products, and at higher costs.

We are now engaged in reversing that process,and this reversal is concentrated in industries thatproduce complex products in vast numbers, such ascars and appliances, the very industries that had ear-lier been the core of American mass production. Ro-botization is turning things around--and also chang-ing the worker's role in production.

Although robots are perfect for specific tasks,they are not adaptable to other production opera-tions. Hence the most recent development is a reor-ientation of the as,lembly lines to accommodate acombination of the robot and the worker. If factoriesare to be automated wrccessfully, we have learnedthat we must also employ the workers training and in-telligence, his mind as well as his hand, in order tohandle the more thoughtful and complicated opera-tions of the new manufacturing process.

For example, up until a short time ago, Americanworkers were not permitted to stop the assembly linein order to make sure that quality was being main-tained. Now we a' trying to improve quality by"group assembly," which started in the automobilefactories in Sweden. It makes a team of workers re-sponsible for the entire product, rather than individu-al workers doing just one little task each. If some-thing is wrong, the workers can push a button andhold things In place while they fix it.

If this works out well--and it has in Sweden andJapan--it will mean that smaller numbers of highly-skilled workers, working with sophisticated, comput-er-controlled equipment, will replace thousands ofsemi-skilled workers in today's assembly-line plants.This improves quality control, ultimately reducescosts and at the same time means more satisfied cus-tomers and better sales. In a sense, we are makingthe assembly line more efficient by getting the work-er increasingly involved in production decisions.

This new turnabout in automation--teaming to-gether man and the machine--means that we will re-quire more skilled technologists if automation is toachieve its full potential of increasing productivity

8 Technological Literacy: What? Why? For Whom?

and reducing costs, thereby enabling us to competemore effectively with foreign companies.

However, the introduction of robotics has allsorts of implications. For one thing it requires new in-itiatives in industrial education and vocational train-ing. Equally important is the social problem: what arewe going to do with the workers displaced by robots?The percentage of workers employed in factory pro-

duction has been going down, down, down, eversince World War II, while technical advances enabledthe smaller number of workers to produce moregoods. In 1929, manufacturing employed 45% ofour workforce; by 1977, fewer tian 25%; today it isdown to 17%, and Peter Drucker predicts that by theyear 2000, only 10% of the working force will sufficeto provide all our material needs. Where will all theunemployed workers go and what will they do?

Well, the Industrial Revolution took people fromthe farm and put them in factories. Can they go backto the `-arms now that they are no longer needed infactory production? That is unlikely, and we needonly look at the statistics to see why.

At the turn of the century, well over half of thepeople in our country lived and worked on farms; to-day, only 2% of the population does so. But despitethe diminishing numbers, agricultural production hasincreased tremendously. In 1910, each Americanfarm worker supplied enough food products for only7.1 people. But today each American farmer canfeed 84 people.

If the displaced factory workers cannot return toancestral farms, they might go into the service sectorof the economy. After all, that sector has been grow-ing rapidly in the past decades, and to put it dramati-cally, McDonald's now employs more than the U.S.Steel Corporation.

But how many billions of hamburgers can we eat--or, to put it more prosaically, can the service sectorcontinue to expand and take up the slack in manu-facturing employment?

Can the making and servicing of computers andthe burgeoning service sector take up the resultantslack in employment deriving from automation in thefactory and the office? Vassily Leontieff, a NobelLaureate in Economics, does not think so; instead,he believes that we should spread out the workamong larger numbers of people by a shorter workweek.

But with the decline of organized labor'sstrengths and the movement of production abroad, itis unlikely that the work week will be shortened. And

even if that were to happen, it is questionable if itwould take up the slack from those thrown out ofwork by factory robots and office automation.

However, I cannot accept the pessimistic viewthat mass unemployment will be created by automa-tion. Such prophecies are based on the fallaciousnotion that one can make a major change in only onesector of the economy, while the rest remains static.Historically, things do not work that way. New tech-nologies inevitably create new demands and newopportunities.

At the onset of the Industrial Revolution, theLuddites rose in rebellion against the introduction ofnew textile-making machinery, which they werefeared would cost them their jobs. Well, the new ma-chinery was introduced, and a hundred years latermore people were involved in manufacturing textilesthan had been employed in the older handicraft sys-tem. The reason is that the great increase in produc-tivity by the new machines so lowered the cost oftextiles that vast new markets were created, requiringmany more textile workers ii an had been employedin the old handicraft method.

By producing more, better, and cheaper, robot-ics can create additional purchasing power, increasethe demand for new products, and enhance employ-ment in other fields.

While I cannot predict exactly what new lines ofemployment are going to result, it is clear that in a so-ciety which is becoming more highly technological,the effect is to increase the need for greater techni-cal education at all levels, so as to cope with the newdevices and opportunities. For the historical recordteaches us that advances in technology ultimatelyproduce more employment and increase the materialstandard of living for all. But the new jobs requiremore than technical skills: they demand the ability toperceive, comprehend, and communicate effective-ly. That is what we mean by technological literacy- -the linking together of technical expertise with anability to function with others and to understand howthe new technology fits into the society.

In brief, advancing technology, by forcing funda-mental changes in the world of work, inevitably re-shapes the technical education which we must em-ploy in order to keep us competitive in the world mar-ket, maintain our standard of living, and continue toremain flexible and creative in our world of work.

A new and enlarged obligation thus rests upontechnical educators at all levels, which is namely toprepare students to live in a society which is saturat-

1 7


ed with technology and technological issues. Forthat, we must have teachers who will show our stu-dents how they can enlarge their capabilities of handand brain, and do it in a way which gives them theconfidence to meet new and as yet unforeseen chal-lenges at work and provides them with a sense of be-longing to a society in which they can meaningfullyparticipate.

All educators must use their teaching to enlargethe general powers of the mind and inculcate habitsof thought that will enable students to face new situ-ations in a rational and creative manner. Technicallearning is particularly germane to such endeavors,enabling students to find out the facts, discard irrele-vant considerations, figure out possible courses ofaction to reach a clearly defined objective, and thepros and cons attaching to the various courses of ac-tion. So our future depends upon teachers who canbring together both the human and technical skillsthat are necessary to make our society work proper-ly.

Nowadays I use my students' preoccupation withcomputers as a metaphor to make them aware of theinteraction of human and social elements with purelytechnical elements. In order to make the computar auseable device we need both "hardware" and"software." The hardware, the computing device it-self, is of no use without the "software," which pro-vides it with the data, the programming instructions,the methodologies and the questions as well as thelogic to answer the questions. But the software is nouse without the hardware and is subject to its capabil-ities and limitations. We need both--the technicaland human elements--in order to make both ourtechnology and our society work better. That is whatwe can learn from my field, the history of technology,but it also forms part of the technological literacywhich will inspire and direct our students when weteach them vocational, industrial arts, engineeringtechnology, and the whole panoply of practical arts.

In this connection I remember a story told aboutFritz Kreisle., the great violinst. A lady came up tohim after a concert and gushed, "Oh, Maestro, yourviolin makes such beautiful music." Kreisier pickedup his violin (a Stradivarius, no less), held it to his ear,and said, "I don't hear any music coming out of it."

You see, the beautiful music coming out of theviolin did not come from the instrument, the hard-ware, alone; it depended upon the human element,the software. And all technology represents thiscombination of human ingenuity expressed in themachine, with human needs and purposes in utiliz-

sr

ing it. If the machine is imperfect or if the software isfaulty, the music which emerges will be discordant.But when man and machine work together for humanpurposes, they can make some very beautiful music -and that is the meaning and purpose of technologi-cal literacy.

18

Technological Lfteracy Symposium 11IMMIIIII.

Characteristics of Technologically Literate Citizens

I !)


This paper will discuss the differences that existbetween persons who are technically literate andthose who are not. It will discuss the barriers to com-munication between groups and, finally, will suggeststrategies for minimizing these communication prob-lems and a timetable for implementation.

In any discussion of individual differences it isnecessary, and dangerous, to generalize. Generali-zations trivialize individuality and are subject to ex-ceptions which, in their turn, lead readers to dismissthe generalization. The reader is asked to considerthe generalized statement as a possible truism, andto judge it on its merits. It is agreed that exceptionsexist for each characteristic identified. It is also not-ed, however, that the characteristic exists with suffi-cient frequency to make it noteworthy.

One further caution is made. Throughout this ar-ticle reference will be made to the technically illiterateindividual. This term is not used in a pejorativesense. Recognize the fact that the level of technicalliteracy lies on a continuum and that the terms literateand illiterate are used to distinguish between levelsof literacy within and between groups.

Technically literate people, and the technically il-literate, belong to widely disparate groups; morewidely separated than those who can and who can-not read. The non-reader can, with some effort, hidethe inability to read. Indeed, many persons react withshock when it is discovered that a co-worker of longacquaintance is a non-reader. Our society is tendingtoward a non-reading base where the ability to read isnot a criterion for success on the job. This is sup-ported by the advent of machine intelligence, voice-prompted computers, cars, vending machines, etc.,and the use of pictographs rather than letters orwords on the controls of machines and appliances.The technologically illiterate, on the other hand,have nothing to hide behind. When the car won'tstart, the garbage disposal jams, or the refrigeratorgets a wet spot under it, the technologically illiterate

Techniliterate vs Technilliterate(There's an L of a Difference)

Dr. Robert D. StoneCoordinator of Industrial Arts

Davenport Community School DistrictDavenport, Iowa

are completely out of their element and must rely onsomeone who is aware to solve their problem.

Two interesting side issues occur as an out-grown of this situation. First, the complexity of thedevice that flummoxed the illiterate came as a resultof technological sophistication and, second, the illit-erate feels he or she is aesthetically and intellectuallysuperior to the one called to resolve the problem! Itis at this point that the "L of a difference" come intoplay. At the risk of being alliterative, it is tiro to dis-cuss Labor, the Lord and Lackey syndrome and theLove of Labyrinthian Linkages.

Since the beginning of humanity we have triedto find an easier way to accomplish a task. All of tech-nology has as its premis the accomplishment ofmore, better, faster and easier. It is here that theword easier gets confused with the word labor. Oursociety aspires to an easier job; one that requiresless labor. Easier is allied with white collar endeav-ors, labor correlates with blue collar activity. Thus oursociety, indeed all of the emerged and emerging na-tions, aspire to academic pursuits which, It is widelyheld, have no labor attrached to them. These are theeasier forms of existence which come as a given forthe college and university educated. Have you everseen an advertisement which, urging the purchaseof this insurance policy or that Certificate of Deposit,suggests doing so to provide for your child's techni-cal education?

The presumption is that white collar workers donot labor at their jobs. Thus the college graduatefeels superior to the non-college technician. Theyfeel that they have spent four or more years in ad-vanced academic pursuits and that they certainlyhave every right to be proud of their accomplish-ment. They believe it is obvious that their intellectualcapacity exceeds that of the non-collegiate. Theycannot be expected to know everything about theoperation of every mundane appliance. Their time isspent with things of higher and greater import!

20

14 Techniliterate vs Technilliterate

Someone must be lord and someone else the lack-ey. Fortunately, they were skilled enough to be-come the lord.

t. linkage is the uniting of two or more entitiesinto one cohesive entity. This new entity may be asloosely connected as a chain or be as tight as 1crosslinked co-polymer. The technically literate lovelinkages. They are thrilled by the process of pullinginformation from this discipline, and hardware fromthat discipline, and putting them together to makesomething that no one has ever thought of before.The more convoluted and disparate the sourcesused in this process the better. To pull arcane knowl-edge from chemistry, tie it to some law of physics, ap-ply abstract or high-order mathematic processes, in-corporate logic, philosophy and literature to producea physical entity is the ultimate thrill for the techniliter-ate. It is just process that brought about lasers andLarge Scale Integrated electronic circuitry. The tech-nilliterate, on the other hand, has neither the back-ground nor the inclination to become so involved.Indeed, the latter is the genesis of the former; thelack of inclination is the basis for the lack of ability.

It must never be assumed that the technilliterateis stupid for it certainly is not two for the broad spec-trum of the group. instead, the technilliterate is inter-ested in other things, centered primarily on the ma-ripulation of abstractions. The tech nilliterate findsgreat value and solace in words and the feelings theyevoke. Their linkages might involve poetry ratherthan physics, Mahler instead to metallurgy and Exis-tentialism in place of electronics. The key point is notthe subject matter but the mindset; the technilliteratefeels his or her interests are purer and therefore ofgreater importance than those of the techniliterate.The technilliterate recognizes the value of technicalknowledge, and applauds those who possess tech-nical skills, but relegates this knowledge and exper-tise to a low status position. Those who engage insuch pursuits are commended for their abilities, butare mourned for their lack of dedication to things ofvalue, benefit end importance to the true purposefor human existence, that being the elevation of hu-man potential above that of the animals.

The ability to communicate between groups,rather the inability to communicate, is centered onthis mindset but has permutations not unlike thosethat surround a conversation with a born-again mis-sionary. A trip through any major airport will put youin contact with persons possessed by a missionaryzeal for their topic. Theirs is not an easy task, for theymust present themselves and their subject to some-

one who is preoccupied with other subjects, under atime constraint, who probably has strongly held con-victions about the topic and is suspicious of the mo-tives of the person who brought the subject up. Toagree to spend time in conversation requires that thehearer make the commitment to question deep-seated beliefs. Of greater importance, the hearermust be willing to allow the other person to set theagenda; to infringe on his time with their topic. In es-sence, the accosted person must be willing to takethe submissive role and most people are not willingto do this. The decision to listen or not is based on aweighing of alternatives. This subliminal evaluationtakes place in a matter of seconds c fractions of sec-onds and, more often than not, the decision is toavoid the situation, not to listen or become involved.

So, too, is the process of communicating be-tween the technically literate and illiterate. It is easyto communicate within groups; your audience feelsas you do and can ascribe all of the communicationharriers to the other group. The real problem comeswhen individuals or delegations from one group at-tempt to speak with their counterparts in the othergroup. Emphasis in this last sentence is on the wordwith. Speaking to someone is at a more superficiallevel than speaking with someone, and it is this latterthat must be attempted and accomplished. We aretalking here about the process of communication, ac-tually the diffusion of innovation for the ideas pre-sented may be innovative in the minds of the technil-literate. Rogers and Shoemaker present an excel-lent discussion of this process in their book Commu-nication of Innovations, A Cross-Cultural Approach.Before discussing their book, however, somethought should be given to the participants in theprocess.

Who should present the information about tech-nical literacy? The speaker should be each of us.The process should be on at least two levels, individ-ual and group, and the hearers should be the opin-ion leaders in these two different audiences. On theindividual level each techniliterate must initiate aplanned communication process, presenting our po-sition but in the hearers language. In their bookFrogs Into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming,Bendier and Grinder talk about feeling tones. Theymake an excellent case for listening closely to identi-fy the type of phrases other people use to expresstheir feelings, then using these same phrases ortheir variants to express your feelings to them. Sim-plistically, if a person says "I'm really in a brown moodtoday*, indicating that they are sad and using colorsymbols to communicate feelings, then your re-

21


spouses should also use color as a means of ex-pressing your feelings and concerns. The point tobe made here is that the speakers sole responsibilityis to get the message into the heare-'s mind clearly.The hearer has the greatest amount of work to do inreceiving the information, converting it into a familiarform, analyzing it and accepting or rejecting what wasreceived. When the speaker presents data in a for-mat familiar to the hearer it is received more willinglyand with a greater potential for its being accepted.

The process is not markedly different when com-munication is inter-group rather than interpersonal.The feeling tone needs to be prevalent, but it mustbe more generalized than is the case for inter-personal conversations. We must identify the popu-lation and sub-group to whom WC want to speak, de-termine the terms and phrases the target audienceuses to express its feelings, then use these phrasesin communicating with them.

Rogers and Shoemaker identify five groupswithin any population, categorized as to their willing-ness to accept innovation. These adopter catego-ries are identified as Innovators, Early Adopters, Ear-ly Majority Late Majority and Laggards. Additionally,the authors discuss the social dynamics betweenadopter categories and provide insight into the rateat which innovations are accepted. The opinionleader in this process is the Early Adopter. The EarlyMajority look to this person as their model, shunningthe innovator because this person is too far out infront of the pack to be accepted or trusted. The LateMajority looks to the Early Majority and the Laggards,being very conservative or adamant in their beliefs,do not accept the opinions of anyone. The EarlyAdopters are about fourteen percent of a popula-tion, but they sway the opinion of the nearly seventypercent in the Early Majority and Late Majority cate-gories. Thus the Early Adopters are a potent forceand one whose assistance we should work hard toachieve.

Our first task, then, is to identify the target popu-lations and determine who falls into each category.This is not as difficult as it might seem. Powers de-veloped a procedure, later refined by Tait, Bokemei-er and Bohlen, which provides an excellent modelfor accomplishing this task. Using what they call theReputational Method, people can be identified, andcategorized, simply by asking other people to tellyou who these persons are. Ask twenty people tolist the names of three or four people whom they be-lieve to be the leading technilliterates in your com-munity. Keep the lists and see whose names occur

with some frequency; there Is your list. It will proba-bly contain no more than six to eight names, but youmay be assured that the list does, in fact, contain thenames of some of the leading technilliterates. Therewill no doubt be others whose names will be added,but you have the starting point for refinement. Thisprocess works for any group where membership isknown to the public, and for a population as large oras small as you choose to sample. The sample sizewill be modified as the population base increases,but the process remains unchanged. If the targetpopulation is at a professional, social or economiclevel significan4 above or below yours it will be ne-cessary to identify an intermediate populationthrough whom your point can be communicated. It isnot possible in this article to provide an In-depthsummary of this writing, and it is not as cut and driedas presented here, but it is not a complex process ei-ther. Those who are seriously interested in pursuingthe communication process should read this booxletor other related materials.

Having done ail of the above, identified the audi-ence and its subgroups and determined the feelingtone, what do we have that needs to be said? In theone-on-one conversations we need to communicatethe higher order 6kills that are associated with thelearning our students are doing. Emphasize themath and physics, the abstract reasoning, the aes-thetic concomitants of what is being taught andlearned. Certainly these entities are a part of all ourcourses. These need not, probably should not, belong involved conversations. Instead, they shouldbe one-liner types of comments, inserted frequentlyinto otherwise normal conversations. If the opportu-nity is presented in a group session, emphasize thepersonal growth that has been evidenced in a specif-ic student. Make the point of sending good newsletters to parents, and the counselors or pastors ofyour students. Again, this should not be an isolated,even an occasional thing. It should be a part of yourregular student evaluation process. It should hap-pen weekly, not for each student, but certainly forone or more students. Similarly, good news notescan go to the Counselor, Principal or Dean, to sup-port them in positive actions they have taken for you,for your students, or for education in general.

Do not expect these efforts to bear fruit immedi-ately; nothing works that quickly. Be prepared tospend three to five years in the process of making anoticeable change in the perceptions of your targetpopulation. It took New Math nearly ten years to befully accepted, the television set took almost twenty.Indeed, the term technological literacy has been in

16 Technlliterate vs Technilliterate

use for nearly five years and is only now beginning tobe used outside a very select and innovative group.

In dealing with the public as a whole we must em-ploy a process similar to that discussed above, butwe must employ a communication device that isviewed as important by the technilliterate community.It is this author's opinion that the most potent possi-

ble device would be a standardized test for techno-logical literacy.

The academic community has a love affair withstandardized tests. From the third and fourth grade,onto the Graduate Record Exam, the academic worldis filled with standardized testing. We all grew up withI.Q. and aptitude tests. Our lives and the lives of ourstudents and children are governed in large measureby the scores achieved on one or another standard-ized test. In Iowa, and many other states, wholeschool systems adjust their curricular emphases onthe basis of district-wide math, social studies, Eng-lish, reading and science test results. Note thatchanges are made on the basis of these subjectsalone; with little or no thought about the rest of thedistrict's curricula. Building principals and teachingstaffs are acutely aware of their school's standingwith respect to other schoosl in the district, and theirdistrict's standing in state and national norms. Theexistence of an abstract number, computer printedon a student's or a school district's performance eval-uation form, gives credence to these subjects far inexcess of their actual value. Indeed, the perceivedvalue of the number, and of the subject matter, sup-port one another in a regenerative manner. It is longpast time when technical education drank at thesame fountain as the rest of the educational commnity. For these reasons, and many other unspokenreasons, it is proposed that a three-year effort be un-dertaken to establish a nationally normed Technolog-ical Literacy test or sub-test, to be incorporated intoone or more of the nationally recognized educationalachievement tests. The inclusion of such a testwould bring technological literacy into its rightfulplace as an item of national importance and concern.

It was a revelation to the author to learn thatthere is no such test in existence. In December,1986, contact was made with the National Center forResearch in Vocational education, asking for a listingof any tests in the area of technological literacy. TheCenter indicated that they had no such tests andsuggested contacting Educational Testing Serviceand the National Occupational Competency TestingInstitute (NOCTI). NOCTI exams exist for specific skillareas but none exist that provide a broad awareness

of technology. Educational Testing Service was con-tacted, with similar results. Contact with the head ofthe Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED)was negative Insofar as the existence of such a test,but positive with regard to interest in such a test.

Mari), problems must be resolved to accom-plish the task of constructing, norming and validatir.a technological literacy test. Not the least of thesewill be to define technology and develop criteria anda methodology for assessing an individual's literacy.It is suggested that the following definition be con-sidered as a working permis:

Technology is the product, tangible and intangi-ble, resulting from the incorporation of knowledgefrom two or more subject matter disciplines for theexpress purpose of developing devices or process-es to create goods or services in a quicker, safer,easier manner. Technological literacy is the aware-ness within an individual of the basic tenets of thesedisparate disciplines, and the ability to draw fromthese disciplines to resolve the problems associatedwith the development and perfection of a concept ordevice.

With this as a base, it is recommended that theNational Center establish a committee to work for athree-year period and whose functions will be to:

1. Define technology and technological litera-cy in terms that will be sufficiently broad to benefit allfacets of technical education, but without becomingso vague that it loses its effectiveness as a descriptorof the domain and the basis for assessment of indi-vidual technical awareness.

2. Develop and pilot sample items to be in-cluded as a part of a standardized technological liter-acy test.

3. Work through the Center for Research inVocational Education to establish dialogues with Ed-ucational Testing Service and other assessmentagencies for the development, norming and market-ing of a technological literacy examination.

In summary, it has been suggested that tech-nological literacy is a distinct entity, separate from theconventionally accepted definition of literacy. Thetechnically literate and the technically illiterate havewidely dissimilar views of our world and society, andthe technilliterate has a feeling of superiority relateddirectly to their literacy in non-technical areas. As aresult of these feelings, communication betweengroups is stymied and will not improve until somemeans of communication is found which is seen bythe technilliterate as an acceptable form of and basis

23


for communication. On the personal level thischange in communication strategies must be ad-vanced by the techniliterate, in terms common to andaccepted by the technIlliterate. The same conditionsapply on the group or institutional level but it is sug-gested that the communications vehicle be a stan-dardized technological literacy examination or sub-test which will be utilized to determine the technicalsophistication of large groups of students, rankedaccording to national norms. The process of diffus-ing an innovation is a slow process, but one whichproceeds along a prescribed and easily recognizedprocess. Given an awareness of the process, and awillingness to commit the time, the process will yieldpositive results.

Our nation has for nearly 200 years been aworld leader in the development and disseminationof technology to the remainder of the world. Yeteven the unpracticed eye can see that this pre-eminence is eroding and thet the United States isgoing the way of England, Rome, Persia and evoryother predecessor in world leadership. Our status asa technological power is being usurped by emergingcountries and countries where technical expertise isviewed as a virtue to be coveted and admired. Weare approaching a 21st century Dark Ages whereinonly the elite will understand the working of the de-vices that surround us. The masses will be subject tothe wishes and whims of the few, for these few willhold unlimited power over the lives and daily exis-tence of the many.

Perhaps the effort to stem the tide of inevitabil-ity is futile, with the end pre-ordained. It is not, how-ever, in this author's makeup to give up without ex-erting all possible effort to the stemming of the tide.There is dignity in the creation of tangible products.Technically literate persons do not simply "work withtheir hands". Our nation and the world needs fewerpeople as pape generators and more as innovatorsand producers of technically sophisticated conceptsand devices. There must be a re-awakening of theAmerican Cup Do spirit, with the attendant prida ofaccomplishment for those who can Do. it is the au-thor's hope that his is not a single voice, crying in thewilderness, but rather the ioudest at this momentwith others who are willing and able to join in the pro-cess of re-acquainting a nation with ite roots and itsheritage. The establishment of technological literacyconferences is the first step in that process but itcannot be allowed to end when the conferencesend. The conferences must begin a dialogue thatcontinues, and expands, to fill the void between this

Nation's perceptions and the actuality of technologi-cal literacy.

References

Bendier, R., & Grinder, J. (1979). frogs into princes:nuro linguistic programming. Moab, UT: RealPeople Press.

Power, R. C. (1965). Idantifyinglhacommunkuow:eLslactura. Ames: Iowa Cooperative ExtensionService, 19.

Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1962). Commu-nication of innovations. a cross-cultural kip:maarth. Riverside, NJ: Macmillan.

Tait, J. L., Bokemeier, J., & Bohlen, J. M. (1982).Identifying the community power actors: A guidefor chug) agents. Ames: Iowa State University,Cooperatwe Extension Service, 59.

24

Technological Literacy Symposium 19...11111M=114,

International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

Dr. Michael J. DyrenfurthDepartment of Practical Arts and Vocational Education

University of Missouri-ColumbiaColumbia, Missouri

Overview

Considerable attention has been afforded theconcept of technological literacy--in North America atleast. Despite this, we must recognize that there is atremerwous range in the definitions of such key con-cepts as technology and technological literacy. Whyis this? Don't the members of our profession do theirhomework? Are the terms so new that we are justnow defining them? Are others as confused as wesometimes seem to be?

I wanted to address these and other concerns.For example I wanted to see our ideas in context--i.e., against the backdrop of others' thinking. Be-cause I occasionally find our profession to be some-what parochial, in that we seldom look outside ournormal circle of friends, let alone overseas, I thoughtit would be valuable to see what our international col-leagues are doing with these concepts. How arethey defining them? How are they using them If atall? What could we learn from them? The approach issimilar to Todd's (1986).

However, in addition to the quest for some per-spective, I also wanted to test an idea. The idea wasthat a country's concept of technological literacy (ifany existed at all) was positively linked to its stage ofdevelopment. In essence, this idea is analogous toMaslow's hierarchy of needs. It suggests that when acountry's human resource needs are for economic orother survival, then the country's educational poli-cies will not emphasize technology for all. Only afterthe basic technical skill needs have been satisfiedwould the country be likely to shift to technologicalliteracy as an important outcome of education.

Finally, prior to launching this investigation itmust be noted that technological literacy is beingviewed as an outcome of technology education, i.e.,education about technology. Furthermore, techno-logical literacy is considered to be an essential char-acteristic of those with a quality general education.Consequently, the Importance of having deeper :el-

sight into this concept is what provided impetus forthe research being reported. As a point of refer-ence, the author's current analysis of the concept oftechnological literacy, and which was developedprior to extensive overseas contact, is provided inAppendix A.

Procedure

Essentially the methodology employed was thatof personal interviews. My sense was that there wasjust too much opportunity for misinterpretation withpaper surveys and other approaches with little or nodirect contact between the researcher and the re-spondent.

However, quality research demands that onesystematically sample the population if one wishes toreach some defensible conclusions. Given the hugerange of possible respondents, e.g., countries,types of schools, levels of education, role of respon-dents, and the like, sampling of such a large and di-verse population is clearly out of the realm of possi-bility for a small, informally supported project such asmine.

Instead, the procedure employed was based onself-selection. In essence, it depended on the ac-tion of those interested in the issues of technologyand education. My logic was that many of the mostinterested colleagues would be participating in sev-eral key international meetings that focussed on thetopic. Consequently, I set out to participate in thesemeetings and to conduct my interviews there. Themeetings attended included those listed below.The interviewees are listed in Appendix B. In addi-tion, my personal insights into the European (andsome international) situations were enhanced con-siderably by a one month academic exchange(sponsored by the Carl Duisberg Society and theUniversity of Missouri-Columbia) in West Germany.Ongoing literature searches in the computerizeddata bases further enlarged the input base for thisstudy.

25

20 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy

The World Congress on Education and Technol-ogy, Vancouver, Canada, May, 1986

The PATT 2 Conference (Pupils attitude to-wards technology), Eindhoven, The Nether-lands, April, 1987.

The European Common Market Conference onPeople and Technology, London, United King-dom, November, 1986.

The international Vocational Education andTraining Association program at the AVA Confer-ence, Dallas, December, 1986.

The International Technology Education Asso-ciation Conference, Tulsa, Oklahoma, March,1987.

The actual instrumentation was most simple. It

consisted merely of a single sheet used to guide theinterview questions and to provide a convenientplace to quickly record the information that w:* ob-tained. This guide provided a structure that engen-dered a consistency of response that would nothave been possible with a mail survey. Soon afterbeginning the process, it became obvious that theapproach was appst,priate. Given the difficulties in-herent in communicating across cultures, let alonelanguages, the opportunity to clarify the meaning ofquestions and responses was invaluable. Further-more, it often was necessary to explore the respon-dent's context that housed the perceptions of tech-nological literacy. Consequently, the interviewsprobed the respondents':

Country's status with rsspect to the implementa-tion of technology education

Description of the nature of any implementationthat occurred

Definition of the term/concept "technology"

Thoughts about technology's key components

Usage of the term/concept "technological litera-cy"

Observations and Findings/Conclusions

The results of my experiences and proceduresare presented in Tables 1 and 2 on the following pag-es. They were recently supplemented by some per-sonal correspondence from M. de Vries (The Ne',iier-lands) who has been working along similar directions.It should also be noted that the approach and analyt-

ical method employed was clearly impressionistic.Given the nature of this study, it was felt that any nu-merical treatment of the data would yield a false pic-ture. Similar approaches were employed by de Vries

(1987) and Todd (1986).

1. Techiological literacy, as a concopt, is clearly ina state of flux. It shows some signs of emerg-ing from this early evolutionary stags but fornow it remains more a notion than a preciseconstruct.

2. An increasing number of countries are becom-ing sensitive to the term /concept --technological literacy.

3. It seems that there is considerable agreementthat technological literacy necessarily involvesIn ability to do.

4. The term "technological literacy" is not general-ly used overseas and consequently it typicallyis not considered to be the primary outcome oftechnology education -- although there waslittle resistance to such a concept once theidea was broached.

5. Little evidence was noted to sugoest scienceliteracy was an important topic.

6. More countries are concerned with technologyeducation for all students than are concernedwith technological literacy.

7. The US approach to technology educationseems to be considerably more developedthan that of most other countries. Although, itis clear that rather sophisticated modals andprograms exist internationally and some evenhave considerable history, e.g., the EnglishSCSST Model shown in Figure 1.

8. Despite the relatively advanced position of theU.S. conception of technology education andof technological literacy, there are many valua-ble lessons to be learned overseas. Addition-ally, the process of trying to understand others'approaches invariably cause one to confrontsome of our own assumptions and questionthem as well as recognize alternative configura-tions that might well have potential for increas-ing our own effectiveness.

9. The leading characteristic that distinguishesoverseas implementations of technology edu-cation from ours Is their emphasis on designand problem-solving processes as comparedto our focus on mastery of technical knowledgeand/or skill.

10. If one were to be "hard-nosed" and use thecriterion of numbers of students affected, Icome to the conclusion that technology edu-

2 6

HUMRN

PURPOSE

Ememple:

Betidingsandcastles

Melting ertificiImps

Making WWIdiscoveries

artisticevpressiem

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Sitting itin Writer!

Technological Literacy Symposium 21,

THE RESTRAINTS ON TECHNOLOGY

taws escience

Technics Mends Mils Iknowled

Thespurns

Personsend

lel

M11111111M1111!T E PROC SS OF T CHNOLO Y

1

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originalpurpose

Conceptse ntollta

st 'close

comm.mo

iscsosisSeems e

letersiellMannar

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THE RESOURCES OF TECHNOLOGY

Penns,woollen

Figure 1. SCSST Technology Model

cation, i.e., education to develop technologi-cal literacy, is much more hype than reality. Inmost places, technology education is notstructurally integrated into the educationalsystems of the country--despite what evan-gelical proponents would have us believe.

11. T:iere is however some evidence of an in-cre le in the momentum of the technologyeducation movement. More influential peo-ple seem to recognize that in our technologi-cal world, our schools must help students de-velop and understanding of, and capabilitywith, technology.

12. Overall there seems to be a "quick fix" mental-ity in thinking that one, two or three years ofcour 3$ could meet the societal need. Verylittle evidence was found to demonstrate aconcern for a spiral curriculum that would sp.:tematically build a depth of understandingand capability throughout the school years.

13. The Europeans have also worked out an im-portant rationale supporting the need fortechnology education. It states that a largepart of being educated for the professions isof a technical nature (de Vries, 1987) there-fore such education is a valuable serv. le tostudents.

HUMAN

RCHIEUEWNTAdversesideeffects

AMERMilli

Examples:

Culture

Enplorstise

Comfort

Artefacts

Knowledge

LeisureIncidentalisle inresources

Pedecerechnology

14. Our approaches seem to emphasize the de-lineation of objectives, competencies and es-sential elements to a much greater extentthan did overseas ones. Many of the latterprograms had difficulty in stating even theirmost general goals.

15. There remains evidence of gender-basedcourse structures in certain overseas imple-mentations.

Eastern block country approaches lean muchmore to the vocational side than do the Brit-ish, Flemish or Dutch.

17. Often international science and other non-industriaVvocational educators value technol-ogy education more than ours do.

18. It seems appropriate to conclude that we can-not, and in fact we must avoid, the casting oftechnology education as the 'deus ex machi-ne' of our time. We cannot expect a set of so-lutions carved out of the political feasibilitiesof our realities to be as powerful as our con-ceptual models suggest. In short, we mustnot oversell the potential outcomes of tech-nology education

19. There are many who "bastardize" the con-cepts of technology education and techno-logical literacy (less frequently) by "forcing"

o q.

27

1 22 International Perspectives on Technological LiteracyIIIMINIMF

what they are currently doing in regular, voca-tional or other education and passing it off(mislabeling) as technology education or Itsproducts.

20. On the technology vs. industrial technologyIssue, generally my observations suggestthat the technology education view has moreproponents - -it is clearly the preferred termoverseas. However, there is also evidencepointing to the use of a general lable, i.e.,technology, being applied to what is clearlythe industrial subset of technology.

21. Our European colleagues were much moretuned into the nature of the student thanwhat we seemed to be. For example, it is tothe credit of Raat and de Vries' projectgroups, and in fact several others of thePATT research group, that they noted thegreat difference between their intellectualand conceptualized model of technology andthe model that young students have in theirminds. The implications of this for instruction-al practice seem to loom large!

22. Type I and Type II errors. The opportunity forcommitting either of these seems very highwhen working on comparisons in the interna-tional arena. For example one gets totally dif-ferent answers when one meets with mini-stries of labor instead of education. Becauseof this it is extremely difficult to support gen-eralizations based on what must be recog-nized as a cursory contact.

23. There is considerable congruence in supportof the generic technology clusters of materi-als, energy/ power, and communication.Transportation, manufacturing and construc-tion are not widely addressed.

24. There is good evidence to suggest the com-puter is an over used example of technologyoverseas as well as in the USA.

25. There is a serious terminological problem thatmust be overcome before sr rvey eoproachesbecome feasible.

26. In Europe, much more is made of the technol-ogy--technique distinction than is the case inthe USA.

Conclusion and Summary

There is much to be learned overseas. The op-portunity to be outside looking in yields fresh per-spectives that invariably help improve local practice.

Overall, Americans can feel proud of the level of theirconceptualization of technology education and tech-nological literacy. Now what remains in the USA aswell as in most other countries is to implement pro-grams that deliver on the promisel

28

1


Tabte 1. Intern tonal Summary: Technology Education impiementations

1. Has your country Irrplemented a general education technology education course/program?For all students? For some students? What are Its male goals? What grade/age levels? ls N voc lid or general ed? ls It required or elective?

EnlistAbout 10-20% Craft/Design/Technology Ages 14.16 Mainly for general educationAbout 20-30% Craft(Shop) Ages 11.14 Mainly for general education Required informaky,Yes, but not In Y K - 12 generally for lower INKYlocalities. Under studentslocal control

kat

Scotland

Technological Develop problem -soMng Age 14-18, boys a girls General education Elective, for two years,Studies Is to be skies, apply systems 160 hrs during these 2 yearsrequired as of approach, comprehendAug 1988 evolution of technology

and wog** the effect ofSome Science 8 lechnoiogyon the quality ofTechnology Ile and theenvironment, to

highligM role of technologyin manufacturing

Removes some of thedesign emphasis Iron CDTas compared to England

Australia

title movementtoward technologyeducation

Little movement Introductory Tech- Prevocational, work orlon- oiges 11.13, grades 7-9 More prevocational than Elect Wetoward technology nology. Pupils can tatlon. some lie skiNs, generaleducation choose 2 of 4 sub- stimulate creativity

feels, and this Is oneof the options butboth boys and curls

can take It

Spain(CataMna)

There is a subject General development and Ages 12-16 General education Experimentalcaked Technology to help understand thebut It is still In the modem world (de Vries)experimental stage(de Vries)

Adana

None Yes, Vietkerziehung. Craft a skill oriented Seems prevocational(work education)girls get textileversionboys get technicalversion

Canada

No widespreadimplementation

Denmark

Not In 'FolkeskoW(primary education,grades 1.9)(d Vries)

The subjects offered here;needlework, craft & design,home economics, art'donee' and creative art;are more craft oriented thanan Introduction totechnology (de Vries)

2 9

24 International Perspectives on Technological Literacy11111.- 411.,

Table 1(contInued). International Summery: Technology Education implementations

1. Has your country Irrplemented 7. general education technology education course/program?For all students? For some students? What are b main goals? What grade/ago levels? Is It voc ed or general ad? Is It required or eledive?

Palzgal

Somewhat, quite .recently but tech-nology is not In thecortpulsory part ofgeneral education.

After the patio*change In 1974the technicalschools were sup-pressed In order toengender equality.In 1983 the tech-nical schools werere-launched.

Yee, Crafts andWork-Technology(in tioeunY, i.e.general education)

Kama

Arts and crafts

Maim

Yes, technologicaleducation, but it isMOM on paperthan In school'

Technic was Intro-duced in 1978, forboys and gins

Technology educa-tion is attached totechnical & prevoca-tional education

InOustrIal EducationTechnical schoolswere removed andshifted to TechnicalColleges

In 5th & 6th grades 'crafts'Is Incorporated and thisIncludes a module ontechnology

Some theory. make prclect Grade 1(secondary) General educationgrades 4.8, 2 hoursfweek, General educationvtsft industry (ages 15-18)Related to work In industry

Electrldty, leather, cooking Prftnary schools

Since 1985 the govern-ment has moved to empha-size the practical aspectsbut there is not a specificTechnology courserequired. The approach isvice the infusion of techno-logical content Into Indus-trial Education's lessons.

Age 14-18

To get people into Secondaryjobs therefore It is not reallytechnology education Inthe sense we are using theterm here.

Meaningful occupationalcareer choice. Deals witheverything of our materialenvironment to developcoordination. Curriculumis different In rural andurban areas. Former em-phasizes agriculture, thelatter wood, metal, drawingand **Giro-technic

Grades 1-8, required Ingrades 9-10, elective Ingrades 11.12

More vocational thangeneral

General education

requiredrequired

Elective

Required. After first year ofsampling, students chooseamong unit courses

Grades 1-8, required ingrades 9-10, elective ingrades 11.12


Tabs 1(contInued). International Summary: Technology Education Irrpiornentations

1. Has your country Implemented a general education technology education course/program?For at students? For some students? What we ks main goals? What grade/age Weis?

MtnYes, TechnologicalEducation

Because all othercomponents of Ilehad subjects Inschool (except fortechnology) theyhad to make roomfor this In thecurriculum

Yucoslavia

There Is a separatesubject, calledTechnology Edu-cation also there Isa subject calledWork at Home

Not really, theclosest is CAMWork Newtechnologies areincorporated Intovolts. (de Vries)

Eta=

At tne collage(JHS) technologyis required, forboys & girls

Easitud13=1211c

Several Iriplemen-tations exist as'Lander haveautonomyArbeitsiehreIn HauptschuleTechnicIn Real SchuleNoneIn Gymnasium

Craft is divided Into:Technical work forboysTextile work forgirls

At the lyae(senior high) k Isoptional (de Vries)but mainly boys elect

Some Implementationof PolyTednics andinformatics

The culture and environ-ment, this Includes tech-nology .0 develop ape-billy wkh the technologicalprocess:

Problem statementPurpose descriptionBrain stormingin-between designNew structure actualizingEvaluation

nlermediate evaluationoccurs dim each step)

General development goals

Orientation to future work

Skis oriented

General development

Introduction to the eco-nomic and work world, linksTechnic and Home Eco-nomia,

First class, ages 12-13,2 hours/wwk

Second class, ages 13-142 hours/week

Grade. 4-8 and 2 years ofhigh school

Grades 7 & 8

Grades 1-7Grades 8-9

JHS

SHS

is k voc ed or general ed?

Definitely general, Eg.Components of life/culture:

VerbaVliteratu reEthic/religiousExact/scientificHurnanhiclentifIcMuskaYartisticTechnic/Technological

Not*, Technics/Technologyalso exists at the technicalschool:

At vocational school:

Mom and mom 'bright'students are takingTechnical Work becauseschool is too theoretical

Gewral education

Prevocational In nature,many specializedsubjects (de Vries)

Is It required or elective?

2 hrsAveek are required, an addi-tional 1. 2, or 4 hrs sus elective

2 hrsAveek are required, an addi-tional 2 hours are elective

Theoretical subjects 4 hrs/week in list year, 6 hrs/wIn second yearPractical subjects 8 hrs/w

In first year, 8 hrsAv Insecond year

Theoretical subjects 4 hrs/week In first year, 6 hrshvIn second yea

Practical subjects 6 hrs/wIn first year, 8 hrs/vr Insecond year

Required, boys & girls

Required, boys & girls

RequiredElective

Required for 2 hrsAvk pluselecthe for 3 more brat**

Elective

General education, I e. pre- Depends on which 'lanevocational


Table 1(opntinurici). International Summary: Technology Education IrrplementatIons

1. Na, your country Implemented a general education technology education course/program?For al students? For some students? What are b mein goats? What grade/age levels? Is II voc ed or general ed? Is It required or elective?

llnliatillOt

Started but notsystematics*/ Int-plementokl acrossall states and com-munities

ilattalargla

Yes, In process ofInstalling tech-nology educationas a requkement

In some places

32


Tab* 2. Internagonal Summary: Technology & Technological Literacy

2. What is the meaning of thetern/concept 'technology'?

England

The delkeride application of humancrezdIvIty, endeavor and knowledge losolution of problems linked to thephysical needs of individuals of social

(PUPIL

The Identification of the needs of manand the endeavor to satisfy these needsby the application el knowledge and theuse of materials, resources, and energy.

The total knowledge and sidlls availableto any human codify for industry, artsand sciences, Mc. I Is that branch ofhuman knee/edge wF.1ch deals with theIndustrial arts. It Is that part of appliedscience which has commercial value. rta balance of knov4edge and invention. It

tales us forward Ike a scientist as con-tinted to a technician.

Soulland

Not defined. This would "nail dam' the

twin elefcrePriately.

Australia

ailain(Calalona)

Canada

Something that Is applied. practical, notto theoretical

thamads

3. What are technology's majorunits/sections/components?

4. Is the term *technologicalliteracy' used in your country?

Information, materials. energy, dc.:Ign, Never baud it usedproblem solving, creativity

It is primarily concerned with problem-solving.

Yes, it le becoming axes widely used.and most educators would give you adefinition

Electronics, mechanisms, pneumatics. Yes but impreciselymanufacturing, systems approach,communication, product analysis,energy, structures

Drawing, equipment and materials,identification and processing ofmaterials, we cf tools, energy, basicIdeas of electricity, magnetism, Severs.wedge and screw, food storage.pneumatic devices

Physics, chemistry, math, drawing,language, history n.b. there Is somedoubt about how well the respondentsunderstood the survey (de Vries)

Technical studies Involve the compon-ents: Sulidingniving, machine tech-nology, production design

Ensign, not too much emphasis onvalue judgements

Ins term Is used occasionally by thoseIn adult education

5. What does the term-technological tkeracy meanto you?

Strong connotation of being able todot Problem-solving le In any 'literacy

Interaction between science, tech-nology and society. The problem isthat most would leave it at the level ofIntellectual debate only. To betechnologically literate one most haveexperience and practical competence,than most be a "doing' element to hi

Technological literacy Is a subset oftechnological competence. This link,the Mallen* between science andpractical realization, ought to permeatethe whole of schooling

The use of vocabulary associated withtechnology. Does not include the usetechnology.

Vocabulary pertaining to technologyand computers, management systemsand terms, hardware and software.

Air


Table 2 (continued). International Summary: Technology & Technological Literacy

2. What is the moaning of the 3. What are technology's majorterm/concept 'technology? units/sections/components?

Not well defined. Very individualized. N/ANot systematically developed.

Ealing

The concept ot and a technical prolectas a frult of the concept; technicaltechnical processes, technical appliedsdenoe. There Is no COMIdefaliN1of man or practical things as a part oftechnology.

Technology is designing led makingsolutions to man's problems

Maxim

Scientific knowledge translated Into aproduct (Including blo -tech)

HYngilY

Only industrial processes. Eg. workingwith Iron and materials. We differential*between technology and technique.The latter is everything around us, kInvolves designing and problem solving.

Etelgho

Y uctoWrite

It has two meaningssomething like sciencemore practical. Involved with machines

EDINA

Tradition Is to use it as engineers do, Le.with narrow moaning, Eq. wood ft foodtechnology. Changing the existence ofmaterial, the basics of production.

Enna

EadiAlioutiloariarmanx

There are many varied perspectives.Technic Is used, typically it refers toIndustrial products. computers, al newslur Eg. laws, not telephone,

Culture and organization of labor, mat-erial science, process engineering,technical equipment technology andmanagement, orienting to aProfession.

Mainly woodworking, typing, binding(unit courses)

Communication, energy, living.textiles, food, commerce, hygiene/nursing, technic/technological

Recently the school' program hasbeen narrowed to cornmunication,electro and Information, mechanical,energy and !Ming technology

Woods, machines, energy, craft, metalwork, electricity/electronics, technicaldrawing, production

4, is the term 'technologicalMersey used in your country?

Not typically used

Occasionely one reads about ft In anarticle. Eg. Friedrich Rapp (bean)

Hardly

Typically not

Some use it as knowledge abouttechnique. I.e. technique ileracy

No

No

It has been used In some articlesabout trends in school. The concepthas been used but not with the sameterms.

Typh-ally not, but Kukur Technic isused to refer to reading. writing, andcalculating

3 4

S. What doss the term'technological literacy meanto you?

Aptitude, energy, how things work,Humans Interacting with machines andIrlormation

Knowledge of technology, notmanipulative skips. Skills wetechnique and this Is differentiatedfrom knowledge.

Widespread knoMedge abouthandling things manmade. To train

Knowledge, every aspect oftechnology, practical, conceptual

Knowledgogag technique thatincludes capability wgh technique

To be capable of facing a problem, tosee a problem, to think about asolution, to find a right solution, tohave it done or to do it yourself.

Unable to communicate

Most important element Is introduc-tloroawareness of new technology.how to use knowledge, the materials,know languages ol technology. tech-nological literacy is connected withleisure, recreation, daily actheties,horn. activities, consurredsm.culturaVhistorical stages.

Technic, the use ol technology as wedo numbers and letters.

ft was difficult to even translate theconcept Into German. perhaps theword -wahmemungsfahigkre is theclosest we can come?


Tsbie 2 (continued), inlemstkinal Surnnwuy: Technology & Technological Literacy

2. What Is the mooning of theterm/concept nechnoiogy'?

lJn1tad Stals

tallittaansis.

3. What are technokcys major 4. lath. term 'technologic:a/ 6. Mud does the termunItersections/compononUi? literacy used In your country? lechnologkal lkwacr mean

to you?

A small nurrber of PacIP4 mit buttYlAlbliti but

3 5

1t 16 a IWO, concept, ranges from

nuking use of the simplest technicaldevices to the most sophisticatedones. The *My to make good use ofexisting technical means. alsoettludes towards putting such meansto good use, working to come upwith even better use.


References

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. (1983, July). Technology education aspart of general education. Survey report,Science and Technology Education Documentseries, No. 4. Paris, France: UNESCO, Divi-sion of Science, Technical and Vocational Edu-cation.

. (1985, November 18-22). InternationalSymposium on the Teaching of Technologywithin the Context of General Education. Pro-ceedings. UNESCO House, Paris, France:UNESCO.

Benderson, A. (1983, November). Computer litera-cy. Focus (Educational Testing Service) 19, 1-32.

Blankenbaker, E. K. (1982). Technological literacy,what contributions will industrial arts make? Pa-per prepared for the National Industrial Arts Advi-sory Council. Columbus: The Ohio State Uni-versity.

Bullock, A., & Stallybrass, 0. (Eds.)(1978). Theharper dictionary of modern thought.

New York: Harper & Row.

Boyer, E. L. (1983). High school: A report on sec-ondary education in America. New York: Harp-er & Row.

Carton, M. (1984). Education and the world of work.Studies and surveys in comparative education.Paris, France: UNESCO.

Cutcliffe, S. H. (1981, May). Technological literacyfor the nontechnoloaist. In proceedings of theTechnology Education Symposium II. Menomo-nie: University of Wisconsin-Stout.

DeVore, P. W. (1980) Technology: An introduc-tign. Worcester, MA.: Davis.

de Vries, M. J. (1987). What is technoloay? Theconcept 'technology' in secondary education.Eindhoven, the Netherlands: Eindhoven Uni-versity of Technology, Faculty of Technical Phys-ics.

Dyrenfurth, M. J. (1984). Literacy for a technologicalworld. (Information Series No. 266.) Colum-bus: The National Center for Research in Voca-tional Education, The Ohio State University.

Dyrenfurth, M. J. (1987). Technological literacy: Amodel for society's most urgent imperative. In-vited paper delivered at the PATT 2 Conference,Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhov-en, the Netherlands.

Gibbons, J. H. (1983). Automation and the work-place: Selected labor. education and trainingissues. A technical memorandum. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Office of Technology Assessment.

Goodlad, J. I. (1983). A place called school. NewYork: McGraw Hill.

Gordon, T., & Job, G. Technology for all. Unpub-lished paper distributed at the PATT 2

Conference, Eindhoven University of Technol-ogy, April 1987, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.

Harris, L. et al. (1970). Survival literacy study. NewYork: Louis Harris & Associates.

Hassett, P. F. (1987). Technology and you. Unpub-lished lecture notes. Kansas City, MO:

Author.

Kananoja, T. (1984). Practical subjects in Zambia -- AFINNIDA project in 1974(-84) some extracts onlectures on an inservice teacher Valuing coursein Zambia in 1983. Paper prepared for the1984 Symposium of the Nordic Association forthe Study of Education in Developing Coun-tries, Stockholm. University of Stockholm,

Institute of International Education.

Kananoja, T. (1986). Vocational education in Fin-jand: Its administration and management. Un-published paper. Helsinki, Finland.

Kranzberg, M. (1983, April). Where were we going?Where have we gone? Statement delivered atthe Museum of Science and Industry's FiftiethAnniversary Conference. Chicago, IL: Author.

Lux, D. G. (1978). Youth's need for technological lit-eracy. Speech delivered at the American In-dustrial Arts Association Annual Conference. At-lanta, GA: Author.

Lux, D. G. (1983, April 23). Science and tectinology: A new alliance. Speech delivered at theAmerican Industrial Arts Association Annual Con-ference. Milwaukee, WI: Author.

Murchland, B. (1983, Winter). Technology, liberallearning, and civic purpose. Liberal Education,2a(4), 299, 301.

Novakova, H. (1987). Curriculum of the vocationalpreparation in the_secondary general educe-lion schwa. Paper distributed at the PATT 2

3 6


Conference, Eindhoven University of Technol-ogy, Eindhoven, the Netherlands.

Raat, J. H. (1987, March). Research in the PATTProject--what do pupils think of Technology?Paper presented at the International TechnologyEducation Association Conference, Tulsa, Ok-lahoma.

Raat, J. H. (1986, November). Research in technol-ogy education. Eindhoven University pi Tech-nology. Eindhoven, the Netherlands: Eindhov-en University of Technology.

Raat, J. H., & De Vries, M. (Eds.) (1986). What doaids and boys think of technology?

Eindhoven, the Netherlands: Eindhoven Uni-versity of Technology.

Sanders, M. (Ed.)(1986). Technology educationsymposium proceedings: Technological

Jiteracy - -an educational mandate. Blacksburg:Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univer-sity.

Schaum, J. H. (1981, June). Our most neglectedasset . . . human resources. Modern casting,39

Smalley, L. Technology--a start. Unpublished pa-per. Menomonie: University of Wisconsin-Stout, 20-23.

Standing Conference on Schools' Science andTechnology (SCSST). (1973). School Technol-ogy forum, Working pacer 1. Trent, UnitedKingdom.

Stashak, G. (1981, May). Technological literacy:The publisher's role. In proceedings of theTechnology Education Symposium II. Menomo-nie: University of Wisconsin- Stout.

Todd, R. D. (1986). Technological literacy: An inter-national perspective. Technoloay educationsymposium _proceedings: Technological literacy- an educational mandate. Blacksburg: VirginiaPolytechnic Institute and State University.

Warner, W. A. (1965). A curriculum to reflect tech-poloay. Introduced at the American IndustrialArts Association Annual Conference in 1947.Columbus, Ohio: Epsilon Pi Tau.

Ziefuss, H. (1980). Technical education as a part ofgeneral education in the Federal Republic ofGermany. Institute for Science Education Re-port No. 23. Kiel, Federal Republic of Germa-ny: IPN.

Appendix A

A Model and Rationale for TechnologicalLiteracy

Technology

In the introduction to my first monograph on thissubiect, I stated that "technology has been with usever since we began to manipulate and seek controlover the environment" (Dyrenfurth, 1984, p. 1). Al-though in dicative, this statement falls considerablyshort of definition. In fact, I question the wisdom ofattempting to establish the concept's meaning defin-itively. Although absolutists' value such effort, I

would submit that it is infinitely more useful to charac-terize the concept by highlighting the features andcharacteristics that are essen tial to establish theconcept and differentiate it from others. Then, rath-er than sitting around and haggling over nuances ofmeaning and definition, we could get on with ourwork to help future generations harness the conceptand design programs to achieve our objectives.

Not only do I deem it more important to work onapplication, but I also suggest it is more feasible. Giv-en the scope of large scale concepts such as tech-nology, there may very well exist limitations on ourability to evolve an ultimate definition. In essence,observation of social science would suggest thatlarge scale concepts are affected by a principle anal-ogous to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle -- namelythat there will always be a residual unknown or an ele-ment of confusion. Like my scientific colleagues, Isubmit that definitions based on a probability modeloffer much advantage and that they allow us to focuson our primary responsibility--i.e., the education offuture generations.

What then are the elements, essential featuresand characteristics that operationally define technol-ogy" Which seem to have the highest probability ofbeing essential to the concept's definition? Well, atthis stage my work is not very far along, consideringthe ground that must be covered, but it would seemthe following characterize technology well:

Technology practices in order to test or refinetheories of efficient action which can only be de-rived from practice. Knowledge (ology) of prac-tice (techn) is technology (Lux, 1983, p. 1). It ispraxiological knowledge--the knowledge of prac-tice!

Technology [is] . . . knowing how to do someth-ing from the rules, sometimes from scien tifictheories, sometimes from pragmatic experience

37


(technic) (Smalley, p. 20).

Technology is a social process in which abstracteconomic, cultural, and social values, shape, de-velop and implement specific artifacts and tech-niques that emerge from the distinct technicalproblem-solving activity called engineeringwhich is embedded in that process (Cutcliffe,1981, p. 36).

Technology is made up of physical elements in-vented or created by human beings (DeVore,1980, p. 3).

Technology is the creation and utilization ofadaptive systems including tools, machines, ma-karials, techniques and technical means, and therelation of the behavior of these elements andsystems to human beings, society, and the civili-zation process.

Furthermore, it is important to note that the con-cept of technology is used in several ways, the fol-lowing are but two of the more frequently used ones:

As a discipline, the term technology denotes afield of study in the same way that geology, biol-ogy or anthropology are used.

As a system, technology refers to a purposefully

Figural

The Context of Technology

organized collection of hardware and soft wareused to achieve a desired end.

Technology is also housed within the larger envi-ronment of human endeavor. Some key categoriesof such endeavor are depicted in Figure 1. Thismodei provides a background that could be usedwhen restricting the scope of development work toone of the arenas of technology. Although each hasunique attributes, these tend to blur near the inter-face of two or more endeavors. As evidence of this,consider the difficulties along the interface betweenreligion and philosophy, science and technology, oreven social science and technology. However, wemust not avoid consideration of the matter just be-cause things are not clear or because they are partic-ularly challenging. It just mean that we must worklonger, harder and smarter!

The Concept of Technological Literacy

Two components are essential to the concept oftechnological literacy. The first is technology and thesecond is literacy. The former, i.e., technology, hasbeen addressed in the preceding section. Literacyhowever was not.

Today, at least in the American culture, the term

Human Endeavor Characterise...s Application Arenas

Religion Divine wisdom

Science

Technology

Exolanation ofnature

Doing, applyingrules and experiencein solving practicalproblems

Philosophy Systematic thought

Social Science Behavior

Theology

ChemistryPhysics

AnnihilationHealingIndustryAgronomy

MetaphysicsEpistemologyLogicEthics

SociologyPsychologyPedagogyAndragogyAnthropology

Note: A preliminary and te.aative view of the context of technology is shared in this illustration. It presents aseries of categories of human endeavor In the left column. The key characteristic(s) of each endeavor is(are)listed In the middle column. Finally sample application arenas for each category of endeavor are hated in theright column. In each column, the items listed are intended to be illustrative rather than exhaustive.

38

Technological Literacy Symposium 33VIM

literacy has evolved considerably beyond merelyknowing letters--just as its twin, numeracy, meansmore than just knowing numbers. The 1970 Harrispoll showed ;ust how far the public's view of literacyhas evolved beyond that of reading and writing. Itshowed that literacy had come to mean: "the abilityto respond to practical tasks of daily life" (p.10). But,is there a more statement about what it means to beliterate? The best I have found is Luehrman's claimthat:

Literacy . .. means the ability to read and write, thatis, to do something with a language, not merely torecognize that language is composed of words, toidentify a letter of the alphabet, or to be aware of thepervasive role of language in society. (Cited in Ben-derson. 1983, p.5)

Analogously, technological literacy necessarilyrequires the ability to do technology, that is, to use itand not merely to recognize technological process-es. Technological literacy requires more than justthe ability to identify technological components or tobe aware of technology's effects. Although thesecharacteristics; rec ognizing, identifying, and aware-ness; are important and necessary characteristics oftechnological literacy, without the ability to do, theyare unfortunately not sufficient.

Technological literacy is the possession of abroad knowledge of technology together with thenecessary attitudes and physical abilities to apply theknowledge in a safe, appropriate, efficient and effec-tive manner. Technological literacy requires that onebe able to perform tasks using the tools, machines,materia:s and processes of technology.

Based on this and my research, I have synthe-sized a model for technological literacy that I amproud to share for your consideration. Figure 2presents a simplified introduction to the model andsubsequent sections of this paper will provide addi-tional details. Essentially the model proposes threekey dimensions which define technological literacyand which guide programming for it. These dimen-sions are:

1. Technology's components. This dimensionis defined by the results of a systems analysis of whattechnology is and how people "do" it.

2. Desired educational outcomes. This dimen-sion is used to detail the nature of the outcomesdeemed desirable by education within the context ofour societal needs.

3. Levels of technological literacy. This dimen-sion recognizes that technological literacy is not asingular concept but rather that it can be manifestedat varying levels based on a person's stage of devel-opment and his/her role in life.

Figure 2Overview of Proposed Model ofTechnological Literacy

Fallacies and Perversions Associated with Technological Literacy

1. Technology and science are the same

2. Technology is applied science.

Kranzberg, certainly one of America's leadingscholars of technology, acknowledges thatwhile cases exist which might suggest this, he

Educational Outcomes

Technology's

Components --pAPP

Levels of

Technological

Literacy

would dispute the necessity that this be true.At the Chicago Museum of Science & Indus-try's fiftieth anniversary he stated: "For much ofhistory, science and technology were two sep-arate activities carried out by different commu-nities who rarely came in contact with one an-other; they used different methods and soughtdifferent goals" (1983, p. 8).

3. Computer literacy is the same as or better thantechnological literacy.

Far from it! Computer literacy is < technologicalliteracy. Computers are butone part of thetechnological species. Technology is not apart of computing, rather computing is an as-pect of technology. Given this relationship, theconcept of technological literacy necessarilysubsumes computer literacy.

4. The impetus for technological literacy origi-nates among the ranks of the liberal arts.

In America, the earliest form of collective argu-ment for technological literacy known to mestemmed from the industrial arts profession. Itbegan with the publishing of Warner's earlier

39


began with the publishing of Warners earlierwork; A Curriculum to Reflect Technology(1965). Then the field's references to the topicincreased rapidly. Most of them significantlypreceded the attention of our science and lib-eral arts colleagues. Frankly, in our country,the bulk of scientists and their liberal arts ilk justdid not deem the study of technology impor-tant until the force of public opinion resultingfrom the weight of several generations of ne-glect loomed so large that they simply could nolonger ignore it.

The Significance of Technological Literacy

Technology is the essence of the economy ofwhat we cal "developed" countries. Absence oftechnology leads to our euphuism of "developing"courtly. Not only does technology play a pivotal rolein our economic world, it also determines the extentto which we can defend ourselves and in a large part,the level of our quality of life. It is a significant focusfor the recreational activity of millions and the corner-stone of a healthy future. Because of its acknowl-edged importance, technology carries with it consid-erable responsibility and even threat. Misuses oftechnology are well known to even laypersons andmore than a few knowledgeable experts have fore-casted doom precipitated by humankind's use/abuse of technology. Therefore, "it would seem thatthe hope for a future in which people are in control oftheir environment lies in universal technological liter-acy, or the ability to do and to use technology--notjust to be aware of it" (Dyrenfurth, 1984, p. 1).

Unfortunately however, human resource devel-opment in the technological realm has been termed"our most neglected asset" (Schaum 1981, p. 39).Technology feeds on imagination, audacity, scienceand most importantly, on technology itself. In orderto accomplish the latter, a large proportion if not ail ofour societies need to be relatively competent withtechnology. Technological literacy is the foundationfor such competence.

Additionally, technological literacy is the basis forflexibility in the future. It enables people to controland evaluate technology, to adapt to the changingworld and to contribute to the advancement of itscapabilities (Stashak, 1981, p. 23). Gibbons (1983)and Blankenbaker (n.d.) augment this list by sug-gesting that technological literacy increases entre-preneurial capacity, helps people make more in-formed occupational choice, contributes to better cit-izenship, enhances consumer and personal effec-tiveness, and enables better defence.

Because of the apparent validity of these argu-ments, and/or the force of the accumulated techno-logical press, technological literacy is now increasing-ly considered an essential component of what is be-ing called the new liberal arts. Progress is also notedin secondary education where both Goodlad's(1983) perceptive study of schooling and Boyer's(1983) report to the Carnegie Commission for theAdvancement of Teaching call for technological liter-acy by name.

Technological Literacy: A Detailed Look

Technology operates in many arenas. Althoughindustrial applications may come to mind first, medi-cal, military and agricultural technologies quickly fol-low. And these a:e but some of the arenas! I beganthe development of the model for technological liter-acy by considering the dimension I labeled, Technol-ogy's Components. First I pursued application are-nas as further descriptors of this dimension. Figure 3depicts the model that resulted.

Figure 3

Technology's Application Arenas

Closer examination however revealed that ineach of the application arenas, the process of"doing" technology is quite similar. Consequently itbecame desirable to treat the application arenas inanother manner. Because each engenders uniqueperspectives, I decided to consider the applicationarenas as a context or frame of reference through

which the model for technological literacy is viewed.This approach is illustrated in Figure 4. These per-spectives can serve as screens through which themodel can be seen. This removes the settings/application arenas from the model itself and thusmakes it more generic--and I hope, more adaptableto the cultural contexts of your various countries.

40


Figure 4

Technology's Appli, ation Arenas as Frames of Ref-erence

Further justification for this treatment of applica-tion arenas comes from the observation that eacharena's technology typically uses information, ener-gy and processes material. Granted the combina-tions and some specifics may be unique, but in myjudgement the commonality far outweighs the uni-queness. Consequently it seems possible, evendesirable, to evolve a model for technological literacy

t h

atis

Model of Technological literacy

MilitaryContexts o r

IndustrialorAgricultural

not application arena specific.

But be careful! Without the use of a specific are-na designator technological literacy must necessarilyre fer to literacy across multiple application arenas- -not just one or two that might serve tha proponent'swhims best. Given this approach, which focuses onthe generic activities and characteristics of technolo-gy, one might now depict the first dimension, that ofthe components of technology, as shown in Figure5. This dimension presents the results of my per-sonal analyses which suggest the centrality of fourgeneric activities; communication, energy and pow-er utilization, materials and processing, and ofcourse, technological problem-solving; to all techno-logical endeavor. Additionally, the illustration showsa tentative proposal for the next deeper level of de-tail for ea^!- If the four generic activities.

Figure 5

Technology's Components

Now let us turn our attention to the proposedmodel's second dimension, namely educational out-

comes. What do the schools seek to accomplish? Inattempting to address this question, in the late fiftiesthe American Psychological Association developeda rubric, shown in Figure 6, that postulates three do-mains for such outcomes: The cognitive, the affec-tive and the psychomotor.

Technology

Idle GenentioniCommunicshon Informodon Encoding

Tweeting

1 formetion Decoding

I p4 Posts glraCn:ninvilissilionn

Instrumentation

Control

Ileteriels Utilization

trials I Processing

Lfroblam solving

Motorists Processing

Info:melon Accusing

Intonation Processing

Technology Assessment

Experimenting

Systems Anelysis

Spteras Synthelis

Simulation

Fututing

Cognitive outcomes essentially include thosethat pertain to reasoning. They range from themost simple, that of rote recall, to the most com-plex, that of evaluation, in six steps.

Affective outcomes are those that focus on ourstudents' values, attitudes, preferences and in-clinations. They range from the most basic, thatof receiving, to the highest, that of characteriza-tion, in five steps.

Psychomotor outcomes are those that involvestudents abilities for controlled muscular move-ment and the intake and processing of sensa-tion.

Essentially the view is that although each do-main may be treated separately for analytical purpos-es, the student typically integrates all three domainsas he/she develops each significant new capability.However, the relationships of the domains to one an-other are not yet well established. Within each do-

41


main, mastery of higher level competencies neces-sarily requires mastery -` all lower levels.

Figure 6

Educational Outcomes

Finally we need to turn to the third dimension ofthe model, namely the levels of technological litera-cy. Given the scope of technology, the various pur-poses of education, and of course individual per-spectives, it seems appropriate to consider the exis-tence of varied levels of technological literacy. Con-sequently I am exploring the implications of levels oftechnological literacy such as those shown in Figure

EdulatIonal Outcomes

4 ogi=ffecflva 1-----71orrAoDomain Domain Domain

7. In essence the level dimension addresses the in-dividual's age, experience, needs, role and the like.

Figure 7

Levels of Technological Literacy

Combining the three dimensions as detailed, to-gether with the use of application arenas as frames ofref erence, results in the comprehensive model fortechnological literacy as shown in Figure 8. Notealso that this model was supplemented with illustra-tive examples of characteristics that depict educa-tional outcomes in each of the three domains; cogni-tive, affective and psychomotor.

First OrderCitizenship

Second OrderTradesperson

Third OrderTechnician

Fourth OrderTechnologist

Fifth OrderEngineer

Sixth OrderScientist

The following steps are but one approach thatmay be used to apply this model to the developmentof an educational program that develops the techno-logical literacy of its charges. Therefore the authorcautions his readers not to restrict themselves to thisone example of the model's application. There mayvery well be other purposes for this model and othermethods by which it may be used to address them.

1. Begin by asking, with respect to any of the state-ments on the model's front face, and the firstcomponent of technology (Problem Solving),given this outcome:

What cognitive capabilities must students havein order to be able to do this?

What affective capabilities must students havein order to be able to do this?

What psychomotor capabilities must studentshave in order to be able to do this?

2. Then, still focussing on this statement, repeat theprocess for the second (Materials & Processing)and each successive component of technologyin turn.

3. After completing steps one and two, continuethese interactions with each successive state-ment defining technological literacy.

4. When finished, you will have built a comprehen-sive description of capabilities that define tech-nological literacy given your partic.Jlar context.

Summary

This model has been presented for your useand consideration. it is in an ongoing evolutionarystate and it should not be considered as being final-ized. Additional detail is needed, particularly in aug-menting and/or further delineating each dimensionwith greater precision. Additionally the fifteen edu-cation outcome statements that characterize a tech-nologically literate person certainly need to be sup-plemented. Of course much work also remains to bedone to specify how the characteristics of second or-der technological literacy differ from first and third or-ders and so on.

Your participation in this quest and in other ven-tures stimulated by this model is encouraged. Thenext generations need our work now!

42


Appendix ACharacteristics of Technologically LiteratePeople

Cognitive Domain

1. Awareness of key processes and their govern-ing principles? (What is it and how does it work?)

2. Understanding of essential relationships amongkey areas of technology.

3. Ability to conceptualize how an unfamiliar tech-nological process or machine operates.

4. A sense of personal limits (when to call in an ex-pert).

5. Familiarity with technology's efforts on individu-als and society.

6. Ability to evaluate a technological process orproduct in terms of personal benefit as a consumer.

7. Insight as to the relationship between careersand the technological future.

8. Ability to project alternative futures based ontechnological capacities and applications.

9. Knowledge of technological information as-sessing methods and sources.

10. Etc...

Affective Domain

1. Comfort with basic technological hardware(willingness to use tools, machines, and materials).

2. Imagination to apply existing technology to newproblems or situations.

3. Ability to evaluate a technological process orproduct in terms of personal benefit as a consumer.

4. Ability to choose among technological alterna-tives in daily life.

5. Etc...

Psychomotor Domain

1. Ability to use technological artifacts (tools, ma-chines, materials, and processes) commensuratewith one's stage of development.

2. Ability to use technological artifacts (tools, ma-chines, materials, and processes) commensuratewith one's role in life.

3. Etc..

The bulk of this content was presented at thePA'TT 2 conference, Eindhoven University of Tech-nology, April 1987. It represents a refinement of

concepts originally published in Dyrenfurth, 1984.

43


Technology & the Liberal Arts:Are We Producing Technopeasants?

Dr. John P. Brockway, DirectcrCenter for Special Studies

Director, Slcan Program in Technological StudiesDavidson College

Davidson, North Carolina

Introduction

First, let me say how pleased I am to be able tocontribute to this volume and to thank Dr. Blanken-baker and Dr. Miller for having organized the confer-ence and for having invited me to contribute. I ammost pleased to be able to do so. This conferenceand its proceedings address mainstream issues forour generation and most probably the next. Theseissues are international in scope, and important in atransformational sense.

I have for the last four years been ;evolved inseveral major projects and programs which deal di-rectly with the issues of technology. I have written,spoken about, produced symposia and subsequentvolumes concerned with technology and its mulilf a-ceted linkage to our society in general and the liberalarts in particular. Trainer' t a psychologist and psy-cholinguist who is inte 1 the problems of hu-man memory, I know i rge Miller told us thatwe can really only remel. Jven plus or minus twoitems, but that George Manuier later revised that esti-mation to about five plus or minus two, but I'm surethat the real figure for me, is probably one, plus or mi-nus three. What I mean by that remark is that I some-times have the feeling that I can remember some-thing, but it turns out that what I know or remember iswrong, !'s makes me think something which is patentlymisleading. I think this statement is true for much ofwhai is said and written about technology today, es-pecially its role, if it has one, within the liberal arts. I

think that the informed citizen "knows" about tech-nology and much of what he or she "knows" iswrong, or misleading. Moreover, I think that some ofthe misleading and false knowledge that aboundsproduces and Interacts with attitudes, sentiments,feelings, and orientations which prevent and discou-rage the acquisition and subsequent use of techno-logical knowledge.

Culture, Society & Technology

I want to make several general observations

about the nature of technology, together with sever-al far more specific assumptions. Let me begin thenwith the general assumptions. The first of these as-sumptions deals with a metaphorical understandingof our society. I want to suggest that at least meta-phorically, if not literally, our culture has as one of itsprimary hallmarks technological knowledge. A flip-pant way to say this is to say that we live in an electro-mechanical, digital, computational, chemical, bio-medically engineered society. if our society has asignpost, then the signpost is pointing toward tech-nological solutions, toward increased technologicalknowledge, toward increased interaction with tech-nology, and not in any other direction. It is probablytrue that only three other cultures seem to be on thissame road, and they are Japan, Germany, andFrance. One could also include Great Britain, but Ihaven't for reasons of scale. Of course other cul-tures want to advance technological knowledge, usetechnological knowledge, and much has been writ-ten recently concerned with technological transfer.

David Billington, Professor of Civil Engineeringat Princeton, frames the statement another way."Without modern technology there is no modern life,and do teaching of values in modern life makessense outside of the context of modern technolo-gy." The writers (Schumacher, E. F., 1973; Shi, D.,1985) propounding "small is beautiful" or "less ismore" are being sensitive to individual reactionswhich may be characterized as being "overwhelmedby the wave of technological advances." I want tomaintain here that neither these characterizations,nor the wave of technology, is without its price.Careful analysis of these costs seems crucial to un-derstanding what all the fuss about technologyseems to be. The fuss seems to be that many peo-ple, ordinary citizens and leaders and managersalike, do not know much about technology, do nothave much technological knowledge, and do notwant to be associated with the forces associated withthose that do.

44

icLTechnoloav and Liberal Arts: Are We Producing Technorleasants?

Let me try to be clear about what I think technol-ogy is, and how I classify it. Some classify it as merelyengineering, and the principles which lie behind, orunderneath, engineering thought. Endemic tothese kinds of definitions lies a thought processwhich centers on design, and its constraints of econ-omy, efficiency, elegance, and risk. However, I thinkthis kind of definition is only partially correct. I thinkthat kind of definition somehow ignores the idea thattechnology is a body of knowledge which is distinct,and apart from other bodies of knowledge such asscience. It is first and foremost, not accurately de-scribed as merely applied science. Historians ofscience have produced enough examples demon-strating that good technology, innovative technolo-gy, seems to precede, rather than follow, accuratescientific understanding. This "time" distinction is animportant one. The notion tha, science leads, andtechnology follows inclines one to think of technolo-gy as the step - sister of science, the second-child,whereas in many cases cited by Brittain (1984), Kran-akis (1984), and Layton (1984), the technologist pro-duces an artifact and then science explains why itworks as it does. This is amply true of the machinesof medicine that I will mention shortly. This step-sister labelling carries with it certain pejorative atti-tudes, prevalent and rampant in our educational sys-tem today, from grade school to graduate school.

A student of mine, Andrew Henderson, has not-ed that we begin early in ignoring teaching the mindto think mechanically, innovatively, spatially, and de-rivatively. He indicts our educational system from thevery start. He points out that the culture expressesour lack of esteem for these mentally vital skills. Whathe seems to be saying is that this is probably a devel-opmentally linked process of mental acquisitionwhich we as educators and citizens are now routinelyignoring.

And so we can say that American society issteeped in a hot bath of technology, governed anddirected by a new body of knowledge, but it seemsnot to be by design of the educators, and indeed, itmight be to many's chagrin. Now many Americans,including some of us, feel discomfort, uneasiness,alienation or fear, rather than a relaxed, soporific,somnolence. The mention of technology seems tocreate emotional states which are fraught with angstand frustration, instead of the more apt feelings ofpride and confidence. For example, when planestake off today, usually somewhat late, we feel onedge, knowing that things could run on time if theywere done right, and we feel annoyed that our thou-sand mile trip that will take about two hours, is going

to take a half an hour more. And we wonder as we siton the ground, in line waiting and watching others totake off, if our plane has had the routine mainte-nance, and whether it will function safely, and notcrash. We, as Americans, expect technological solu-tions to work, and to work well, and we are not madehappy, confident and chee. ul when they do not.Americans are struggling with technological advanc-es emotionally.

Americans still fear flying, bite their tongues infrustrations while sitting in front of computer screens,cruse under their breath if the computer doesn'tseem to be doing what they want, when they want itto. They are exasperated when the telephone sys-tem seems overloaded, or when their idicrochip-laden car fails to start. This seems a curious phenom-err-, when comparing the American reaction to a for-eigners. Phone systems in France routinely bogdown. Water systems in Mexico hardly ever produceclean, clear, safe water. Refrigeration units in Leba-non are almost never able to produce cold, slow air,and the electricity is so uneven, televisions, eleva-tors, lights, clocks, inotors and `requently fail. So toodoes the notion of confidence.

While much of the rest of the world rejects ourmorals, our methods, our attitudes and sentiments,what it does want from us is our technology; our low,intermediate, appropriate, and most of all, our hightechnology. The Russians want it so badly they willsteal it. They recognize its human value becausethey will allow their citizens, even their highly visibledissident citizens, to come to the United States formedical treatment, which translates directly to theirrespect for and awe of and inability to manufacture,produce, discover and use medical technology.They steal our computer technJlogy for the powerinherent in it speed, its computational quickness,particularly in fire and control system, and of coursein the security of communications systems as well.They would like to produce it as the West does, andGorbachev could be seen as the new Peter theGreat, with an orientation to tnings western, whichtranslates most readily to technological knowledge.

As I originally wrote this, I thought this made thepoint well. In a conversation with Robert C. Williams(personal communication, 1986), a Russian historianwho has written about the espionage trial of KlausFuchs, I learned again that in Russia, everything is astate secret. The location of railroad stations is im-portant and one cannot photograph anything that isa state secret, which means that one cannot photo-graph most of what exists in the Soviet Union. The

45


depth of this differing mentality can be seen in thefact that Russian agents have routinely stolen Exxcnroad maps, the ones that were given away in gas sta-tions, and sent them back to Moscow. But the point Iwant to make there is that you and I both know theyare trying desperately to steal any and all technologi-cal secrets, and you and I cannot imagine thebreadth of what this means they are trying to steal.

The Japanese and Germans perceive them-selves to be locked in a dead heat with us, engagedin a competitive battle which will have high impact oninternational economics for the developed and less-er developed nations. Japaneses microelectronicsare at the heart of the trade legislation before ourCongress now. The entire electronics industry is inturmoil over just this issue. Lessor developed na-tions want from the United States any and every kindof technology that we or any other nation so inclinedcan provide. Water and sewage treatment electricityproduction, petrochemicals, pollution and pesticidecontrols, you merely have to name it and someone orsome nation wants it. They want the entire spectrumfrom agricultural genetic engineering, to high techglues.

It does not matter whether it is low or high tech,each and every kind is sought. Each has a perceivedvalue, and each extracts a cost. For example, tech-nology can be valued because it can reduce nutri-tional anxiety. It can and has increased dramaticallythe yield per acre, so that more food can be pro-duced by fewer acres and fewer people. Yet thereare indirect costs too, in that technology may now beresponsible for our eating less healthy foods. Thesecosts can take a variety of forms, some of which arenot at all benign. For example, nuclear waste dispo-sal, a topic that has placed North Carolina in the newsrecently is a problem created by technological solu-tions which is wrapped in human values discussions.Technology has created harmful by-products, andthe storage of these by-products is emotionally ernbroiling, politically sensitive, economically costly, so-cially devisive.

I do not mean to suggest that there are not otherkinds of technological solutions that are not just asinternationally and culturally controversial. TheDutch government rejected petitions by vast num-bers of citizens who did not want American Cruisemissiles deployed in their countryside. Obviouslythe focus of the argument, one of the largest publicdebates in terms of percentages of individuals whobecame involved, was an unnatural object, the cruisemissile, the product of American technologists.

Now, only one year after these missiles have been vi-olently debated and subsequently implanted, Secre-tary of State George Schultz and the Russian For-eign Minister Shevardnadze seem to have agreed toremove these missiles. It is no wonder that angst,frustration, confusion and loss of confidence areclear. Technology seems to be the heart and soul offoreign policy, among other aspects of modern life.

The first assumption here deals with the natureof our society, the nature of our nation and the na-ture and direction in which it is pointed, and it ispointed toward technological solutions, toward tech-nological thought, or toward a technological mode ofthinking. This direction leads to psychological statesof uneasiness in many, to frustration, fear, anxiety,and despondency. This attitude which seems prev-alent, and seems destined to become more preval-ent given the direction of our society, has not alwaysbeen.

Early technologies, such as garden tools, orstone bridges, or tractors may have implied that tech-nology provided solutions, but the use of technolog-ical knowledge did riot seem to create a sense of un-easiness, a sense of alienation, or a sense of frustra-tion as many modern technological solutions do.Earlier technologies did not seem to create the fren-zied moral, psychological, political, and economic di-lemmas that many of our present technologies do.Early technological knowledge and its use seemednot to produce a sense of dread. This is an importantpoint that I want to return to several times, because itis this point that suggests to us that we must act dif-ferently than we have in the past. This attitude ofdread and rejection is concommitant with the ad-vance of technological knowledge. When you aredisheartened by something, you typically do not ap-proach it, learn about it, play with it, think about it.Moreover, you typically do not attempt to become lit-erate about it.

Technopeasantry

The second major assumption I want to make isthat just as the peasants during the middle ageswere unable to control their society, were bound tothe land and bound to the masters of wealth, so toowill be the problems of the technologically illiterate inour society. I want to assert that without technologi-cal understanding, or some form of technologicalknowledge one will be a peasant, a serf, a slave. Be-ing a technopeasant, that is, being technologically il-literate, being technologically deaf and dumb, or be-ing technologically incompetent is a very real and dis-tinct possibility for many in our society. This second

4u

4 .T hnolooy ,n. Li. :r. A Areal^ Pr II n. T h . -a - n s

assumption deals with the question, "Who will betechnopeasant? Are you one now? Are you aboutto become one / Will your students be technopeas-ants too? Will your husband or wife, friend or lover,mother or grandfather, secretary or boss, lawyer ordoctor be a technopeasant?" Being a technopeas-ant implies being bound to the masters of technolo-gy, bound to the users of technological knowledge,subservient to its employers.

Moreover, being a technopeasant in any fieldcan be dangerous. As an illustration I want to pointout Molly Moore's article in ttia Washington Post'sNational Weekly edition dated October 27, 1986. Inthis article she points out that it takes 18 complexsteps to fire a Stinger missile (a hand-held, shoulder-fired thirty-five pound, anti-aircraft rocket designed toshoot down low-flying aircraft), and this does notcount the need for the soldier to hold his breath toavoid inhaling the noxious fumes it emits when it isfired." At $50,000 each, and weighing thirty-fivepounds, the weapon is efficient, economic, but it isnot elegant. Remember, it has been designed tocripple low-flying aircraft, essentially a one -on -onesituation, with one infantryman against one or two airforce personnel flying an aircraft worth 15-20 milliondollars. "But when you have a weapon that an Ameri-can high school graduate who's going to be in theArmy cannot operate and maintain. . .that is a prob-lem," says Lawrence J. Korb, the Pentagon's man-power chief from 1981 to 1985.

Thls second major assertion then deals with thefate of the faculty and students, particularly thosewho have not opted for a technologically driven, nortechnologically sophisticated education. It deals withthe citizens whose formal educationai activity is over.It deals with individuals who attitudes and disposi-tions chart an educational course which steers clearof technological knowing. We have to ask this ques-tion in a serious tone. Will these persons suffer aloss of control? Will the person who has little or noaccess to technological knowledge during this or hergrade school, middle school, high school, under-graduate or graduate education, by design andchoice, suffer the consequences of peasanthoodduring the middle ages?.

The obvious answer to this question is "yes, em-phatically, yes," and one can see that this has alreadyhappened and is happening in other sectors of thesociety. It has certainly happened and is true in busi-ness. You cannot run a business today without tech-nology. It is true in medicine. You cannot go to thedoctors office, to a HMO, to a clinic or a hospital with-

out first-hand experience of a variety of differentforms of technology, nor can you be a competenthealth-care provider without an enormous shot oftechnology. It is true in publishing, where the revolu-tion in desktop publishing is presently standing thisprofession on its proverbial ear. It is true in communi-cations, with voice and digitalized data, and fax, andnow private telephone-linked video. It is true in auto-mobile manufacturing, and it probably true now infarming, where cattle performance, feed analysis,butterfat content and breeding are now monitoredand evaluated technologically and that this is essen-tial for the survival of the family farm.

This second major assertion contains within itthe premise that students and citizens without sometechnological familiarity, soine technologically lingu-istic skill, some technologically bound knowledge willbecome technopeasants. There are some obviousreasons why this will happen, and there are alsomeasures that can be taken to insure that it doesnot.

Consequences of Technopeasantry

One predictable consequence of being a tech-nopeasant is a lack of power. If knowledge is powerin our society, then those with technological knowl-edge will hold the power. However, in our society,sharing knowledge has always been associated withsharing power. An informed citizenry is a distributedpower base.

This distributed power base has always includedpersons educated in the Liberal Arts manner. If stu-dents of the liberal arts are vessels to be filled withthe wine of knowledge, then the wines in thesebottles are not and have not been technologicallysophisticated wines. Either the wines have not beenwell-blended, or the conditions for vintage qualityhave been distorted. The wine-makers may also bein error. These individuals are persons who havechosen NOT to go to MIT or to Cal Tech or to Carne-gie Mellon. This choice, this exercise of past learn-ing patterns, of past knowledge which is familiar,shows us the wine of humanities, the wine of lan-guages, the wine of history, classics, philosphy, psy-chology, sociology, anthropology, or economics.Thinkers ought not trivialize this choice, this orienta-tion toward people and not toward things, an orienta-tion toward interactive knowledge structures and nottoward artifacts. Preferences, attitudes and senti-ments, the stuff of great literature, and the guts ofmuch psychological writings, are deep rooted andcontribute more than their share of the weight to thisproblem.

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Technolfcical Literacy Symposium 43

Liberal Arts Colleges have produced more thantheir share of the leaders in our society, both in thepublic and private sector. Surveys of major corpora-tions reveal that persons with liberal arts educationcomprise the vast bulk of CEO's and upper levelmanagers, even in technologically driven companieslike DEC or IBM or AT&T, compared to those whohold technical degrees. The same patterns hold forpublic office positions at the regional, state and fed-eral levels. if we exhibit some form of thought pat-tern, some form of education or selection processhas been responsible for this phenomenon, then weshould continue to predict that liberally educatedpeople will continue to want to be leaders. However,the character of society is changing rapidly, has be-gun to change more rapidly than ever before. Thefuture leadership by the liberally educated person isseriously in doubt.

Doubts also arise when asking "Is a person trulyliberally educated if theta is no familiarity, no compe-tence or literacy in technology." Are we remiss, der-elict, negligent or worse, culpable for not having pro-vided this kind of literacy. Again, the answer tc thisquestion seem relatively clear. "Yes, we are derelictand culpable if we don't provide such an opportunity.One question is "Why?" provide this kind cf educa-tional orientation and a subsequent question is"How?" to produce it.

First, I want to address the question of "Why?"Why produce, induce, provide or advocate such aneducation? To rlswer part of this question, one hasto think about human interactions. One cannot enterinto any debate, public or private, and persuade theother of the force or your argument if one does notknow the facts, or one cannot know what others as-sume is known. Many of the debates, public as wellas private, turn in large part upon issues technologi-tA. Those who don't speak the language of technol-ogy will not participate in the debate at an influentiallevel. To think otherwise is merely wishful thinking.One other kind of an answer to the question "Why?"deals with the exercise of civic responsibility, and un-derlying that is the issue of power. Power in our de-mocracy Is uncheerfully given, to the leaders at anylevel of government. The power to control wherenuclear wasste is going to be stored, or low level gar-bage is going to be dumped, or how a landfill is goingto be created is never happily given over to another,and for substantive reasons. We usually settle theseissues of power through debate and referendum,the power of the ballot box.

The second psychological and socially driven

factor as a consequence of the direction that our so-ciety is marching in is that of alienation and resigna-tion. If individuals become resigned to being tech-nopeasants, feeling unable to know of their societyand feeling that they cannot fathom what is occur-ring, they will withdraw, become isolationistic, ignorethe whole and cease to participate.

But then. the question turns to "How?", how canthis be accomplished? In what manner and what waycan we adjust, if we care iv avoid these radical andundesirable projections.

The New Liberal Arts Program, first conceptual-ized in 1981 by a program officer there named Ste-phen White. He proposed that the Sloan Founda-tion embark on a major program, which for themmeans 17 to 20 million dollars, over a five to sevenyear time frame. He wrote an occasional paper, pub-lished under the same name, in which various indi-viduals were asked to respond to this idea. What I amabout to elaborate is what the program constitutestoday, and how much technological and quantitativereasoning it has spawned. Needless to say, it consti-tutes a programmatic response to what might havebeen called technological illiteracy, or a lack of sub-stantive knowledge having a mathematical/quantitative base.

David Billington of Princeton University hasspent a great deal of time trying to teach three unify-ing principles of engineering to liberal arts students.He thinks the unifying principles are elegance, econ-omy and efficiency. By elegance, he means that theaesthetics of European bridge designers, and someAmerican bridge and tower designers, seem to beunified with the sentiments and feelings of the socie-ty at large and with those who are experiencing thetower or Bridge. In his book, The Tower and theBridge he draws comparisons between public civilworks along these three lines. In separate volumes,he discusses the works of Robert Maillart and hisanalysis of the 1930 Salginatobel Bridge, in theGraubunden area of Switzerland, and The Works ofChristian Menn. He calls attention to the aestheticsof the place and time. More than that, he calls atten-tion to the parallels between the repair of publicworks and the well being of the society. When thesociety is running well, then the public works aremaintained and cared Mr, but when society, free andopen society, is derelict, then the public works seemto show it. When the roads and public sewers andpublic water systems fall out of repair, as has beenthe case in New York City, then Billington suggest tous that these values are the values reflected by the

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44 Technoloov and Liberal Arts: Are We Producino Technooeasants?

society, and can be seen as open and not closed.Nowhere has this difference been made more mani-fest recently that the accident at Chernobyl. The val-ues that permeate the society also permeate the de-sign and construction and execution of large scalepublic works, and that means the upkeep and pres-ervation of those values and those public works.(explain)

There is another side to this issue, of whatshould be known, and who should know it?. MaudChaplin, Dean of the Faculty at Wellesley, suggeststhat we should also look at the works of Martin Hei-degger whom she insists argues

"cogently and persuasively that the es-sence of technology is not technological. It

is rather, a mentality, a way of looking at theworld that is all-embracing and intrusive,seeking to control and domainate; by its in-sistence on order and rationality, this worldoutlook perceives nature as existing for theuse of people. The ethic of mastery be-comes the ubiquitous underlying value sys-tem which dictates all thought and action."

The question that Chaplin sets forth, and a sug-gestion implied by Heideggar is that the major prob-lems engendered by technology are not technologi-cal but human problems--psychological, social, politi-cal, ethical. If this is so, then why do we need to un-derstand the underlying technology? The mold ofthis question is not simple. It is a frequently asit.iquestion. It is a question that can take the form of"How much technology do I really have to know?" oras Patricia Johnson, Dean at Vassar puts it, "Howmuch technology is enough?" and how will we knowwhen w know enough? This is not a simple ques-tion and I want to give illustrations of why it is not.

The field I have been working in for the past fouryears is Bioengineering and Health Technologies. I

have done this for a variety of reasons, some ofwhich are quite personal. I want to speak about theeconomics of health care in the United States and Iwant to speak about the aesthetics and the meta-phorical changes In the knowledge we have aboutour health care in order to give an indication of the in-ter-relatedness of technology, politics, economicsand values.

Bioengineering & Health Technological Costs

First, in order to shock the sensibilities, I want totalk to your pocketbooks, our pocketbooks. We astaxpayers and buyers of Insurance are the payers ofthe costs of medical care, and generally not the us-

ers. Health care is very expensive. The U S. willspend more than $350,000,000,000.00 this year onhealth care. Either as a percentage of GNP r "s apercentage of the federal dollars spent, health ireexpenditures are rising faster than any other sector,including military expenditures. Health care expendi-tures now account for more than 10.9% of FederalDollar expenditures. One economist at MIT, JeffreyHarris, facetiously, but only partly so, says that theonly way he see to curbing expenses for militaryspending is by letting the cost of health care "eat upthe extra dollars."

Some of these rising costs are due to an agingsociety, due to the number of workers who havereached retirement age. The number of newly re-tired is now growing at an alarming rate. Medicareand Medicaid, funders for many individuals, togetherwith third-party payers, have instituted Direct Reim-bursement Groups (DRG's) to contain costs and thishas been some help. But the Claude Peppers ofthe society are reaching into the pocketbooks andpiggybanks of the young, and are going to drain theresources of any modern society at a precipitousrate. They are going to drain the savings and dispos-able incomes of children who have not yet begun towork, before they can vote, and before they canargue the basic unfairness. Health care is not nownor ever has been conceptualized as a right, yet thesociety, through the grapevine of growir.g techno-logical and litigious costs, is barreling toward such adefinition. Catastrophic health care recently pro-posed by the executive branch is merely one instan-tiation of this unfortunate idea.

Technological solutions for illness are patentlyexpensive, and the pressure is on in every medicallyrelated sphere to have these enormous costs paidby the young and old healthy worker. Two dramaticexamples can be found in the transplantation of kid-neys, and now in the newer, most recently decidedtransplantation of hearts. Kidney transplants are paidfor by public law, PL92-108 enacted in 1972, afteronly ten minutes debate in the Senate, no debate inthe House. The program now cost more than 35times the estimate given during that debate. The es-timates of the legislators were precipitously in errorand helped dramatically unbalance any budget. Thekidney transplantation program is now the dominant"model" for the enabling legislation and debate onthe transplantation of hearts. The programs are infact technological miracles for those who receive thetransplant. and medical miracles for those who per-form the transplants, and at the very same time spelleconomic disaster and ruin for those of us who are

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left to pay the bills. These are exactly examples oftechnological competence without the debate, thearticulate debate, couched in terms of the humani-ties, framed in terms of the egalitarian society, thedebate that would not ever allow speech about ra-tioning hearth care, or the wisdom of keeping a per-son alive on a kidney machine so that they can die ofcancer. Technologies enable new ethical questions,questions which are not able to be asked unless thetechnology exists, and when the technology exists,there seems no easy way to grasp the issues. Thereseems to be no easy way to say, this is valueless,and it should not be funded with public dollars, orthis is great, this is the stuff of life and vigor, and weshould fund it at all costs. .

Where and how is the student or the core medcitizen, or the informed leader going to hear these is-sues articulated if it is not by the academy, within theconfines of a sphere of intellectual growth, of spiritedintellectual debate? Technr peasantry is never beingable to influence, in any perceivable manner, thecentral questions and answers to the above morass,and the loss of control seems obvious.

Now one may ask questions of the values oftechnological knowledge, and I want to confine myremarks only to the technologies of medicine. Onecan make remarks about the technologies of the oth-er large portion of the federal budget, namely de-fense and offense in military technologies. I want toconfine my remarks to medical technologies be-cause for me, it iseasier to justify. The technologiesare oriented toward the promotion of life, not its de-struction by design. I recognize that statement to bearguable, however, not at this time.

Here are some give-aways. These images, theones I am about to show you are some of the mostimportant images ever produced in the history ofmankind. Produced by Magnetic Resonance Imag-ing, they are kind in nature, for as far as we know,they do not harm the patient, unlike so many othermedical procedures, including most other ways ofproducing images from inside the body, such as X-rays, or sonograms. These images, like billington'simages of bridges and towers, are of public/privateworks. By that, I mean many of the first images wereproduced by machines funded by public dollars.They now are being bought by any reasonable hos-pital, and are privately produced, even though someof the very best research and development takesplace in major research universities, such as theFrancis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory.

Why are they some of the most important imag-

es. They give high resolution of soft tissue with in-credibly clear definition inside some of the most diffi-cult places to look without damaging the patient.They give clear images of the posterior and mediafossa, an area of the head which is thick with bone.X-rays, which depend on material density differencesto produce images are absorbed by bone more thanbone more than they are by soft tissues. When X-rays pass through material and are absorbed at differ-ing rates according to density, and bone being dens-er than brain, it is a difficult thing to get a picture of abrain, encased in skull. Magnetic Resonance Imag-ing on the other hand, depends on an entirely differ-ent principle, lamely magnetic fields and radio fre-quency pulse sequences. MRI is non-ionizing radia-tion, cannot harm genetic material the way X-rayscan. This is no small achievement. CAT scans of thebrain usually use some radio- Isotope, or tracer as acontrast agent. and alhtough touted as benign, cer-tainly increase the risk to the patient.

The questions I have mentioned entail somesimple observations as well. Technopeasantrymeans a loss of status, a loss of leadership, a loss ofdecisiveness, a loss of self-control, a loss of steward-ship, and a loss of self-esteem.

References

Brittain, J. E. (1984). The alexanderson radio alter-nator and the distinction between engineeringand science. In J. N. Burnett (Ed.), Technologyandscienr&Limarts colleges. Davidson, NC: Davidson College-Press.

Kranakis, E. F. (1984). Blast pipes, injectors, andtheories of heat. In J. N. Burnett (Ed.), Technol-ogy and science: Important distinctions for liber-al arts colleges. Davidson, NC: Davidson Col-lege Press.

Layton, Jr., E. T. (1984). Engineering and sciencesand distinct activities. In J. N. Burnett (Ed.),Technology and science: Important distinctionsfor liberal arts colleges. Davidson, NC: DavidsonCollege Press.

Schumacher, E. F. (1973). 5mall is beautiful: Eco-flOMICS as if people_ mattered. New York: Harper& Row.

Shi, D. E. (1985). The simple life: Plain living andhigh thinking in American culture. New York:Oxford University Press.

White, S. (1981). The new liberal arta. An Occasion-al Paper. New York: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

5 0


Technological Literacy - One of the New Basics


Introduction

!t can be said that modern society dependsupon technology. The term "industrial-technologicalsociety" expresses the meaning of this statement. Inthis sense, this paper shall examine the characteris-tics of modem society related to technology and in-quire into the justification of technology education.

Also, a justification of technology educationbased on tie nature of human development will bepresented. Since the beginning of history, humanbeings have made and used tools. That is, we as-sume that manipulative ability is our nature.

In this paper, I will discuss the justification oftechnology education on above two points of view.

Modem society and the Justification ofTechnology Education

Technology is the most basic common culture inmodem society. Nobody will have any objections tothis sta.ement. However, in an historical context, itcould not be accepted as a fact until the emergenceof modem industrial society. Team logy in the earlyand middle ages was mainly a means to earn a livingfor lower class people including slaves. For instance,in eery Greek culture, the Banausic Craftsmen wereheld hi the class just above a slave (Hoster, p. 212).That is, technology and hand work were acknowl-edge a as lower class culture and upper class peoplewere so tar from it.

Even in the Medieval period, technology be-longed to the lower working class as their means toearn a living. Hence, apprenticeship in the craftswere a primary means of education available to theyouths of working class (Martin & Luetkemyer, p. 20).In other words, technology was not general and

common culture that was taught to everybody. In atraditional agrarian society, technology again wasneeded only by the lower class people as a means ofliving.

However, technology in modern society is an es-

Study on the Justification of TechnologyEducation as General Education

Dr. Suk-Min Chang, DirectorDivision of Vocational-Technical EducationKorean Educational Development Institute

Seoul, Korea

sential component to everybody's daily life. Sincethe Industrial Revolution, technology was developedmore rapidly than any other time in history and con-sequently has made great contributit'ns to industrialand economic development. Owing to these devel-opment, we can now enjoy convenient modern liv-ing. Of course, the development of technology pro-duced reverse effects, too. As an inventor or user oftechnology, we have to experience both sides.Through our occupations, we either produce tech-nological products or use them. In other words, re-gardless of our socio-economic class, we are closelyassociated with technology. In this sense, technolo-gy can be defined as basic common culture in mod-ern society. Therefore, if general education is to ed-ucate general and common culture, technology edu-cation has to be a part of general education since it isdefined as general and common culture.

Reducing the characteristics of modern societyin one word yields industrialization, which means in-dustrialized society. If industry is a economic activityin which we change the forms of materials to increasetheir values for human wants and needs (Towers,Lux, & Ray, 1966, p. 40), industrialized society is asociety that is based on industries. As we experi-enced through Industrial Revolution, industrializationwas possible by technological development andtechnological development was accelerated by in-dustrialization. What happened was that in order tohave better competition, we needed to have newtecnnology and thus invested lots of time and mon-ey to develop technology. Accordingly, we can pro-duce almost everything in industry; that is, produc-tion and economic activity are totally dependent onindustries. If modern society depends on industryand industry depends on the development of tech-nology, then what is it to understand modem socie-ty?

to make a long story short, to understand mod-em society means to understand technological civili-zation. If this undersanding is not achieved, we miss

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50 Justification of Technology Education as General Education

a very important part of our modern society. Everystudent learns about natural science, but that doesnot mean that all students become natural scientists.It is because they need to understand naturalscience to live effectively. For the same reason, stu-dents also learn social science. In other words, it isvery important for us to understand both sciences asa ground of life.

Technology has rather short history of beingtaught in school. That is because technology wasnot taken seriously until Industrial Revolution. Ofcourse, our life had some relation to technologyeven before Industrial Revolution, but it was verysimple and traditional practice. So, it did not have tobe taught in school.

However, since technological civilization be-came the ground of our society, we have to under-stand technological system in order to understandour society itself. Now, technology is not just for low-er class people but for everybody.

We have used the word "participatory democra-cy." Now, we have a new word "participatory technol-ogy" (DeVore, pp. 333-338). This word shows oneof the characteristics that citizens living in high tech-nological society must be equipped with. In a demo-cratic society, it is most desirable if everybody canparticipate in social, economical affairs and exercisehis or her rights and duties. But in order to do that, itrequires him or her to have sufficient knowledgeabout social and political process. In this sense, par-ticipatory democracy requires its citizens to havemore abilities and responsibilities for learning.

In high technology society, democracy meansmore than political participation. Citizens need tohave a good stock of knowledge about technology.Nowdays, our daily life is related to technology inevery sense. Without knowing what it is, we face dif-ficulties even in personal life. Hence, to make every-body acquainted with technology became a majortask of participatory democracy, and technology hadto 5e a required course in every level of schooling.

By the previous discussion, it is possible to con-clude that technology means general knowledge ne-cessary for participating in social affairs as citizens ofdemocratic industrial society. Participatory technolo-gy requires every citizen to possess technological lit-eracy with responsibility. Moreover, it should not bejust a skill useful to daily life, but understandingabout technological system rooted in the society.Therefore, technology education should be accept-ed as general education to understand technologicalsystem as our living environment.

Human Developmental Needs and theJustification of Technology Education

Since the beginning of history, human beingshave made and used tools. Human history is indeedthe history of the development of tools. Many phi-losophers said that human ability and desire to makesorry thing is one of human nature. For example,Henri Bergson, the French philosopher pointed outthat there are two aspects of human nature in thephilosophical and historical context: homo sapiensand homo faber (Goudlge, pp. 290-291). He de-scribed homo sapiens in connection with rationalityand homo faber in connection with tool making abili-ty. Psychology Jean Piaget also classified human in-telligence into two categories through his study; ra-tional intelligence and practical intelligence (pp. 119-155). He suggested that rational intelligence is anability to understand abstractions and practical intelli-gence is an ability to operate physical objects. JeromS. Bruner proposed "a course of study on man"through interdisciplinary approach including sociolo-gy, anthropology, psychology, etc. in order to makestudents understand human nature. In this course,he divided human characteristics in five categoriesand put tool making ability as one of them (pp. 73-101). Gilbert Ryle who was a psychologist and phi-losopher also divided human knowledge into twocategories: "knowing-that" and "knowing-how."

Homo faber which Bergson pointed out in rela-tion to tool making ability can be conceived as tech-nological human nature. The practical intelligencedescribed by Piaget can be regarded as psychologi-cal nature of technology in the sense that it is an op-erational ability to handle physical objects. The dis-tinction by Ryle can be considered as an explanationon epistemological nature of technology.

Judging from the Ph we discussion, if there is ahuman nature whate%,.... it might be, technologyshould have some relation to it.

According to the taxonomy of educational objec-tives by Bloom (1956), human ability in divided intocognitive, affective and psychomotor domain. Hu-man nature that Bergson, Piaget and Ryle taskedabout has something to do with this psychomotordomain directly or indirectly.

If we human beings are born with some abilitiesrelated to technology, it Is natural for us to desire todevelop them. That is wahy we need technology ed-ucation and coordination of its subordinate factors.Fleishman pointed out that there are two aspects ofpsychomotor ability. One is about the area of physi-cal proficiency such as strength, flexibility, speed,

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INIMMISI1111111111k Technological Literacy Symposium 51

balance, coordination and endurance. The other isabout manipulative skill which is related to manualdexterity (pp. 245-286). This tells us not only the ne-cessity of technology education, but also the con-tent of it in the sense that it talks about developmen-tal needs of human beings.

According to Piaget, intelligence is an adaptiveprocess learned through active transaction with aperson and his environment, and children can learnthrough the use of manipulative materials and directexperience (Elkind 1974). Piaget also implies thatchildren can learn more actively through actions rath-er than teachers explanation or reading a book. Inorder to have active learning experience, childrenmanipulate and coordinate various materials. Thus, ifwe think of these actions as technology itself. tech-nology education is deeply related to the basic de-velopmental needs of human beings.

According to the results of the psychologicalstudies including Piaget's theory, children evolve astable body of useful information concerning theirenvironment through the development of a numberof motor patterns such as locomotion, manipulation,balance, throwing and catching. According to Pia-get, the initial information about these motor patternsis motor knowledge. And this motor knowledge sys-tem can be developed by interacting with the objectsin their environment. The development of motor skillincluding sensory motor skill, perceptional motor skilland psychomotor skill is then basically connectedwith technology education. Especially at the primaryschool level, technology education should be con-sistent with such developmental needs.

The manipulation and coordination of objectsand materials require more than physical function. Itis possible when we can practice our judgement inaccordance with our physical function. In this sense,the concept of technology focuses on psychomotorskill. Technology education, of course, should be re-lated to manipulative function and serves its develo-mental needs, but the meaning of technology is nowextending to include not only manipulative function,but also technological literacy.

The emphasis on technological literacy in tech-nology education means That there are needs fortechnological knowledge. Technological ideas andunderstanding are new developmental needs raisedwith the development of technological civilization.According to the studies done about technology ed-ucation, most students and citizens have nseds foris technological knowledge. That is to say, even iftechnology is human nature related to developmen-

tal needs, content of needs can be different by thechanges of time and environment. Hence, technolo-gy education should recognize developmentalneeds of human beings continuously and developthe contents accordingly.

Concluding Remarks

So far, the justification and necessity of technol-ogy education have been discussed on the basis ofthe characteristics of modern society and human na-ture. It is emphasized that technology educationshould be a compulsory course for all students at alllevels of school education in order to understandmodern society, which depends on technologicalcivilization as one of our environmental factors.Moreover, technology education has been recog-nized as an absolute part of genera! education fordevelopmental needs related to manipulative func-tion.

Technology education can be always justified interms of general culture and developmental humanneed as discussed in this paper. However, the spe-cific contents of technology education should beVai!&.i in accordance with time and environment inwhich people are living.

References

Boom, B. S. et al. (Ed.) (1956). laxonoMyQiIt&a:objectives: The classification of educa-

tional goals. handbook I: Cognitive domain.New York: David McKay.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Man: A course of_study, To-ward a Theory of Instructign. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 73-101.

Dececco, J. P.. & Crawford, W. R. (1974). The teach.:jng and learning of psychomotor skill. The Psy-choloay of Learning and Instruction (2nd ed.).New York: Prentice-Hall, 245-286.

DeVore, P. W. (1980). Technology: An introduction,.Worcester, MA: Davis, 333-338.

Elkind, D. (1974). Children and adolescents: Inter-pretative essays on Jean Piaget (2nd ed.). NewYorK: Oxford University Press.

Hoster, R. G. (1974). Historical reflections. In R. G.Thrower & R. D. Weber (Eds.), Industrial arts forthe elementary school, ACIATE 23rd Yearbook,212.

Goudlgb, T. A. (1967). Bergson, Henri. In P. Ed-wards (Ed.), The encyclopedia of philosophy, 1,290-291. New York: Macmillan.

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52 Justification of Technology Education as General Education

Martin, G. E., & Luetkemeyer, J. F. (1979). Themovements that led to contemporary industrialarts education. In G. E. Martin ', A.), industrialarts education: Retrospect._ prospect. ACIATE28th Yearbook, 20.

Piaget, J. (1969). The psycholoay of intelligence.London: Trans Malcolm Piercy, 119-155.

Ryla, G. (1949). IgiugntagLof_rnind London:Hutchinson.

Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966). A ra-tionale and structure for industrial_ arts subjectmatter, IACP Research Report, 40.


In the past few years there have been manystudies of education in the United States. One ofthe most prominent and most quoted is "A Nation atRisk." The opening paragraph states, "Our nation isat risk. Our once unchallenged preeminence in com-merce, industry, science and technological innova-tion is being overtaken by competitors throughoutthe world." 'Dos it is noted that the nation is at risknot because of a dearth of literature and the arts butbecause of a slowdown of development in scienceand technology.

As an example of this, recent reports indicate anever increasing portion of worldwide commercial air-liner orders going to manufacturers in England,France and Italy. This has been an almost unchal-lenged American domain for the past forty years. Weare all too aware of the challenge to domestic pro-duction of automobiles, steel, shoes, clothing andelectronic assemblies from foreign competitors.

The "Risk" report further states that educationaldeficiencies come at a time when the demand forhighly skilled workers new new fields is acceleratingrapidly. For example:

' Computers and computer-controlled equipmentare penetrating ever aspect of our lives--homes,factories, and offices.

' One estimate indicates that by the turn of thecentury millions of jobs will involve laser technol-ogy and robotics.

' Technology is rapidly transforming a host of otheroccupations. They include health care, medicalscience, energy production, food processing,construction, and the building, repair, and main-tenance of sophisticated scientific, educational,military, and industrial equipment.

.. .within the context of tiz modem scientific revo-lution, we are raising a generation of Americans thatis scientifically and technologically illiterate.

(There is a) growing chasm between a small scien-

A r ;se fol' Technological Literacy

Dr. Loren MartinDepartment of Industrial Education

Brigham Young UniversityProvo, UT

title and technological elite and a citizenry ill-informed, indeed uninformed, on issues with ascience component.

The nation had received previous warning of thisimpending problem in many studies and reports ofeducation in the past two decades. As an example, abook entitled, Man, Education, and Work by G, antVenn in 1964 cautions,

Unless far more and far better education onthe semi-professional, technical, and skilledlevels is soon made available to greaternumbers of citizens, the national economyand social structure will suffer irreparabledamage.

Former U.S. Commissioner of Education, ErnestL. Boyer, assisted with a repon similar to the "Risk"report. Also conducted in 1983, it was sponsored bythe Carnegie Foundation, and was entitled, HighSchool, A Report on Secondary Education in Amer-cia. Referring to that report, Mr. Boyer later stated:

In the Carnegie report we also call for a studyof technology for all students. I do not be-lieve that we can within the four walls of eve-ry school and within the four years of highschool prepare students for every special-ized occupation.

But we can and must help every studentlearn about the technology revolution,which will dramatically shape the lives of all ofthem.

Arguments over definitions of technology arenumerous. Most of the definers belong to a few per-cent of our society who are themselves technolo-gists. To the average person, technology is a mysti-cal black box. With wheels on it, it can be driven towork or to the supermarket. With hinges ?ncl someinsulation, it becomes the door to a refrige-ator or mi-crowave oven. With a bit of rounding of the corners,a nose cone up front, and a rocket motor in the back,

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54 A Case for Technological Literacy

it threatens nuclear winter.

Many nations of the world are classed as under-developed countries. This classitication is not be-cause of a deprivation of literature, the arts, laws, so-cial customs or great leaders. These nations havetheir own art forms :egends, folk heros, customs,mores, and taboos; many of which rival the best ofthe "first world" countries in philosophy, depth ofmeaning, and social development. The label"underdeveloped" stems, rather, from a deprivationof technology and an increased standard of livingcomparable to the more advanced nations.

In the TV series "Connections" (which I heartilyrecommend for your viewing) featuring the historyand development of technology and the chain reac-tion of technological events and their effect on soci-ety, the commentator, James Burke, suggest:. thatthe development of the moldboard plow was the sin-gle most significant element in allowing society toprogress from a subsistance agrarian economy toone where there was a surplus of food where somepeople could begin to devote their time and talentsto other endeavors. "Civilization" thus came into be-ing. It is significant that many of the least developedcountries have not progressed to the moldboardplow--they still subsist with the digging stick or thestick pulled by a draft animal or a fellow human being.

We have barely comprehended the influence oftechnology on natural and societal systems of thepast. The understanding of its future impact is evenmore remote. But as the gifts of technology becomemore pervasive and its concomitant problems morecritical, there is a compelling need for as broad an un-derstanding as possible. The technologists mustgive more thought to the uses of technology andtheir impact on nature and society. The non-technologists must no longer regard technology assomething that works magic for or against them.

It is interesting to contemplate the influence oftechnology upon our modern lives. The questionmay be asked, "Can you think of any aspect of yourdaily living which is not influenced by technology?"The difficulty in determining an answer to this queryillustrates the influence of technology. This in-fluence is expected to increase. Consider the de-velopment of technology during the lifetime of olderpersons now livingfrom the fastest form of transpor-tation being muscle power (the speed of a horse) tospeeds in excess of 100,000 miles per hour in spaceship travel. A supercomputer at Los Alamos NationalLaboratory is said to be able, at the rate of 780 millioncalculations per second, to perform more arithmetic

calculations within one day than did all of mankindprevious to 1970.

Broadly speaking, the study of the implicationsof technology upon society could become an inte-grating factor for all of education. It has been previ-ously noted that students in the secondary schoolsystem must become technologically literate. JamesR. Johnson, laboratory director of the 3M Companyhas emphasized the holistic integration of technolo-gy education,

Much has been said of technological !itera-cy, usually meaning that nontechnologistsmust learn some technics. But this is notenough. Modern technology and its impli-cations require a holistic, integrated under-standing that permeates all segments of oursociety. This is for education a goal whosetime has come.

In its modern garb, technology may be toonew on the human scene to be fully under-stood. Nonetheless it is the responsibility ofeducation to acquaint all members of our so-ciety with some measure of its technics, in-cluding hands-on practice. And of equal im-portance, education must deal with the so-cial and political consequences of technolo-gy, both as history and future. Technologyeducation in this holistic sense has an un-precedented challenge!

Walter Waetjen, President of Cleveland StateUniversity, has likewise sounded the call for a broadstudy of technology at all levels of education.

Technology education in the United Stateshas, for all practical purposes, been focusedstrongly on the technical side. In the ele-mentary and secondary school, we entrusttechnology education to the mislabeled"shop teacher." At the university level,technology is placed in the hands of the en-gineers, ceramists, or print makers. More re-cently, technology has been equated withcomputer centers.

No matter the level of education, we do notseem very concerned with technology be-ing part of the humanities, the arts, or thepolicy sciences. . .We cannot continue tolimit the study of technology to its technicalaspects alone.

Universities and secondary schools can use

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Technological Literacy Symposium 55sisoripIla

technology as one of the integrators orthemes that would run through the entirecurriculum. Were this to be done, studentsmight develop a better understanding of theimpact of technology on social change.

Traditional liberal arts colleges have also begun torealize the importance of including the study of tech-nology in their curriculum. According to A. EmersonWeins, a professor at Nethel College, Kansas,

While secondary education is currently be-ing challenged to return to the "basics," lib-eral arts colleges are being challenged tobroaden and update the liberal arts curricu-lum by including a study of technology inthe general education program. The impe-tus for a new look at the liberal arts comes inpart from within, but it is also being prompt-ed by business-backed foundations whorecognize the need for more informed deci-sion makers. W. Dale Compton, Vice-President for Research at Ford Motor Com-pany, states, The impact of technology is sogreat, and the questions posed are so im-portant that responsibility for weighing therepurcussions of technology cannot be rel-egated solely to the technical specialists'.

People lose their price and their self-esteem ifthey are not involved in quality productive activity.Part of the cause of the current drug epidemic maybe that people lack a sense of direction and personalvalue and esteem. It is difficult to perceive theirworth and to establish a personal niche in a techno-logical society. Again, Ernest L. Boyer has said,

The fifth priority of excellence, (in educa-tion) which I happen to believe in passion-ately, is acknowledging the dignity of work.The truth is that work is at the very heart ofour existence. It's through work that we de-fine who we are. And its through work thatwe give special meaning to our lives.

Education is not simply something that weengage in as an end in itself. We developour talents, our skills, and our ideas in orderto be productive, to make something usefulof our lives. That's what I mean by work.

...The time! as come to acknowledge that astudy of work is a part of the core curriculumof every student.

What I find scandalous today are the mind-less distinctions drawn between so-calledacademic and non-academic programs. I

find it equally scandalous that some jobs aregenerously approved while others are cyni-cally condemned.

In a similar vein, John W. Gardner, former U.S.Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, said,

. .the society which scorns excellence inplumbing because plumbing is a humble ac-tivity and tolerates shoddiness in philoso-phy because philosophy is an exalted activi-ty, will have neither good plumbing norgood philosophy, neither their pipes northeir theoriRs will hold water.

While the recognition of the importance of tech-nology and technology education by at least a fewothers in educational circles is comforting, that com-fort is short-lived when we realize the challengewhich faces us as technology educators.

It has been estimated that the total technologicalbase doubles every five years and some authoritiessay that the doubling is presently in as little as threeyears. The students currently in kindergarten will begraduating from high school and entering the workforce or pursuing other educational endeavors inabout the year 2000. At the present pace then, by1990 or shortly thereafter, the technological base willbe doubled, by 1995 it may double again, and againby the year 2000--or eight times the current techno-logical base! Can we even attempt to imagine thetechnological challenges which will face the studentsnow in kindergarten! However, the inability to imag-ine such marvels does not lessen the requirementthat they be prepared in the best way possible. Theymust become technologically literate in the schoolsystems to cope with the opportunities of the future.Our challenge as faculty is to stimulate a love of learn-ing and broaden the vision of potential and provide

foresight of design which would incorporate latertechnological developments. We are all aware of themagnificence of Rome and of Athens and of the pyr-

S8

activities so that our students will not only beable to cope with advances in technology but indeedbe on the leading edge in the development of thosetechnologies.

In Utah, we sing the songs of Zion authored byinspired pioneer forebearers. We shed a tear as we

sources--the magnificence of the temples, the marvel of the construction of the Tabernacle, the ingen-uity of materials procurement and handling, and the

read of their struggles in settling the western wilder-ness. But among the things we most appreciate andmarvel at are their applications of technology to mon-umental developments achieved with limited re-

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56 A Case for Technological Literacy

amids and temples of Egypt. We know of the citiesand temples built thousands of years ago in Centraland South America. We are aware of them basicallybecause of the remains of their technology. Weknow of the Michaelangelos, the DaVincis, and theGalileos of a few hundred years ago. These civiliza-tions or individuals had technological understandingwhich was far ahead of their time. Dare we depriveour students of a similar foresight to prepare them forthe time in which they must be the pioneers?

A few months ago I attended a CAD/CAM work-shop sponsored by the State Department of Educa-tion at a rural high school in Utah. At that workshopwas a teacher who had graduated just a couple ofyears before I did and has been teaching at the samehigh school in Salt Lake City for the past twenty yearsor so. I have not seen him at many of the profession-al meetings which I have attended, so I made a pointof chatting with him. After seeing some of the miser-ies that we go through in trying to understand andimplement the new technologies, he commented tome, "This stuff is too confusing for me to learn so I'mjust going to ignore it. I've only got twelve moreyears until retirement anyway." How selfish andshortsighted! He is the teacher! The leader! He hasalready deprived at least a half dozen year's worth ofstudents from participating in the kinds of activitiesthat will increase their technological base, make themmore appreciative of the position of technology inour present society and prepare them for jobs in theworkplace of today and tomorow. Can we, or they,afford another twelve years of similar instruction?Programs such as this will not be killed by the trendtoward more academic graduation requirements orthe "return to the basics" movement. They will die ofthemselves, from a lack of care and nurture and vitali-ty from the professional who has been entrusted tolead his students to new heights of understanding incontemporary practice. All too many students in tra-ditional industrial arts classes suffer a similar depriva-tion. They are very little better off the 1 students in"third world" schools.

Over the years there have been many surveysconducted and committees established to deter-mine the major goals of education. Some of thegoals developed in these studies relate to "learninghow to learn," and "learning how to adapt tochange." If those are some of the major goals of ed-ucation, we in the profession must certainly reflectthose goals. We must learn new concepts, incorpo-rate new technologies. and change those portionsof our programs which are not up to date. We havedone some grand things over the years and need

not discard them all. But neither can we be deludedthat past successes will guarantee interest and in-trigue in our current classes nor insulate our pro-grams from serious scutiny in the strains of the bud-get crunch. In many cases, we need only to changethe emphasis and incorporate a little less pure skilldevelopment and stress more of the ideas of the ef-fects of a certain product or process upon nature andsociety. We need also to infuse new processes andmachines into our curriculum wherever appropriate.We excuse ourselves by saying that no funds areavailable--and funding is certainly scarce. But mostof the machines which can be utilized to give instruc-tional experiences in new concepts are much lessexpensive than the traditional woodwork and metal-work equiprisnt which we buy or replace each year.

Students must learn that while they have the op-portunity of being tutored by masters of learning- -men and women who have shown by their own ex-ample an acquisition of knowledge and an adaptabili-ty to change, they also have a significant individualresponsibility to promote their own growth ad attain-ment through personal drive and initiative. Stu-dents, through the example and precept of dedicat-ed learning on the part of faculty, will come to realizethat learning is a lifelong process and that indeed asthe ceremony states, graduation is but a commence-ment of education and learning. We must all under-stand the reality of the statement, "the bigger the is-land of knowledge, the longer the shoreline of won-der."

Schools must shoulder the responsibility of pre-paring students who can go forth to serve, who ap-preciate the opporutnity to stand upon the shoul-ders of those who have gorse before to prepare theway, who are loyal to the grandest ideals of all gener-ations, who are teachers and practitioners of technol-ogy who can help to push forward the frontiers oflearning and can also assist our countrymen andpeople in underdeveloped countries to increasetheir standard of living and help them envision them-selves as noble children of a loving God, not kinsfolkto hrute animals of prey and toil.

References

Boyer, E. L. (1983). Nigh school. a report on secon-dary education in America. New York: CarnegieFoundation, Harper & Row.

Boyer, E. L. (1985). A perspective on education.Technology Education. A Perspective on Imple-mentation. Reston, VA: American Industrial ArtsAssociation.

59


Johnson, J. R. (1985). The nature of our technologi-cal society. Technology Eduostjon,A2e,live on Implementation. Reston, VA: AmericanIndustrial Arts Association.

National Commission on Excellent in Education.(1983). A nation at risk.

Science newsfront. (1986, March). Popular Science,16.

Shallenberger, S. R. (1986, January 8). 2000 ad:Our world in the year 2000. Utah County Jour-

(, Provo, UT.

Venn, G. (1964). Man. education. and work. Ameri-can Council on Education.

Waetjen, W. B. (1985). People and culture in ourtechnological society.

Education. A Perspective on Imlagn. Reston, VA: American Industrial Arts As-sociation.

Weins, /.. E. (1985). Technology and the liberal arts.The Technology Teacher, 13. Reston, VA: In-ternational Technology Education Association.

60

e


Efforts to define and clari'y the goals and meth-ods of formal education are clearly evident through-out history. The early work of Pestalozzi emphasizedthe common goals of the teacher and student as dis-covering the laws which govern humanity and na-ture. Herbert emphasized the psychological ap-proach to understanding the needs of the learner.Froebel believed that children should cultivate theirsense of self-identity in play and similar activities soas to develop a child's perception of the world.

These educational goals, centered on the earlydevelopment of the child, are sound and few couldargue their validity. While consensus among theideals is likely, the method for achieving these idealsremains as diverse as are the individuals who professthem.

In a similar sense, as we search for a definite goalstatement for a liberal undergraduate education, avariety of valid statements can be found. A missionstatement for a liberal arts college, cited in Boyer(1987) is one such example. It reads:

The college stands for an education that willgive each student the skills of communica-tion, the ideas and principles underlying themajor areas of modern knowledge, the un-derstanding that learning is a continuouslifetime process, and the courage and en-thusiasm of a better world. (p. 60)

Once again, these objectives are not difficult toidentify with, however, a great disparity is likely whenmethods of attainment are suggested.

As curricular modification is in progress for manyundergraduate institutions, equally agreeable goalsare visible as objectives-in-common, but the detailsof how their implementation will occur are not soclear.

Specifically, many undergraduate institutions arein the process of rethinking and redesigning theircore curriculum. General ideas are, as a rule, agreea-

Technology: The Newest Liberal Art

Dr. Jerome J. Kowa!Industrial Education and Technology

Western State College of ColoradoGunnison, Colorado

ble and very desirable. The quest for a common coreis an important and perplexing issue. Boyer (1987)asks:

Can the American college, with its fragmen-tation and competing special interests, de-fine shared academic goals? Is it possible tooffer students, with their separate roots, aprogram of General Education that helpsthem see connections and broadens theirperspective? (p. 83)

It is not uncommon to find faculty and departmentscompeting for access to General Education courseofferings. In an age of diminishing student pools andincreased competition for students, the general edu-cation program is a means of access to potential ma-jors.

This misuse of the core curriculum is a result ofthe political structure of the college. When the bud-get and faculty size are based on the number of ma-jors, its simply a matter of survival. The problem is asystems problem. In complex situations it is neces-sary that conditions which impede progress towardvalued goals be eliminated. A faculty cannot be ex-pected to be free to explore untraditional options forthe common core, while at the same time be plaguedwith possible dismissal. This cannot possibly resultin a truly natural and unbiased program develop-ment.

In a similar sense, if the institution in any way ex-pects to tap all options for common learning, at notime, should a simple dividing of the academic pie beconsidered. Dewey (1938) warned:

It is the business of an intelligent theory ofeducation to ascertain the causes for theconflicts that exist and then, instead of tak-ing one side or the other, to indicate a planof operations proceeding from a level deep-er and more inclusive than is represented bythe practices and ideas of the contendingparties.

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60 Technology: The Newest Liberal Art

This formulation of the business of the phi-losophy of education does not mean thatthe latter should attempt to bring about com-promise between opposed schools ofthought, to find a via media, nor yet make aneclectic combination of points picked outhither and yon from all schools. It means thenecessity of the introduction of a new orderof conceptions leading to new modes ofpractice. (p. 5)

Following Dewey's line of reasoning, the task isnot to design a core curriculum based upon whoyells the loudest or the longest, or to use compro-mise as a rationale for curricular design. The basis ofan appropriate rationale is centered on the student;how students learn, what is necessary for a cohesiveeducational experience, and how can students bebest prepared for a future, which is at this time, un-known. Boyer (1987) writes:

General education is not complete until thesubject matter of one discipline is made totouch another. Bridges between disciplinesmust be built, and the core program must beseen ultimately as relating the curriculumconsequently to life. (p 91)

Boyer further states:

This nation and the world need well in-formed, inquisitive, open minded youngpeople who are both productive and reflec-tive, seeking answers to life's most impor-tant questions. Above all, we need educat-ed men and women who not only pursuetheir own personal interests but are also pre-pared to fulfill their social and civic obliga-tions. And it is during the undergraduateexperience, perhaps more than at any othertime, that these essential qualities of mindand character are refined. (p. 7)

These stated ideals suggest a common core thatis considerably different than what is known as tradi-tional liberal arts. It is not that traditional subjectshave no place in contemporary education, but possi-bly the methodology is inappropriate. From a stu-dent perspecave, the market is changing. Studentsare more likely to pursue what they want in educa-tional experiences, or what they feel has value ormeaning. There is a general unwillingness to takeclasses simply because they are required. Obviousvalue must be apparent. Some suggest that today'sstudent is too materialistic and tends to chooseclasses which specifically relPte to economic gain af-ter graduation. Krubowski (1985) writes:

What do students want? For what they andtheir parents willing to pay? In a word, theanswer is status, especially the status that isattached to a pretigious institution. Stu-dents are eager, and more willing to pay, toattend a college with the reputation or pro-grams they believe will lead to high payin'ljobs and top professional schools. The mai-ket for entry papers to propserous middleclass life is txroming: the market for an edu-cation, especially the traditional liberal artseducation that's been so central to our colle-giate tradition, is dying. (p. 21)

This description of today's college student maybe an over simplification of reality, but inherent in thistrend is great potential for exciting course options.What should be obvious to curriculum designers isthat our world is changing. The problems in environ-ment, social strife, economics, human health, andtechnology in general are undergoing rapid changesas well. The interconnectedness of disciplines ismore apparent than ever before, and the effects oftoday's decisions are long lasting and in many cases,irreversible. This reality sets the stage for many neweducational designs which incorporate real-life prob-lems in a real-life context. The decision making pro-cess of today is plagued with consequences. To-day's college graduates must be prepared forchange and the effects of change.

The Ohio State University's Special Committeefor Undergraduate Curriculum Review is currentlystudying issues very similar to ours. Their clarity ofpurpose is stated in the following text. They report:

Although our goals remain the same, the na-ture of the modern world may demand asweeping revision of means to achieve ourdesired ends. The educated person, manyauthorities suggest, must be prepared forlifelong learning. The rapidity and magni-tude of technological and social change willcontinue to transform our world. Esta-blished jobs and occupations will disappearand new ones will appear. Institutions will beradically altered, presenting new and per-plexing problems. Educated people, todeal with these changes, will need to devel-op a much higher level of intellectual flexibili-ty and social intelligence. If this higher levelis to be achieved, our students must be in-formed by the past, knowledgeable aboutthe present, and intellectually prepared tomeet an uncertain future. (p. 1)

6°4.,


This "higher level of intellectual flexibility and so-cial intelligence," to have meaning, must be ad-dressed in a real-world context; the content of fu-tures in science and technology. The future inscience, as Kranzberg (1968) suggests, affords limit-less possibilities and futures in technology pose cau-tious advancement in light of social, ethical, and nvi-ronmental restraints. Together, these two L.isci-plines provide a rich inventory of contemporary is-sues to support study in lifelong learning.

This beginning for lifelong learning must pro-mote integrative thinking which requires leaving dis-ciplinary vacuums. "No real-world problems can befitted into the jurisdiction of any single academic de-partment" (Cleveland, 1985). Cleveland also sug-gests that the vast potential in information sourcesmakes it possible to access enormous quantities ofdata. He writes:

Tools such as these empower those wholearn to use them, to make complex judg-ments in the mindful knowledge of alterna-tive futures. Systems thinking has creatednew ways to help encompass in a singlemind some approximation of 'the situation asa whole' as it relates to the problem beingstudied. (p. 20)

The information at hand should only be consid-ered a tool and not an end in itself. Educators mustuse these available resources in the process of de-veloping a more dynamic curriculum. The vast reser-voirs of data, however, should not attempt to limit thecurricular design to purely scientific or technologicalends. The new curricular models must acknowledgethe human element as part of the integration ofscientific and technological imperatives. Accordingto Cleveland (1985):

Honing the mind and nourishing the soulare both functional in the new knowledgeenvironment. What we need now is a theoryof general education that is clearly relevantto life and work in a context of the informa-tion age--a rapidly changing scene in whichuncertainty is the main planning factor. (p.20)

As new curricular innovations begin to evolve,the method and process of education are likely tochange significantly. As the knowledge mass in-creases at an ever staggering rate, it will be increas-ingly difficult for faculty to keep up with the new infor-mation. The real-wond context poses a threat to tra-ditional education. The new education will likely seeteachers as resource persons guiding students to in-

formation sources, through research methodolo-gies, and to improve communication skills.

The real-world context requires that the collegegraduate be prepared for an ever-changing future,be able to see relationships between disciplines,and be open to change as well as being vital in thechange process.

A new binding element is necessary in the for-mat of the common core. Technology and the tech-nological choices of today and toms:row will have thegreatest future impact on the world's people. Mostevery issue in our society has technological implica-tions. One must be able to see implications and rami-fications of impending technological decisions.

A well educated citizenry will have the decisionmaking power for tomorrow. "Technology is preemi-nently a social process, and is not to be thought of assomething affectino humanity from without"(Pfnister, 1985). Herein lies the tie-in with Kranz-berg's earlier idea that futures in technology posecautions advancement in light of social, ethical, andenvironmental restraints. Technology does not rulethe populace, the educated populace rules the tech-nology and determines the appropriateness of tech-nological innovation.

If college curriculum committees are at odds overthe apparent lack of student interest in philosophy,history, ethics, foreign language, communicationskills, and the natural and social sciences, the real-world context of technological endeavors providesan arena in which iftese issues may be actively de-bated, alternatives posed, and solutions presented.If general education is in need of relevancy, onemust only look to the events of today to find subjectmatter.

To enact a vital core curriculum whose compo-nents include technology, four imperatives must bewoven into the fabric of the core.

First, learning must be treated as an ongoing ac-tivity. The new and vital discoveries in science pro-vide more options for technology and humanity. Ourvision of the future L.annot be limited simply by whatwe know today. An understanding of technicalmeans provides the information for building new rela-tionships in other technological situations. The in-sight or vision of one innovator can easily be builtupon by another. This brainstorming effect is an on-going process which can provide for solutions whenthe students involved are open to new knowledge.Beyond the undergraduate experience, the workplace demands as much and more updating to corn-

63

62 Technology: The Newest Liberal Art

pete in a changing society. Beyond a career implica-tion, family life, local and regional referendums,home investments, and investments in routine com-modities requires discriminatory knowledge.

In addition to a commitment to ongoing learninga passage from connections to perspectives is ne-cessary. So often concepts and systems are taughtin an analogous format. Mental connections canreadily be made following the understanding of likeapplications.

Cross-disciplinary connections are more difficultto incorporate in the classroom because teachers ofsingle disciplines find it threatening to venture intounfamiliar areas. This is understandable, but sincethe objectives are to show connections, a rationalefor bringing disciplines together must be developed.

Studies in technological and cultural evolutioncan provide many case studies of how inventorsthink, or how cultural changes were made possibleby technological innovation. One need only consid-er the changes in our society since the advent of thesilicon chip to get a feeling for the connections.Looking back in history one can easily trace the de-velopments as they occurred. The interrelatednessof the puzzle pieces is evidence of the validity of aninterdisciplinary approach.

Students seldom think in an interdisciplinaryfashion. Few teachers use this method of address-ing their course content. A connections orientationserves as a basis for a new teaching method.Through this case study exploration, students calbetter see how interrelationships exist.

After this eAposure to interwoven relationshipsin selacted situations, the students can now begin toexplore the concept of perspectives. This adapta-tion requires a quantum leap in mental processing.Knowing how the pieces in the puzzle fit in past situ-ations, students must now be able to think in termsof futures, projections, and forecasting. The great-est challenge is accounting for all the variables.When all the elements are assembled, predictions oftrends, environmental effects, and social conse-quences can be made.

Thirdly, an integrative rather than interdiscipli-nary curriculum design must be developed. Interdis-ciplinary studies imply a mixing of diverse subjectmatter areas. Integration suggests as interwovennetwork which allows each to work to complementthe other. Boyer (1987) writes:

As students see how the content of onecourse relates to that of others, they begin

to make connections, and in doing so gainnot only a more integrated view of knowl-edge but also a more authentic view of life.(p. 92)

Integration of disciplines is present in naturalsense when real-life situations are used in the class-room. A teacher does not have to fabricate circum-stances to promote integration of subject matter.One needs only to observe society. The difficulty isto unfold given circumstances so as to see how all ofthe components work together. This is a task for stu-dents with faculty help. These are the parallels tolife's circumstances. As part/whole relationsfl:ps un-fold, the concept of integration can then be applied,with confidence, to perspective or futures. Studentscan begin to build models of probable outcomes us-ing a variety of choices in science and technology.

Finally, the design of curriculum which attemptsto explore technoogy, past, present, and future,must do so by placing the responsibility for informa-tion gathering in the hands of the student. The tradi-tional structure of teacher disseminating knowledgeto students will not work here. The rapidly growingvolume of knowledge in the field of technology aswell as all of the integrated input of other disciplines,makes it impossible for any individual to be a com-plete store house of all facts. As mentioned earlier,the teacher's role must now be one of resource per-son. Technology has given us the information age,now it must be used to the best advantage.

Students must be taught the variety of optionsavailable for information gathering. Procedural meth-ods must be reaffirmed so that students know who toprogress in a self-directed format. Scientific verifica-tion must also be used. liese processes can thenbe applied to any problems, in school and beyond.Given a complex problem today, few students knowhow to arrive at a solution.

The four imperatives identified here are essen-tial for a vital common core. New courses designedto rearrange subject matter in different ways withoutconsidering an ongoing commitment to learning, in-tegrated designs, passages from connections toperspectives, and the value of information handling,fall short of mirroring real-life situations. These impli-cations set in a real-world context with technology asa common binding element can bring about a newform of liberal learning.

Within the bounds of society exists a wealth ofchallenges which threatens the human conditionand environmental stability. There are also a wealthof opportunities to improve on these concerns if

64


comprehensive and creative thinking are employed.Technology often gets blamed for societal problemsand likewise is looked to for answers. The humanelement is the greatest threat to the human condi-tion, and at the same time, the greatest asset. Themissing ingredient is effective education. The newcore curriculum which embraces technology in a glo-bal context can alter this deficiency.

The imperatives identified sugg3st a specific ap-proach to the study of technology and technologicalliteracy. Efforts in technology education at the sec-ondary level employ a historical approach in somecases. These efforts are very appropriate when ap-plied to children. They demonstrate how inventorsthink and assemble ideas t: develop new technolo-gies. The new program applias science and mathe-matics in an attempt to develop a better understand-ing of the underlying principles in modem technolo-gy.

Programs of this nature are valuable for youngminds attempting to see relationships in our world.The undergraduate common core must rise to ahigher level of involvement and understanding. Cas-ual effects on a regional, national, and global scalemust be addressed. Economics, environment, hu-man health, ethics, and social well being must all finda place in this curricula approach. A technologicallyliterate person must not only know how things workbut must understand the effects of technologies onhumanity and the environment. Comparative analy-sis of options must be used to seek out the most ap-propriate technological means. This is technologicalliteracy at the undergraduate level. This must be apart of the new liberal arts.

Conclusions

Disenchantment with technology and adverseglobal conditions brought about by inappropriatetechnological means have produced a negative reac-tion to the concept as a whole. What many peoplefail to recognize is that people create the tools andmachines, people create the technologies. A curric-ular approach that Is essential is one that allows stu-dents the opportunity to address the challenging is-sues of today. Including technology and technologi-cal literacy in the common core provides an opportu-nity for each college graduate to understand thatpeople who are knowledgeable about their world canmake a difference. A passive response is inappropri-ate. Letting someone else make the decisions is un-acceptable. The imperatives listed are the tools, thebyproducts of the skilled utilization of these tools arethe creative and humanly sensitive options we must

choose to survive on this planet. Our technologicalchoices are social choices selected by well-informedand sensitive people. These well-informed peoplemust be technologically literate people in the broad-est sense.

References

Boyer, E. L. (1987). College: The undergraduateexperience in America. New York: Harper &Row.

Boyer, E. L., & Levine, A. (1985). A quest for com-mon learning. Washington, D.C.: The CarnegieFoundation.

Cleveland, H. (1985, July/August). Educating forthe information society. Change, 13-21.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. NewYork: Macmillan.

Kranzberg, M. (1968). The disunity of science-technology. American Scientist, 5.6(1), 21-34.

Krukowski. J. (1985, May/June). What do studentswant? Status. Change, 21-28.

Pfnister, A. (1985). Technology and the liberal arts.The New Liberal Leaming--Technoloay and theLiberal Arts. Washington, D.C.: Council of Inde-pendent Colleges.

Report solicits renewed vigor in curriculum. (1987,February 12). On Campus. Columbus: TheOhio State University.

6 5


Social Values/Consequences of Technological Innovation

86

Technological Literacy Symposium 67INMEMNIINi" VENNI

The Underside of Technological Literacy

This paper will discuss the differences that existbetween persons who are technically literate andthose who are not. It will discuss the barriers to com-munication between groups and, finally, will suggeststrategies for minimizing these communication prob-lems and a timetable for implementation.

In any discussion of individual differences it is ne-cessary, and dangerous, to generalize. Generaliza-tions trivialize individuality and are subject to excep-tions which, in their turn, lead readers to dismiss thegeneralization. The reader is asked to consider thegeneralized statement as a possible trtism, and tojudge it on its merits. it is agreed that exceptions ex-ist for each characteristic identified. It is also noted,however, that the characteristic exists with sufficientfrequency to make it noteworthy.

One further caution Is made. Throughout this arti-cle reference will be made to the technically illiterateindividual. This term is not used in a pejorativesense. Recognize the fact that the level of technicalliteracy lies on a continuum and that the terms literateand illiterate are used to distinguish between levelsof literacy within and between groups.

Technically literate people, and the technically illit-erate, belong to widely disparate groups; more wide-ly separated than those who can and who cannotread. The non-reader can, with some effort, hide theinability to read. Indeed, many persons react withshock when it is discovered that a co-worker of longacquaintance is a non-reader. Our society is tendingtoward a non-reading base where the ability to read isnot a criterion for success on the job. This is sup-ported by the advent of machine intelligence, voice-prompted computers, cars, vending machines, etc.,and the use of pictographs rather than letters orwords on the controls of machines and appliances.The technologically illiterate, on the other hand,have nothing to hide behind. When the car wouldnot start, the garbage disposal jams, or the refrigera-tor gets a wet spot under it, the technologically illiter-

Dr. Joseph J. PilottaDepartment of Communication

The Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

ate are completely out of their element and must relyon someone who is aware to solve their problem.

Two interesting side issues occur as an outgrownof this situation. First, the complexity of the devicethat flummoxed the illiterate came as a result of tech-nological sophistication and, second, the illiteratefeels he or she is aesthetically and intellectually su-perior to the one called to resolve the problem! It isat this point that the 'I of a difference* come intoplay. At the risk of being alliterative, it is time to dis-cuss Labor, the Lord and Lackey syndrome and theLove of Labyrinthian Linkages.

Since the beginning of humanity we have tried tofind an easier way to accomplish a task. All of tech-nology has as its premis the accomplishment ofmore, better, faster and easier. It is here that theword easiergets confused with the word labor. Oursociety aspires to an easier job; one that requiresless labor. Easier is allied with white collar endeav-ors, labor correlates with blue collar activity. Thus oursociety, indeed all of the emerged and emerging na-tions, aspire to academic pursuits Nhich, it is widelyheld, have no labor attrached to them. These are theeasier forms of existence which come as a given forthe college and university educated. Have you everseen an advertisement which, urging the purchaseof this insurance policy or that Certificate of Deposit,suggests doing so to provide for your child's techni-cal education?

The presumption is that white collar workers donot labor at their jobs. Thus the college graduatefeels superior to the non-college technician. Theyfeel that they have spent four or more years in ad-vanced academic pursuits and that they certainlyhave every right to be proud of their accomplish-mot They believe it is obvious that their intellectualcapacity exceeds that of the non-collegiate. Theycannot be expected to knoweverything ehout theoperation of every mundane appliance. Their time isspent with things of higher and greater import! The

68 The Underside of Technological Literacy .term "underside" used in the title has two differentyet interrelated meanings. First, it is intended to sug-gest that technology is far more than machinery. Ifthe utilization of technology could be equated withthe implementation of machines, then the historiesof mechanization and technology would be identical.This, however, is not the case. Technology has a

"world view" that constitutes its underside and differ-entiates it from machinery. Most discussions of tech-nology, nevertheless, overlook how this world viewcan shape persons' perceptions of themselves, theirenvironment and society.

Second, the term "underside" refers to the un-desirable consequences that can stem from the un-monitored growth of technology. Technology mayhave a seamy side that produces problems that arenot logistical or the outcome of technical errors. Thetechnological world view is instrumental in generat-ing the illusion that technology is out of control, whilefostering indifference about the human condition.

Technology advances a style of rationality thatsubverts spontaneity indigenous to human action.Because technological ratio' 'ity, also known as in-strumental reason, is disconnected from human de-sires, all measurements are believed to be standard-ized and precise.

The questions are: How can technology bemade responsible to human initiative? In otherwords, how can technology be "humanized"? Butbefore technology can he socially responsible, itsapparent "affective neutrality" must be challenged,thus shattering its chimera of autonomy.

Autonomy and Production: The SocialValue of Technology

Human autonomy rests not only on a mathemati-cal method but on intervention into nature. Specifi-cally, this method must be applied to nature. This ap-plication cannot be simply a mental calculation, forscientists must "test" .heir mathematical notions byintervening in nature. In other words, matter must bearranged in accordance with mathematical calcula-tions. )nce this is completed, persons are in a posi-tion to calculate and predict the results that followfrom such arrangements. "Reality" is not what ispresent in human experience, but a possibility thatstems from a mathematically calculated and physicallymanipulated matter (Volkmann-Schluck, 1965, p.68).

Thus emerges a structure that treats naturetechnologically at the most basic level. When takingthe mathematical method as the most fundamental

mode of theoretical understanding, this style of cog-nition becomes technological. Mathematical rulesnot only define nature but prescribe ways of produc-ing the material causes that yield predictable results.In short, to know how to define something mathe-matically is to know how to made it (Volkmann-Schluck, 1965, p. 66). In this sense, the applicationof mathematical constructs becomes a clever tech-nique, as the components of the world are arrangedin accordance with certain calculations and the result-ing morphology serves as the basis for a technologi-cally conceived world.

This conception places humans "above" nature.In reflective thought, a method is established that ex-cludes the qualitative experience of nature andtreats existence as a number of material componentsthat can ba arranged mathematically (Hassell, 1963,p. 179). Mathematics is appropriate for shaping exis-tence because the world is already conceived tech-nologically. The "real world" is thus a product of a re-flective designed theoretical model that shapes mat-ter through calculation.

Hence, scientists are not only in a position to cal-culate and arrange material cor.ditions to producepredictable results, but: conversely, of producingthe conditions for attaining these findings. This cr,n-version is one of the major elements of human au-tonomy and understanding the self as a law giver.But his autonomy cannot be realized unless humanscan master nature. After all, as long as persons arecontrolled by the forces of nature, they cannot befree or autonomous. Nature thus must be forced tofunction according to human desires (Volkmann-Schluck, 1965, p. 68). In principle, the mathematicalmethod, combined with the notion that nature is ma-terial, established the conditions necessary for hu-man actonomy. Humans project desired results andcalculate and arrange the material forces required toattain these ends. Nature is made to work in accor-dance with human designs, as human action domi-nates the physical world.

It must be point out that the projected resultsdo not stem from human nature, for modern thoughtacknowledges no such phenomenon. Hence, whatis projected results from an arrangement of matterthat has no intrinsic; existence. Therefore, everyth-ing, including humans, is treated as "stuff" or "rawmaterial" that can be reworked to meet projected de-signs. Scientists intend not only to produce naturein line with preconceived calculations, but above allto "produce man" (Fink, 1974, p. 41). This leads tothe view that persons are a "product" of material con-

68


eons. Thus, by projecting material results and pro-ducing material conditions, individuals also projectand "produce" themselves.

The Political Enlightenment

While the scientific enlightenment led to theidea that nature is material and "indifferent stuff" tobe mastered and controlled, human beings werealso permitted to be autonomous and rework nature.This means that humans are in a position to take4harge of their destiny. Hence, the traditions thathad prescribed norms, moralities, political principles,and ethical standards must be rejected, for all socio-pi .itical institutions, which embody laws, must alsooriginate from the individual as law giver.

This calls for political institutions whose sole le-gitimation depends upon a sum of individuals agree-ing to abide by the rules they have established. Atbase, this is a consensus theory and it takes forgranted the equality of all as law givers. This kind ofconception of equality is quite revealing, since itdemonstrates a shift from the classical Greek tradi-tion. The Greek conception of equality was foundedon the understanding that humans share a c.. non.1ature. Despite their particular differences, t iansshare an identical essence that makes theni .;.:4ual(Volkmann-Schluck, 1974, p. 152). Yet characteristi-cally, neither the Greeks nor the Romans underGreek theoretical influence nor, finally, the medievalsunder the sway of Plato, Aristotle, and Christianitycalled for practical and socio-political equality(Volkmann-Schluck, 1974, p. 154).

The demand for socio-political and practicalequality emerges when the world is regaided as amate: al entity to be controlled and shaped accordingto human design. In terms of this type of equality,persons cannot have laws imposed upon them ei-ther by nature or other persons. Hence, equalitydoes not flow from an essential human nature, butfrom human autonomy. All persons are equal be-cause they are autonomous law givers and makers oftheir destiny through their mastery and control of na-ture. Taus, social institutions must be designed toguarantee human autonomy. This autonomy is ex-pressed in numerous ways: the right of speech, as-sembly, pursuit of practical aims, and to make one'sown destiny.

Martin Kriele suggests that the institutions de-signed by this political enlightenment take for grant-ed human autonomy as a source of all law. Thismeans, according to him, that no human can assumepower over another to gain increased social status.Being autonomous, everyone is an equal source of

law, and political institutions represent a consensusamong autonomous individuals. As a result, the poli-cy guarantees the rule of law and equality betweenpersons (Krie le, 1980, p. 49).

It is no accident that the major thinkers of politicalenlightenment, from John Locke to John Stuart Mill,hold a similar view of political institutions: Laws repre-sent a consensus between free individuals. Con-trary to the classical Greek conception of the state ashaving a human nature and constituting more than anumber of isolated individuals, modern theorists takefor granted that society is the sum of individual inter-ests. Thus laws reflect the ways individuals agree tointeract with one another. Since a complete consen-sus is rarely attained, quantitative power prevails:The nunrdcal majority constitutes a temporary "rule"with the p.uviso that the minority has the right to per-suade the majority to change. The only right that po-litical institutions do not permit is the abolition of hu-man autonomy (Kriele, 1980, p. 190).

Accordingly, a specifically modem conception ofethics comes into view: utilitarianism. In this case,each individual defines what is meant by the "goodlife." Basically, the good life consists of the pursuit ofhappiness and pleasure. As long as these pursuitsdo not create social clashes and antagonisms, indi-viduals are free to design their own happiness. Incase of conflicts, the social good is calculated quan-titatively as the greatest good for the greatest num-ber. This numerical conception of happiness ac-cords well with a technologically conceived world.Yet the question arises: What constitutes happinessin a technologically produced reality?

Technological Alms: Paver and Posses: ,on

To control nature and chance its course of de-velopment demands extensive technological power.As Hans Jonas argues, modem society believes that

every technological innovation and application leadsto new "discoveries" that call for newer technologiesand their :...7plication in an endless cycle. Yet everynew technological intervention into nature promisesincreased control LJ both nature and humans. This isthe "enchanted circle" of the modera man (Fink,1974, p. 43). ' - y achieved result can become ameans, thatis, a material condition for the fulfillmentof newer aims. Today, this i. ;ailed "progress"(Jonas, 1981, p. 81).

Ti' . increasing pov.er to control nature and to re-produce it in accordance with human designs ex-pands the material fulfillment of ;lumen wants. Suchfulfillment has assumed a particularly modem form. Abrief comparison between two conceptions of fulfill-

70 The Underside of Technological Literacy

ment illustrates this point. in feudalism, a person wasborn into a particular social position. To be an aristo-crat, one had to be ascribed this status by birth. Thosame was true of the serf. Of course, the serrs birth-right excluded any hope of being an aristocrat. Butwith the emergence of the demand for equality,founded upon the idea of the human as an autono-mous law giver, all positions become available to eve-ryone. All persons can make themselves into anyth-ing they desire. Yet it must be noted that this self-production operates within a technological culturewhose main aim is to submit nature to human con-trols and to liberate persons by giving them in-creased technical power.

When persons make their own destiny, theymust also guarantee their own well-being. No socialinstitution, position, or privilege is able to ensure anindividuars survival. Because each position is opento everyone, persons must strive constantly to main-tain their social position. In fact, such a striving cannever cease in a technological culture (Volkmann-Schluck, 1965, p. 81). Initially, increased controlover nature seems to be a panacea because morecommodities, protection against the elements, andcontrol of disease offer hope for improving the mate-rial conditions of existence. Yet it is this miracle of in-creased power and possessions that brings about in-security and compels individuals to acquire morepower in the form of material objects.

As is suggested, technology has no other aimbut to master nature through the ever-increasing ma-terialization of culture. On the basis of technologicalinnovations, new and more complc. technologiesare produced that make the previous ones obsolete.As a result, persons who were functioning ade-

quately within the framework supplied by earlier tech-nological requirements, that is, they were "tooled"appropriately, become either obsolete or must striveto "retool" themselves in order to keep up with thedemands of technology and ensure their survival.Since a technological conception of the world has noother aim but "progress" through expansion, no indi-vidual can ever be satisfied with his or her own levelof technological sophistication. Persons must striveconstantly to keep up with the ever-increasing andchanging technological requirements. In principle,security can never be achieved, for at best personscan only minimize the danger of becoming obsoleteand losing their means of survival.

In order to achieve a modicum of security, indi-viduals musi acquire not only the skills demanded bytechnology, but, additionally, material possess!ons.

Happiness is equated with material commodities, notbecause their possession °erves as e testimonial tohuman greed, but becaus in a technological cul-ture, they are thought to promote well-beir:g. Byamassing wealth, one guards against the threat ofpersonal or social destruction. Even those who haveachieved a particular status due to their expertise insome technical domain can lose their possessions.They must concentrate on maintaining their"competitive edge" or "technological competence,"which is always thrr itened by the progress made byothers toward mastering more advanced technolo-gies. The desire to possess more as a road to happi-ness is ultimately a desire to attain security, not onlyfor the present but also for the future. After all, allcurrent possessions can be lost as a consequenceof advances brought about by novel technologies.In order to avoid this loss, the future must be remadeconstantly by better , r more efficient machinery sothat any losses are minimized. While this is thesource for the charge that the modern age is materia-listic, a subtle shift away from human autonomy isalso signaled.

In order to function in a technological culture, anindividual must be made to operate according to therequirements of constantly expanding and changingtechnologies. The ability to acquire possessions re-quires that the individual submit to the dictates andaims of technology. Persons must not "make" them-selves in terms of what they value and desire, but ac-cording to tie strictures imposed by technology.The mastered natur3, shaped into technological im-plements and raw material and designed initially to"liberate" persons from natural forces, has come toshape humans. Instead of being autonomous, indi-viduals begin to regard themselves, at least in thepractical arena, as a "product" of their socio-economic and technical environment.

At the base of this shift away from autonomy liesthe notion that persons can shape anything to obtaina desired result and can remake themselves be-cause they have no nature. Yet this also means thathumans can be made into anything. The claim is of-ten made that, given certain conditions, a person canbe given practically any form. This is obvious consid-ering the common feature in most modern social,psychological, and economic theories: An individualis a result or product of his or her socio-economicand environmental conditions. In this sense, the so-cio-economic and technological conditions assume a"life of their own," thus compelling the individual tofunction within or adjust to fit the requirements of thetechnical system. This would suggest that the tech-

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81111111111111Technological Literacy Symposium 71

nological system has become autonomous, therebydiminishing the individual.

Political Technology

Individual autonomy, political enlightenment,and the scientific enlightenment, which form the cor-nerstone of technological culture, are undergoing atransformation that his resulted in what Jurgen Ha-bermes calls a legitimation crisis" (Habemas, 1973,p. 43). While Hi bermes assesses this crisis in termsof the capitalist vonoony, a more expansive ap-proach examines what the critical school refers to asthe domination of human creativity by "instrumentalreason (McCarthy, 1978, p. 16). Such rationality isbasically the technological logic depicted above.The crisis appears in two forms of the policy. The lib-eral form of state, characteristic of Western industrialsocieties, experiences this crisis as the"privatization" of political institutions. While initiallythese institutions were designed to serve the public,gradually they were reduced to promoting the per-sonal or material wall-being citizens. For if the basicaim of the individual in a technologiczt culture is theacquisition of possessions, then the emphasis of po-litical life must be to get public figures to ensure thematerial well-being of persons. Subseneently, politi-cians are called upon increasingly to fuffill the materialneeds of the citizenry or to do whatever it takes toprepare individuals to meet the demands imposedby new technologies. Any time they fail to fulfillthese needs, politician; are no longer deemed legiti-mate and they are reelaced. Thus, political institu-tions are regarded as means to be appropriated andused by contesting .oups to guarantee their materi-al fulfillment. Political concerns are reduced to"pocketbook" issues. The other form of state, nomi-nally called "communism," takes "instrumental rea-son," or "technological logic," to its final conclusion.Stated simply, everything is either a technical meansor a result of a technologically shaped world. In thissense, humans are treated both a means for con-structing the material cond, s necessary for tech-nological progress and a product of these circum-stances. Such products are not only predicated onknowledge about material conditions but, converse-ly, conditions can be established that yield a particu-lar result. Fundamentally, this represents an effort tobuild a utopian society conceived technologically.To build such a state and to "create" the "new man"appropriate for this polity, calls for a "political tech-nocracy."

What is the function of a political technocracy inthe current historical period? First since the laim is

made that everything, including human conscious-ness and social institutions, is a product of materialconditions, then the establishment of new condi-tions would be necessary to bring about future insti-tutions. Second, since these institutions are the re-sult of material conditions, those who know theseconditions and how to change them for a "better" fu-ture must be free from institutional restraints. Mostoften, it is understood that scientific and technologi-cal complexities are not accessible to the generalpublic. Hence, there must be r rolitical technc cracywith the knowledge necessary to establish the mate-rial conditions that would result in c radically new, uto-pian society. Such a technocracy must be able to re-design the material processes in every area of sociallife. And third, this political technocracy must consistof elites who are in charge of planning the future.Since the current material conditions are not yet ade-quate for realizing a utopia, these 1 cites must not behindered by political institutions that stress humanfreedom. Only when the proper material conditionsate established wili "true liberation" of humanity bepossible because science must be able to master na-ture, including the human side of life (Kriele, 1980,p. 204).

These political elites, armed with scien"fic knowl-edge, have a historical mission to use all the availablemeans, including humans, to achieve the desiredfree society. But with this there appears an undemo-cratic form of "leadership," because allegedly only afew persons have the scientific knowledge requiredto shape the social world. These leaders are the onlyautonomous beings and outlive the destiny of entirepopulations. The liberation and autonomy of themasses is postponed until the political technocratshave established the appropriate conditions forcreating the new man (Albert & Hahne!, 1981, p. 77).

In principle, the political trend toward technocra-cy and "material fulfillment" is a sign that politics is be-ing surrendered to the scientific-technological en-lightenment and its promise to liberate society. Thiscan be seen as an effort to fulfill the promise of twoenlightenments: complete human aumnomy andmastery over every facet of the environment. Sincethese promises have not yet been fulfilled; the mod-ern age is caught between two histories (Schabert,p. 225). Although at different levels, both historiesare implicit in each other's develoment. The first his-tory understands humans to be "self-creating" andautonomous beings, wto notonly create them-selves--having no specific nature--but reduce natureto matter and recreate the environment. The secondhistory represents the attempt to realize the first.

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Such efforts inhere to technological progress andprocurement of technical power. Since the masteryof nature has not yet been achieved, the first historyhas been postponed and projected toward the fu-ture as a utopian society. Its realization consists of astruggle by a scientifically enlightened political tech-nology to use any means possible to bring about atechnologically constructed polity.

Technology and Development

The price of social structural and technologicaldevelopment is telecommunication. Telecommuni-cation exercises a powerful impact on all societal,subsystems by affecting the ways they fulfill their tra-ditional functions, particularly the way change is un-derstood. This power to after human temporarily hasbeen described by Emilio Filippi as a central featureof technology *transfer in developing countries. Ashe writes:

The telecommunication and computer revo-lutions on the one hand bring people closetogether and on the other isolate them.They bring them closer because simultane-ously the world over we are aware ,Jf what ishappening elsewhere. But at the same timethe manipulation of these mechanics--the"mission control," if you will--that manages allof this isolates human beings. It convertsthem into objects of communication, notsr rbjects of communication. This is a dramat-ic dehumanization. (Filippi, 1983, p.39)

As soon as information is disclosed, a type of tel-ecommunication public is created, as a commonknowledge base is necessary for messages to becomprehended (Galtung, 1983). Thus, the global si-multaneity accompanying telecommunication accel-erates expectations that may or may not be compati-ble with the performance of local social functions vitalto developing countries. In other words, the socialpremise of what others are suppose to know chang-es the dimensions of experience and action(Luhmann, 1982, p. 271). Because all persons aresupposed to be a part of the telecommunication or-der, they are assumed to share a common Knowl-edge base.

The global communication industry presents aJanus fs.,te. Although telecommunication establish-es a global society, at the same time separatespheres of activity are created and reinforced. Theresults are twofold: any individualized interpretationof the meaning of communication is absent, as any

one version becomes but a component in a globalmystery play, while the interdependence of interpre-tations is increased.

This is not the philosophers' trap of the contra-diction between the universal and the particular, butrather the process whereby the particular is depre-cated because it is not universal. Thus, telecommu-nication may be viewed as creating alienation in theform of communicative incompetence, as personsare treated as objects rather than subjects. Aliena-tion is a process whereby activity is channeled intonominally independent spheres, with each of thesedomains subordinated to a scheme dictated by thetelecommunication order. The chief effect of this ondeveloping countries is a contraction of their exper-iential horizons that seriously limits the range of avail-able social, cultural, economic, and political possibili-ties, thus twarting future development. A particularsociety, a this sense, is subordinated to the normsoperating to organize the global order.

The issue of "underdeveloped countries" hasbecome volatile within the framework of a global com-munication system (Luhmann, 1982, pp. 289-323).Accordingly, communicative incompetence is a pro-cess within the structure of a global communicationsystem, whereby the particular is transformed intothe universal. Simply put, the modern global com-munication industry has as its defining characteristicsthe socialization or universalization of the world.Each society is effectively particular, yet only withinthe technologically socialized totality. Furthermore,each attempts to realize the universal in its activity bygeneralizing what it does to the social totality.

Thus, communication technology does not rep-resent a limited form of consciousness within a givensocial formation but is the very structure of globalfunctional differentiation. The demand for totalitybuilt into its structure becomes the demand for a uni-versal truth. Yet the resulting alienation cannot beovercome without a redefinition of the task of theory,specifically communication theory and a thoughtfulconsideration of the aim of technological litearcy.

Intercultural Communication andTechnology Transfer

From the standpoint of intercultural communica-tion, an important problem relates to the way in whichtechnology is understood and subsequently trans-mitted to recipient cultures. The central difficulty isthat technology's current mode of rational-scientificlegitimation encourages a style o:' intercultural deliv-ery and implementation that is insensitive to culturalexigencies and, thus, subverts existing social mean-

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ings and practices. In its present form, the intercultu-ral transfer of technology presupposes a model ofcommunication that is linear and asymmetrical. Thissource of bias operates at both the level of technicalknowledge and cultural meanings. The implicationsof this become clear when it is illustrated how tech-nology is interpreted and introduced across cultures.

Because of Its scientific status, technology isthought to be abstract and thus essentially indepen-dent of the contingencies associated with human so-cial interaction. Because technology is rooted inscientific detachment, the values implicit in it are as-sumed to have universal validity. Hence, technologyis endowed with an "objective' appearance, whichencourages the belief that it represents pure or ra-tional knowledge. In short, technology appears tohave a destiny of its own. Additionally, its a priori, ra-tionalist presuppositions encourage donor nationsto believe that so-called developing ones can bedrawn unproblematic* into the global history out-lined by a technical culture. This conviction elevatesthe technological competence possessed by donornations to an abstract standard, against which culturalself-worth is assessed. The view of technologicalcompetence held by donor nations leads them topractice a tutelary commercialism with respect to thediffusion of their technologies around the world.

This commodifying of technological (literacy)competence distorts the historical experience andself-regard of recipient groups by shaping their cog-nitive categories according to the demands of tech-nological reason. Because the political economy ofthe information age is fueld by knowledge and ideas,the production and use of technology presupposesthat recipient societies have been socialized appro-priately to understand technological values and im-peratives.

Market domination of intellectual raw materialscompletes the cycle necessary for information com-modity exchange. Although donor countries tend tomonopolize technical knowledge, a small group oftrained persons in recipient countries is essential forproviding the linkages necessary for technologicaltransfer. Yet the ever present indebtedness, if notunfailing allegiance, of the overseas educated eliteto their mentorseducationally, technically, and fis-callyensures a stable free-flow framework for the in-formation economy. The result of this is culturaldomination by a select few who possess the informa-tion required to operate a technological society.

Technological mastery tacitly assumes culturalchauvinism, however benevolent. Cultural interven-

.,9

tion, through knowledge transfer, includes not sim-ply the diffusion of technical material and trained sci-entists, it also involves the diffusion of culturally spe-cific meanings and historically acquired structural in-terpretations of reality that under pin technology. Toexport technology is to export meaning: To exportmeaning is to export culture and history. Obviously,as long as the standards of development are set uni-laterally by the "developed" nations, conflict will per-sist between the countries that "have arrived" andthose that are perpetually "on the way."

Since every human being lives in a cultural sys-tem of relevances, knowledge about a society's val-ues is integral for planning a technology transferstrategy. Before human science can act responsiblyin the world community, the cultural presuppositionsthat influence the process of technological transfermust be identified. Interculturally competent com-munication of technology requires that the system ofrelevance assumed by technology must be clarified;the system of relevance operative within the recipi-ent population must be assessed; and these sys-tems must be aligned. These conditions must besatisfied if technology transfer is to respect the cultu-ral integrity of developing nations. Clearly, the ohjec-tive of communicatively competent technology trans-fer is to avoid the one-sided imposition of foreign val-ues upon the recipient culture. Yet only when tech-nologies are understood as vehicles of meaning canthe vicious cycle of cultural domination and lopsideddevelopment be broken, which is endemic to manyof the current technical assistance programs.

The concept of "relevance" designates a com-posite of values, their interconnectedness, and thefunctions they have in a society. Relevance is "whatmatters" to a specific socio-cultural group, includingthe history of that group's past commitments anu fu-ture possibilities. Relevance functions to determinewhich facts, events, or problems are treated as valua-ble and to provide a scheme of interpretation thatspecifies the parameters of meaningful behavior anddiscourse. Donor nations can be responsive and re-sponsible to another culture only if they adequatelyunderstand their own system of relevances and, ac-cordinrjly, recognize how it affects another culture.The possibility for successful international commune-cation transactions rests upon establishing con-gruence between interculturally pertinent relevanc-es. This means that a common scheme of interpreta-tion and orientation must be found, one shared bythe deliverer of a technology and its receiver. In fact,intercultural relevance is the key criterion for

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enhancing technology transfer in the internationalcommunity.

It must be remembered that technology doesnot have to be an irrestible force that undermines aculture's identify; however, its present abstract andreified power can seriously und3rmine a recipient so-ciety. Therelore, a rational responsible attitude to-ward thr; "problem" of technology transfer requiresthat the system of relevancies presupposed by tech-nology by examined in light of the existing culturalstandards of the recipient. In other words, technolo-gy must be implmented within the social and cultural"space" offered by a recipient society. Accomplish-ing this difficult task requires a polycentric viewpointthat is sensitive to the meaning of technology withinthe relevance framework of a recipient culture.

What is to be Done: Sodal-CulturalReceptivity Index (SCRI)

Technology has a compelling character becauseof the scientific assumption upon which it is predicat-ed, particularly the mode of communication that is as-sumed to exist between persons and machines. To-day this is known as instrumental communication,which eliminates "communicative competence."Communicative competence is the ability of personsto communicate the pragmatic intentions and socialconditions that make behavior intelligible. Communi-cative competence, however, is not necessarilytechnological. In the case of technology transfer ofthe problem of internal brain-drain, more sophisticat-ed nations do not export communicative compe-tence but discursive domination.

From the standpoint of effecting the mediationof technology, the central issue is not the fact oftechnology's diffusion to nations around the worldbut the way in which the technology is interpretedand imp:emented. Consequently, it is a problem ofgauging and adjusting for the probable interactionsbetween the innovative and social-cultural environ-ment. This is principally a question of the communi-cation practices associated with the technology andits way of influencing social arrangements. The prac-tical premise asserts that technical considerationsand determinations need to be supplemented by asocial-cultural problem-solving orientation that is ade-quately sensitive to culturaVenvironmental differenc-es, in such a way that it can provide guidance with re-spect to existing cultural meanings and practices.The deliverer's sense of relevance must be coordi-nated and reconciled with the recipient's frame of ref-erence. Only in this way will the two very different so-cial realities achieve a measure of collaborative inter-

action that pivots upon the joint management of cul-tural differences.

The immediacy of the natural environment is somuch taken for granted that we never pay attentionto it, even though it sustains all of our biological ne-cessities and physical functions. This unnoted"immediacy" applies equally in the case of the cultu-ral environment: we do not fact it; we are encom-passed by it and engaged by it. The various factorscomposing the natural environment become visibleonly when they for some reason become an objectof concern, especially when something fails to per-form properly or they somehow obstruct our normalfunctions. Similarly, the cultural environment be-comes an object of concern when the interconnec-tions of its symbolic design do not apply in the accus-tomed way. In such situations, the cultural system, orrather the agents embraced by it encounter 'novelty,''uncertainty,' or inonsensicality: It should be kept inmind that technology transfer entails the intentionaland purposive introduction of novel configurationsinto a local cultural system.

The various symbolic designs make up a culturaleco-system which, while taken for granted in our dai-ly activities, is never confronted directly; all activities,events, and behaviors appear in its context. Eventhe 'natural environment' is incorporated into thisframework. And this framework beoomes manifestand effectual in the various cultural artifacts and insti-tutions, ranging trom the religious and mythological,to the professional and scientific, and to social rolesand the daily stylization of human encounters.

SCRI has two principal roles: (1) it provides a tax-onomic framework of meaning that incorporated thecore dimensions of cross-cultural encounters perti-nent to technology and innovation diffusion activi-ties. Therefore, it furthers the identification of the im-portant components of the frame of reference esta-blishing the cultural environment. (2) It serves heur-istically to draw the attention of planners, designers,and implementers, to the possible domains of socio-cultural environmental impact. Thus, it contributes tothe capacity of to "size up" and to "read" the situa-tion, therefore alerting us to the like:y comb', _Ition ofsocio-cultural interactions that might be encoun-tered.

The general nature of the communication rela-tionship between technology/information transferactivities and recipient characteristics can be formu-lated in the following way. While, on the one side,place characteristics are a consequence of the recipi-ent's level of development and, on the other side,

74


the delivery strategies and implementation practicesand objectives are established by the policy and pro-gram gods of the deliverer, this independence ofthe two parties becomes transformed into irreversi-ble interdependence at the point of delivery; regard-less of the previous history of the recipient nationand the institutional history and orientation of the de-liverer, the two become locked" irrevocably into a re-ciprocal communication structure, upon which de-pends the possibility, the effectiveness, the punctu-ality, and the sustainment/durability of the technolo-gy exchange undertaking.

Emphasis 's placed upon locating possibilitiesfor mutual intersections along the two systems of cul-tural designs. lo; its very nature, technology medi-ates and is mediated by the socio-cultural systeminto which it is being introduced--vis., it effectschanges and is changed; consequently, the objec-tive is to raise the inevitable intercombination with acommunication environment to anexplicit domain ofanalysis in order to make possible the maximal antici-pation of corsequences. In this setting, the innova-tion and its interaction with the soclo- cultural environ-ment is the chief focus of research consideration.Adopter characteristics and determinants as well as,it should be noted, the characteristics and determi-nants affecting the deliverer and the delivers senseof relevance are treated as partof the interaction pat-tern produced by the innovation; this 'prob-lematizing' of the innovation established the groundfor explicit cultural mediation of the technology.

The following roster contains the dimensionsalong which the cultural mediation of the technologyis to be pursued and, it should be emphasized, pur-sued across the symbolic designs of both deliverand recipient cultural sensibilities.

SCRI Dimensions

Global Factors.

1. Social organization of space and place; e.g. cen-tral place, prominent natural features, the articu-lation of social roles and status relative to locallysignificant landscape.

2. Constraints upon aspirations; e.g. educational(formal) and traditional levels and type, adaptabil-ity of local mind-set to the technology, localgoals and expectations.

3. Value compositions; e.g. prevailing beliefs andmyths, cherished virtues and practices, con-structs like common sense, propriety, justice,and the like.

4. Ritual organization of social life; e.g. puntuality,ceremony, hierarchy, and psychological adjust-ment.

5. Cultural integration of social organization; e.g.relationship between cultural outlook, heritage,values, and beliefs and existing role divisions,status, social place of different generations andgenders, political forms.

6. Cultural aesthetics; e.g. concepts of beauty,decoration, and appropriateness, aesthetics ofthe physical environment, also personal adorn-ment, perception of symbolic designs, artisticforms.

Social Communication Factors.

1. Nonlinguistic expression: bodily expressive-ness, physical regimen and rhythms, dietary andculinary assumptions, tact.

2. Psychological culture; emotive expression, lin-guistic modulation of emotion, manners, appro-priateness, sociability, timing, trust.

3. Conceptual/credal constellations; differencesbetween groups, unchallengeable beliefs, un-mentionable topics, world-view presuppositions.

4. Linguistic culture; cultural face and language,verbal expressions of equality, superiority, un-certainty, disagreement, and the like.

5. Interpretative matrix; the other's likely assump-tions and interpretations of one's statementsand actions; how one's culture, history and so-cial position is read from the other's viewpoint.

In short, both the global and the more apparentcommunication specific factors affect the deliveryand enactment of the knowledge transfer. Often it isa question of the mutual adjustment of expectationsabout the other that takes the form of negotiatingcultural differences. Forithe deliver, continual moni-toring and careful evaluation are crucial for the gradu-al development of trust and collaboration. it is impor-tant that the recipient have a way to see that it is therecipient's own best interest that motivates the inno-vation, and consequently that the technology"makes sense" within the recipient's own cultural un-derstanding. To my mind this is the "stuff" of devel-oping technological literacy.

References

Albert, M., & Hahnel, R. (1981). Bocialism today andTomorrow. Boston: South End Press.

Filippi, E. (1983, December). Very serious con-cerns.... Wgrl.sely, 39.

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Fink, E. (1974) Traktat ueber die gewalt des mans -

,p. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann.

Galtung, J. (1983, Vama). images of the world inyear 2000: A synthesis of the marginals of theten nationsfitudy. Paper presented at the Sev-enth World Congress of Sociology.

Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimationsproblerne irqspaetkapitalismus. Frankfurt am Main: Suhr-kamo Verlag.

Hussert, E. (1963). Cartesianische meditationenlad pariser vortraeoe. Den Haag: Martinus Nii-hoff.

Jonas, H. (1981). Philosophisches zur modementechnologie. In R. Loew (Ed.), Fortschritt ohnemass. Muenchen: Pipe & Co.

Kriele, M. (1980). Befreiung and politische aufklae-rung. Freiburg: Herder Verlag.

Luhmann, N. (1982). The future cannot begin. ag,Differentiation of Society (trans. S. Holmes & C.Larmore). New York: Columbia UniversityPress.

Luhmann, N. (1982). World-time and system history.The Differentiation of Society. New York: Co-

lumbia University Ness.

McCarthy, T. (1978). The critical theory of JurgenHabermas. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Murphy, A., Michunas, J. Pilotta, J. (Eds.) (1966).The underside of high-tech. Greenwood Press.ichabert. fiewalmaumanileel, 225.

Volkmann-Schluck, K. H. (1965). Einfuehning indes philosophische denken. Frankfurt am Main:Vittorio Klostermann.

Volkmann-Schluck, K. H. (1974). politische philosl-phig. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann.

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A discipline within the education community hasbeen transforming before our eyes. Tremendousstrides have taken place within the last few years tocreate the discipline known as Technology Educa-tion--The New Basic. Technology Education hasproported to be an actic.i based program that is con-cerned with the technical means, their evolution, util-ization and significance with industry. . . TechnologyEducation: A Perspective on Implementation(1985).

A second thrust of the technology educationmovement has been to study impacts of technology.

. . .with industry, its organization, personnel, sys-tems, techniques, resources, products, and their so-cial/cultural impact (Technology Education: A Per-spective on lmplementation,1985).

Needless to say, there is much in the literaturethat suggests the education community should beaddressing the topic of technology and its impact. Inaddition to the definition provided earlier, the follow-ing are examples of the call for the study of technolo-gy and its impact:

Technology: MI students should study technolo-gy, the history of man's use of tools, how scienceand technology have been joined, and the ethicaland social issues technology has raised (HighSchool--A Report on Secondary Education in Ameri-ca,1983, p. 304).

Contriouting to technological literacy is an under-standing of: (1) the historical role of technology inhuman development, (2) the relationship betweentechnological decisions and human values, (3) thebenefits and risks of choosing technologies, (4) thechanges occurring in current technology, and (5) anunderstanding of technology assessment as a meth-od for influencing the choice of future technologies(Educating Citizens for the 21st %-entury,1983, p.74).

Impacts of Technology

Jerry P. BalistreriState Specialist for Technology Education

Utah State Office of EducationSalt Lak9 City, UT

Despite the national call for the study of impactsof technology, the technology education communityhas been slow in providing direction. Reasons forthis lack of study are many, however, some of themore prominent reasons are as follows:

1. The lack of understanding of what the study ofimpacts may involve.

2. Lack of perceived benefit.

3. No role model to work from.

4. The lack of resource materials for the absolutenovice, to have this topic become a viable areato study in the technology education programsacross the nation.

Granted many prior efforts have come to fruitionthat address this issue; i.e. The Man Made World,Science- Technology- Society. You, Me anu Technol-ogy, and etc. However, these efforts have been pri-marily targeted towards the liberal arts curriculum.

Thus the need for the Practical Arts and Voca-tional Community to address these issues.

The study here is to go beyond the mere exis-tence of 'facts' artifacts, inventions or applications. Itis necessary to probe more deeply into the logic, thehuman condition, the societal dimension or conse-quences, the ethics, legal or common good. Suchquestions might be along the lines of:

1. What are the alternatives?

2. What is the social impact?

3. What is the environmental impact?

4. Who should be involved in the decision?

5. What are the principles of science and/ormathe matics involved?

6. What role has the technology or the innovationplayed?

7. What is the long-range impact?

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78 Impacts of Technology

8. Whct are the ethical, moral and iegai issues associated with the technology?

9. Who should pay?

10. What if?

The questions should provide the means for amore holistic approach to the study of a technology.Such questions should be presented and used toprobe beyond the surface and not to develop a neg-ative frame of reference for the study. The goal ofsuch points of inquiry with students Is to open theirthought processes and to develop their inquisitive-ness related to technology with respect to a wise va-riety of issuestechnical, social, environmental, fi-nancial, ethical, etc." (Maley, 1987).

This type of curricular framework coupled withthe technical skill development that the vocationalcommunity has enjoyed for years make for a marriageof unprecedented benefit to the growth of our na-tion. So It is that a manual entitled Impacts of Tech-nology has been developed. It is ..le author's hopeand intention that this manual will allow the reader tobecome familiar with what the study of Impacts ofTechnology is, and supply enough resource materialso that one could develop curriculum on the topic ofImpacts of Technology.

The manual Impacts of Technologyhas beenwritten using the LAP (Learning Activity Packet) for-mat, so that it could not only serve as a place to go forinformation, but also has activities built in. A total of

References

Boyer, E. (1983). Higkschgols:arepgngnsecon:jag education in America. Report of theCarnegie Foundation for the Advancement ofTeaching.

Boyer, E. et al. (1985). Technology education: Aperspective on implementation. Guide. Res-ton, VA: International Technology EducationAssociation.

Maley, D. (1987). Implementing technology educa-tion in the secondary schools otAmerica. Pa-per presented at the Second NationalScience, Technology, Society Conference -Technological Literacy, Washington, D. C.

National Science Board Commission on PrecollegeEducation in Mathematics, Science and Tech-nology. (1983). Educating Americans for the21st century (source material). Washington,D.C.: The National Science Foundation.

Notes

The Impacts of Technology manual is currentlybeing considered for publication; however, furtherinformation can be secured by contacting the author,Mr. Jerry Balistreri.

32 activities have been included.ered in this manual are, as follows:

Titles of Learning Activity Packets

LAP# Title

The topics cov-

Page #1 How and Why 1

Technology HasImpacted Our Lives

2 Types of Impacts 53 Environmental Impacts 124 Technical Impacts 165 Financial Impacts 196 Social Impacts 227 Technology 25

Assesanent8 Terminology 30

Appendix A Suggested Texts 33Appendix B Suggested Filmstrips 36Appendix C Suggested Videos 39Appendix D Suggested Films 41Appendix E Agencies 44

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Christian Relational Theology as a FrameworkFor Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology

Human needsphysical, mental, emotional andspiritualhave remained stable over the centuries oftechnological evolution, but how we attempt to meetthese needs has changed phenomenonally. Al-though those changes may be most obvious in thephysical realm, they exist in each realm (Amett &Ramer).

Some form of technology is necessary for humansurvival. Every available archaelogical evidence indi-cates that humans have always uses technology. Arecent article in Scientific American documents thateven the flint tools ust.d by early humans are effe-cient and effective instruments. As far back as weknow, humans have used technology to alter thenatural environment. Indeed, there is no evidencethat we can survive without some degree of technol-ogy. Even the most primitive of cultures use sys-tems of technology in order to provide food, clothingand shelter as well as communication and other activ-ities. An important distinction, though, is that there isa difference in the degree of technology necessaryfor survival and the degree necessary for conven-ience or luxury. Any degree of technology affectshow we relate to our surroundings and to one anoth-er as human.

As we approach the 21st century and the implica-tions of a post-industrial economy become evenmore pronounced, our culture will have an increasedneed for the assessment of technology. The goal ofsuch evaluation is not an ultimate judgement ontechnology. Such seems unfeasible, perhaps im-possible. What is feasible, and we believe, impera-tive, is a very deliberate, systematic appraisal of tech-nology.

Such an appraisal is justified by several reasons:technology involves and affects everyone; technolo-gy demonstrates tremendous potential; technologyinvolves values in a manner which is simultaneouslycovert and dramatic; the pace of technological devel-opment appears to be increasing to a degree that is

Harold ArnettGraduate Student

andHeber Ramer

Graduate StudentThe Ohio State University

Columbus, Ohio

at least startling and at most intimidating. Any value-laden force which demonstrates such powerful andubiquitous results demands careful contemplation.To fail to evaluate technology is to play a game ofBlind Man's Bluff with unprecedented implications.

Evaluation Frameworks

Various frameworks are available for such assess-ment. An economic model with its standard of effi-ciency; a socio-political model with its standard ofcontrol and justice; a cultural model which seeks thepreservation of ethnic identity; a mechanical modelwhich attempts to construct the ultimate machine--one which calls for no human intervention; a bio-medical model which seeks adequate health to pur-sue desired activities; and an ethical model thatseeks to know what technology is right or wrong,good or bad.

Although these various frameworks are available,the economic model seems to be most often used.This model purports to assess technology by addingthe benefits and subtracting the costs. Such a mod-el is used by manufacturers to determine whether ornot to replace human workers with computer con-trolled machines. it is also used frequently by gov-ernment agencies and several other groups. Costs,however, are often hidden. At other times, a dollarvalue is hard to apply, as in the case of relationships.

If a community decides to drain a fresh waterswamp at the outskirts of a town to build a factory foremployment, what is the true value of the lost recrea-tion and wildlife area? Suppose that two years later itis discovered that the swamp was a natural water filterfor the community's water supply. Now what is thecost? Thus the choice, although including economicconsiderations, is also one of relationship of a com-munity to a natural fresh water habitat and a work-place for its citizens. Monsma and others (1986)point Dut the limitations of economic assessment,particularly noting that such assessment is often con-sidered in such a narrow sense that it seldom even

7d

80 . Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology

provides an accurate assessment of material factors.

While each model has its own contributions tomake, the above example illustrates that each is limit-ed. What we end up with are various conclusionsabout technology, developed from a narrow per-spective thas fails to consider the wholistic nature oftechnology .id the pervasiveness of its influence.The assessment of technology must address the ga-mut of effects.

The validity of an evaluational framework ultimate-ly hinges upon its ab'lity to satisfactorily answer thequestions asked (considered to be important) by theevaluator. In regard to technology, those questionswill vary with the world view of the particular evaluator.Hence the Honda accountant in Tokyo may considervery different criteria than does the second shift ma-chine operator at the Honda plant in Marysville, Ohio.Nonetheless, each agree that some kind of evalua-

tion is in order. Beyond the implied narrow perspec-tive of these two, though, we argue for a largerbased evaluation of technology.

Social and Ethical

There can be no question that the social andethical implications must be examined. New situa-tions precipitated by advancing technology, such asartificial insemination, surrogate mothering and ge-netic engineering, call for value decisions and are al-tering our cultura, including the way we relate to oneanother as human.

We have only recently begun to realize the com-plexity of technological systems and their influenceon world cultures. To assess .his influence, we mustbegin to understand two important considerations.The first is that the physical objects that a culture pro-duces are a reflection of that culture's values. Sec-ondly, we need to recognize that the products oftechnology, the tangibles, also have an effect uponthe culture which produced them. For example, theautomobile is not only a technological product of ourculture, but has had a deep influence upon our cul-ture. Also, we should note that the processes ofproduction and service also affect a sociey.

This paper will demonstrate that technology canbe evaluated based on the extent to which relation-ships between technology, humans, and environ-ment are maintained. More spear:ally, the paper willbring evidence to light that supports the notion that aChristian relational theology is an appropriate modelto assess the moral and social impacts of technology.

Christian Relational Theology

Let us first of all define what we mean by"Christian relational theology." If you are expectingan elaborate, complicated, philosorlical statement,you will be disappointed. Instead, our concept isquite simple and includes three basic concepts fromthe teachings of Christ. One, all humans are in rela-tion. That is, all are "neighbors". Whether the rela-tionship with my neighbor is positive or negative, itstill exists. It also exists regardless of the degree towhich I am aware of it. Second, "Love your neighboras yourself." Finally, "Treat others as you would havetnem treat you." While the simplicity cif these con-cepts may suggest that you are in a primary age Sun-day school class, the application of those conceptshas a compelling power and rigor that exceeds thecapabilities of the greatest philosopher.

The notion of a Christian relational world view as abasis for evaluating technology stands upon two ide-as that seem almost truistic. One is that a moralframework seems to be a logical choice for evaluatingmoral impacts. Most people are religious and in ourcountry as well as many others, Christianity contin-ues to be the most dominant religion. Recentevents have pointed out to us that religious peoplecommit immoral acts (as do non-religious people) buthave also pointed out to us that the American publicstill makes moral judgement. Even the dedicatedchurch-avoiders have been known to drop their sup-port of presidential candidates because of "allegedsocial indiscretions." To ignore the framework usedby the population in making value decisions is atbest, unsound as a governing principe. More seri-ously, it ignores a natural choice for assessment.

Religion and other forms of philosophy have his-torically been the bases for making moral evalua-tions. Any religion then that claims to present a moralstandarda set of principles that idenhifies what is de-sirable aryor undesirable in terms of human behav-iorseems a potential basis for evaluating moral impli-cations. Even though we may reject a partiular relig.ion as a matter of personal faith or choice, when weconsider it as a potential model, we are obligated tojudge it based upon the principles which it teaches.Therefore a religion which stresses desirable standards of human behavior has merit for evaluating mo-ral implications.

While the moral application may be often admit-ted, dealing with social impacts is seldom seen as fit-ting within the parameters of religion. We think this isdue to a misconception of religion in general andChristianity in particular. This misconception may be

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within or without the Christian community.

Any scheme which purports to address) social is-suds, by definition, must include human relations.Webster's New World Dictionary (1964) defines"social" as "having to do with human beings living to-gether as a group in a situation requiring that theyhave dealings with one another." If that does not in-volve human relations, what does?

But instead of this, twentieth century Christianstend to think in moral termsan act is either right orwrong. Occasionally, Christians will think in valuativeterms --an act or an object is then good or bad. Wethink that a better approach would be to ask, "Howdoes this behavior, act or object affect my relation-ship with others?" Although Christians have arguedabout the correct interpretation of Christology sincethe time of Christ, the one issue that is commonlyagreed upon is the centrality of relationships. Thispaper assumes that whether people consider theirinterpretation to be conservative or liberal, that cor-rect relationship with fellow humans, with the envi-ronment, and with one's belief systemthat is, livingin good conscienceare at the center of Christianity.This then, provides a sound basis for judging the ac-ceptability of social implicationsDoes the technolo-gy promote desirable human relations?

This paper will explore the idea of technologicalassessment based upon some very basic and simpleprinciples of Christian relation. The notion of beingin relationship requires the making of choices, andbeing in Christian relationship infers that the individu-al chooses wholeness over fragmentation. Consid-eration of relation based solely on economic factorsis narrow to = debilitating degree. Making relationalchoices requhes knowledge beyond the bottom lineof a ledger sheet. A reductionist paradigm simplycannot address the human issues of technology. Tosay that unemployment remained stable during thethird quarter ignores the human suffering of unem-ployed or under-employed families and the nature ofwork engaged in by the employed. Christianity main-tains that these aspects are important and that desir-able relational choices are built around accurate anal-ysis of both divine and natural information.

This notion of volition is at the center of the adver-tising industry which attempts to convince people tomake particular decisions about particular products.That industry rarely asks consumers to consider thevariety of implications bound up in purchasing andusing those products, however. An individual orcommunity aware and informed of the consequenc-es of a decision will usually choose the way that will

protect the relationships most important to them.

This idea of technology assessment assumesthat individuals have volition in the matters of tech-nology; that Christianity and technology are both re-lational physically and metaphysically; that there arevarious valid models of technology assessment andChristian-relational is one; and that informed, wholis-tic decisions are more likely to foster relationships.Any soclo- cultural model that purports to evaluatetechnology must deal with relationships.

A point often argued is that technology and Chris-tianity do not mix. It is not surprising that non-Christians, or non-religious people would argue this.But for Christians to accept such an idea indicatesthat they have failed to grasp the Messiah's intentthat His teachings were intended to govern every as-pect of His disciple's lives. It is this failure to rigorous-ly apply Christian principles that is responsible for thepast failings of Christendom to be, in practice as wellas doctrine, the kingdorr filch Christ came to estab-lish. This failure demonstrates a lack of appreciationfor the fact that correct relationships are at the centerof our function as God's people on earth. Therefore,the study of the relationships of human beings totheir tool systems and how they inter act with the en-vironment should be of utmost concern to twentiethcentury Christians. But the Christian framework alsohas validity for non-Christian., interested in humanconsequences of technology.

This concern with human issues has beenvoiced by many, including Ely Chinoy.

An affluent society, however, can afford to con-cern itself in new ways with the human con-sequences of technology, to make choicesbetween cost, let us say, or efficiency, andthe impact cf the job experience upon theworker . . . engineers and managers, howev-er, have rarely concerned themselves withthe human or social consequences of tech-nology . . . Shall concern with productionand cost continue to take priority over moreimmediate human values? (1964, pp. 76-77, 80)

Chinoy's statements and question focus sharplyor both the opportunity and responsibility that wehave as citizens in a land of plenty. No longer are weconcerned only with technology for survival, we bothenjoy and are afflicted by technology that offers bothconvenience and luxury. Such dissonance pointsout the need for deliberative evaluation of our tech-nology, including its social impact. We maintain thatChinoy's observations demonstrate that considera-

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82 Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology

tion of others would change the practice of technolo-gy. In some cases, engineers have designed workroles for others that they themselves would abhor.Managers have directed workers in patterns of workthat they themselves could not tolerate. Such indi-cates a lack of neighborliness, a failure to treat othersas they would be treated, an absence of positive re-lationship.

An Illustration

To perceive the influence of technology on hu-man relations requires that we go beyond an object-centered view. Simply noting that Uncle Fred andAunt Agnes can drive their car up to Vermont andvisit the grandchildren does not provide a largeenough framework. We may also note that althoughthe automobile allows them to maintain contact withthe extended family, it may increase the likelihoodthat the extended family will be distanced. Althoughwe may certainly begin to discuss the impact of theautomobile on their relationship with the grandchil-dren in Vermont, that allows neither an adequate as-sessment of the automobile or of Aunt Agnes andUncle Fred.

Agnes and Fred, in addition to being involved in aconsumer role, are also involved in relationshipsstemming from the design, production and servicingof the automobile.

Each designer involved in the manufacture of thecar is inextricably linked in a relationship to the con-sumer. (Try removing the front oil pan plug on a 78Fairmont when the car is on a lift or changing sparkplugs in an '84 Corvette.) Whether by fault or over-sight, the engineers who designed the Ford Pintohad a relationship with those individuals killed or seri-ously injured in flaming rear-and collisions. There isno reason to believe that there was a conspiracy onthe part of he engineers against the lives of Pintoowners. N.,..re likely, the issue is one of oversight.But is not such oversight less likely when the engi-neer considers Uncle Fred and Aunt Agnes to be in-volved in an important relationship with her or him?Conversely, there is also a relationship between theengineers of the safety harness and/or infant restain-ers which have saved the lives of thousands of peo-ple. Also, manufacturers who devote much time andmoney to make vehicles more comfortable indicate apositive degree of relationship with the consumer.(Incident ly, the idea of designer responsibility histori-cally precedes Christian culture. At least as early asAssyrian culture, if a building collapsed and killed itsoccupants, both architect and contractor were put todeath.)

In addition to the designers, the producers of amanufactured or constructed object also exist in a re-lationship to consumers and designers. By followingstandards conscientiously and rDting design flaws,workers are able to maintain a "faithful" relationshipwith both the designer and consumer, one whichconveys a sense of honesty, reliability and dependa-bility. On the other hand, the tire builder who fails tofollow specs, or deliberately multitates the design, vi-olates the honor of that relationship.

Correspondingly, corporate managers whogouge prices, monopolize trade, discriminate unfairlyin hiring and firing practices, defraud consumers andotherwise fail to practice faithfulness, act in a way todestroy human relationships.

Finally, consumers who refuse to pay for mer-chandise, neglect or abuse products, defraud theproducer or servicer and do not act faithfully in otherways, also act in a way to destroy human relation-ships.

Everyone involved in the system, as employer,employee, consumer, etc., is involved in relationshipto others in the system.

The point, up te this point, is not to blame tech-nology per se for all broken relationships describedabove. Rather, the point is that technology involvespeople in relationships. The responsibility of tech-nology, or more accurately the responsibility of thosewho employ technology, accrues from the degree towhich a technology encourages or hinders the culti-vation of human relationships. This principle is oper-ant not only in the object but also in the processesinextricably linked to the object.

Mass private ownership of the automobile de-mands a system of production that involves certaininevitable implications for human relationships. Thatsystem, mass production, is the only means of pro-viding semi-affordable automobiles, supplying uswith high quality, uniform products at a low price.That system, by definition, also involves processeswhich separate workers socially and reduce the bulkof work to highly repetitive tasks. Confined to smallwork stations, restricted in social contact and creat'veactivity, many workers identify with the one who said,"The things I like best about my job are .,uitting time,pay day, days off and vacations" (Chinoy, 1964, p.75).

By purchasing the product, I participate in theprocess by which it is produced and am therefore, inrelationstgp to the workers. As such, I benefit fromthe designers/managers who wish to provide me

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litOMICINI11111Y Technological Literacy Symposium 83

with an affordable car, but reinforce a concept of pro-duction that forces others in my relational network towork at jobs that are frustrating, monotonous and un-rewarding. I also participate in the systems whichsupport the owners. lip and use of the automobile.

Private ownership of automobiles necessitates asystem of fuel procurement and distribution whichhas, at times, promoted exploitation of other coun-tries. Some writers have dealt with this exploitationof the individual and of cultures, often from quite dif-ferent perspec' ves.

Jacque El Jul and Samuel C. Florman are definitelynot cellmates in their view on the !la' '9 of technolo-gy. Yet both agree that the conc. creativity iscentral to the hurviln persona. T ,v is not a newone. E. F. Sc...imacher (1973) quotes ThomasAquinas as stating that the human is "a being withbrains and hands and enjoys nothing more than tobe creatively, usefully productively engaged withboth his hands and hie Ji.:inc." In dour reflection onthat description, Schu.nacher laments that modemtechnology is "most successful in reducing or eveneliminating skillful productive work of human hands intouch with real materials or one kinc another" (p.149).

Whether or not one agrees with Schumacher, tn..issue provides very pertinent questions. To whatdegree does technology as currently practiced in-crease the potential of humans to be creative?Which individuals benefit most? Least? What indi-viduals have less and less opportunity for creativityas a result of model technology? To what extentdoes modal technology enhance the relationships ofdesigner object producer? Marketer/consumer?

Our model technology of manufacturing makesgreat rnysical demands with minimal financial, emo-tional and spiritual reward of a maximum of the peo-ple involved; offering them abysmally limited oppor-tunities for creative engagement, .,ocial intercourseand connectedness with designers and consurr ')rs.

Our modal technology of communicating pro-vides maximum coverage of the views of a tiny pro-portion of the population with controi of communica-tion by a very few. There is a ; arallel between thecontrol of information and the control of money.

'..`ur modal tecnnology of finance lends itself tomaximum control by tt. ...sliest numbers. Accord-:IN to the Coiumbr; aspatch a few weeks ago, .5%of our population made 27% of the earned incomefor 198C and controlled 40% of the nation's capital.Point five percent. Such situations seem inevitable

in our system of investment/production.

Also inevitable in an ethos of a most goods forthe least price is a distancing of alationships. De-signers plan products and never taste and smell theproduction floor. Producers supervise machinesand never feel the resistance of material against tool.They experience the boredom of repetition but notthe joy of creation. Advertisers seduce buyerswhom they never meet. Servicers repair objects inwhich they have no vested interest. Inevitably, thereis a distancing between human/human and human/material.

As a result, creativity becomes more abstract andmore privileged. We transcibe the minds of ten de-signers into a network of binary decisions on siliconchips, giving one person creative potential to power"x" and excluding nine others from the creative pro-cess. Even the creativity of production line problemsolving becomes more cybernetic, less organic.One result of this spirallic tension Le the distancing ofhuman relationships. Having placed automationcloser to the hub of technology, people are slung incentrifuge further from the creative core, further fromeach other.

We have chosen this system primarily because ofits potential of supply cheap consumer goods. If I

purchase furniture designed, produced and market-ed by my neighbor, I must pay more fr. lower quality.Such allows a deeper relation between hu-man3hateriat, human:machine and human:human,but it requires a cost I am unwilling to pay. Instead, Iopt for a system which provides me with high qualitylow cost furniture but also requires my human familyto be distanced from itself, its work, its environment.Instead of working at home with the family, my neigh-bors work in large factories or offices. Instead ofworking intimately with triter:els. my neighbors ob-serve them as they are shaped by machines. Insteadof producing objects which involve themselves total-ly, my neighbors input precise quantities of de-tached energy. But I can have more by for less byparticipating in this system. Evaluated from the eco-nomic perspective folded into my hip pocket, suchtechnology is seen positively. Evaluated from theperspective of human relationships engendered to-ward mutual 'rust, care a,'d reward, a different Ara-tion emerges.

Instead of continuing on the macro level, in orderto illustrate how a Christian world view can be used asa basis for evaluating technology, we move to a mi-cro-analysis--one person's observation of the tele-phone. Using relationships as the basis, this aspect

84 Assessing the Moral and Social Implications of Technology

of communication technology will be projected fromthe bases of inherent and applicative capabilities.

Inherently, telephone communications necessi-tates a system of connectionssatellite, transmitters,signal receivers, relays, cables, wires, dials, etc. In-volved in that, various workers are drawn into rela-tionships with Mach other and with consumers. Thismeans that some of my neighbors will work in variouscapacities with various materials in order to provideme with communications service.

The phone entails some sort of alerting device- -necessarily one of an obtrusive nature--in order togain the attention of the call receiver. This obtrusive-ness also introduces certain aspects that affect hu-man relationships. This means that some of myneighbors (even ones I am reluctant to acknowledgeas such) will attempt to communicate with me in vari-ous capacities at various times regarding various top-ics. Those times and topics may or may not be con-ducive to relational concerns I have at particulartimes.

A special distinction about these situations,though, is that the way we employ the technology ismore to blame than is the technology itself. An an-swering machine could be tur..ad on during thosetimes when we do not wish to be interrupted, butserious discussions and romantic moments are notalways anticipated! (Not to mention the rare emer-gencies which interrupt them.)

A more noxious example of the modal techniquepresents itself at the automotive parts counter. I canhardly remember a time when I have stood in line toget a p. ce quote on a part or the part itself withoutbeing pre-empted by a phone customer. It dion'tmatter that I had waited for twenty minutes, someoneslse could call from the convenience of home or of-fice and receive immediate priority. In twenty years ofabuse, I have only one time witnessed a worker whoanswered the phone and said, "I'm sorry but I haveother customers in front of you. Please hold or callback in twenty minutes." I could have jumped overthe counter and kissed the man's greasy ear! (Suchgratitude would be hardly acceptable in a settingwhere real men don't even know what quiche is.)

The point here is that we can refuse to use a tech-nological innovation in such a way that interferes withrelationships but promotes them. The telephonecan maintain long distance communication end inter-rupt personal communication. It may allow me tomaintain previous relationships and avoid makingnew ones. It can bring emergency assistance or un-welcome intrusion. (I have yet to figure out why it's

wrong to invade my privacy to obtain criminal evi-dence and okay to invade it to give me a limited timeoroortunity to purchase options on a vacation con-dominium in central Ohio.)

Inherent :n the telephone are certain materialsand processes. Humans must extract certain sub-stances from earth and use certain processes :n or-der to transform those into telephonos, switchingcenters, lines and billing terminals(Human:environment). People must work in certaincapacities as operators, installers, repairers. Consu-mers must pay bills (Human:human). Reiationshipsbetween people in all categories are involved in eve-ry phase/aspect of telephone communications, eventhough their perceptions of the technology and ofeach other may vary con lerably. To evaluate thesocial impacts of that technology, we must considerits influence on human relations.

The point of this paper is to help make plain thatmoral and social values are inherent in and insepera-ble from technology. to consider how technologiesinherently and modally affect human relations and tomake technological valuations based upon their abili-ty to cultivate richer more rewarding relationships fordesigners, producers, consumers and servicers.Such a framework places greater emphasis on hu-mans as served by, rather than serving technology.

Such a call seems simplistic andsome will scoff- -moralistic. Keep in mind, though, that such incidentsas gas tank explosions, nuclear disaster and the pro-posed use of neutron wearons, not to mention mari-tal indiscretions often seem to be greeted by moraloutrage--even by those who argue that morals andvalues are too nebulous to be useful. Not only dowe believe that technology by th Golden Rulemakes such incidents less likely to occur, we also be-lieve it will offer a more responsible technological re-sponse to them if they do occur.

Our position is unabashedly Christian. Ratherthan attempting an assessment of technology, wehave attempted to posit a framework which allows fora meaningful evaluation of moral and social implica-tions. Any evaluative standard presents, implicitly orexplicitly, a decree of what should exist. Such stan-dards are necessarily implied in the very concept ofevaluation. One cannot enforce a particular religionas the only standard but can certainly argue that aparticular religion is or is not a valid standard.

Since we agree that the social and moral implica-tions of technology ought to be evaluated and thatsocial issues by definition are concerned with humanrelations, a religion that prescribes a standard for hu-

8 4


man relations becomes a viable option for evaluatingsocial impacts of technology. Therefore, a religionthat maintains that all humans are neighbors, and thateach human should love neighbor as soif, certainly isa compelling and stringent measure for technologicalevaluation.

Whether seen as simplistic and moralistic or not,this framework has dramatic statements to makeabout the way we use technology, the way we pur-sue technology, and the way we involve people intechnological systems. It is our position that technol-ogy which fosicrs relationships of trust, ca, a and re-spect is ultimately dosirable technology, a servingtechnology. Technology which exploits and weak-ens human relationships, even if it incidentally pro-vides economic adavantage to the few or to themasses, is ultimately undesirable technology.

The ability of a Christian relational theology to im-prove technological practice depends primarily uponthe willingness of humans to consistently and vigor-ously apply its demands of consideration for others- -to live by the Golden Rule.

References

Chinoy, E. (1964) Manning the machines--the as-sembly line worker. The human shape of work.New York: Macmillan.

Ellul, J. (1980). The technological system. NewYork: Seabury Press-Continuum.

Florman, S. C. (1981). Blaming technoloay: The irra-tional search for scapegoats. New York: St. Mar-tins Press.

Monsma, S. V. (1986). Responsible technology.Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Schumacher, E. F. (1973). ,Small is beautiful: Eco-pomics as N people mattered. New York: Harper& Row.

Toth, N. (1987, April). The first technology. Scien-lific_Amsticafi, 2i(4), 112-121.


Social Consequences of Technological Innovations

Technological change is nothing new to Ameri-ca. In fact, it could be argued that the very name"America" is symbolic of rapid changes in technolo-gy: how else can we explain the fact that advances incommunications, navigation, and weapons made itpossible for an explorer from the technologically ad-vanced state of Genoa to accomplish in 1492 whathad eluded some very capable seafarers like the Vik-ings for centuries? So accustomed are we to rapidchange, that we sometimes fail to wonder at what isreally wonderful: many of us, for example, weredeeply touched by President Reagan's eloquenttribute to the Shuttle astcooauts who died in lastyear's Challenger disaster. The poem recited by thePresident was written by a young aviator who waskilled flying a World War I plane:

[For I have] slipped the surly bonds of earth/andtouched the face of God.

That plane was constructed of balsa wood andcanvas. Ronald Reagan was a young small boy then.Yet there he was raying tribute --in a timeless wayto

brave Americans who challenged the heavens in thelatest product of a technologically sophisticated aer-ospace industry. All this has occurred within oneman's lifetime. But far from suffering "future shock,"Americans seem to expect that all problems will yieldto technological solutions. We seem not so much tobe shocked by the future as to be shocked when thefuture fails to proceed--on schedule, as planned,and flawlessly. echnology can be seen as a meansto expand our range, to extend our powers, to real-ize gocis that are consistent with our values. What,of course, it cannot do is to substitute for those val-ues. Courage- like that of the World War I flyer andthe Shuttle astronautsis not replaceable.

The challenge of change is being felt through-out our society and certainly throughout this adminis-tration. Competitiveness Is the watchword. Our fed-eral education and training programs are constantlybeing re-evaluated in the light of changing condi-

Mr. John G. PuccianoActing Assistant Secretary

Office of Vocational and Adult EducationU.S. Department of Education

Washington, D. C.

tions. Much of the debate about programs is re-duced, unfortunately, to funding levels. But I haveshared with Congressional committees and with edu-cators and industry leaders my firm conviction thatthe competitive challenges we face are not to be metsimply by spending more at the federal level. It is en-tirely possible, in fact, that excessive federal spend-ing--with all the necessary regulation and bureaucrat-ic oversight--may cause us as a nation to becomeless adaptive to change and less competitive. Thereare areas in which the federal govemment has a gen-uine role to plat. By encouraging competitionnotonly in the market place of goods and services, butalso in the market place of Ideas --the federal govern-ment can foster the qualities which are hallmark of acomnoc;tive society.

office has been given statutory responsibilityby Congress to coordinate federal rural educationprograms. We are all familiar with some of the prob-lems frequently cited in 'lie accounts of the crisisin rural America. When near of the plight of farm-ers losing farms, of families uprooted, we all naturallyfeel compassion. Our federal response should bemeasured one. We should seek to correct existingoblems without causing new ones. Many candid

observers of the crisis of rural America acknowledgemat many of the problems which now cry out for solu-tion are the direct result of soVonswhi^n the feder-al tovemment applied to the problems of yesterday.By encouraging farmers to expand production, tolease more land in the inflationary economy of the70's, the government set them up for a loss when in-flation was brought under control--as it hsi to be.

The future vitality of rural America may well de-pend on diversification not only cf products but ofpeople. A standard argument made for the consoli-dated high school, for example, is that it can presentmore course offerings. Economies of scale is cer-tainly a concept easily grasped. Yet the larger, moreimpersonal high school may have its disadvantages,too. Research suggests that bigger may not ileces-

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88 Social Consequences of Technological Innovations

sarily be better when it comes to school disciplineand youth suicide. The sense of belonging whichcomes to being a part of the small community calledschool may itself be worth preserving. The use ofsatellite communications, mobile labs, and the use ofelectronic networks may enable the small school ef-fectively to overcome the disadvantages of isolationand distance. This is why I would suggest, somefederal spending cuts are less desirable than others.To cut back on funding for a space station whileclaiming we need to spend money in rural areas maybe to lose sight of the fact that the advances in com-munication and miniaturization spawned by thespace program are the very sort of federal L'1 whichmay best help rural America. One of the most prom-isingand least costlyareas for federal coordinationis in the establishment and operation of resource da-tabanks and information clearinghouses. We mustrecognize that such efforts are not entirely risk free.How to avoid exploitation while assuring access is aconstant problem. For example, the informationwhich showed that antelope, Oregon was an attrac-tive community for settlement and investment was asreadily available to a strange cuk group as it was to in-dustry scouts. The natural beauty and uncrowdedneighborliness of much of rural American make it vul-nerable as well as attractive. in another sense, mobil-ity is an inescapable part of the American story.

That is a key point to remember. America has al-ways been a dynamic and mobile society. A Pulitzerp:ize-winning book by Harvard's Bernard Bailyn re-cently pointed out that Great Britain was suffering adrain of brains and talent in the 18th century. Thevery name America was synonym for movement, forfreedom, for opportunity to the struggling youngfarmers and workers of England, Scotland, andWales. No amount of pressure exerted by the Crowncould stem that human tide. In similar way, three fa-mous Americans made much of their rural roots asthey campaigned for the highest office in our land.Millions of Americans suppfkrted their call for a returnto the values of the small town--at least as thosespokesmen interpreted those values, But when themajority of Americans chose a different course, noneof those three leaden.' returned to the rural communi-ties that had nurtured them. This is.but one exampleof a process that has been repeated millions of timesby The famous and the not-so-famous, throughoutour history. The interstates run both ways and weshould not erect roadbkoke to freedom.

In a free society, government cannot restrict thelesiiirnate career and residence choices of its citi-zens. We may be seeing in parts of viral America a

particularly acute form of a general pattern of move-ment. What government can do is to ease theshocks of rapid change through eduction and re-training and through encouraging the productive pri-vate sector to expand job opportunities.

Technological changes certainly present vigor-ous challenges to traditional values. It is a time oftesting and of paradox. We have a generation ofyoung people who are instantly aware of clashes inthe South Africian township of SOWETO. But toomany of them are incapable of locating South Africa,or even Sout ,:arolina, on a map. We find manyhigh school ago youngsters who are fully capable ofmanipulating computers, VCRS, CD players, but whomight have trouble diagramming an atom. The "newbasics" called for in a number of recent national re-ports on education reflect an urgent national needfor seriousness about the business of education. Itis as if some serious scholars had reviewed many ofthe exotic curricular innovations of the last twentyyears and asked: "Where's the beef?" The result ofsome of these educational failures may be seen inchronic unemployment and underemployment insome central cities as well as in rural areas. For manyof our young people, the promise of affluence andaccess to secure, productive jobs spurred by gov-ernment uplift programs has been cruelly t nullified.They see opporutnities limited for lack of basic skies.Yet, the classified sections and technical trade jour-nals ..all out: help wanted! We face real dangers ofsocial unrest as skilled immigrants seek and get thegood jobs that our educational system has left toomany of our young unqualified to fill. George Gilder,that trenchant social critic, puts it bluntly:

"As long as we teach more students sex ed-ucation and cooking than physics and calcu-lus, we must depend on immigration for keytechnical personnel. The alternative is a realdecline in U.S. competitiveness."

Without endorsing the provocative Mr. Gilder, I 'anagree that a new seriousness about the business ofeducation is what we must have. Vocational educa-tion s changing to meet the challenge.

Many worthy reforms are being advocated whichdeserve study. We have certainly moved away fromtraditional society of early school-leaving, apprentice-ship or marriage, fixed roles and limited choices. Butjust as we reject a system which educates for onlyone role, we must reject alike a system which pre-pares for no role. Whether we talk about the youngdropout who becomes one of the hard-core unem-ployed or about the directionless students in their

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late twenties who return to their parents homes in aphenomenon called "nesting," young people arebeing disserved by our education system if it doesnot provide them early on with an awareness of thenecessity, the dignity, and the ethic of work.

lo achieve a new seriousness in our approach toeducation, I have proposed a redefinition of voca-tional education focusing on a three dimensionalmodel. The components of this model are process,methodology, and occupationally specific educa-tion.

The process of career development can helpyoung people develop goals and make appropriatecareer and educational choices throughout the K-12continuum. We can and should infuse such informa-tion and the values they imply- -into each classroomsetting.

The applied or experimental methodology of vo-cational education can help to support and enhancemany of our traditionally academic course offerings.And vocational educators need to instill academicvigor in their curricula. The applied or experientialmethods of vocational education helped to make usthe world leader in agriculture and manufacturing.Now, they must do more.

Occupationallyspecifk: education at the secon-dary level may become increasingly difficult to justifyin a time of rapid technological change and budge-tary constraints. We are witnessing already the pro-cess in which occupationally-specific education isdeferred until the post-secondary level. This pro-cess will require a far greater articulation of effortamong high schools and community colleges, voca-tional-technical institutes, and private schools. Fur-ther, there must be a concertec ffort between edu-cation and business.

I believe the implementation of this three dimen-sional model for reform of vocational education willnot only help combat school dropouts, it will greatlyenhance our international competitiveness.

If information is the key to battling such old prob-lems as teen pregnancy and such new ones asAIDS, it is also the key to prerring ')r meaningfulwork. The rapid drop in the cost of h.: s znmputersmay have a revolutionary impact on feo lily, work. andeducation. One vriter has called this ohenontenon"the natural evoluton of the democratizution of infor-mation use begun mut? than 500 years uilo by Gu-tenberg." Workers in a seNice economy may preferto be "on-line" at 8:00 a.m. rather,- than on the free-way. The historic economic and population shifts

which brought about the rise of industrial and com-mercial cities may yield to new realities: the ability ofincreasing numbers of people to combine home andwork responsibilities.

We have recently seen numerous reports in themedia and in government on the plight of the Ameri-can family. But technolocfical advances may lead tofamily re-empowerment through the use of homecomputers. Access to knowledge is access to pow-er. Home computers linked to databases may givefamilies the opportunity, for example, to reducehealth care costs. A 1979 annual report of the U.S.Surgeon General points out that "increasing our lifeexpectancy is largely a matter of howwe use informa-tion.* New programs may afford families the chanceto enrich and enhance their children' classroom ex-periences or ..ven, in some cases, substitute for it.Government, too, will find its actions subject to in-creasing scrutiny as citizen-activists gain access tovoting records, administrative decisions, andmostinteresinglypolitical contribution lists. While thereare hopeful aspects to all of this change, we must bealert to the possibilities that our hoped-for ideal ofthe New England Town Meeting could degenerateinto an anarchic ungovernable mass of jealous tribal-isms. But there has always been risk associated withfreedom. There was risk in allowing new states andfrontier people to participate equally with the originalstates and their more educated citizens. I am confi-dent that our constitutional system--which hasworked for two hundred years--is capable of adjust-ing to new technological challenges.

Vocational education which prepares for thejobs of the future will identify and expand opportuni-ties in the health occupations. Our office will spon-sor demonstration programs for training biotechni-clans. We need to be aware, though, that we are en-tering a field fraught with controversy. The use ofhormones to stimulate plant and animal growthwhileweighing health hazards -has been vigorously de-bated. As we move into new areassuch as patent-ing genetically engineered new life forms--we mayexpect the volume of disputes to increase. And, asthe recently-decided Baby M case in New Jerseyshows, when new technology is applied to issues ofhuman reproduction, some of the most divisive andfundamental issues are raised.

I would not presume to suggest that wehave theenswers to these dilemmas. But I do suggest thatthe technological choices we make can be informedby our othical principles. A decision, for example, topursue in vitro fertilization as solution for the prob-

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90 Social Consequences of Technological innovations

lens of infertility might incline us not to fully researchthe prospects for laser surgery to repair blocked fallo-pian tubes.

We are all familiar by now with the various spyscandals which have shocked the American people.Our national security is dependent in new ways onsecuring our communications. Ironically, the mostsophisticated of systems--our nuclear submarinesand the encrypted messages which give them theirorders--were betrayed by the Walkers for the oldestof motivesgreed. A system which places all relianceon technological sophistication and fa:s to considerhuman character !s quite simply, doomed. Ne maynot survive without the latest available technology forour defense systt a, but we certainly v, II not survivewithout inculcating a sense of loyalty and patriotismin our service men and women. And we cannot findsuch volunteers for our military and diplomatic posts,if our educational system does not provide them. Inthis respect, I would particularly commend vocationaleducators, vocational student organizations, and vo-cational graduates. The stress they have historicallyplaced on such traditional values as patriotism, citi-zenship, and respect for our American tradition of re-ligious !betty are an example to be followed by all ed-ucators. No society can safely pursue technical com-petence without simultaneously trying to instill thehighest moral and ethical standards.

Technological literacy will not only be importantto us as a commercial nation, it will be central to the vi-tality of our democratic institutions. The current de-bate over the President's Strategic Defense Initiativeis a prime example. SDI has been derided by its op-ponents as a "Star Wars" system. The distance tothe near6. star is six light years; the distance to in-tercept incoming missiles is mere thousands ofiniles. That discrepancy might be a comment on thetechnological literacy of SDI's opponents, although Idon't think scientific precision of expression is whatthey're aiming at. We will need to engage the scien-tific, technical, and defense communities in a seriousdiscussion of alternatives which must then beweighed by the American public and their elected of-ficials. It may be that we decide not to develop anddeploy the SDI. But I would hate to think that this de-cision was based on the public's preference fnr theanti-missile defuse system we currently have. fi :GI-cent poll showed that over 60% of the Americanpeople are simply rxst aware that the United Stateshas no defense against nuclear missiles. No de-fense against missiles launched by Gorbachev or byKaddafi or by Khomeini. None.

The Strategic Defense initiative encompassesone project which has been code-named Promethe-us. It is named after the mythological character whodispleased the Greek Gods by giving man the knowl-edge of fire. The project is well-named. As greatEnglish biologist J. B. S. Haldane has written: "Thechemical or physical inventor is always a Promethe-us. There is no great invention, from fire to flying,that has not been ahiled as an insult to some God."

Against this promethean impulse has alwaysranged the spirit of the Luddit&. These Englishcraftsmen, early in the 19th century, rioted andwrecked the machines they feared would put themout of work. In the same cramped, crabbed logic,opinion-leaders and self-styled moralists complain ofputting defensive weapons in space, fearing tech-nology, and showing more compassion for E.T. thanfor defenseless children here on earth.

Educators must equip students to follow thetechnical arguments for or against the Strategic De-fense Initiative. We cannot make informed choicesas citizens and voters without knowledge. As Thom-as Jefferson said: `If a nation expects to be ignorantand free. . .it expects what never was and never willbe"

SDI is more than a technical system: it is a con-cept and a commitment. In a similar fashion, spacescientists like Wemer von Braun supported the con-cept of landing a man orr the moon by the end of the1960's. There was, of course, considerable debatethen within the scientific community about the feasi-bility and the advisability of such a venture. But JohnF. Kennedy made the commitment.

Any one who recalls those historic years of thespace race will remember the fears that were raised:What is mens' hearts could not withstand prolongedweightlessness? What about the Van Allen radiationbelt? What if the lunar lander sank in hundreds offeet of powdery moon dust? What if unknown mi-crobes brought back a deadly contagion to a de-fenseless earth? Each of these scientific problemswas either dismissed or compensated for. The im-portant thing was the firm commitment or the Presi-dent and people of the United States.

We do not have the luxury of deciding on SDI inthe calm atmosphere of a visionary Camelot. Wemust decide the issue in the full glare of meeli4 atten-tion. I have no argument with tough ...' . sionaljournalists who ask tough, professional questions.But here's a probing questions for SDI's critics: Theworld's leading experts on the capacity of Soviet bal-listic missiles must be the Soviet leaders themselves;

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if our SDI would be so ineffective against their offon-sive weapons, why are they so desperate to have usscuttle the program?

Recently, a presidential candidate said the U.S.and the Soviet Union were about to enter an armsraceand the Japanese would win. it was a cleverway to make people aware that excessive concentra-tion on weapons systems could lead to commercialdefeat. One answer to that candidate's charge canbe found at the National Bureau of Standards.There, the "factory of the future" has been designedand produced.

It "addresses issues of standardized interfacesfor the flexibly-automated, robotics-based, comput-er-integrrted factory of the future. This public facilityis open to all The discussion of the commercial andindustrial application of LASER technology is opento allincluding the Japanese and, through our publi-cations, the Soviets. So, the commercial competi-tion between two free societies like Japan and theUnited States could well lead to discoveries in LA-SER technology which have direct military applicabili-ty.

It may be argued, therefore, that the technologyfor a space-based missile defense system will be de-veloped as a "spircoir of commercial competition.The only policy choice which may be open to us iswhether we wish to join the Soviets in deployingsuch a system.

George Gilder provides a read.; answer for thosewho fear Japanese advances in electronics: "Thekey ingredients in electronics are not machinery ormaterials, but ideas and inventions. To imagine theJapanese will dominate the age of information be-cause they have the purest silicon and industrial gas-es is like predicting the Canadians will dominateworld literature because they have the tallest trees."

I share Gilder's commitment to intellectual free-dom. In the Age of Information, it gives America agreater advantage over any other commercial or mili-tary rival than firepower or buying power. When Sa.muel Slater came to America to build our first cottonmill in 1793, he bought the plans in his head. TheCrown had decreed no technology could be takenout of Britain.

We were a beacon drawing talent and ideasthen. We were a beacon for Albert Einstein in thedark days of the Third Reich. We aro such a beaconfor creative and scientific achievement today. Thosewho build walls to keep In their best minds must domore than preach GLASNOST-- openness --to the

people of the United States: they must practice it.

We are basically a nation of Prometheans --optimistic about the future and the ability of technol-ogy to solve our problems and provide us with a bet-ter life. It is our responsibility as educatorsthroughtechnical educatton and technological literacy, com-bined with the highest sense of moral and ethicalstandards - -to insure that the flame of optimism con-tinues to bum brightly.

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Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative tothe Technological Perspective

Dr. Frank C. PratznerThe National Center for Research in Vocational Education


Introduction

The technological revolution, and the ways it ischanging the American workplace, have been ad-dressed frequently in the popular media and in pro-fessional literature. Nevertheless, there is consider-able uncertainty and disagreement about the natureof technological development, its impact on skill re-quirements, and its impact on the education andtraining needs of workers.

On the other hand, many, including the Joint Ec-onomic Committee of the U.S. Congress (1980) andthe National Commission on Excellence in Education(1933), have concluded that technological change isresulting in an increased demand for higher levels ofskills and better educated workers. Thus, for exam-ple, the National Commission (1983) asserts that:

The demand for highly skilled workers innew fields is accelerating rapidly .. . Tech-nology is radically transforming a host of oth-er occupations . . Analysts examiningthese indicators of student performanceand the demands for new skills have madesome chilling observations. Educational re-searcher Paul Hurd concluded . . .'we areraising a new generation of Americans that isscientifically and technologically illiterate.' ..John Slaughter, a former Director of i.re Na-tional Science Foundation, warned of 'agrowing chasm between a small scientificand technological elite and a citizenry, ill-informed, indeed uninformed, on issueswith a science component.' (p. 10)

in spite of these concerns, Rile direct attentionuntil recently has been given to the study of technol-ogy and technological change in the high school cur-riculum. What little attention has been give-' hasusually been in the form of beefed-up courses inscience and mathematics, or instruction in computerliteracy. These responses, I point out, while useful,do not address directly the study of technology as an

important subject in its own right.

On the other hand, there are those who arguethat the impact of new, high technology on the work-place is minimal and that most jobs now and in the fu-ture will require rem skill rather than more (Levin &Rumberger, 1983; Rumberger & Levin, 1984). Theyconclude that:

. . .the expansion of the lowest skilled jobsin the American economy will vastly outstripthe growth of high technology ones; andthe proliferation of high technology indus-tries and their products is tar more likely toreduce the skill requirements of jobs in theU.S. economy than to upgrade them.(Levin & Rumberger, 1983, p. 2)

Levin and Rumberger (1986) point out, however,that tilt) service sector has generated a major shareof new jobs over the last two decades and is expect-ed to generate the major share of new jobs in thenext decade. Levin and Rumberger go on to notethat:

As a whole, workers in the service sectorhave higher levels of education than work-ers in the industry sector. Therefore, thecontinued growth of the service sector willhave a tendency to raise the educational re-quirements of work in the U.S. economy in-dependE ntly of any upgrading of require-ments that might take place within occupa-tions. (p. 11)

This introduction has attempted to point out twothings; first, that the educational consequences oftechnological change are far from being clear andcertain, and second, that other factors and forces insociety and at wort, appear to be at least as profoundin their potential consequences for both work andschooling as technological change.

The thesis presented here is that the broaderperspective and goal of what will be referred to as

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94 Sociotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

socictechnical literacy is more consistent with majorworkplace innovations and emerging social/demographic and economic/technological develop-ments than a purely technological focus (Camoy,Shearer & Rumberger, 1983; Ferguson, 1980; Nais-bitt, 1982; Work in America Institute, 1982). In con-trast to the more popular notion of technological liter-acy, sociotechnical literacy seeks a balanced treat-ment of the human social and demographic aspectsof work, as well as the economic and technologicalaspects, and focuses on their interactions. It empha-sized development of a broad perspective and Un-derstanding of the nature of technology and work Ina democratic, technologically advanced society. ttalso emphasizes development of broadly applicable,highly transferable skills err' knowledge needed tofunction effectively in such a society and workplaceincluding development of: (1) group problem solv-ing skills (e.s, '^terpersonai and group process skills,problem solvinu and decision making, planning, andcommunication), (2) skills in business economics,business operation, and statistical quality control,and (3) an understanding of the philosophical under-pinnings and consequences of the shifts from a me-chanistic, technological, scientific management per-spective of work to a high-involvement, participativemanagement perspective (Pratzner, 1984a; Pratzner& Russell, 1984b,

To lay the groundwork for this discussion of soci-otechnical literacy, we will first examine what is re-ferred to as quality of work life (OWL) developmentsin the workplace. Next, we will discuss briefly someof the social, demographic, and economic develop-ments tat support quality of work :lid developments.Finally, we will suggest how sociotechnical studies

grow out of quality of work life developments andsupport effective preparation for work.

Quality of Worldife: An Overview

Quality of work life activities are ways of structur-ing jobs and organizing work that typically have thedual focus of (1) improving the economic viability ofan organizatkm, and (2) making work a more satisfy-ing and reward:ag experience for workers and man-agers. As Goodman (1979) points out, "The focus isnot on improving either the productivity dimensionsor the psychological outcomes of work, but rather onjointly improving both of these outcomes" (p. 8).Goodman further notes that OWL activities usually at-tempt to "restructure r-tiitiple aspects of an organiza-tion simultaneously, such as the authority, decisionmaking, reward, and communication systems, ratherthan any one dimension." The purpose of these

multidimensional changes is generally "to providegreater democratization of the workplace, greatercontrol for the worker over his or her environment.and greater joint problem-solving between labor andmanagement" (Goodman, p. 81.

The changes occurring in work and referred tohere as "quality of work life developments" appear inworkplaces in many guises"high-involvement, parti-cipative management," "workplace democracy,""humanization of work," "democratic sociotechnicaldesign of work' Some of these terms may carry spe-cial meanings and connotations for the specialistsand professionals who use them, and there is littleapparent agreement among these specialists on acommon set of definitions. Nevertheless, their un-derlying principles and techniques do not appear tobe very different; they all focus on improving humanwell-being and organizational effectiveness.

Nadler and Lawler (1983) trace the historical de-velopment of the OWL movement and its evolvingdefinitions, and provide a concise working definition:

Quality of work life is a way of thinking aboutpeople, work, and organizations. Its distinc-tive elements are (1) a concern about the im-pact of work on people as well as on organi-zational effectiveness, and (2) the idea ofparticipation in organizational problem solv-ing and decision making. (p. 26)

Mills (1978), former director of the AmericanCenter for the Quality of Work Life, has defined OWLas:

A way to provide people at work (managers,supervisors, rank and file workers) withstructured opportunities to become activelyinvolved in a new interpersonal process ofproblem solving toward a better way of work-ing anti a more effective work organization,the payoff from which includes the best in-terests of employees and employers inequal measure. (p. 23)

The most important aspect of the OWL approachis the establishment of new cooperative diagnosticand problem solving bodies with, as Mills stresses,"the authority to make things happen" (Mills, 1978,p. 35). Such bodies are called by a variety of namesquality circles, OWL committees, problem solvingtask forces. What is important about them is theirpurpose and underlying rationale.

As Mills points out, these bodies or structuresprovide "the opportunity for people to seek togetherto identify barriers to the effectiveness of their work

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organization, or part of It, and through problertsolving, tumble these bafflers down" (Mills, p. 35).They are based on the conviction, by all involved,that 'There's a wealth of largely untapped creative ex-pertise and insight in the organization which the old,rigid, stable structure and organization charts havekept hidden" (Mills, p. 35). These problem solvingand decision making bodies are organized ways ofchanneling that latent expertise and putting it to workin the interest of the workers and the organization.

The New York Stock Exchange (1982) estimatesthat, by the early 1980s, about 13 million workerswere currently included in a variety of OWL and pro-ductivity improvement programs (p. 23). The Ex-change has collected survey data showing that themost rapidly growing programs have been quality cir-cles, restructuring plant and office space, job rede-sign, task forces, group incentive plans, and produc-tion teams (p. 26).

Among the reasons that corporations initiateOWL programs are to cut costs, to improve poor em-ployee attitudes and morale, to Improve productivityand product quality, and to reduce worker turnover.Other reasons include positive reports from othercorporations and a change in management philoso-phy. Some management and union advocates ofOWL emphasize improvement of quality of work lifeas a goal in itself to be sought as long as productivityis not adversely affected. But many specialists agreewith Walton (1979) that "projects with productivityand OWL as goals are more likely to succeed on bothcounts than projects that stress one goal to the ex-clusion of the other" (p. 88).

More than half of all corporations burveyed bythe Exchange considered their programs successfulor highly successful. A large majority thought thatparticipative management techniques represented apromising new approach rather than a passing fad.

Ideological and Practical Supped forQuality of Work Life nevelopments

Ideological Support

Many social and political scientists believe thenation is now in the midst of a major social revolution--a nonviolent one aimed at reaffirmation of the demo-cratic experiment the founding fathers began a littleover two hundred years ago. They see the nationstriving toward a higher quality of life through fullerimplementation of the ideology and practice of de-mocracy--democratization not only of our political in-stitutions, big also of our social institutions, our fami-lies, offices, and factories.

Ferguson (1980) sees the shift to greater demo-cratization as a distinctly new way of understandingand explaining reality and of thinking about old prob-lems: "Roles, relationships, institutions, and old ide-as are being reexamined, reformulated, redesigned.We have begun to image the possible society" (p.29). This new view promotes the autonomous indi-vidual in a decentralized society.

In their recent book, A New Social Contract. Car-noy, Shearer, and Rumberger (1983) contend thatthe assumption that the economic system in theUnited States is self-governing is "palpably false"and that "an alternative must integrate economicsand politics on a new basis-a democratic, participa-tive governance of polity and economy" (p. 2). Theycall this alternative "economic democracy" and thinkit will work because "it is rooted in the basic Americanideals of participation, fairness and efficiency" (p. 4).

Camoy et al. further state that the cornerstonesof economic democracy "are direct and individualpublic accountability for investment policy and in-creased worker and consumer control of production--what and how things are produced" (p. 3). Theyargue that greater, not less democratic participationis required "at the community level, at the plant level,at the level of national economic policy" (p. 3). In ad-dition:

Greater democracy means that those withjobs will have much more to say about theway those jobs are organized; those wholive in communities will have more to sayabout what happens to those communities...consumers will have more to say about theproducts they buy and the kinds of long-runinvestments the economy should make;senior citizens will have more to say abouttheir activities and health cc ve; students willparticipate more in their education; and allcitizens can decide together whether thehuman race should be destroyed by nuclearwar or survive in a saner world. (Camoy, etal., p. 2)

As Naisbitt (1982) sees it, one of the ten"megatrends" shaping our lives is the shift from rep-resentative democracy to participati-1 democracy.According to him, the guiding principle of participato-ry democracy is that people most be part of the pro-cess of arriving at decisions that affect their lives. Hiswide ranging examples and analyses provide con-vincing arguments that:

The ethic of participation is spreading bot-tom up across America and radically altering

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the way we think people in institutionsshould be governed. Citizens, workers, andconsumers are demanding and getting agreater voice in government, business andthe marketplace. (p. 159)

Most Americans today expect workplaces to becompatible with a free and open political system."The spirit of our age. . is characterized by fluid or-ganizations reluctant to create hierarchical struc-tures, averse to dogma" (Ferguson, 1980, p. 18). Areport of the Work in America institute (1982) pointsout that:

There has been a marked and persistentshift in the attitudes o' younger workers,which is now spreading to the work force asa whole. The work ethic-a basic belief in thevalue of workhas not diminished, but manyworkers feel that there is an incongruity be-tween more fiexiole modes of life and ex-pression in the outside community and theauthoritative, technocratically controlledworkplace. They do not oppose the legiti-mate exercise of authority, but they do re-sent 'authoritarianism,' a distinction that iscrucial to worker-manager relations and na-tional productivity.

Since Americans live in a free and open politicalsystem, they expect conditions in the workplace tobe compatible with the society. Their proper expec-tations include Pie right to free speech, privacy, dis-sent, fair and equitable treatment, and due processin work-related activities.

A majority of all Americans today believe that theyhave a right to take part in decisions affecting theirjobs (PP. 3-4).

Mills (1978) reminds us that most of the old author-itarian values that underlie the current paradigm ofwork originated at the turn of the century. He notesthat Frederick Taylor, often referred to as the fatherof current "scientific management," urged:

Dividing human and machine labor downinto the smallest and easiest functions: tocreate dumb, foolproof jobs for dumb hu-man beings, whom we characterized as es-sentially lazy, greedy, and demanding of dis-cipline. (p. 25)

Among the reasons why scientific managementmay have been so popular, supported, and perpetu-ated throughout American industry was the realitythat, at the turn of the century, the majority of ur,-skilled and semiskilled workers were immigrants to

the United States and could speak little or no cng-lish. Rebecca Smith, senior personnel representa-tive in the manufacturing productivity division ofHewlett Packard, notes that the racism and classismthat prevailed during this period enabled managersto ignore the issue of equity in the workplace. Man-agers did not know and did not learn the wori.ers' lan-guages, and, under these conditions, their most effi-cient method of maintaining a production facility wasto reduce jobs to the minute, mechanistic perfor-mance of simple, independent tasks. As Trist (1981)points out, "in a technocratic bureaucracy, the partsare broken dow: so that the ultimate elements are assimple and inexpensive as possible, as with the un-skilled worker in .....drrow job who is cheap to replaceand who takes little time to train" (p. 38).

The current paradigm of work, which often re-sults in workers being treated as unthinking and un-caring parts of the production process, may havebeen a rational paradigm early in the century, but itwas then and is now incompatible with our democrat-ic ideals regarding the worth and weifara of individu-als. One worker, quoted in a Los Angeles Times arti-cle on 23 October, 1980, put it this way:

I'm a somebody in my community. I'm on theboard of the PTA. My children treat me withrespect. I've even got my own banker whoknows my name. But when I get to tne job,I'm treated like one of my children.

It is a mistake to think of OWL developments as apassing fad or merely as a collection of gimmicks de-signed to make workers happier. Rather, the OWLparadigm reflects an alternative philosophy and ap-proach to the management and organization of work,one that is compatible with and supported by abroatier societal shift to greater democratization of allof our institutions.

Practical Considerations

As long as American factories and offices wereoperating relatively efficiently--as they were through-out most of the 1960s and into the early 1970s,when the quality of work life movement %vas in an ear-ly stage of development there were few compellingincs.:tives to align work practzes more closely withdemocratk: ideals. 'If isn't broken, don't fix it" vasthe wle of the ow.

In this "business as usual" environment, the ear-ly quality of work life activities aimed primarily at im-proving worker morale and satisfaction and gave rota-tively little direct attention to productivity-related con-cerns. As a result, successes were few and far be-

Technological Literacy Symposium 97AMR

tween. Many early advocates and developers over-promised on the benefits of OWL activ Ales, and theirideological motives and objectives did not persuadehard-nosed business executives worried primarilyabout short-term improvements in the "bottom line."That began to change around 1970, however,when. as Reich (1983) points out, the scientific man-agement era came under serious question in Ameri-ca.

Beginning in the 1970s, the productivity growthrate in the United States began to approach zero.Since then, it has remained low and has even beennegative (U.S. Department of Labor, 1981). By thelate 1970s and early 1980$, the set of problems re-lated to this lack of productivity growthslow eco-nomic development, high unemployment, high infla-tion, lower quality and higher prices for goods andservices, and the loss of competitive positions in do-mestic and international marketsreached crisis pro-portions (Congressional Budget Office, 1981; Hud-dleston, 1982).

The the eging stnicture of American Industry

Among the root causes of these prfsblems is thefact that America has become part of ai, ncreasinglycomplex and competitive global economy. "By1980, more than 70 percent of all the goods pro-duced in the United States were actively competingwith foreign-made goods" (Reich, 1983, p. 44). Butas Reich points out, "American producers have notfared well in this new contest" (p. 44). Reich's fig-ures indicate that

since 1963, America's sire of the world mar-ket has declined in a number of important ar-eas: automobiles, by almost one-third; in-dustrial machinery, by 33 percent; agricultu-ral machinery, by 40 percent; telecommuni-cations machinery, by 50 percent; metal-work machinery, by 55 percent. (p. 45)

Reich argues that, whatever the final product,"those parts of its production requiring high-volumemachinery and unsophisticated workers can be ac-complished more cheaply in developing nations" (p.45). Skilled labor, according to Reich, is tne only di-mension of production where we can retain an ad-vantage over developing nations. "Technological in-novations can be bought or imitated by anyone.High-volume, standardized-production facilities canbe established anywhere. But production process-es that depend on skilled labor must stay where theskilled tabor le" (p. 47).

"Flexible-system production" is seen by Reich

as the reverse of high-volume, standardized produc-tion and as the way for America to gain competitiveadvantage in the global economy.

Flexible-system production is characterizedby technological innovation, precision man-ufacturing, and customization of products. itdemands a new style of management, em-phasizing teamwork instead of hierarchy andproblem-solving instead of routinization. .

.Flexible-system production is rooted in dis-covering and solving new problems; high-volume, standardized production basicallyinvolves routinizing the solutions to oldproblems. . .Fiexible-system production re-quires an organization designed for changeand adaptability.. .a new productive organi-zation, requiring a different, less rigidly de-lineated relationship between managementand labor. . .no set of 'standard operatingprocedures' locks in routines or compart-mentalizes job responsibilities. . .The workrequires high-level skills precisely becausethe problems and opportunities cannot beanticipated...the radical distinctions hereto-fore drawn between those who plan workand those who execute it is inappropriate. .

.There is no hierarchy to problem-solving:solutions may come from anyone, any-where. . .nearly everyone in the productionprocess is responsible for recognizing prob-lems and finding solutions. . .When produc-tion is inherently non-routine, problem-solving requires close working relationshipsamong people at all stages in the process. .

.in f;exible-system production much of thetraining of nocessity occurs on the job, bothbecause the precise skills to be learned can-not be anticipated and communicated in ad-vance and because the irdividuars skills aretypicshy integrated into a group whose col-lective capacity becomes something morethan the simple sum of its member's skills...Their sense of membership in the enter-prise is stronger and more immediate thanany abstract identification with their profes-sion or occupational group. They movefrom one speciality to another, but they re-main within a single organization. (pp. 47-50)

Trist (1981) notes many distinctions andconcerns similar to those pointed out by Reich. Hefeels that traditional technocratic bureaucracies aremismatched with what he calls "new turbulent envi-

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98 Sociolechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

ronments," in which higher levels of interdepen-dence among organizations and higher levels ofcomplexity together generate much higher levels ofuncertainty (p. 39). Trist argues that, in this new en-vironment, large competing organizations, all actingindependently in diverse directions, produce unan-ticipated and dissonant consequences" (p. 39). Fur-thermore:

The higher levels of interdependence, com-plexity, and uncertainty now to be found inthe world environment pass the limits withinwhich technocratic bureaucracies were de-signed to cope. Given its solely indepen-dent purposes, its primarily competitive rela-tions, its mechanistic authoritarian controlstructure and its tendency to debase humanresources, this organizational form cannotabsorb environmental turbulence, far lessreduce it. (p. 40)

Like Reich, Trist concludes that, "a transformationof our traditional technocratic bureaucracies into con-tinuous adaptive learning systems is imperative forsurvival and involves nothing less than the workingout of a new organizational philosophy" (p. 44).

The OWL movement responds to productivity-related problems and supports the transformationcalled for by such writers as Tris: and Reich to a moreparticipative philosophy and approach to the organi-zation and management of work. As noted by theNew York Stock Exchange study (1982):

The role that people play matters greatly. .

.Compared with the capital side of boostingproductivity, the investment of time andmoney in better utilizing peole is relativelysmall; the r.,otential benefits are enormous.(P. 3)

According to Reich (1983):

Financial-capital formation is becoming aless important determinant of a nation's well-being than human-capital formation. . .Onlypeople can recognize and solve novel prob-lems. Machines can merely repeat solutionsalready programmed within them. (p. 66)

He concludes, as does Birch (1981), thatIndustries of the future will depend not on physical'hardware; which can be duplicated anywhere, buton human 'software,' which can retain a technologicaledge" (Reich, 1983, p. 66).

The changing work force

Both demographic and attitudinal changes in the

work force support the continued development ofOWL activities. For eximople, the . -4 Increase inthe total size of the labor force will u _line through-out the 1980s. On the average, it is estimated thatthere will be three-quarters of a million fewer personsadded to the labor force each year during the 1980s(Institute for the Future, 1979). The days of abun-dant cheap labor are coming to an end. With fewernew workers coming into the labor force, employerswill have greater incentives not only to invest in labor-saving technology, but also be flexible in meetingthe needs of employees in order to attract and hold astable workforce.

As the "baby-boom" cohort matures, the "new"youth--those born since 1970compose a smallerportion of the overall population (Lewis & Russell,1980). The consequences of fewer youth is a dwin-dling supply of entry-level workers and fewer peoplefor jobs in the secondary labor market. At the sametime, the percentage of minority youth will grow, sothat, "by the eany 1990s, minorities will account formore than 30 percent of the population in the entry-level age groups (16 to 24 years old)" (Lewis & Rus-sell, 1S80). These shortages of qualified applicantsmay force employeis to change traditional work struc-tures approciably in order to attract and retain the la-bor needed. They may also become motivated tosee that the traditionally poor achievers in school- -the disadvantaged, non-English speaking, and soonreceive help to become competent in basic skillsand become otherwise better prepared to work.

American women have returned to paid employ-ment in proportions not seen since statistics havebeon kept. Estimates are that by 1995, 44 percentcf all workers will be women (Lewis & Russell, 1980).Furthermore, women increasingly demand to receiveequal pay for equal work and to be considered seri-ously for work in all types of jobs for which they areappropriately qualified.

Many more women are single parents support-ing a household, others are members of two wageearner iamilies. Both of these situations create a de-mand for change in the workplace. Vhrking mothersneed fbxibility for doctors appointments and daycare, for example. Both male and female workers intwo wage eamer iamilies may desire longer vacationsin lieu of other benefits or higher pay. Women whopreviously left the work force and who returned towork looking for fulfillment also have different expec-tations. Women wzrit challenging jobs that aremeaningful. They wish to use their skills and to havean impact on the economy and society.

96


Young workers--those born between 1945 and1965- -are highly educated and accustomed to thebenefits of life during the affluent 19505, 1960s, and19708. They graduated from high schooi and at-tended college in record numLars. The medianyears of schooling completed for those over agetwenty-five has grown from 8.6 years in 1940 to 12.5years in 1979, and the proportion of those with fouror more years of college has almost quadrupled inthe same time period.

Partially because of their quality education,these young workers have high expectations con-cerning what they expect from work (BusinessWeek, 1981; Levitan & Johnson, 1982; O'Toole,1973). Their whole pattern of earning money andtheir thoughts about security do not center aroundthe Great Depression of the 1930s, as is the case ofmany workers now reaching retirement age. Many ofthese young workers want their work to be interest-ing and significant (Cooper et al., 1979; Staines &Quinn, 1979).

At the same time, periodic surveys have shown astatistically significant decrease in workers' percep-tions of job satisfaction. For example, in 1967, 27percent of workers interviewed felt they had skillsthat were not being fully utilized; by 1977, this per-centage had risen to 36 percent (Institute for the Fu-ture, 1979). Current surveys of young people showthat non-monetary rewards (i.e. interesting work,seeing the results of your work, having a chance todevelop skills, participating in decisions) are becom-ing more important (Cooper et al., 1979; Staines &Quinn, 1979).

The research on whether the average worker isnow more or less satisfied with work than in the pastcontains much controversy:

Some commentators argue with vigor thatwe are currently in the midst of a major 'workethic crisis' that portends revolutionarychanges in how work will be designed andmanaged in the future. Others respond thatthe purported 'crisis' is much more in theminds of those who herald its arrival than inthe hearts of those who perform the produc-tive work of society. (Hackman & Oldham,1980, p. 5)

Lril :tan and Johnson (1982), for example pointout that "the work ethic has always existed more inthe world of scholars than of laborers, more as a con-cept than as a powerful motivating force keepingpeople at work" (p. 28). They conclude, therefore,that "the survival of work does not depend on the

motivational force of an abstract work ethic" (p. 28).

Many workers want more than just a good pay-check; they also want "to become masters of their im-mediate environments and to feel that their work andthey themset. 3$ and to feel that their work and theythemselves are important- -the twin ingredients ofself-esteem" (O'Toole, 1973). However, people whodo not become masters of their work environmAntmake adjustments to avoid feeling continuous dis-satisfaction and distress. Those adjustments mayrange from working a little less hard or taking an un-necessary sick day, to sabotage or theft of companyproperty (Hackman & Oldham, 1980). Dissatisfiedworkers who make these adjustments may even saythey are content with their job, because they havecome to define "satisfaction" as minimal work for apaycheck that supports them.

In general, the decline in labor force growth, thesearch for self-fulfillment, increased levels of educa-tional attainment, increased numbers of two wageearners in a household with fewer children, the movetoward more permanent part-time work, and the in-creas'd competition for fewer middle managementpositions by the increasing numbers of people fromthe "baby boom" cohort all signal the need for great-er employee flexibilhy in dealing with job dissatisfac-tion. At the same time, they provide powerful incen-tives for employers to be flexible in meeting the per-sonal needs of workers and managers. Marshall(1982) suggests that, although the demand for work-er participation has not reached the intensity in theUnited States that it has in Europe and Japan, thedesire for greater worker participation in other indus-trialized nations will undoubtedly intensify pressurehere for some forms of work participation.

Quoting a 1979 article in the Los Angeles Timesby Tom Hayden, a Califomia Democratic; candidate forUnited States Senate and a co-defendent with JerryRubin in the "Chicago Trial," Ferguson (1980) pointsout an aspect of the aging of the work force that isespecially relevant and supportive of quality of worklife developments. She reminds us that the youth ofthe 1960s--tha so-called 1960s activists--are nowinto their middle years and many are well establishedin the labor market. Hayden's and Ferguson's pointis this:

The reappearance in years ahead of the'60s activists. will be misread by many.

Some will not recognize us, and some willbelieve we have 'settled down' too much.We will not be a protesting fringe, becausethe fringe oi yesterday is the mainstream of

9 7

100 Soclotechnical Literacy: An Alternative to the Technological Perspective

tomorrow. We will not be protesting but pro-posing solutions: an energy program em-phasizing renewable resources. .

.democratic restructuring of large corpora-tions. . .technology to decentralize decisionmaking and information sharing.... (p. 209)

Soclotechnical Studies

Let us turn now to a further consideration of so-ciotechnical literacy. As noted earlier, soclotechnicalliteracy grows out of quality of work life devAlop-ments and supports effective preparation for work ina democratic, high-involvement workplace. In con-trast to the specialized occupational skills and tech-nological literacy emphasized today in vocational ed-ucation, sociotechnical studies emphasize a bal.anted concern for the social human aspects of work,as well as the technological aspects, and an appre-ciation of their interactions.

Several years ago we began examining OWL de-velopments in the American workplace'. (' Our fullreport-Praztner & Russell, 1984b-, including moredetailed examples of skills and knowledge in thethree skills areas noted above. is available at costthrough the publications office of the National Cen-ter for Research in Vocational Education.) Our re-view of the extensive OWL literature, discussionswith OWL experts, and icrviews and observationsat leading firms that have implemented substantialOWL activities suggest that to function effectively inhigh-involvement, participative work settings, work-ers and managers not only need good basic skillsand technical skills, but they increasingly need im-proved skills and knowledge in the three areas ofbroadly applicable, highly transferable skills andknowledge including: (1) group problem solvingskills, (2) skills in business economics, and (3) an un-derstanding of the philosophical underpinnings andconse- .ences of the shift to a high-involvement,partic Ative approach to the organization and man-agement of work.

Components of Socloter,imical Studies

Group problem-solving skills

Having workers and managers participate inpmblern-solving groups r .,Tires vastly different ana-lytical skills than when workers are told what to do bymanagement and are not expected to think-the cur-rent norm for many jobs. Many people in work set-tings, and many students, do not have the akills towork successfully in groups doing complex problem-solving (National Assessment of EducationalProgress, 1982). Most people have not heel'

trained in how to solve problems in groups. To throwpeople together in a room and tell them "to solveproblems" or "make decisions" and expect them toproduce meaningful results is wholly unreasonable(Nadler & Lawler, 1983).

While group problem-solving skills have longbeen recognized as important for management staff,they are of growing importance to all levels of em-ployees in high-involvement companies as a meansfor change and improvement in quality, costs, andemployee morale. The old belief 4hat "two heads arebetter than one" has been confirmed with evidencethat cooperative approaches to work are more effec-tive than competitive approaches (Johnson et al.,1981). This means that all employees will need towork together more to diagnose problems and imple-ment effective solutions.

Group problem-solving includes such skills as :(1) interpersonal and group process skills, (2) com-munication skills, and (3) thinking and reasoningskills. These are all complex, non-job-specific skillsneeded for effective participation in groups that fo-cus on problem identification and solution. And theyare not specific to particular firms or work settings.Rather, they are broadly applicable skills transferableto and useful in a wide range of work settings.

Additionally, in a OWL climaa, a kind of learningability is needed in which the learner has a capacity tocreate order and meaning out of his or her world.This is different from an emphasis on merely beingable to acquire correct information. It seems to in-clude the ability to deal with ambiguity and uncertain-ty, to deal with and "manage" differences (e.g. inpeople, values, technologies), and to visualize andmake informed judgments about multiple outcomesand realities (i.e. not a linear, "binary," right-wrong ap-proach to judgments and decisions).

Organizational and management skills.

Where workers and managers are to help im-prove the economic viability of their organizations,they need skills and knowledge of business eco-nomics and organizational management, In hich mostemployees do not have. Most people outside o"schools of business and management administrationhave not been trained in how complex organizationsare manages' and operated. They therefore do notfully appreciate how their personal efforts may con-ti (Dote to or diminish the effectiveness, efficiency,

quality of the products or services of their partic-ular vioric organization.

Traditional skills taught to managers or learned

9


by experience now must be shared with all levels ofemployees. Management texts for years have dis-cussed business economics, operations, human re-source management, and statistical quality control.These subjects must be taught to all levels of work-ers for high-involvement companies to function ef-fectively.

A knowledge of the costs required to run a busi-ness, a typical profit margin, the effect of waste anddowntime, the expense of benefits, and, the rela-tionship between expenditures and income are cru-cial for thoughtful involvement in increasing compa-ny profit and reducing costs. Employees who do notunderstand the connections between the price ofthe product their firm markets and the wages andbenefits that they receive or the amount of scrap atthe end of the day cannot be expected to be veryhelpful in a program to provide a better product atless cost.

Just as workers and managers in high-involvement companies need to know about the fi-nancial workings of firms, they also need to knowhow the business ope:ates functionally. This needstems from the basic issue of understanding how allof the individuals and departments are necessaryand interlocking components. Employees whoknow how their efforts fit into the larger scheme aremore likely to take pride in and assign meaning totheir work. Understanding the coordination of re-sources, systems, and the relationships betweenthe functions in their company encourages all staff toact as a whole, helps to reduce duplication of effort,and encourages the corrective feedback and infor-mation flow between functions--all of which savemoney, enhance quality, and make work more satis-fying.

When all employees are involved in manage-ment-type tasks, they need to know what managersneed to know: management theory; relationshipsbetween performance and other factors; morels ofcommunication; and human resource development.They may also need information about such issuesas power, control, authority, delegation, Job analysis,change processes, feedback, and appraisal.

Knowledge and skills in these areas are neces-sary to plan, organize, implement, and control workand to achieve its purpose. When all employees areinvolved at all four of these stages, then all are prac-ticing managers and are theoretically a part of themanagement team.

One of the major types of changes in work de-sign is the shift of responsibility for quality from an

"end of the line" inspector back to each work unitand each worker. This means that both inspectionskills and knowledge of statistical quality control arerequired. Inspection skills may vary according to theproduct. Statistical quality control techniques, how-ever, are applicable across many settings.

Statistical quality control involves an understand-ing of standares and control limits for quality, sam-pling, measurement and data collection, and the de-velopment of control charts. These tasks requirebasic mathematical skills (e.g. calculating percentag-es, plotting graphs and charts) and introductory sta-tistics (e.g. computing means and standard devia-tions).

Quality of work Vie skills.

If workers and students are to understand theimportance of the skills and knowledge mentionedhere, they need to understand the shift in the philos-ophy of work from a scientific management, techno-logical work design to a democratic, sociotechnicalphilosophy. This should include an awareness ofthe historical shift in America from the earlier Taylor's-tic philosophy of work to the philosophy and valuesthat are emerging in the OWL movement and in soci-otechnical approaches to work. It should also in-clude awareness of the roles that organized laborhas played and its contributions to the evolution ofOWL activities. It may also include an understandingof the shift to "open systems" and "ecological" per-spectives of work, in which the welfare of systems isseen in terms of the quality of the interconnectionsof the parts, as opposed to an earlier, more atomisticand mechanistic world view (Wirth, 1983b). Stu-dents should also appreciate the critical distinctionbetween the philosophy, values, and models ofOWL developments, and the methods and tech-niques by which these values and beliefs are imple-mented in the workplace (e.g. quality circles, autono-mous work groups, gainsharing plans, labor-management collaborations, and so forth).

Teaching Sociotechnical Studies

This brief )verview of the major skills compo-nents of sociotechnical studies should have empha-sized several points. First, sociotechnical studies fo-cus on development of generally applicable, highlytransferable skills and knowledge needed to func-tion effectively in life and work. Second, sociotech-nical studies emphasize development of a broad per-spective and understanding of the nature of work ina democratic society.

With this discussion of the content of sociotech-


nical studies as a background, let us know turn brieflyto a consideration of several key characteristics andconcerns of programs or approaches for teaching so-ciotechnical studies.

Infusbn.

Development of the component skills andknowledge of sociotechnical literacy is not typicallyincluded or emphasized in high school academic orvocational education programs. In vocational pro-grams, their development rarely receives the amountof emphasis, relative to specific job skills, that their In-creasing importance in business and industry wouldseem to warrant.

Development of these skills does not fall conve-niently into any one pr' gram or service area of theschool. It is a total school responsibility, not just theconcern of the elementary school or of a single disci-pline area within the school. The risk here is that thecombination of the broader definition and derivationof these skills with the compartmentalization and dis-ciplinary base of educationespecially secondary-level educationcould easily mean that the develop-ment of these skills is not seen as anyone's explicitresponsibility. Thus, them is a pressing need at theelementary and secondary schools levels to: (1)identify better the specific skills that various schoolprograms and levels are attempting to develop, (2)uncover commonalities among programs and levels,i.e. look for the things they have in common, nottheir differences, and (3) develop improved policiesand approaches to better ensure development ofcritical skills.

This is not to say that deve'opment of theseskills is the sole responsibility of 1 icational educa-tion, or that vocational education totally ignores suchskills. Curriculum guides and instructional materialsare available for some of these skill areas (e.g. prob-lem-solving and communication skills). Developmentof other component skills of sociotechnical literacyare frequently the focus of such experiences andprograms as Junior Achievement (e.g. business eco-nomics and organizational management) and of vo-cational student clubs such as the Vocational Indus-trial Clubs of American (VICA), the Distributive Edu-cation Clubs of America (DECA), and the FutureFarmers of America (FFA) (e.g. group process and in-terpersonal skills). Nevertheless, these programsand materials are scattered and are usually peripheralto or ancillary aspects of the formal school curricula;seldom are they integrated into and emphasized inregular vocational programs.

One immediate and practical way to begin to de-

velop sociotechnical skills is through the deliberateand planned infusio,i of these skills into existingpractical arts and vocational education courses. So-ciotechnical skills can be infused or integrated intoongoing classroom and laboratory experiences with-out eliminating what is presently being taught andsubstituting new things. Instead, a particula activity,project, or task used to accomplish some specificpurpose or objective can be used, at the same time,to accomplish additional goals or purposes. Thus,the development of sociotechnical skills can comple-ment the teaching of specialized occupational knowl-edge and skills.

To incorporate sociotechnical skills effectivelywithin existing programs and settings, educatorsmust be willing to rethink and reconceptualize what ispresently being taught--how and why its beingdone--and to refocus on instructional objectives,teaching strategies, and student learning activities inorder to make a deliberate and careful identificationof explicit opportunities to introduce or to practiceand develop t'- se broadly applicable, nontechnicalskills. Students should be provided with as wide arange of opportunities as possible to apply theseskills. The more opportunities given to students topractice them and the more realistic the opportuni-ties are, the more likely that teaching will be effective.

While vocational and practical arts educationhave a shared responsibility with other school pro-grams to contribute to the development of theseskills, they are unique among educational programsin their potential for so doing. This is because theyprovide unparalleled opportunities for hands-on ap-proaches and for extensive application and practice.Unfortunately, this. potential can be easily over-looked in the day-to-day routine of teaching andlearning.

Application-

Another critically important concept in any ap-proach for teaching sociotechnical skills is that of theapplication of skills and knowledge.

If it is correct that major trends and reforms in ed-ucation re-emerge every ten to twelve years in cy-cles, then it is almost certain that within the next dec-We the outcry for reform v;ill center on the need for"useful" skills and knowledge. The public, and espe-cially employers, will be upset and lament the Tact,that although kids leaving school are bright and theyseem to know a lot of things, they cannot do anyth-ing. The cry will be - -why cannot the schools give Losstudents who can apply their knowledge and skills toreal world, everyday needs and uses.

100


Clearly, today's obsession with studei..., acquir-ing abstract skills to become what Arthur Wirth hasdescribed as a generation of "test-takers and right-answer-givers" is too narrow a purpose for public ed-ucation. We need a broad purpose and innovativeprograms to help all students learn how the increas-ingly abstract knowledge and skills they are acquiringin academic classrooms can be integrated and put topractical use in the real world. The need is for themeaningful integration of skills and their practical ap-plications and uses.

Vocational education can and must play a keyrole in meeting this need. Vocational educationmust be both a "process" and a "program." It mustaim at reinforcing development of basic and higher-order skills and at developing the application and useof skills in practical settings for practical purposes.

The high-order skills and knowledge increasing-ly required by work in technologically advanced andparticipative workplaces fall within the five new basicsoutlined by the National Commission on Excellence(1983). As emphasized by the National Commission,their development requires "application" and prac-tice. For example, such skills as working effectivelyin groups, problem solving, and decision making arenot developed effectively in the abstract through lec-ture, discussion, drill, or rote learning (the factorymodel of education). They are best learned throughrealistic hands-on experiences and practical applica-tion, which is the kind of teaching and learning thathas characterized vocational education since its in-troduction into the public schools. Thus, vocationaleducation is in a unique position to enhance qualityand excellence in education through its instructionalapproach.

Thus, it seems highly desirable that schools pro-vide learners with opportunities to practice the appli-cation and use of skills and knowledge under as widea variety of conditions and circumstances as possib...,so that the potential for transfer and wider use ofthose skills in various and novel situations is in-creased. It also seems desirable as well to informlearners that skills developed to levels of mastery po-tentially are broadly applicable skills. Learnersshould then be provided with a range of examples orinstances in which the skills they are developingcould be applied. in so doing, they should be in-formed of the skills they have acquired and their levelof proficiency in those skills; they should also be in-formed of skills not acquired or not developed tohigher levels of proficiency that represent remainingdevelopmental needs. These remaining needs can

serve as personal objectives for the continuouslearning of the individual.

Cooperation.

A great many of the work innovations and qualityof work life developments we have discussed hingeon greater cooperation a:A involvement of workersbofu in management and production (Pratzner &Russell, 1984a). Further, we know that for a widerange of school subjects and tasks, and for all agegroups, ". . .cooperation is superior to interpersonalcompetition and Individualistic efforts in promotingachievement and productivity" (Johnson et al.,1981, p. 56). Given the growth of high- involvement,cooperative work settings, the heavy reliance ofmuch of education on interpersonal competition andindividualistic work, and our current dissatisfactionwith school achievement, we need to seriously con-sider increasing the use of cooperative learning pro-cedures to promote relevance and higher studentachievement.

Group activities are especially important becausethey require development and application of suchskills as planning, group problem solving, decisionmaking, and interpersonal skills. To be most effec-tive, group activities should first be designed explicit-ly to improve development of these skills, as well astechnical jobs skills. Second, this objective shouldbe communicated to students.

Cooperative approaches and group learningtechniques can be used also to supplement individ-ualized instructor assistance. They can provide time-ly help to students to overcome barriers or impedi-ments to learning which, if ignored and allowed to ac-cumulate, could lead to frustration, boredom, andventually to failure and dropping out.

Integration.

Ultimately, and ideally, the sociotechnical per-spective presented here would seem to require anintegrative, mufti-discplinary curriculum and a holisticapproach to the delivery of instruction. Such an ap-proach that pulls together various subjects, disci-plines, and perspectives does not now exist in theschools.

The sociotechnical perspective provides a broadunifying theme and compels teachers and learners indifferent disciplines to collaboratively search for andfocus on the knowledge, issues, and understand-ings their disciplines all share in common, rather thanto emphasize only the differences and uniquenessof their separate subject areas. It seems especiallyimportant that we begin to identify connections

101


among science, social studies (especially economicsand civics), and vocational and practical arts subjectsbecause so little currently exists in these areas.Ma, it seems important to identify the relationshipsof the knowledge and skills developed in these sev-eral disciplinary areas to the engineering, human re-source development, and business managementfunctions of the workplace. Team teaching and anapplied, hands-on instructional approach wouldseem to be helpful to further facilitate achievementof the desired connections and integration of extantsubject matters. Moreover, traditional, compartmen-talized vocational service areas (i.e. trade and indus-try, agriculture. home economics, business and of-fice, and marketing programs) each focused on spe-cialized job skill development, do not appear to bewell-suited to the development of higher-order, soci-otechnical skills. A comprehensive, integrated coreprogram of vocational education would seem to beneeded to focus on development of basic skills andthe sophisticated skills, judgments, and initiativesnoted earlier as required by more competitive, highlytechnical and flexible workplaces.

The sociotechnical perspective, along with re-search conducted by Campbell, et al (1982) showingthat most students pursue vocational programs for avariety of legitimate reasons and only a small numberseek preparation for a specific job, suggest the needfor a branching vocational program sequence. Sucha branching program would have multiple provamgoals and options following from a core program ofsociotechnical studies. Program opinions- -branches, lattices, alternativesmight include an en-trepreneurship option or sequence, a spectific jobpreparation option, and a career exploration or avo-cational option. All, except for the job specific prep-aration option, represent broad-based, integrativevocational programs rather than single-track, occupa-tional service area programs.

Higher-order skills such as problem solving, criti-cal thinking, and decision making do not appear tobe simply extensions of a list of basic skills. Rather,higher-order skills seem themselves to be differentintegrations and combinations of more abstract basicskills into larger, meaningful (purposeful) behaviorsand applications.

Music Sidle Higheruorder Skills

Dis-integrated Integrated

Abstract Applied

Purposeless Purposeful

Thus, by focusing on the development of high-er-order skills through the purposeful integration, ap-plication and use of those skills, vocational educationmight, at the same time, meet its expectations to en-hance and reinforce basic skills. It would not merelyrepeat learning that should be taking place in the ac-ademic program, but could provide a realistic altema-flys approach to learning.

Summary

In contrast to the more popular notion of techno-logical literacy, sociotechnical literacy seeks a bal-anced treatment of the human social and demo-graphic aspects of work, as well as the economic andtechnological aspects, and focuses on a better un-derstanding of their interactions. It emphasizes de-velopment of a broad perspective and understand-ing of the nature of technology and work in a demo-cratic, technologically advanced society. it also em-phasizes development of broadly applicable, highlytransferable skills and knowledgesuch as groupproblem solving skills, business economics and op-erations, and an understanding o: the participativemanagement perspective--needed to function effec-tively in such a society and workplace.

Sociotechnical studies respond to social, demo-graphic and economic trends and to what Reich, Tristand others have noted as a transformation of our tra-ditional technocratic bureaucracies. Such bureau-cracies, with their mechanistic authoritarian controlstructures and the tendency to debase human re-sources, are being changed into new participative or-ganizational structure better suited to life in a com-petitive global economy. Such participative organi-zations depend for their competitiveness not onphysical hardware which can be duplicated any-where, but on human software which can retain atechnological edge.

Finally, we speculated on a number of approach-es for implementing sociotechnical studies withinschools. Infusion of sociotechnical skills into existingand ongoing classroom and laboratory experienceswas discussed as an immediate and practical way trbegin developing such skills. The application anduse of skills and knowledge under as wide a varietyof conditions and circumstances as possible was dis-cussed as leading to mastery and to the transfer ofskills to various and novel situations. Vocational andpractical arts programs have a special responsibilityhere because they unparalleled opportunitiesamong school subjects for hands-on approachesand for extensive practical applications and practice.We tried to emphasize the need to greatly increase

1(12


the use of cooperative learning procedures to pro-mote relevance and higher student achievement.And we concluded with a brief discussion of the po-tential value of an integrative, mufti-disciplinary ap-proach to curriculums; one which attempts to focuson the connections and shared content amongschool subjects rather than their differences and uni-quenesses.

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Rumberger, R. W., & Levin, H. M. (1984). Forecast-jrig the impact of new technologies on the fu-ture job market. Palo Alto: Institute for Researchon Educational Finance and Governance, Stan-ford University.

Rumberger, R. W. (1986). The changing industrialstructure of the U.S. economy: Its impact on em-ployment. earnings. and the educational re-2LIILSIDP01fisLI012s.Palo Alto: Institute for Re-search on Educational Finance and Govern-ance, Stanford University.

Staines, G., & Quinn, R. (1979). American workersevaluate the quality of their jobs. Monthly LaborReview, 1.02,, 3-12.

Trist, E. (1981). The evolution of socio-technicalMgmEdisocattialltamottuksloclana0118research program. Ontario: Ontario Quality ofWorking Life Centre, Ontario Ministry of Labor.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1981). natilmaLy_f_jnent and training report of the president. Wash-ington, D. C.: Government Printing Office.

Walton, R. E. (1979). Work innovations in the UnitedStates. Harvard Business Review, Z. 88-98.

Work in America Institute. (1982). Productivitythrouah_work innovations. Elmsford, NY: Per-gamon Press.

Wirth, A. G. (1983). Productive work in industry andschools: _Becoming persons again. Washington,D.C: University Press of America.

1(14


Identifying and Organizing the Content of Technology

Technological Literacy Symposium 109AIMME=M1111MII

A Global Model Of Technological Literacy

Models are frequently used to express relation-ships of various factors that supposedly play integrat-ed role to perform some function. They providegreat help particularly in complex situations wherehuman perception fails to see interrelatedness ofseveral elements apparently percieved as separateentities.

Technological literacy tends to be a complexconcept especially when hundreds of definitionshave been offered leading to a great amount of con-fusion and distortion. Technological literacy consistsof two words; technology and literacy, each of themhas specific meaning in the contemporary literature.Particularly, the term literacy has classical meaningsof having ibility to read and write. But for our purpos-es, the concept needs to be broadened to incorpo-rate the ability of demonstrating specific attitudesand skills other than merely reading and writing.

For our purpose the technological literacy is de-fined as "The knowledge of the current technicalmeans being used in human adaptive systems; skillsto use and create such means; and the ability tocomprehend the potential systematized effects ofthese means and to find the ways of controlling theiradverse impacts on civilization." Two key wordsused irl the definition need to be explained. Techni-cal means include any tool, machine, technique, andresource that can be used to solve a problem. Thehuman adaptive system is a man-made ensemble oftechnical means arranged on set rules to perform apre-defined function.

Another major problem is encountered due tothe fact that technological literacy is heavily context-bound and its meanings vary from one situation to another. Technology is a social reality grounded in localsocio-economic conditions and hard to translatewithout understanding the context. Goinory (1983)makes this point very clear:

In dealing with technology, things are suffi-ciently complex that is done by rule of

Abdul HameedGraduate Student


thumb and not by precise knowledge. . . .

technology is cultural-dependent in otherways. Cultural factors such as attitudes to-wards financing ( long term versus shortterm goals), Attitudes toward carelessnessand sma9 mistakes (quality), and the pres-ence or absence of the NIH (not investedhere) syndrome (It is hard to get someoneelse's idea into your laboratory) have a tre-mendous influence on technologicalprogress. ( p. 579)

With the change of context the function of tech-nological literacy also changes due to the differentnature of technological progress. The nature of tech-nological progress, socio-economic context, and thefunction of technological literacy are, therefore, inter-related. Their relationship might be easy to under-stand with the help of a global model of technologicalliteracy.

A three dimensional matrix represents threeunique elements of technological literacy. On onedimension, technological systems can have any setof human adaptive systems are sub-systems such asmanufacturing, construction, transportation, andcommunication, etc. Under no circumstancesshould this list be considered as an exhaustive oftechnological systems. It is left rather open and flexi-ble in order to take any set of prevailing systems thathappen to be important in local context.

Yoho (1967) defines system as "The total combi-nation of element necessary to perform an opera-tional function or as a tr tal 'set' of interacting ele-ments". The use of system approach to representtechnology is not a novel idea. Ellul (1980) gives thelogic of using the term "system" to describe technol-ogy:

I chose the term 'system' to describe tech-nology in present day society, it is certainlynot because the word is fashionable now,but because I feel that it fits technology. It is

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110 A Global Model of Technological Literacy

an indispensable tool for understandingwhat is meant by 'technology', while disre-garding the spectacular, the curious, the ep-iphenomena that make observation impossi-ble. . .. The system thus involves a choiceof symptoms, factors, and an analysis oftheir relationships. But it is not a mere intel-lectual construction. There is a quite defi-nitely such a thing as a system. .. (p. 78)

Ellul's definition of system extends beyond whata common person can observe or at least feel. Hissystem is inclusive of every thing in the environ-ment. it is open and non-repetitive. It modifies theother elements by being constantly innovative.Technological system, he believes, is "Just as therewas a disease expressed in a correlation betweenthe systems that could be grouped and tabled" (p.78).

DeVore (1983) has more practical view than Elluland explains systems as "composed of elementsthat are related and which interact in some way.. ..This means that there is some co text within whichan element, particle, person, tool, event, action, orsome other part of a system, acts, and is acted upon.Percieving the dynamics of a system requires theidentification of some centre: theme, function, or be-navior" (p.176).

There is a tendency to see the present techno-logical systems as a mere extension of old mechani-zation. This misconception leads to a narrow under-standing which fails to realize the far-reaching effectsof technology. Ellul (1980) in an effort to eliminate allthese misconceptions, "Technology conceived ofits automation, its chemical transformation o! theworld, its economy of the energy, its cybemation, itsdata processing, its biological intervention, and its in-definite output of nuclear energy has little to do withthe old industrial mechanization" (p. 4).

New Encyclopedia Britannica has developed astandard method for surveying the technological ex-perience and innovations as it is depicted in the his-tory of mankind. The method begins with a summaryof the general social conditions of the period, andthen goes on to discuss the dominant materials andsources of power of that period. It particularly men-tions the application of dominant materials and sourc-es of power to "food production, manufacturing in-dustry, building construction, transportation andcommunication, military technology, and medicaltechnology" (p. 25). The identification of differenthuman adaptive systems provides a valuable in-sight for curriculum developers in the field of

technology education.

Towers, Lux, and Ray (1966) in the document ARationale and Structure for Industrial Arts SubjectMatter present an intensive review of literature whichincludes discussion on several schemes cf classify-ing the content of technology. They, by using athree-point criteria (all inclusive, mutually exclusive,and operationally adequate), come up with two br.acesystems, i. e. manufacturing and construction. Theyconcluded that all other systems in the realm of in-dustrial productive processes are the subsystems ofthe two major systems. Their intent to be highly logi-cal and precise pushed them to define technologyin a narrow and restricted sense. However, the im-pact of their thought on curriculum development isfar reaching.

The Jackson's Mill Industrial Arts Curriculum The-ory is based on four technological systems, i. e..manufacturing, construction, communication, andtransportation. These systems constitute the content of several present industrial arts/ technology ed-ucation programs and suffice to define our content.

The second dimension of the matrix stands forfunctional aspect of technological literacy titled as"knowledge function". It answers the questionssuch as: What are the objectives of technological lit-eracy?, What factors attribute to prepare a technolog-ically literate person?. Several attempts have beenmade to come up with a comprehensive list of suchattributes. A serious and perhaps the first effort wasmade by Halfin (1973) in order to identify and thenoperationally define the the processes of technolo-gist assuming that the knowledge of such processeswill help students learn about the technological soci-ety. After in depth review of the writings of top tentechnologists HaNin prepared the list of seventeenprocesses: (1) defining the problem or opportunityoperationally , (2) observing, (3) analyzing, (4) visual-izing, (5) computing, (6) communicating, (7) measur-ing, (8) predicting (9) questioning and hypothesiz-ing, (10) interpreting data, (11) constructing modelsand prototypes, (12) experimenting, (13) testing,(14) designing, (15) modeling, (16) creating, and(17) managing. Halfin's findings laid the foundationsfor subsequent curricula. However, many of the pro-cesses such as observing, analyzing, visuaizing,computing, etc., have no specific meanings to repre-sent technological actions. Instead they are fre-quently used in science and mathematics and tendto mean different concepts.

Maley (1985) identifies four significant roles atechnologically literate person should play:

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1. The user role: involving the safe and effec-tive use of materials, tools, machines,households items, and the means of recrea-tion.

2. The consumer role: as related to the pur-chasing and decision making related tohomes, appliances, cars, entertainment me-dia, furniture, tools, clothing, and food.

3. The producer role: involving the tools,materials, and machinery of agriculture, man-ufacture, commerce, and service.

4. The voter or decision-maker role: involv-ing how to choose between alternatives incommunity development, energy forms,transportation modes, trash and waste dis-posal, housing, communication systems, re-source development, production process-es, and so on. (p. 4)

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory(1984) published the list of technological literacyskills that everyone should learn. It includes threemajor categories of such skills:

1. Attitudes or generic skills that can be taughtin any class: accuracy and precision, anticipatingneeds, creativity and imagination, critical thinking/problem-solving, ethical standards/confidentiality,life-long leaming/retrainirg, synthesis of informationsystems, thinking, and troubleshooting.

2. Applied skills required direct instructions aswell as practice under various conditions: computa-tion and calibration, layout/design, listening, meas-urement, speaking, and writing.

3. Specialized skills that may require the exper-tise of someone who knows what to do and how toteach it: evaluation and software, file maintenance,keyboarding, networking, search and retrieval. Theideas may better be expressed by using the termcomputer literacy which is just a part of technologicalliteracy.

Smalley (1986) perhaps was the first person whoreally prepared a test of technological literacy. By us-ing Delphi method, Smalley reports nine criteria fortechnological literacy test:

1. connect past technological events to thepresent and be able to project alternative fu-ture;

2. be able to solve technological problems;

3. be a wise consumer/decision maker con-cerning technological products/services;

4. understand the implications of careerchoices in the field of technology;

5. understand reading materials in techno-logical areas written on the 10th grade level;

6. apply technological knowledge to a varie-ty of human concerns and situations;

7. knowledge of existing and emergingtechnologies;

8. able to evaluate technologies as to theirappropriateness in our world; and

9. able to understand and adapt to changebrought about by technology. (p. 53)

An careful review of literature on the purpose oftechnological literacy indicates that the ideas pre-sented in these discussions can be grouped underfour general functions of technological literacy.These functions, i.e. Interfacing technology, usingtechnology, making technology, and controllingtechnology can be called "knowledge function" asthe basis of their performance is knowledge gainedthrough formal and/or informal education.

Contrary to the standard meanings, the connota-tions used to express these functions bare specialmeanings and an expanation of such meanings is inorder. It should, however, be remembered that themodel, by its nature, is a simplified version of the real-ity. Specific meanings have to be attached by ex-plaining the model so that the model can remain sim-ple and easy to understand while rich conceptual for-mation. In the following paragraphs the four func-tions are explained as follow:

1. Interfacing technology includes a readinessto interface new technological objects and subse-quent change in the individual attitude to cope withthem. It also requires updating the knowledge abouttechnological world through observation, experi-ence, and reading appropriate material.

2. Using technology necessitates the wise se-lection of technological objects and their proper andefficient use. It also includes using technology in aproblem-solving situation especially in unpredictablecircumstances. Using technology encompasses in-dividual, local, national, and global level dependingupon the social responsibility of an individual.

3. Making technology stands for not only mak-ing and inventing appropriate objects, tools, and sys-tems but also means innovating/discovering newtechnologies to solve practical problems at differentlevels.

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112 A Global Mode! of Technological Literacy

4. Controlling technology is controlling of all un-desirables internal and external interventions in thesocial order created through technology. It also em-phasizes the ability tc !colt Inaide to discover hiddenand delayed &de 00 le of larger systems. The indi-vidua: should a' le to develop means to ef-fectively control . le effects of technology.

The third dimension of the global model of tech-nological literacy signifies the importance of socio-economic conditions of a particular geographical areain which technological iiteracy is being pursued. Thevital role that a social structure plays in the technolog-ical development has frequently been discussed bynumerous writers. Encyclopedia Britannica de-scribes trie social involvement in technological ad-vances under separate subheading and notes, "Tosimplify the relationship as much as possible, thereare three point:. at which there must be some socialinvolvement in technological innovation: socialneed, social resources, and a sympathetic socialethos. In default of any of these factors it is unlikelythat a technological innovation will be widely adoptedor be successful" (p. 24). Since the technological lit-eracy takes its meanings from the technological de-velopment, the socio-economic conditions consti-tute an inevitable ingredient.

The significance of socio-economic context isalso very evident from the writings of other eminentscholars. Gilberty (1986) believes, "How technologyis applied depends on what society thinks it is, whatits limitations are perceived to be, what is its role insociety, and how that role is assessed" (p. 22).Schooling can play an indispensable role in spread-ing technological literacy. But Pogrow (1982) isskeptical about this, "History suggests that a technol-ogy will play a central role in the public schools if--andwhen - -it first gains cultural acceptance, i. e. admittance to a large number of homes and becomes a pri-rniAry work tool" (p. 610).

The classification of underdeveloped, develop-ing, and developed socio-economic context is mere-ly tentative and can be replaced by better descrip-tors. However, if a decision is made to use the pro-posed classification, the above referred criteria(social need, social resources, and a sympathetic so-cial ethos) may be used to distinguish one class fromthe other in terms of the level at which they meet thecriteria.

The decision of labeling a country or a particulargeographical location with such descriptors as devel-oped or underdeveloped possess several questionsabout the validity of sm.! demarcations. It is beyond

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the scope of this study to devise a valid or empiricalmethod for doing such activity. However, sociologyor economics may have some better ways to dothis.

References

DeVure, P. W. (1983). Education-technology. andpublicoolicy. Unpublished speech delivered atthe American Industrial Arts Association AnnualConference, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Foster, et al. (1994). Characteristics of technologicalliteracy: Perspectives from the industrial andeducational sectors. An unpublished report.

Friedman, E. A. (1980). Technological literacy andthe liberal arts. (ERIC Document No. ED 196350)

Friedman, E. A. (1980, December). Technology asan academic discipline. Engineering Education,211-216.

Gomory, R. E. (1983). Technology development.Science, 221 576-579.

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (1984).Technological literacy skills everybody should)(now. Portland, Oregon.

Pogrow, S. (1982). On technological relevance andsurvival of U.S. public schools. Phi Delta Kap-MP 1%9), 610-611.

Smalley, L., et al. (1984). Technologkalliffracylfffil.Menomonie: University of Wisconsin-Stout.(ERIC Document No. ED 255 637)

Snyder, J. F., & Hales, J. A. (1981). klack_son's Mil! in-dustrial arts curriculum theory. Washington, D.C.: American Industrial Arts Association

Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966) Aid:lionale and structure for industrial arts subjectmatter. Columbus: The Ohio State University.(ERIC Document No. ED 013 .55)

Yoho, L. W. (1967). The "orchestrated systems":Approach to industrial education. Terre Haute:Indiana State University.


Defining, Determining, and Contributing toTechnological Literacy:Getting There From Here Using theTechnology

of a Research Paradigm

Technological literacy. It has a nice ring to it.Like motherhood, the flag, and apple pie, most peo-ple would probably say they were for it. Whenpressed to define it, the man or woman on the streetor the scholar in the classroom or research laboratoryis operating with similar handicaps. The "it" of tech-nology literacy is defined situationally. The man orwoman on the street will define it in terms of theirneeds and perhaps the needs of their children.They may offer that technological literacy is beingable to use a computer, drive a car, program a VCR,or know when something should be taken to a pro-fessional repair technician. The layperson typicallydefines technological literacy as being able to useequipment and things that individuals will come intocontact with during their daily activities and to knowhow things work and what one needs to do to main-tain or obtain control over things or processes.

The scholar, on the other hand, will tend to de-fine technological literacy in terms of his or her disci-pline. The historian will point to the significant con-nections between people, ideas, and inventions.The political scientist will note that to be technologi-cally literate involves knowing about such things asthe constitution and the individual's rights and re-sponsibilities to influence and even create govern-ments. Scientists in physics, chemistry, biology, as-tronomy, and any other science-based discipline willpoint to the need to know the makeup and interac-tion of our physical world. Mathematicians will pointto the basic language of numbers and the need tobe equipped to deal with numbers and data relation-ships in a complex technological world. Industrial artsteachers, vocational and career education teachers,art teachers, music teachers, and other teachers ofthe non-academic areas will point to the critical contri-bution that their subject makes to the literacy of theindividual and the compttencies of the individual tocontribute to, and function in, an increasingly com-plex and technological world.

Defining technological literacy is then an inter-

Dr. Michael R. WhiteIndustrial Technology Department

The University of Northern IowaCedar Falls, Iowa

esting problem. Some would suggest that definingthe term is not really possible or necessary and mayeven limit the political support for technological litera-cy if it is defined too narrowly (Beaver, 1986). Othersgo to great lengths to differentiate between scientificand technological literacy (Roy, 1986; Miller, 1986)and others appear to equate (Peterson, 1986) or atleast assert the foundational and prerequisite natureof science to technological literacy (Missimer, 1984).

One of the major questions related to the defini-tional parameters of technological literacy should be"What can we do about reducing this confusion andnoise about what technological literacy is?" If wecan't define what it is that is needed, then we willhave serious problems in directing research, curricu-lum development, legislative support, or the public'sattention to our version of motherhood, the flag, andapple pie.

I am sugge.sting (net the systematic process ofresearch will provide us with the answers to our cur-rent dilemma in dealing with the technological literacypatchwork of concepts, goals, criticisms, and curricu-la approaches. In my management consulting prac-tice wher3 I work with managers and employees toidentify strategies to improve productivity, the prob-lem of what it is that an organization wants is muchmore crucial than what it does. This directional imper-ative has come to be called the mission of the organi-zation. Without a clear definition of this mission andpurpose, most organizations, and the leadership ofthose organizations, are no better than Alice in Won-derland in her pursuit of the White Rabbit.

As you may recall, Alice was constantly losingsight of the elusive White Rabbit and at one point isfaced with the decision to take one of two roads.The Cheshire Cat, most likely Wonderland's versionof an organizational consultant, is perched in a treewhen Alice asks,

".. .would you tell me, please, which way Iought to go from here?"

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114 Defining, Determining, and Contributing to Technological Literacy

"That depends a good deal on where youwant to get to," said the Cat.

"I don't much care where " said Alice.(Carrot, 1955, p. 29)

The sage in the tree concludes then, that it mat-ters not which road she takes because either will takeher where she does not know she is going.

In the public schools and the universities, we of-ten pursue different roads with as little forethoughtas Alice in Wonderland. However, during thesetimes of scarce resources and the need for dramaticimprovement in a variety of educational areas, thislack of direction is a luxury that we and our studentscan ill afford. An educational program needs to bedesigned for all students, especially the majority whowill not be well served by more of the same "stuff"with which they have not been successful (Albrecht,1984). All students, not just the edvanced techni-cian or the scientist, will live and attempt to functionin a variety of life roles in an increasingly complex andoften hidden technological world (Lux, 1977). Voca-tional education, industrial arts, and the whole pur-pose of the school must again be focused on thestudents and their needs for all of their life roles(White, 1978).

Educators, researchers, curriculum developers,and teacher educators must be able to define thegoals and develop approaches that will enable stu-dents to systemtically pursue them (White, 1979). I

am suggesting that one way to figure out which roadto take would be to design a research model thatwould help us to uncover the variables associatedwith technological literacy and then to systematicallyconstruct research studies that would identify, codi-fy, and enable tht reality of technological literacy sothis all important objective can effectively be ad-dressed by educational programs.

Since a model must serve as an approximation ofreality, any model will have its weak and strongpoints. However, it should be able to explain realitybetter than we can in the absence of the model(Lippitt, 1973). Ideally, models should enable us tolearn more about the focus of the model than we canwithout the model. It should also enable us to com-municate the major components of the idea to oth-ers, who may not have the same focus we do. This isespecially true when one requires public supportand understanding of the model to obtain the re-sources necessary to implement solutions identifiedby the model. McGrath (1972) gives eight criteria fora model.

1. A model is a replica of some sort.

2. A model is an agreed-upon symbol ofsome sort.

3. A model provides an habitual form forthinking or for conceptualizing about some-thing.

4. A model is a shortcut or an economy inthinking or for conceptualizing about some-thing.

5. A model may be either complete or in-complete.

6. A model may be either simple or com-plex--or somewhere between, depending ina large measure upon the user and hisneed.

7. A model provides for standardizationand control of conceptualizations, process-es and definitions; it is a nomothetic struc-ture or system.

8. A model !s a means; nct an end. (p. 16)

The model to define, determine, and contributeto technological literacy is a road map designed tomeet all of McGrath's characteristics. It is to representthe reality of the environment of the technologicallyliterate individual; it is a symbol of reality upon whichwe can perhaps agree; it will offer us a way of thinkingabout technological literacy; it will be complete (yetadaptable and amendable as technology itself is); itwill be a relatively simple model in context while a littlemore complex in contentual relationships; it will pro-vide for standardization of the factors and variablesassociated with technological literacy; and finally, themodel will be a means to an end. It will be a tool tohelp researchers know more about the variables as-sociated with technological literacy and to then beable to know which variables need to be studied andlater manipulated to bring about technological litera-cy and ultimataly individuals who are more in controlof their own lives and the technology that enablesand impacts on those lives.

Since technology is "the means by which hu-mans utilize natural and human resources to attain agoal" (Roy, 1986, p. 133) and literacy is the under-standing an..J ability to use the code of communica-tion that is standard in the culture (Haberer, 1986),technological literacy must be the ability to under-stand and use the code of those means by which hu-mans utilize natural and manmade resources to attain

111


a goal. The debate generally comes from whatshould be understood and how technology shouldbe used.

Technology is a very broad term. So is literacy.Both terms are very situatiunal. The technology ofchar fishing employed by the Inuit people in Cam-bridge Bay in the Northwest Territories (NWT) is quitedifferent, and probably culturally and technically con-tent specific to that culture by the people who havelearned what works and under what conditions itworks. The trout angler in the hills of Pennsylvanianeeds to be literate in a culturally different type andpurpose of fishing If she expects to be effective andefficient (what we have come to identify as the twocomponents of productivity). Catfish farming, usinghigh tech fisheries technology systemizes, routiniz-es, and perfects the technology of fish-for-foodmuch beyond the literacy stage to the technician,technologist, and applied science level of perfor-mance. Technological literacy would be definedquite differently for the Inuit fisherman, the Pennsyl-vania angler, and the technician feeding 500,000week old catfish in Georgia.

The major problem of the educational systemthat is producing tomorrow's leaders, as well as to-morrow's citizens, is to figure out what people needto be able to know and do to be productive in theirvarious life roles and how the school can best pro-vide the experiences to enable that individual to beproductive. Literacy is the foundation of that produc-tivity. Math and science are often suggested as thefoundation of literacy attainment (Missimer, 1984;Peterson, 1986). Language of and about technolo-gy combined with the skills associated with the useof language- -the vocabulary, the forms and patterns,and the information storage, retrieval, and exchange--are also cited as prerequisites to technological litera-cy (Smith, 1986). Knowledge about politics and theoperation of governments is defined as a necessaryliteracy to be a functioning citizen of a technologicalsociety (Nelson, 1987). Competencies in ethical de-cision making and values (Adams & Baker, 1986) andin vocational and the industrial arts (Dyrenfurth,1983) are also cited as crucial to fully functional andliterate individuals in a technological society. Somewould suggest (Gies, 1982; Lewis, 1983; Miles,1984) that technological literacy is the true liberal artsfor the 21st century.

Since the beginning of recorded history, therehave been differences in the capabilities and, subse-quently, the Interests of peoples and cultures. TheGreeks even defined city states for these different

strengths--those who did were Spartans and thosewho thought were Athenians. While this analogywas and is unfair to both, the differentiation has con-tinued and been formalized through the develop-ment of educational systems in Europe and eventu-ally in the United States.

Even in this century, ell attempts to legitimizeand attrac' all students to the "doing" components ofeducation have been segmented at best and, duringthe current Washington administration, even a netloss and mean spirited at worst (Swanson, 1987).Even massive federal funding of vocational educa-tion and career education has not democratized thedoing component of education. Vocational educa-tion, industrial arts, and home economics are seen as"OK for someone else's child, but not mine." In re-sponse, these curricula areas have tried to "get backto the basics" or become more like their Atheniancounterparts by worshipping at the altar of scienceand math and declaring that technological literacy isone of the "real" purposes of their efforts.

Like many et.lucational trends, however, we maybe throwing out the baby with the bathwater as wepush our programs into and beyond technological lit-eracy. This is especially hazardous if we don't knowwhat technological literacy Is and we are willing to ac-cept someone's "test" (Gies, 1982) of knowing factsas the measure of technological literacy. We must re-member that "in its broadest sense, technology canbe defined as the practical arts and skills of humansociety" (Slaght, 1987, p. 38).

Technology is not just lasers, robots, and semi-conductors. It is also housepainting, cooking, toolusage, and safety. In the debate about and for tech-nological literacy courses, "let us not confuse cours-es in technology, where a technology itself is taughtand mastered, with courses about technology,where a technology is examined and evaluated, butseldom learned" (Slaght, 1987, p. 38). Both are re-quired for a truly liberal education. It is education thatfrees people from the lack of control over their envi-ronment and contributes to meaningful understand-ing that comes from being able to do (Lux, 1981;White, 1984).

There is still the elitism of the "liberal arts." In-dustrialized societies are now paying the price forthis elitism in that we have leaders and decision mak-ers in all organizations who have little or no experi-ence in the business of the organization. This is es-pecially damaging in the manufacturing componentof industries. The lack of "shop floor" reality experi-ence has been cited by numerous sources

1 1 2


(Schonberger, 1986; Drucker, 1986) as one of themajor reasons that the United States has fallen be-hind the Japanese and the Germans. If any of theseproblems are going to be "solved" by "technologicalliteracy" educational programs, then it is imperativethat we go about designing, implementing, and eval-uating these efforts in a systematic way. The re-search model presented here will enable that pro-cess to begin.

A Model for RematchingTechnological Literacy (MRTL)

We technologists are pre.ntical people. Most ofus selected life roles (careers, leisure, or otherwise)that enable us to engage the practical on a regularbasis. Models, model building, and the use of mod-els is not new to most of us. We have used plansheets, blueprints, scale models, systems models,PERT, CPM, and a variety of other models to enableus to visualize, manipulate, and control our techno-logicfo world. This Model for Researching Techno-logical Literacy (MRTL) is like these other tools thatwe have used to enhance our capability. MRTL willenable us to enhance our knowledge about and ourexperiences with technological literacy. It will be avaluable tool to enable us to think systematicallythrough the complex maze of technology so we maybetter know the focus of our efforts and be able tomeasure those efforts and their results. It also canand should be, like all tools, continually refined andreapplied. The purpose in presenting MRTL is to en-able people to DO. . .to do research in the area oftechnological literacy.

Since Technological Literacy (TL) is very com-plex, a model is an ideal way to help us understandand contribute to TL.

Basically, a model is a symbolic representa-tion of the various aspects of a complexevent or situation, and their interrelation-ships. A model is by nature a simplificationand thus may or may not include all the varia-bles. It should include, however, all of thosevariables which the model builder considersimportant and, in this sense, models serveas an aid to understanding the event or situ-ation being studied. The true value of amodel lies in the fact that it is an abstractionof reality that can be useful for analytical pur-poses. (Lippitt, 1973, p. 2)

Since all models use symbols, the symbols andthe relationship of the symbols to each other are im-portant. With MRTL you will see a process flow fromthe beginning to the end. At each stage of the mod-

el, decisions are made that impact on the next stageand are predicated on the decisions that have beenmade in the previous stage. In a sense, these stag-es of MRTL are like different sized foundry riddlespermitting increasingly finer focus as we progressthrough the various screen sizes. (See Figure 1)

Recognizing the foundational aspect of cogni-tive competence and the situational nature of this inthe process of technological literacy (Ray, 1986), thefirst stage of MRTL is the Cognitive CompetencyLevel (CCL). This stage of the model requires themodel user to identify the level and area of compe-tency that is of interest. Since these are on a contin-uum, it is possible for the model user to be interest-ed in a given range of cognitive competency andability within specific subject matter areas. This CCLstage of the model recognizes that all people are dif-ferent and that in different situations some who are"smart" are "dumb" and some who are "dumb" are"smart." This mirrors the reality that we have all ex-perienced in ourselves and in our students.

In this first stage, there are 10 levels of compe-tency from which the researcher selects, or systemti-cally groups, to determine at what cognitive compe-tency level the research is going to be conducted.These levels are:

1. Is ignorant

2. Is aware

3. Knows facts

4. Knows relationships within and between facts

5. Knows universals and abstractions

6. Manipulates knowledge

7. Applies knowledge

8. Analyzes knowledge

9. Synthesizes knowledge

10. Evaluates knowledge

For example, if the researcher was interested indetermining who in a population had the CognitiveCompetency Level (CCL) of "Knows facts" about thetechnology of nuclear power generation, then ques-tions about those important facts would be con-structed at this stage of the model. Most so called"technological literacy" or "scientific literacy" testsdeal only with the content and the competency atthis level and this level only (Gies, 1982; Peterson,1986).

When the levels of cognitive competency aredetermined and perhaps categorized into types of

113

A Model for Researching Technological Literacy(MRTL)/

The Technological

Components in a

CultureI

ina

78Cognitive

a: Competency3

2 Level

At the Desired Praxis LevelAttitude

114

LevelsofTL

JNovicei

which measures...

TowardTechnology

ncreates< kLD

1 i 5

i..

...


knowledges required (language, mathematics, phys-ics, chemistry, etc.), one then goes to the next stagein the model of selecting the Technological Compo-nent in a Culture (TCC). These depend greatly onthe situation upon which one wants to do research.Given the above nuclear power generation example,we could focus our research at this stage on theTools (devices), the Processes (mining, refining,shipping, using, generating, cooling, waste manag-ing, material handling, etc.), or the Materials (fuelrods, containment buildings, distribution networks,etc.) of the technology of nuclear electrical genera-tion. Since our example CCL is "knows facts," a logi-cal TCC could be "about the process of nuclear pow-er generation from mining to distribution and wastehandling."

Given the TCC and CCL results, we are nowready to consider the third stage of MRTL: the De-sired Praxis Level (DPL). This stage of the model en-ables us to go beyond what most research in TL iscapable in that we have a way to determine what pro-ficiency level we want to test, measure, or set for ourresearch efforts. The levels of DPL are:

1. Seeker2. Understander3. User4 Maker5. Designer6. Creator

In our nuclear power generation example, giventhe decisions at the previous two stages, we are like-ly to be considering the lower level DPLs of Seeker,Understander, or User. The research would then befurther focused by the DPL to "uses resources togather information (technical, financial, environmen-tal, etc.) about nuclear power generation."

Since, in a technological society, we all functionat various levels of technological literacy in our multi-ple roles, the role must be considered when doingresew& about TL. This stage of MRTL is called theTechnological Role (TR). The four levels of TR are:

1. Novice2. Learner3. Experienced4. Expert

While the upper two levels might be classified as"occupational" roles and the lower two as "citizenroles," this would not be correct to all situations. Oneis frequently faced with an individual who occupa-tionally does not use the "expert" role that he or shehas attained, at the maker or designer praxis level,

with tools and processes, using analysis and synthe-sis cognitive competence. Nonetheless they haveattained the expert role in that technology. In ourcontinuing example of nuclear power generation,again given our previous choices, we are probably in-terested in the novice or learner level and our inter-est may be addressed as: "Aware of the processesinvolved in nuclear power generation and attendspublic hearings and forums on plant initiations."

The fifth level of MRTL is the Attitude TowaidTechnology (ATT). Together with the selected Cog-nitive Competency Level (CCL), with the Technolog-ical Components in a Culture (TCC), at the DesiredPraxis Level (DPL), in the specified TechnologicalRole (TR), it asks the question: "What attitude to-ward technology is predicted, desired, optimal,etc.?" (This decision is dependent on the research-es purpose for using MAIL.) If, in our example, wewant to be able to create a curriculum that would pro-vide a positive attitude about nuclear power genera-tion, then we might derive the following from thisATT stage: "Expresses optimistic views about nucle-ar power generation."

Other decisions at this stage might be researchdecisions to find populations with a specific positive,negative, or neutral attitude toward a particular tech-nology and then trace back through the model forcorrelations and antecedent variables that might beuseful in predicting the specific attitude formationunder study. It should be noted that although themodel displays only three majors directions of atti-tude (positive, negative, or neutral) there are multipleand perhaps infinite strengths of each of these direc-tions that the researcher needs to consider in usingthe ATT level of MRTL.

MAIL has now brought the researcher to thestage where the research problem, hypotheses orresearch questions, the variables of the study, andthe population of the study can be identified andsystematic research procedures can be created tomeasure technological literacy at one of three levels(Roy, 1986).

C1 Comfortable with technology,

C2 Competent in technology, or

C3 Control of technology.

Roy (1986) discusses these three levels or slatesof technological literacy as unique to each other andyet related to each other. Comfortable with technol-ogy is that ". . .state in which a human being is athome with, the technological means that she or heuses, but unable to assess their impact on persons

1 l6


or society" (p. 133). The other end of this"comfortable" continuum is "uncomfortable withtechnology" which is defined by Roy (1986) as a "...state where due to ignorance, one is both wary andafraid of even the means one must use on a daily ba-sis to attain one's goals" (p. 133).

The second level of competent in technologydenotes the acquisition of the necessary cognitive,attitudinal, and psychomotor skills to function andoperate effectively with the technology to attainone's goals. The third level of control of technologybuilds on the competency attained in level two Andenables the individual or group to display behaviorsthat demonstrate to the researcher that the sub-ject(s) can achieve a high level of cognitive under-standing of the technology and can ". . .shape oradapt it as necessary to achieve even new goalsbased on an assessment of its potential for good andor (Roy, 1986, p. 133).

With these three levels as behavior indicators,the researcher has a construct to create or discovermeasures of technological literacy in conjunctionwith the other decision points in MRTL. Indepen-dent and dependent TL variables are more easilyIdentified using the MRTL than without the model.The MRTL permits some standardization and controlof the conceptualization process and helps the re-searcher to define terms, processes, and systemswithin the TL area of study. The MRTL, while a sim-ple model to use, still addresses the complexities ofTL and enables the researcher to adapt to the tech-nology under study, the diversities of the popula-tion, the multivariate nature of TL, and the differentways to measure TL. To a great extent the Mode! forResearching Technological Literacy may serve as auseful tool in conceptualizing and creating systemat-ic research to answer the questions of "What is tech-nological literacy? and "How do we teach it?"

References

Adams, D. L., & Baker, R. E. (1986). Science, tech-nology, and human values: An interdisciplinaryapproach to science education. Journal of Col-lege Science Teachina, 11(4), 254-258.

Albrecht, J. E. (1984). A nation at risk: another view.Kaman, 33(10), 684-685.

Beaver, D. deB. (1986). Technological literacy, oldand new. Bulletin of Science Technology andsociety, 3, 229-234.

Carroll, L. (1955). Alice in New York:Random House.

rL

Drucker, P. F. (1986). The frontiersuf management.New York: Truman Talley.

Dyrenfurth, M. J. (1983). The route to technologicalliteracy. Vocal, 13(1), 42-44.

Gies, J. C. (1982). Technology: A new liberal art?AGB Reporta, oil, 17-20.

Haberer, J. (1986). Technological literacy and theuniversity: Concepts, priorities, and political real-ities. Bulletin of Science Technology and Socie-ty, 3, 222-228.

Lewis, A. J. (1983). Education for the 21st century.Educational Leadership, 41(1), 9-10.

Lippitt, G. L. (1973). Visualizina chance: Modelbuilding and the change process. Fairfax, VA:NTL-Leaming Resources Corporation.

Lux, D. G. (1977). From heritage to horizons. 114.Ur:nal of Epsilon Pi Tad, 3(1), 7-12.

Lux, D. G. (1981, April). Reality, Aristotle, and theteaching of learning about and learning how-to.School Shop, 4Q(8), 24-25, 33.

McGrath, J. H. (1972). Planning systems for schoolexecutives: The unity of theory and practice.Scranton, PA: Ir text Educational.

Miles, L. (1984). Liberal arts in an age of technology.American Education, 2Q(5), 2-6.

Miller, J. D. (1986). Technological literacy: Someconcepts and measures. Bulletin of_ScienceTechnology and Society, 3, 155-201.

Missimer, W. C., Jr. (1984). Business and industry'srole in improving the scientific and technologicalliteracy of America's youth. American Education,22(4), 6-9.

Nelson, A. (1987). The layman's perspective on theconstitution. jrnprimis,13(4).

Peterson, I. (1986). Knowing little about how thingswork. Science News, .123(8), 118.

Roy, R. (1986). Technological literacy--clarifying theconcept and its relation to STS. Bulletin ofScience Technology and Society, 5,131 -137.

Schonberger, R. J. (1986). World class manufactur-ing: The lessons of simplicity applied. NewYork: The Free Press.

Slaght, R. L. (1987, February 18). We can no longerseparate the thinkers from the doers in the liber-al arts. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 38-39.


Smith, D. B. (1986). Axioms for English In a technicalage. College Englisn,_6(48), 576-579.

Swanson, R. A. (1987). Talk is cheap. News andViews National Association of industrial andTechnical Teacher Educators, a(1), 1.

White, M. R. (1978). IA and voc ed: Looking aheadto the eighties. VocED, 52(4), 57-58.

White, M. R. (1979). A rationale for industrial artsteacher education in power and energy technol-ogy. Man/Society/Technology, 52(4), 9-12.

White, M. R. (1984). The confessions of an industrialarts teacher educator. Illinois Journal of IndustrialEducation, fi(1), 3-5.

1 1 8

Technological Literacy Symposium 1214821MF41111161

What Price Progress?: The Social Impact ofTechnology on Society

Dr. Albert Me,drsDepartment of Industrial and Vocational Education

The University of AlbertaEdmonton, Alberta, Canada

Industrial Arts Education had a mandate to interpretindustry. Technology Education, as successor to In-dustrial Arts, inherits that still valid mandate.

Changes in technology produce changes in in-dustry. Some of these effects are social, and the so-cial impact on society of the changes brought aboutby technology is becoming as significant a factor inunderstanding industry as the economic impact tradi-tionally studied.

Man and Technology: A Suggsted Course

In order to facilitate the understanding of indus-try it is suggested that a course be introduced enti-tled Man and Technology. The course would consid-er the implications of specific technologies in indus-try for the improvement of our standard of living (the"SO WHAT" content). The course, part of a suggest-ed curriculum in general education called PRODUC-TION SCIENCE, was described, broadly, in an articleby this author in the February, 1985 issue of TheTechnology Teacher. A justification for including thiscurriculum as part of a person's general educatio3 isoffered in DeVore's (1983) statement on the powerof technical knowledge.

If we are to remain as free citizens in a demo-cratic society and control our own destiny,then it is important that we control our tech-nical means and direct and use them to at-tain agreed upon social purposes. To dootherwise will bring about a society con-trolled by an elite group who are knowledge-able in creating and controlling technicalmeans for their purposes. (p. 11)

Also described was the remainder of the curricu-lum, the study of production techniques, using labor-atory courses to demonstrate the use by industry ofmaterials, tools, and processes to improve productsand productivity (the *HOW' content). As this paperis limited to describing the implications portion of thecurriculum, production techniques will not be dis-cussed further.

Course Criterion

One way for a course on Man and Technology tocarry out the Technology Education mandate to in-terpret industry is to select an Industry (e.g. commu-nications), and then determine the effects on the in-du ;try of a new technology (e.g. fibre-optics), andthe social effects of both on the society (e.g. crea-tion of jobs in fiber-optics, potential invasion of priva-cy).

However, so vast is the number of technologies,Industries, and social changes (including, as Maleysuggests, the past, present, and future heritage),that some criterion must be established for selectingwhich technology, which industry, and which socialchange (including whether its coming, going, orgone) should be studied.

The criterior, used In selecting a technology orindustry for study is its implication for society (the"SO WHAT" content), where that implication appearsto be profound.

One example of such implication is the fact thattechnology has expanded the productive capabilityof industry. Product development derives, in part,from the capability of the equipment, but equipmentis expensive. Therefore, decisions on the introduc-tion of new products are increasingly being made onthe basis of what the equipment can produce ratherthan what products are in demand. Machine capabili-ty, not the marketplace, is determining the productsto be produced. Demand, itself, is becoming a prod-uct, and, like any other other product, it can be man-ufactured. Markets, therefore, no longer have to befound, they can be created.

Another example of an implication is that locus-try, for years unmindful of the waste it has created, isincreasingly being held accountable for the damageto the environment caused by the toxic wastes itpours into the air and water. This is a reaction, at last,

1 1 9

122 What Price Progress?: The Social Impact of Technology on Society

to such dream-shattering realities as that experi-enced when, finally having the time and money, youtake that long awaited trip down the Rhine River tofind yourself traveling on what has been called thefilthiest waterway in Europe. Much the same is beingsaid of the scenery in the United States and Canada,with action still at the talking stage in eliminating acidrain from the once beautiful streams, rivers, andmountains.

Further implications of technology derive fromviewing technology as a benefit, a curse, or a mixedblessing.

The Benefits of Technology

The benefits of technology, briefly, are two:

1. Extension of human physical and intellectualcapabilities

2. Decrease in some forms of human physicaland intellectual labor

As a result of these two benefits North Americahas one of the highest material standards of living inthe world. We enjoy an increase in the number, qual-ity, and variety of material products, an increase inthe value of products, per dollar, and an increase inthe opportunity for leisure time in which to enjoythese products. The enormity of these accomplish-ments can more readily be appreciated when oneviews the standard of living in other nations.

The Curses of Technology

Society benefits from technology, but it alsopays for those benefits. When we consider theproblem of acid rain, for example, we consider some-thing tangible. It can be seen and measured and de-bated and the consequences are obvious. Moresubtle are those social costs that include the adop-tion of values that favor industry a lot more than theyfavor society or that work against being human. Oneof these misplaced values is the use of the Protest-ant Ethic by unscruplous employers during the In-dustrial Revolution, to give a veneer of respectabilityto what authors like Charley Dickens (Hard Times)showed to be the outright exploitation of people,down to the shameful use of seven year old childrenin the coal mines of Wales.

A particularly dehumanizing behavior in thisworld of increasing technology is the tendency to im-itate industry. One evidence of this may be seen insome people's preference for Industrie! measures ofperformance (judgement by checklist) over humanmeasures of performance potential (judgement byfaith), in the prediction of future performance. We

are forgetting the power of the second chance inturning some losers" into winners.

Another example of thfs tendency toward ma-chine worship is offered by Sayre (1984) in his re-view of the book Technostress in which, writing onthe attituJe of youth toward computers, he notedthe author's point that:

Many of today's youth have chosen the comput-er as an inspiration role model, rather than aparent or teacher. Children are beginning toaccept the computer's speed and efficiencyas desirable human traits while completelyoverlooking the machine's lack of social andcreative human characteristics. These chil-dren are viewing teachers and parents asbeing longwinded, boring individuals whoseefficiency is very limited. (p. 55)

Another value that is questionable is that devel-oping personal integrity does not seem to be as ma-jor a concern of society as developing technical skill.Consequently society is developing skilled mechan-ics who cheat us.

Another interesting value: people often meas-ure their status by the quantity and quality of theirmaterial possessions leading them to be less con-cerned with purpose or function. As a consequencewe see the fascinating phenomenon of people withhearing difficulties owning hi-fi stereos, and peoplebuying products that have the brand names conspic-uously displayed.

It looks, too, as though we are becoming ser-vants of our technology. Consider the time spentwondering where you parked the car, how much gasthere is in it, what that noise is, where that liquid isleaking from, how competent the mechanic is, howhonest the mechanic is, where the money for the re-pair is coming from, etc.--and that's just the car! Howabout the house, food, clothing, vacations, gadgets,etc. Finally, there is what may be the supreme insultto the human spirit--people, without fuss, turn overtheir decision-making responsibilities to inanimateobjects. It is perfectly possible to get a ticket forcrossing a prairie street at three o'clock in the morn-ing when there is not a car around for miles and it is30 degrees below zero because you passed a redlight. Carried to the extreme, an ominous scenariocan be imagined in which the military gives the powerto computers to launch nuclear missiles in the eventof a hostile military first strike because people cannotbe depended upon to have the sangfroid to pushthe button when the moment comes.

120

,zamims Technological Literacy Symposium 123

On an entirely different theme, industry is affect-ed by the need for cost reduction and the cost of hu-mans in an enterprise is often expensive. In general,tie highest cost in producing a product is the cost ofthe person producing it. Money is spent not only onwages for productive work, but for wages paid wherethere is no productive work due to a myriad of humancauses including incompetence, immorality, and ill-ness. Examples abound of low productivity due toalcoholism, absenteeism, cheating, stealing, andpersonality clashes. Wages also vary in accordancewith skill and it is a wise worker who makes himself in-dispensible, and therefore expensive, by increasingthe skill requirements of his job. But employers arewise, too, and they are vitally concerned with keep-ing employee costs down and productivity up.

Concerning skill requirements, "Since the be-ginning of the Industrial Revolution," Levin (1984, p.14) noted, "employers have sought ways of reduc-ing the skill requirements associated with work." Thework of men like Frederick (Speedy) Taylor and FrankGilbreth at the turn of the 20th century pioneeredthe use of time and motion studies to improve pro-ductivity, introducing scientific management as afield of study in manufacturing. Industrial engineersoften design production lines, not so much for effi-ciency of production as for simplicity of tasks suitedfor low skilled labor, for it is more profitable to hire ad-ditional low-skilled workers than to produce a productmore quickly using highly skilled workers. Low-skilled workers work for less, require less training,and, at the employers discretion, can easily be re-placed.

Concerning worker productivity, it is theoreticallypossible that if people were replaced in a productionline by machines, the profits due to improved pro-ductivity would soar to the point where, if those sav-ings, instead of being given as increased dividendsto the stockholders were translated into lower sellingprices, almost everyone could buy almost anythingfor almost nothing. In a society in which work is con-sidered a moral good, what will be the effect on peo-ple of having work as the privilege of the few ratherthan the right of all?

As another example of misplaced values, a com-pany's progress often consumes more of an employ-ee's time than his or her children's progress, leadingto estranged family life and having children growingup almost without parents.

Excessive concern with a company's progress(e.g. bringing home the company's problems) couldcontribute problems to one's personal life, increas-

ing, perhaps, the incidence of marriage breakdown,cardiac arrest, or escapist activities (drugs, alcohol,suicide).

Technology as a Mixed Blessing

Finally, technology can be a mixed blessing.Our citizens enjoy an increase in their life span and areduction in its pain, while at the same time living alife style that, until relatively recently, gave mostly lipservice to the idea of fitness and the maintenance ofhealth. People hava an increase in leisure time avail-able through a reduced work week, but an increasingnumber of people spend that leisure time working ata second job.

Implementing the Course

If the proposed course Man and Technology isto be taken by all students then it must be a courseacceptable for college admission. Otherwise, no stu-dent in the college-bound track will take it. It shouldtherefore probably be offered in the last year of highschool.

Discussions designed to understand the impli-cations of technology for improved quality of life maybe reinforced by guest lectures of teachers ofscience, biology, social studies, and economics, andby visits to industrial or government agencies con-cerned with these problems. Alcom's (1986) book isan excellent source for ideas on issues for class dis-cussion.

It is emphasized that the class discussions mustarise from events occurring during the role-play incompany operation. To do otherwise is to risk havingthe experience degenerate into an exercise in SocialStudies taught in a stage setting made up like an in-dustrial factory.

To illustrate how the course has been taught, acourse outline is offered in Appendix A. Anyonewishing further information is invited to contact theauthor.

References

Alcorn, P. (1986). Social issues in technology: Aformat for investigation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren-tice-Hall.

DeVore, P. (1983, April 20). Education- -technology and public policy. Paper presented atthe Summit Conference of the American IndustrialArts Association, Milwaukee, WI. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 265 406)

121

124 What Price Progress?: The Social Impact of Technology on SocietyMIIIIIIMEN,

Levin, H. (1984). Education and jobs In a techno-jogical world. Columbus, OH: National Center for Re-search in Vocational Education, The Ohio State Uni-versity. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED 240 383)

Maley, D. (1983). Teaching the heritage of tech-nology. Past. present. and future. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 234 019)

Meyers, A. (1985, February). Productivity as thecontent base for industrial arts. The TechnologyTeacher, 411(5), 4-8.

Sayre, S. A. (1934, Fall). The Journal of Epsilon 1;1

Liu, X(2), 55.

APPENDIX A

MAN AND TECHNOLOGY

Course Outline

Instructor: A. Meyers

Required Text: Teich, A. H. (Ed.) (1986). Technolo-gy_ and the futd1e (4th ed.). New York: St. Mar-tin's Press.

Recommended Reading

Brown, J. A. C. (1964). Social psycholoay of indus-try,. London: Penguin Books.

Packard, V. (1957). The hidden persuaders. NewYork: David McKay.

Packard, V. (1960). The wastemakers. New York:David McKay.

Petit, T. A. (1967). The moral crisis in manage-ment. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Pytlik, E. C., Lauda, D. P., & Johnson, D. L.(1978). Technology. Ghanciaandmrdedy.

Worcester, MA: Davis.

General Objectives.

Students will develop an understanding of therole of technology in our society.

Student will be able to describe the factors in-volved in operating production companies in a tech-nology-based society.

Student will be able to discuss the impact oftechnology and society on each other.

Student will be able to discuss the future oftechnology.

Specific Objectives

At the end of this course, the student will beable to:

* List and discuss the factors involved in settingup and running a company in a technology-basedsociety.

* Discuss the impact of technology on produc-tion methods.

* organization

planning

* control

Discuss the implications of technology for fu-ture production methods.

Discuss the changes in values and life stylesbrought about by technology.

Discuss the implications of technology for:

alternative energy sources

* environment protection (conservation ofnatural resources and scenery)

** pollution control (air, noise)

quality of life

General Methodology

The learners will achieve the course objectives byestablishing, operating, analyzing, and disbanding asimulated manufacturing company typically found ina technology-based society. Problems arising fromthe operation of this simulated company will be dis-cussed at a conference session held during the last1/3 of each daily laboratory period. Learning meth-ods used in this course include: directed discovery,simulation, case-study, role-playing, conference,and discussion. Learning aids include: field trips,guest lecturers, management games, films, librarysearches, and directed readings.

General Evaluation

At the end of this course, the student will be ex-pected to demonstrate the degree of his awarenessof the impact of human beings and technology oneach other.

Topical Outline

Unit I: Introduction: Development of a technolo-gy-based society

Elements

HistoryUnit II: Elements of a company in a tech-nology-based society

122


Una III: Organization

Unit IV: Management philosophies

Unit V: Effects of present production system

* Materials supply

Pen life style

Environment

Unit VI: Future production system in a technolo-gy-based society

Alternative energy sources

Change in one's value system

Change in nature of products

Unit VII: The changing responsibilities of manage-ment

Course Evaluation

Presentation 50%

Participation ** 20%

Final Examination AmTotal 100%

Leresentalion

The student will select a topic relevant to theSpecific Course Objectives and give a 30 minutepresentation to the class. A fifteen minute classquestion and discussion session will follow the pres-entation, followed by a fifteen minute follow-up ofthe discussion, by the instructor.

The L.udent will distribute a one page summaryof the pisentation to the class at least one week be-fore the presentation, and hand in a typewritten copyof the contents of the pu:sentation on the firstschool day of the last month of the term.

fiactirtalloi

The student has an obigation to share his viewsand knowledge with the teat of the class. Studentsare therefore expected to torcome actively involvedin the class discussions and to contribute meaning-fully to the class discussion. DiSy will be evaluatedby their peers on the quality of their cmtributions tothese discussions.

12


An International Study of Curricular Organizersfor the Study of Technology

James L. BarnesPresident

International Institute for the Study of Technology, Inc.Blacksburg, Virginia

Introduction

Possible curricular changes emanating fromtechnological chang '3s will require carefulstudy and deliberation over a long period oftime. (Educating Americans for the 21stCentury, 1983, p. 13)

Education in this decade has been dominatedby the thrust for excellence in education. Numerousrecent reports have called for a complete reform ofour total education process. State after state hasechoed the report, A Nation at Risk, to overhaul theireducation system. Pervasive throughout these re-form movements has been the importance of thestudy of technology as an essential element for atechnologically literate citizenry.

In Educating Americans for the 21st Century,the report stressed the importance of technologyeducation directed toward the needs of our futurecitizens.

Students must be prepared to understandtechnological innovation, the productivity oftechnology, the impact of the products oftechnology on the quality of life, and theneed for critical evaluation of societal mat-ters involving the consequences of technol-09Y. (P. 44)

Ernest L. Boyer, in the Carnegie Foundation forthe Advancement of Teaching Report titled HighSchool: A Report on Secondary Education in Ameri-ca (1983) cited the need for the study of technologythat would lead to a more technologically literate citi-zenry.

We recommend that all students study tech-nology: the history of man's use of tools,how science and technology have beenjoined, and the ethical and social issuestechnology has raised. (p. 110)

Bell (1973) identified that society has transcend-ed from machine technology to an intellectual tech-

nology (p. 27). Logically, this affects the way tech-nology curricular organizers should be identified toappropriately represent the study of technology.The present curricula organizers for technology edu-cation: construction, manufacturing, communica-tion, and transportation, do not appropriately repre-sent an intellectual technology that is advancing ex-ponentially.

These curricular organizers were derived from anindustrial base. Although the industrial implicationsof industrial arts can be traced back to the Industrial-Social Theory or the Russell-Bonser Plan, Warner'scurriculum organization has been the most widely ac-cepted within the industrial arts profession(Snedden & Warner, 1927, pp. 7-8). Warner identi-fies the same four curricular organizers: manufactur-ing, construction, communication, and transporta-tion, for the study of industrial arts. The research anddevelopment done by Warner and his associates re-flect the technology of post-World War II. Interesting-ly enough, Warner's selection of his four curricular or-ganizers was based on his continuous monitoring ofcensus and economic data, beginning in 1925 (p. 5).Warner's curriculum was designed to be taught in

what he termed a laboratory of industries"(Department of Practical Arts & Vocational Educa-tion, 1930).

Wilber (1948) looked at industrial arts' role ingeneral education. He defined industrial arts as:

those phases of general education whichdeal with industry--its organization, materi-als, occupations, processes, and products- -and with problems resulting from the indus-trial and technological nature of society. (p.2)

In orgpnizing his three objectives of general edu-cation, Wilber used the term industrial as a curricularorganizer for transmitting a way of life. The implica-tions for industrial arts stated by Wilber reflected thethinking of Warner.

128 An International Study of Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

Olson (1963), a student of Warner, classified in-dustrial arts' subject matter through an industriesanalysis. His analysis Identified eight categories ofindustries: manufacturing, construction, power,transportation, electronics, research, services, andmanagement (p. 95).

The numerous curriculum projects of the 1960'sinfluenced by Sputnik and the federal and privatelegislation that followed emphasized industrial arts'curriculum to be organized with an industrial base.The Industrial Arts Curriculum Project (1966) orga-nized the study of industrial technology under twomajor organizers: manufacturing and construction.Likewise, curriculum projects such as the AmericanIndustry Project (1968), the Functions of industry(1962), and Georgia Plan (1967), the IndustriologyProject (1968), and the Orchestrated Systems Ap-proach (1968) all reflect similar industrial curricular or-ganization of Warner.

The Jackson's Mill Industrial Arts CurriculumSymposium (1981) adopted construction, manufac-turing, communication, and transportation as theircurricular organizers. The Technical Foundation ofAmerica study and guide, Industry and Technology:A Guide for Curriculum Designers, Implementation,and Teachers (1984), also used the same four indus-trial curriculum organizers.

LaPorte (1986) identified six challenges that thetechnology education profession must meet.Among these are that:

A clear definition of technology educationmust be communicated to the various con-stituencies which are to be served, the cur-rent major organizers of production, commu-nication, and transportation must be discard-ed or revised because they are inclusive ofindustrial technology, not technology intoto, the relationship of technology educa-tion to related programs must be esta-blished and clarified, and the advantage ofteaching the 'how to' aspects of technologymust be irrefutably defended and delineat-ed. (1986, pp. 71-72)

To date, there has not been a study conducted todetermine the appropriate curricular organizers forthe study of technology relative to its future natureand how technology will be learned. Therefore, it isnecessary to examine this crucial issue.

Statement of the Problem

The problem of this study stems from the vastmisunderstanding or broad interpretations as to what

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technology is and what the study of technology em-compasses. Therefore, the purpose of this study isto identify key descriptors of a definition of technolo-gy and the appropriate curricular organizers for thestudy of technology.

Research Questions

The research questions in this study included:

1. Looking into the future, what will be the keydescriptors of a definition of technology?

2. Looking into the future, what will be the ap-propriate curricular organizers for the study oftechnology?

Significance of the Study

Herbert Spencer wrote "before there can be arational curriculum, we must settle which things con-cern us most to know; we must determine the rela-tive value of knowledge" (19, r1, p. 7). Therefore,one must ask the question, what is the true valueand purpose of education? Simply stated, it is to pro-vide youth with a wellspring of skills and abilities toapply knowledge efficiently. More specific, the sy-noptic study of technology provh.2.1s a synergistic ap-proach to all school disciplines to accomplish thismission.

Dugger called for the need to research and iden-tify appropriate curricular organizers to reflect thestudy of technology (1985, p. 2). Maley, in his key-note address at Technology Symposium VII, agreedwith Dugger by challenging the technology profes-sion with a three part curriculum, involving the con-tent, the individual (student), and the society. Maleystated lila' curriculum has been largely content tax-onomies or content delineations with little concernfor the student and their internal goals, as well as ff ehuman quality needs of society" (1985, p. 10). In hispeech, Maley also called for a concensus on an op-erational definition for technology education (1985,P. 3).

Squier, in a paper presented at the MississippiValley Industrial Teacher Education Conference in1985, challenged the members that the present cur-ricular organizers for the study of technology wereck. limiting and that they did not appropriately repre-sent the study of technology. In this paper, Squierstated that skill development is not the primary pur-pose of technology education and that technologyeducation should not focus upon technical content."The real focus, however, must be upon the knowl-edge, skills, and attitudes essential for all students tolive and interact in the artificial, human-made world"

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(1985, pp. 6-7). Problem-solving and concept de-velopment through a holistic approach are the keycomponents of technology education.

Numerous excellence in education reports is-sued in recent years have called for drastic educa-tional reform. Most reports agree that three subjectsare essential for all youth's education; science, math-ematics, and technology education. However, theirreference to technology education Is not one of thevocational curriculum, but rather a general educationcurriculum. The reports, for the most part, recom-mend that technology education must be holistic innature, utilizing a problem-solving and critical think-ing approach to integrate and apply other disciplinecontent.

The National Science Foundation Report (1983)stated that "technology topics need to be integratedinto the present curriculum. This includes scienceand mathematics classes, industrial arts, social stud-ies and the language arts, and art and music" (p. 75).Boyer, in the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-ment of Teaching Report, High School: A Report onSecondary Education In America (1983) cited theneed for technology education that would lead to amore technologically literate citizenry (p. 11).

Shane (1977) identified twenty-eight cardinalpremises for educational change that stressed theneed to organize curriculum in a holistic, life-longprocess that fosters interdisciplinary problem-solvingand critical thinking activities (pp. 59-68). The schoolof the future should embrace technology to encour-age creativity, problem-solving, efficiency, and con-trolling the world (1981, pp. 351-356). Bell concurswith Shane when he outlines the need to reorganizecurriculum to better learn "intellectual technology"(1973).

Truly, if technology education is to play a role inpreparing a technologically literate citizenry, its curric-ulum organization must be studied to appropriatelyidentify and gain consensus on the curriculum orga-nizers for the study of technology and the definitionfor the field of study. It is, therefwe, significant thatthis research study will accomplish this.

The Design of the Study

A three round Delphi Technique was used toconduct the research for the study. Seven panels,composed of five members each, were used for thethree round Delphi. The panels included: (1) tech-nology education professionals, (2) industrialists/business leaders, (3) futurists, (4) historians of tech-nology, (5) anthropologists of technology, (6) philos-

ophers of technology, and (7) philosophers of edu-cation. The first round Delphi was open-ended. Thesecond round Delphi asked the experts to 0 sortboth the key descriptors of a definition of technologyand the appropriate curricular organizers for thestudy of technology. The third round Delphi used a

sort method for ranking both the key descriptors ofa definition of technology and the appropriate curric-ular organizers for the study of technology.

A Thurstone Equal Appearing Interval Scale wasused to assign a scale value to each item ranked inthe 0 sort. The results of each research questionwere ranked based on their scale value. Items reach-ing consensus of opinion were determined by thoseitems whose scale value was equal to or greater thanthe 80th centile. Each round called for a ten dayturn-a-round period once the expert received the in-strument. To ensure this, a postcard was mailed toeach expert as a reminder five days after the instru-ment for that round had been mailed. Two days afterthe deadline for a round, a follow-up telephone callwas made to each expert whose instrument had notbeen received. The data was then analyzed.

Validation of the Procedure as Being Representativeof the Delphi Technique

To ensure that the Delphi procedure establishedwas valid and would yield significant results, the re-searcher used the following method.

1. A review of the literature was conducted tounderstand the educational applications of theDelphi Technique and how it could be best usedin thiS study.

2. The Delphi procedure was established bythe researcher's review of the literature and itwas approved by a review committee.

3. The Delphi instrument was received by apanel of Virginia Tech faculty members to ensureclarity and to confirm that the right questionswere being asked of the panel of experts.

Selection of the Panel of Experts

From the review of literature and recommenda-tions from the people interviewed, the researcherdeveloped a list of experts for each Delphi panel.The researcher then identified an expert in each cat-egory to review the list for that panel and to recom-mend ten experts from the list of other they felt moreappropriate. Following this step, the experts wereselected for each panel by a random draw of namesfrom a hat. The first five names drawn for each panelserved as the panel of experts for that group, the


other five names served as alternates. The first fivenames drawn for each panel served as the panel ofexports for that group, the other five names servedas alternates. Each of the panelists selected werecontacted by telephone to ask if they would be will-ing to serve as a panelist for the study. If a selectedexpert could not serve, the first alternate was calledas a replacement, and so on until five experts repre-sented each panel.

If, for some reason, a panelist decided not tocontinue once the study had begun, the panelisthad to state specific reasons for doing so in writing.Another expert was selected at random to replacethe panelist, provided the first round had not beencompleted. After the first round, panelists were notreplaced.

Conduct of the Research

The Delphi procedure used in this study paral-lels the research of Helmer (1963, 1967), Dakley(1967), Gordon and Helmer (1964), Linstone andTuroff (1973), and Brooks (1979). A review of doc-toral dissertations on ioducation that have used theDelphi Technique was also conducted. They wereconsistent with the research of the aforementionedexperts. The research procedure for this study con-sisted of a three round Delphi to gain consensus ofopinion on the two key research questions: (1) look-ing into the future, what will be the key descriptors ofa definition of technology and (2) looking into the fu-ture, what will be the appropriate curricular organizersfor the study of technology?

For each round, measures were taken to pre-vent attrition and to increase the response rate. TheDelphi I was mailed to each panelist within one weekafter all experts agreed to serve on the jury. The sec-ond and third round instruments were also mailed tothe panelists within one week after all responses hadbeen received from the previous round. A follow-uppostcard was sent to all experts on the fifth day afterthe Delphi instrument for that round was mailed. Afollow-up telephone call was conducted to each pan-elist whose instrument had not been received twodays after the deadline for that round.

The first round served to gain a general consen-sus of opinion of all panelists. The first round wasopen-ended. This technique was supported by thebasic Delphi procedure outlined for the first round byRiefler (1968). The Delphi I gave a description ofthe purpose F nd requirements of the first round in-strument. An example was provided for darity.

Each expert was asked to answer the two re-search questions in brief and concise statements orlists. Once all responses were received, they werecompiled under their appropriate research question.All responses were reviewed to avoid redundant re-sponses. Following this, all response items were re-typed on 0 sort cards as outlined in Thurstone andChave's equal appearing interval scale procedure.This 0 sort procedure then became the Delphi II in-strument.

The Delphi II instrument was sent to each panelof experts. The instrument provided each expertwith a description of the purpose and requirementsof the second round instrument. An example wasprovided for clarity. For each research question,each panelist was asked to 0 sort the items undareach qestion, according to Thurstone and Chave'sequal appearing interval scale procedure. A Thur-stone and Chave equal appearing interval continuumwas provided to aid the experts in sorting the items.The continuum consisted of 11 interval cards, rang-ing from card A to K. The A card represented unfa-vorable, the F card represented neutral, and the Kcard represented favorable. For both research ques-tions, statements compiled from Delphi I were placedon a separate card. The panelist was then asked tosort the statements along the A-K continuum, basedon the increasing or decreasing degree of favorable-ness or unfavorableness.

Once all responses were received, they were re-viewed to eliminate responses that were carelesslydone or for those panelists who misinterpreted theinstructions. A criterion was used that eliminated re-sponses that placed 30 or more statements on anyone card. A scale and 0 value were calculated foreach item, according to Thurstone and Chave'sequal appearing interval scale procedure.

Results

The Delphi I instrument was mailed to all 35 ex-perts. Twenty-five experts or 71.4 percent complet-ed the instrument, with 23 of the 25 experts return-ing the instrument within the required time frame.The other two participants returned their Delphi I in-strument within five days of the original deadline.The attrition was due to changes in already busywork schedules of the 10 experts who dropped out.All 25 remaining experts completed the other twoDelphi instruments. The participant breakdown issummarized in Table 1.

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Table 1

Summary Table - Participant Bre0:down

Pula Delphi I Delphi! Delphi NI

Technology educators 5 5 5

Philosophers of education 5 2 2

Philosophers of technology 5 3 2

HIstoeans of technology 5 4 4

Anthropologists of technology 5 4 4

Futurists 5 4 4

Industrialists/Business leaders 5 4 4

Total 35 26 25

After a content analysis was completed on theDelphi I instrument, 0 sort cards were developed foreach research question. The research question rela-tive to key descriptors of a definition for technologyconsisted of 133 cards, while the research questionrelative to the appropriate curricular organizers forthe study of technology contained 88 cards. Thesame cards were used for both the Delphi II or Ill in-struments, except the Delphi ill instrument includedthe scale value for that item on the card.

It should be noted that the 80th centile was thepoint at which consensus was reached on an Item foreach research question. Only the consensus itemsare listed in this report. It is also important to under-stand that the higher the 0 value for an item thegreater the panelists differed in agreeing on an kern.The consensus cutoff point for the key descriptorsof a definition for technology was 9.27, while the80th centile scale value for the curricular organizersfor the study of technology was 9.68.

Key Descriptors of a Definition for Technology

Fourteen items reached a consensus of opinionrelative to what will be the key descriptors of a defini-tion for technology from the panels of exports (Table2). it appeared from the data that the defirution willbe described in terms of statements that imphasizeconcepts and processes. The data also appeared toindicate a strong emphasis on the relationships be-tween humans, their capabilities and potential asthey interface with the social, economic, political andenvironmental impacts of their culture and theirfuture.

According to the data, there tended to be great-er emphasis on innovation invention, creativity andproblem solving than on hardware and soft ire. It

also appeared from the data that the definition fortechnology will be described in more holistic termsthan narrowly focused to a specific type of tech-nology.

The technology educators viewed the item crea-tive as the most important descriptor of a definitionfor technology, followed by invention and innovationrespectively. It appeared from the data a strong em-phasis on a holistic description of technology. Thedata indicated relatively strong support for a problemsolving, a decision making, and a process approach.Little emphasis was placed on narrowly focused de-scriptors.

The data appeared to indicate that philosophersof education placed a greater emphasis on describ-ing technology relative to the human and how tech-nology affects the human. Based on the data, theydescribed technology as applied knowledge, tech-nology as a means for maximizing human potential,technology used to solve problems and create op-portunities, and technology as a process. It ap-peared from the data that philosophers of educationwere less likely to describe technology as closely re-lated to science or engineering, as a class of materi-als, or the system that determines population size ordensity.

It appeared from the data that the philosophersof technology had a more difficult time reaching aconsensus of opinion on the items for the key de-scriptors of a definition for technology than did theother panels. However, liku the philosophers of ed-ucation they tended to be concerned with describ-ing technology in the terms of its effects on the ad-vancement of humans and how its helps humansfunction in the environment by extending their capa-bilities.

Based on the data, the historians of technologywere more concerned with describing technologyskills and techniques that help humans manipulatetheir environment. It appeared from the data that his-torians of technology believed that technology is aprocess and has a definite body of knowledge. Thedata also tended to indicate that they were less in-clined to describe technology as uncoveringscience, or that system that determines populationsize and density.

Like the technology educators, the data tendedto show that anthropologists of technology placedgreater emphasis on innovation, extension of humanpotential, invention and creative among their key de-scriptors of a definition for technology. The data also

1213


appeared to indicate that they described technologyas a core component to ale Indigenous cultural sys-tems. Conversely, the data tended to indicate thatanthropologists of technology were less likely to de-scribe technology as technology management, adass of materials, or as advancing civilization.

The data appeared to show that futurists, likeother panels, described technology in the terms ofinnovation, creative, invention, and a body of knowl-edge. However, unlike most groups, futurists tend-ed to place a high value on the application of tools asa key descriptor of a definition for technology. Thedata also tended to indicate that futurists were lessinclined to describe technology in a narrow scope.

Unlike othef panels, the industrialists/businessleaders tended to place a high value on describingtechnology as an approach to solving problems codcreating opportunities. The data also suggested thatthey contend that technology extends human po-tential and human capabilities. The data also ap-peared to indicate that industrialists/business lead-ers were less likely to support the notion that tech-nology should be described as a class of materials oras skills or technological products.

Curricular Organizers for the Study of Technology

Collectively, the data tended to indicate that thecurricular organizers were based on concepts andmethods, instead of content (Table 3). The datashowed that there was also almost total consensuson problem solving as the most important curricularorganizer. Four out of seven groups ranked problemsolving as the most appropriate curricular organizer.The data also appeared to indicate that process orga-nizers that are composed of the integration of prob-lem solving and creativity with systems, enterprise,and inventions, values in technology, the process oftechnology, design and innovation, and researchand development were also highly appropriate curric-ular organizers for the study of technology. Al-though awareness of implications and potential oftechnology also reached a consensus of opinion bythe panelists, it should be noted that it is subsumedunder the aforementioned curricular organizers.

From a review of the data, technology educatorsbelieved the problem solving is the most favorablecurricular organizer for the study of technology. Thedata also appeared to show that technology educa-tors tended to agree on all the curricular organizersthat gained a consensus of opinion by the panelists.The data tended to indicate that technology educa-tors were less inclined to support content organiz-ers as appropriate curricular organizers for the

Table 2Delphi IN

Key Descriptors of a Definition for Technology -Cumulative

Scale alam Value vamp

Innovation 1 o.ar 235

Invention 10.08' 2.30

Creative 10.06' teaExtends human capabilities 9.91' 1.93

-111Ysical- social- intellectual

A process 9.88' 2.03- change- hdviduai- commie-design- we*,- systematic

Extension of human potential 9.81' 2.36

Problem solving 9.75' 2.66

Purposeful, human manipulation of ttematerial world

9.71' 2.36

Closely linked to science but not simplyapplied science

9.60' 3.09

Body of knowledge 9.55' 3.48

Used to solve problems and createopportunities

9.40' 2.26

Played an important role in the emergence of 9.33' 3.39Nano sapiens

A system of 100b, knowledge, and behaviorsassociated with the exploitation ofenvironments

9.33' 3.89

Has social, economic, political, andenvironmental impacts

9.29' 3.06

study of technology.

Relative to the philosophers of education, thedata appeared to indicate that the study of technolo-gy were organized around concept and process or-ganizers. It appeared from the data that they highlyfavored design and innovation as an appropriate cur-ricular organizer for the study of technology. Thedata also tended to show that the philosophy oftechnology, the process of technology, and technol-ogy literacy elements were very favorable as appro-priate curricular organizers. Again, the data indicatedthat the philosophers of education will tend not to fa-vor specific content organizers as being appropriatecurricular organizers for the study of technology.

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Based on the data, it appears that the philoso-phers of technology were more inclined to organizethe study of technology around ethical and socialconcepts. They tended to place a greater emphasison the limits of technology, appropriate technology,the history of technology, ethical implications oftechnology, the social studies of technology, andthe philosophy of technology as being very favora-ble curricular organizers for the study of technology.On the other hand, they tended to view organizingtechnology around work, leisure time and progres-sion as less favorable.

The data appeared to indicate that historians oftechnology, like the philosophers of technologytended to organize the study of technology aroundsocial and ethical concepts. The data tended to indi-cate that they highly favored the history of technolo-gy, technology and organizational change as beingvery favorable curricular organizers for the study oftechnology. Conversely, the data appeared to showthat historians of technology tended not to be willingto organize the study of technology as a contentstructure.

Like the technology educators, the data ap-peared to show that anthropologists of technologyviewed problem solving and process organizers asthe most favorable curricular organizers for the studyof technology. Values in technology, the theory oftechnology, the elements of technology, and re-search and development also tended to be highly fa-vorable, according to the data. The data tended toindicate that anthropologists of technology were lesslikely to organize the study of technology aroundcontent.

The data appeared to show that futurists agreewith the majority that problem solving will be the mostfavorable curricular organizer for the study of tech-nology. However, unlace other panels, the futuristshighly favored physical technologies and the systems of technology as being very favorable curricularorganizers. Like the other panels, the data tendedto show the futurists will be less inclined to organizethe study of technology as content.

The data tend to indicate that industrialists/business leaders will egree with the technology edu-cators and the anthropologists of technology thatproblem solving and pi ocess organizers will be themost favorable curricular organizers for the study oftechnology. Like all other groups, the data appear tosupport the notion that industrialists/business lead-ers will be less likely to organize the study of technol-ogy as content.

Conclusion

The findings of this study provide an excellentfoundation for organizing the study of technology.The consensus items for each research questionparallel each other in context and both support holis-tic and lifelong learning theory of Shane (1977),Woodruff (1973), and others. This is a conceptual

Table 3Delphi III

Curriculum Organizers for the Study ofTechnology Cumulative

Scale 0km Value Value

Problem solving 10.76' 1.50

Process organizers 10.61' 3.33- creativity- enterprise

systems- inventions- problem solving

Values in technology 10.00' 2.13

The process of technology 9.91' 2.25

Design and innovation 9.80' 226Research and development 9.76' 222

Awareness of knplIcations and potential oftechnology

- health- food- communkadon- production- control

9.69' 255

approach to the study of technology, not a contentapproach. Therefore, the curriculum is driven bymethodology and concepts, instead of content thatmay not be relevant in the future. This approach pro-vides a means to apply knowledge in a synopticmeans through the integration of school discipline.However, at the same time the organization structureallows for the curriculum to maintain its own identity.

The literature gives strong support for the defini-tion of technology to be studied. LaPorte (1986),Maley, (1985), among others have called for a con-sensus on an operational definition of technology.Shane (1986) discussed education in a microelec-tronic age that has direct impliactions to the need ofan operational definition to help education throughthis new age.

Educational reform reports have also impactedon the need to study and develop an operationaldefinition for technology. Boyer (1983) called for all


students to study technology, not narrowly focused,but holistic in nature. The report, Educating Ameri-cans for the 21st Century also emphasizes the studyof technology from a broad context.

As with any curriculum, the organization for thecurriculum must parallel the definition for that curricu-lum. Such is true with the study of technology. Assupported by Shane (1986), Naisbitt (1982), andother futurists, one can only speculate on what thefuture will be. Therefore, it is important that the cur-riculum be organized in such a fashion that will takeinto account preparing students to be able to ana-lyze the unknown variables and solve the problemsof the future. This notion is supported by Shane(1986) and Glatthom (1987) in discussing the curric-ulum of tomorrow.

Again, technology educators, like LaPorte(1986), Dugger (1985), and Maley (1985) havecalled for the study of technology to be reorganizedto reflect a more holistic approach to its study. Morespecific, Squier (1985) emphasized the need to usea problem solving and critical thinking approach tothe study of technology. This approach is the pre-dominant approach for the study of technology inthe United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Australia,just to mention a few countries.

Interestingly, the data collected in this studysupport the aforementioned beliefs relative to theneed to study a definition for technology and the ap-propriate curricular organizers. The data show astrong emphasis for describing the definition of tech-nology in holistic terms. Likewise, the data placestrong support for organizing the study of technolo-gy around concepts and methods. Special empha-sis should be placed on problem solving and pro-cess organizers that integrate creativity and problemsolving through a systems approach. It is the re-searcher's belief that the literature and the data col-lected and analyzed in this study lend impetus tomoving toward the implementation of the key de-scriptors of a definition for technology and the appro-priate curricular organizers for the study of technolo-gy that gained consensus in this study. Therefore,the following recommendations should be consid-ered in this implementation process.

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An Instructional Model for Electronics Technologyin the Republic of China

Introduction

Electronics technology has a great impact on oursociety. Christopher Evans (1979), Joseph Daken(1981), Frederick Williams (1983), Friedrichs andSchaft (1983), and Feigenbaum and McCorduck(1984) have dealt with the issue of the impact of el-ectronics technology either directly or indirectly onsociety. Evans deals with the microelectronics mil-lennium; Oaken focuses on how electronics chang-es not only how we live, but ultimately how we thinkby forcing the development of a new age of logic;Williams studies the communication revolution andstresses that electronics technology plays a majorrole in it; Friedrichs and Schaft discuss microelec-tronics and society; Feigenbaum and McCorduck fo-cus on the fifth generation computer whtct will begreatly influenced by electronics technology.

It is important to educate the public to better un-derstand the tremendous influence of electronicsupon our daily lives. It is also necessary to establishelectronics technology programs for vocationalschools. Taiwan, the Republic of China, has beenexporting many electronic products such as radios,televisions, and accessories for microcomputers.Leaders in the Taiwan educational system are awareof the fact that it is important to provide an electronicstechnology program for both general and vocationaleducation. Currently, an electronics technology cur-riculum is included in the junior and senior highschools, technical colleges and teachers' colleges.Today, electronics technology has become an impor-tant subject both in general and vocational educationin the Republic of China.

When an instructional model for electronicstechnology is considered, the first step is to answerthe question: why an instructional model for elec-tronics technology is necessary?

Chun-Hsieh ShihNational Taiwan Normal University

A Subject Has Its Own Characteristics

Electronics technology is complex and changingin nature.

Each area of knowledge--a subject or a disci-pline--has at least two main characteristics: ithas its own fund of acquired information anda specialized method of inquiry, or a strategyof acquiring that knowledge. (Taba, 1962, p.172)

It is necessary to emphasize here that electron-ics technology is a subset of technology.

The study of technology has been ap-proached too frequently by studying theparts without reference to the whole. How-ever, as is the case with human beings, thesum is greater than the parts. (DeVore,1980, p. 243)

It is important to illustrate here that technology isone of the domains of human knowledge. First of all,it is necessary to think of how technology should bethought of today. Von Bertalanffy (1972) states that:

Technology has been led to think not interms of single machines but in those of sys-tems in the present day. An automobile, orradio receiver was within the competence ofthe engineer trained in the respective spe-cialty. But when it comes to ballistic missilesor space vehicles, they have to be assem-bled from components originating in hetero-geneous technologies, mechanical, elec-tronics, chemical, etc.; the relation of manand machine comes into play; and innumer-able financial, economic, social and politicalproblems are thrown into bargain. Again, airor even automobile traffic are not just a mat-ter of the number of vehicles in operation,but are systems to be planned or arranged.Innumerable problems are arising in produc-tion, commerce and armaments. (pp. 3-4)

133

138 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China41:111111

Human Knowledge

This paper attempts to identify the context of el-ectronics technology within the broader frameworkof human knowledge. Man's knowledge has beendigested and accumulated from generation to gener-ation. To obtain efficiency in education, the classifi-cation of man's knowledge is necessary. Towers,Lux, and Ray (1966) described the need to structureknowledge into domains:

Man's accumulated knowledge, increasingat an accelerating rate, is vast in scope andheterogenerous in nature. It is not econom-ically feasible to deal with this amorphousmass without structuring it into logical divi-sions. Thus, for various reasons, knowl-edge has been subdivided into more man-ageable divisions which are functional, forone reason or another. It may be postulatedthat one such division would include man'sknowledge of how to do things efficiently,without such knowledge, the world of workwould be chaotic. (p. 1)

The knowledge of doing things efficiently iscalled technology. People have sought new knowl-edge and efficient ways of doing things since begin-ning of humankind. The truth is that doing things ef-ficiently is at the very heart of human existence andhas been central to human history. To take a viewpoint based on historical review, it is found that manis a tool-maker; man is an environment-changer; manis a power machine developer; man is a control-machine developer; and man is a social animal. Thewriter summarizes that:

Human beings use their inherent tools--hands,and mental toolssenses and brain, to create powertools for matter and energy conversion and controltools for information management. With inherenttools, man made power and control tools, humansare able to adapt to or change their natural or socialenvironment.

Man's civilization progresses in a spiral trajectorybased on this fundamental pattern. No one ques-tions the importance of technology in our contempo-rary civilization, in which technologists have been ledto think not in terms of single machines but in termsof systems. Therefore, knowledge of the nature oftechnology and its relationship to other ways of de-scribing and understanding human experience isneeded as background. To integrate other knowl-edge into the field of technology is important.

Technology and Science

Though technology and science are not thesame, their relationship is vital. If the relationship be-tween technology and science could be clarified, amore adequate understanding of technology will beattained.

If science is a method for the description, creationand understanding of human experience, technolo-gy may be defined as human activity directed towardthe satisfaction of human needs (real or imagined) bythe more effective use of man's environment.

It is important to note the obvious fact thattechnology is older than science. It is treat-ed thus as obvious, since all the records ofearly man indicate clearly that he createdtools and evidently used them long beforehe attempted any systematic account of themeaning of his activities. The only thing wecan say with some assurance is that technol-ogy emerged before science, simply be-cause man had to overcome the leisure toindulge his curiosity about the world in an in-tellectual sense. (Lindsay, 1962, p. 212)

Technology and Humanities

The story of technology is the story of man'sceaseless striving to extract what he calls a better liv-ing out of his surroundings, and the tale includes theinvention of countless gadgets to make life at oncemore comfortable and more exciting. But does thismeans we shall all live "happily* ever after? It is impor-tant to point out that the role for value judgments isconsidered a part of the humanities. Humanities re-late to varying sets of beliefs, values, and norms andare very culture related. Technology is said to beconcerned principally with tools and machines, whilethe humanities deal with values. Technology doesnot pretend to tell us how to lead happy lives. Itmerely provides the tools necessary for civilization. Ithas left philosophers and other wise men to answerthe fundamental questions so crucial for the behav-ior and fate of the individual. While modem technol-ogy tends too make the lives of people more materia-listic in their attitude toward life, the challenge reallycomes from vie continual adjustment required by allthe new technological experiences being forced onsociety.

Technology and FormGI Knowledge

The disciplines without formal knowledgeserve as tools which are to order all knowl-edge. . ..Mathematics and logic are exam-ples of fundamental disciplines. (Tower,

.134

Technological Literacy Symposium 1391=111MKM

Lux, & Ray, 1966, p. 9)

Mathematics plays a role of language in technol-ogy. In mathematics the symbols initially have nomeaning except in their relation to each other andthe various operations which they represent. Thesymbols obey a small number of relational rules,through which human beings can represent a widevariety of phenomena. Merely the clever identifica-tion of symbols can contribute to the action of tech-nology. It is indicated that, mathematical and logicalsymbolism are increasingly providing technologywith a more efficient means of communication.

The Complexity of Technology

The development of complex technology itselfshould be regarded as an important subject in thestudy of technology, as well as providing a valuablesource of instruction.

There are many approaches to study the devel-opment of technology. Alvin Toiler (1981) citesthree waves c,f change occurring of civilization andthese waves also relate to technology. The firstwave of change was unleashed ten thousand yearsago by the invention of agriculture. The secondwave o4 change was touched off by the industrial rev-olution. The third wave of change speaks of a boom-ing Space Age, Information Age, Electronic Era, orGlobal Village (p. 9).

DeVore identifies the development stage ac-cording to a time dimension. DeVore's stages are:Modern Craft (1000-1784), Machine Age (1785-1869), Power Age (1870-1952), Cybernetic and Au-tomatic Age (1953-present) (DeVore, 1980, p. 54).

The complexity of technology Is parallel with theevolution of technology. What the levels of com-plexity should suggest Is a gradual progression, be-ginning with simple hand or muscle driven tools mov-ing upward through ever increasing levels of ad-vanced technology. The writer suggests that froman illustrative viewpoint an analogy can be given toshow how the evolution of technology can be repre-sented in terms of human functions. It progressedfrom the invention of hand (neuro-motor or muscledriven) tools, to sensory (automotive) tools to brain-like (intellectual) tools. From this we can develop agood teaching model to explain the development oftechnology to students. The different levels of tech-nological complexity can be represented in terms ofhuman functions. These also form the fundamentalspiral trajectory of technological evolution. Thisstudy affirms that all instruction Is a spiral processwhich is based on a fundamental pattern that has a

certain sequence.

1. Hand tools (muscle driven or neuromotortools)2. Sensory tools (automotive tools)3. Brain tools (intellectual or automathematicaltools)

Thus, the complexity of technology can be illus-trated as shown in Figure 1.

Figurel. Complexity of Technology in Terms of Hu-man Organisms

Instruction is the process of arranging human,temporal, material, and spatial resources with the in-tention of facilitating one's own learning or the learn-ing of others (Belland, 1976). From this definition itis obvious that instruction at least:

1. involves man, and

2. is concerned with environment.

The previous discussion about the level of tech-nological complexity provides information about whatshould be an appropriate environment for the in-struction for technology. However, instruction in-volves man and human aspects are another factor in-fluencing technology instruction. DeVore (1980,pp. 223-224) explains that being humankind we areintimately related in the on-going process or life.Man's physical and mental characteristics related totechnology result from this relationship. The human-ly inherent tools are the hands, senses, and thebrain, therefore the fact that hand tools and powermachines were invented indicates that human handsprovide both matter-energy transformation and infor-mation control. Control machines are invented forextending man's senses and brain. For the purpos-es of technology instruction, this study states an al-ternative way to express the evolution of technology(Figure 2).

140 An Inetrnctional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

Iniwerd lads%%%%% IL%..%%%%%

Hand

les

Control

Figure 2. An Alternative Way to Express the Evolu-tion of Technology.

The most important concepts in this figure are:The way in which the use of inherent tools domi-nates the other tools (machines) throughout the hu-man civilization. The number of control machines isincreasing at an explosive rate. The evolution oftechnology is continuous not revolutionary in nature.In other words, a Is analog rather than digital. Theseconcepts can be summarized, by saying, even in acomplex technology instruction unit, inherent toolsare also required and these will dominate others. Be-cause control machines are increasingly popular, theprinciple of continuity in learning activities is impor-tant for the instruction of technology.

Electronics Technology

To understand the field of electronicstechnology, the relationship of electricity toelectronics must be defined and clearly un-derstood (Inaba, 1970, p. 73).

From the definitions of the Encyclopedia Ameri-can (1980, p. 134), and the World Book Encyclope-dia (1986, p. 146), this study defines related termsas follows:

Electricity is the study of how electrical chargesare produced and used to provide electrical en-ergy to do wcrk.

Electronics is the study of how electrons arecontrolled to carry intelligent signals for mankindthrough electronic products.

Electronics technology is the science of study-ing efficient action and practicing the ways elec-trons are controlled to carry intelligent signals formankind through electronic products.

According to these definitions, the term"electronics technology" refers to that part of the

gcJial field of electronics which is concerned with theuse of electrons. "Carrying intelligence signals" re-lates to communication and information. Communi-cation technology !Er identified here for two reasons.First, communication technology largely overlaps el-ectronics technology in today's world. Communica-tion technology includes such things as telecommu-nications, radio waves and radio telegraphics, whichhas led to the birth of the field of electronics technol-ogy. In turn, this was destined to affect the life ofman as he had never imagined possible. Second,the history of communication is also a study of tech-nology. Speech and hearing form a relatively sophis-ticated mode of human communication.

In addition, communication systems are widelydiscussed in many fields. Firstly, it runs the gamut ofthe electricity and electronics field. Secondly, it isdealt with in the field of instruction. Thirdly, it has be-come an important concept in general SystemsTheory.

A communication system conveys informationfrom its source to a destination. Figure 3 is a typicalsimple model. First, it is explained from the viewpointof electronics, and elaborated on in the field of in-struction, then compared with a living system, andthen one kind of general curriculum systems theory.

......01 InputTransduSou" cer

InputSignalLCornrunIceden

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Outputoral

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Figure 3. A Simple Communication System

Few message sources are inherently electrical,consequently, most communication systems have in-put and output transducers. The input transducerconverts the message to an elec.: Ica, signal, say avoltage or current, and another transducer at thedestination converts the output signal to the desiredmessage form. For example, the transducer in avoice communication system could be a microphoneas the input aild a loudspeaker as the output. Thecommunication system block in Figure 3 is given fur-ther detail in block diagram and can be expressed byFigure 4.

The transmitter processes the input signal toproduce a transmitted signal suited to the character-istics of the transmission channel. The channel is theelectrical medium that bridges the distance fromsource to destination. The receiver operates on the

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output signal from the channel in preparation for de-livery to the transducer at the destination.

In esctronic communication, signal processingfor transmission always includes modulation or en-coding. Modulation and encoding are operationsperformed at the transmitter to achieve efficient andreliable information transmission.

On the other hand, receiver operation includesdemodulation and decoding to reverse the signal-processing performed at the transmitter.

Figure 5 is a feedback connection popular in el-ectronic circuits.

The term feedback is increasingly used in manyfields.

The term feedback met Is that two channelsexist, carrying information, such that chan-nel B loops back from the output to the in-put of channll A and transmits some portionof the signals emitted by channel A. (Miller,1978, p. 36)

OutputOutput hiseseps

Tranaducur

There must be feedback since that man is a livingsystem. A living system is self-regulating because in-put not only affects output, but output often adjustsinput. The result is that the system adapts homostat-ically to its environment (Miller, 1978; Asimov, 1972;& Phenix, 1964).

Feedback system has been increasingly used inthe field of curriculum. Jackson's Mill used a feed-back system as a universal system to express indus-trial arts oxiculum construction (Figure 6).

This section integrates the communication tech-nology, electronics technology and feedback sys-tem to form a general theory about a living system.This in truth contributes to the instruction of elec-tronics technology.

Computing is the technology that derives fromall other technologies (Feigenbaum & McCorduck,1984, p. xvii), so whenever there is talk about elec-tronics technology, the solution of the computer ismentioned. Most people label the first four genera-tions of computers, each based on its central tech-nology, in the following ways:

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142 An Instructional Model for Electronics Technology in the Republic of China

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Figure 6. A Universal System

1. electronic-vacuum tubes computers,

2. transisterized comuuters,

3. Integrated circuit computers, and

4. very large-scale integrated (VLSI) comput-ers.

This clearly indicates that the progress from elec-tronic-vacuum tubes to VLSI is representative of theevolution of electronics technology.

The fifth generation will stand not only becauseof its technology, but also because it is conceptuallyand functionally different from the first four genera-tions with which the world is familiar. These new ma-chines will be known as Knowledge Information Pro-cessing System (KIPS). This term is extremely ini-portant. It signals that shift from mere data process-ing, which is the way present-day computers func-tion, to an Intelligent processing of knowledge.These new machines are to be specifically designedfor artificial intelligence functions. It can be summar-ized by saying that KIPS are specially designed to dosymbolic manipulation and symbolic reasoning(Feigenbaum, 1984, p. 15).

There is no clear definition for artificial intelli-gence. However, the most widely acceptedis Minsky's (Yazdani, 1984, p. 9).

Artificial intelligence is the science of making ma-chines do things that would require intelligence ifdone by men.

Yazdani states that:

It has identified twee distinctions of Al re-sulting from different motivations or back-grounds. In order to see the point, considera class of objects which we would regard asintelligent, e.g. cats, dogs, people and Mar-tians. Outside this class, we ha. , such un-intelligent things as tables, chairs, and cur-rently, digital computers. (See Figure 8)

Group 1 would answer the question by say-ing that "Al is about moving computers intothe space above (advanced computer tech-nology)". Group 2 would say "Al is simulat-ing human behavior and cognitive process-es on a computer (computational theories inpsychology)". Group 3's answer would con-cern the study of the nature of the wholespace of intelligent minds.

As can be easily noted, each of the abovethree camps borders one of the three esta-blished areas of computer science, psychol-ogy and philosophy. (Yazdani, 1984, p. 9)

It is important to elaborate upon important con-cepts: First, before the computer was invented, hu-mans handled symbols and numbers by themselves,with or without the abacus or calculators. Second,the first four generations of computers handled justnumbers and the fifth generation will handle bothsymbols and numbers. Third, there are both sym-bols and numbers to be handled in human lives. Re-search and study are being focused on the develop-ment of a machine that can perform functions that arenormally concerned with human intelligence, such aslearning, adapting, reasoning, self-correction, auto-matic improvement.

It is interesting and necessary to point out herethat:

Man is not a machine and a machine is not aman, but as science and technology ad-vance, man and machine seem to be be-coming less and less distinguishable fromeach other. (Asimov, 1972, p. 838)

AL lathe study of Mn spoon of Infolloant things(Pond* minds sludge so In philosophy).

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Figure 7. Artificial Intelligence Definition

The study of computers and elated techniquesis to supplement the intellectual capabilities of man.

138;,:


As man has invented and used tools to increase hisphysical powers, he now is beginning to use artificialintelligence to increase his mental powers. Judgingfrom this discussion, it is v-laessary to emphasizethat for electronics technology instruction, how touse inherent tools efficiently is most important.

Selected Concepts From I Ching

Why I Ching?

An electronics technology instructional modelbased on instructional theories and the context of el-ectronics technology is incomplete because it fails toaccount for the cultural context in which the modelwill be applied. Adapting concepts from the Chineseculture and philosophy makes the model specificallyrelevant to the Republic of China. This is becausethe valuable cultural treasures are familiar and inher-ent to the Chinese. it is well known that"Confucianism" is the most influential of all to the Chi-nese culture and society. The most distinguishingfeature of electronics technology is that k accumulat-ed changes and continuously progressed. In orderto learn this changing subject matter, it is important toremember a Confucian remark: "To learn with indefa-tigable zeal and diligence in teaching." Other thanthat, it may be very helpful to consider "the ways ofchange" for developing an electronics technologyinstructional model.

The following are the reasons to choose / Chingamong so many Chinese heritages as the elabora-tion to contribute to the proposed model.

I Ching influenced the philosophy of Confuciusand therefore of the Chinese.

I Ching is a book which uses a symbolic repre-sentation method that provides a symbolic means ofreducing the complexity of knowledge.

I Ching discusses "changes," so it is very suita-ble to the instruction of the ever-changing electron-ics technology.

Electronics technology deals with two states,open and closed; a digital computer deals with binarynumbers, 0 or 1, while I Ching deals with Yin andYang. It shows that although the I Ching is an oldbook in Chinese literature, k's duality concept is inaccordance with the most advanced technology orscience.

The Concept of I

The world "I" means change. So I Ching is usual-ly called in translation "The Book of Changes." The /Ching is the most important of the five Confucian

Classics and has had an influence on even common-place everyday life in China for more than two thou-sand and `We hundred years.

The significance of the I Ching as a book ofscience lies in its logic system of mathematic sym-bols. This logic system is based on the symbols Yin(--) and Yang ( ). It is the same as the computer'suse of zero (0) and one (1) for its principles.

Combination is made by putting together therelines either Yin () cv Yang ( ) which are representedby zero (0) and one (1) respectively. The sight Tri-grams then are accorded a natural segue. .e of num-bers. The numbers from 0 through 7 refer to threelines of the Trigram, making the "" small weight fromtop to bottom. These can be expressed as Figure 8.

Figure 8. The comparison of Yin and Yang and Bi-nary Number System.

_ _

Decimal Numbers 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary Numbers 000001002)03 0040 )5006 )07

EightTrigrams =_ ..11. awl.-- .

Erm am.-

..n ............ 4...,A

The bottom line has the most significant weightin a binary number system. The bottom lines of thefour foregoing Trigrams numbered from 0 to 3 aredisconnected lines (0). The bottom lines of the sub-sequent four Trigrams, 4 to 7, are Yang lines. Thebottom lines determining the position of Trigrams areexhibited circularly. If the bottom lines are Yin, theTrigram is drawn back counter (clockwise upward),while bottom lines are Yang advanced forward clock-wise upward, than obtaining the Eight Trigrams ex-hibited circularly as in Figure 9.

0111111

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Figure 9. The Eight Trigrams

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The sixty-four Hexagrams exhibited circularly arethe same as Eight Trigrams being expanded. Thecircle which is considered as a whole can be dividedby two parts of the right and left. The right part of thebottom Yin lines draw back counter (clockwise up-ward), while the left part of the bottom Yang lines ad-vance forward (clockwise upward).

By putting together the upper (outer) Trigram inaccordance with the succeeding natural sequenceof (0): (1): (2): (3): (4): (5):(6): and (7) and adding each group in the same lower(inner) Eight Trigrams, the sixty-four Hexagrams arethen formed as exhibited circularly in Figure 10.

Sui;:marizing the major concepts for this subsec-tion yield the following:

Yin and Yang can be used as the same conceptas ON and "1".

Trigrams and Hexagrams in I Ching representboth numbers and symbol in accordance withmodem scientific concepts.

Trigrams and Hexagrams are appropriate mate-rials for teaching digital logic concepts in elec-tronics technology in the R.O.C. everywhere.

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Three Attributes of I

The word IN primarily means change, and theword "Ching" means cannonical text. Thus the /Ching has become known as "The Book of Chang-es". In fact, the concept of I, it is said, has threemeanings:

1. ease and simplicity,

2. transformation and changes, and

3. invaribillty.

The first aspect of the concept of "I" is the easearia the simplicity. The "r in the midst of complexi-ties reveals simplicity. First of all, the I Ching assertsthat the complex phenomena of the universe aresimply derived from the Tai chi (Supreme Ultimate).In the Hsi Tz'u Chuan (Great Commentary), there isthe statement:

... Therefore, in the system of the"I" there is theTai chi. This generate the Two PrimaryForces. The Two Primary Forces generatethe Four Images. The Four images gener-ate the Eight Trigrams. (Sec.l. Ch 11)

This statement can be illustrated in Figure 11.

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The symbols and formulas represent the processof transforming what is simple and easy into what iscomplete and different The "Supreme Ultimate," Taichi, plays an important role in later Chinese naturalphilosophy.

The conditioning elements are further designat-ed as an undivided line, while the conditioned ele-ment is represented by means of a divided line (--).These are the two polar primary forces later designat-ed as Yang, the bright principle, and Yin, the dark.Then, through their combining, these arise the fourimages:

Old or great Yang Old or great Yin =

140

young or !Ma Yang Young or little Yin =


These correspond with the four seasons of theyear. Through the addition of another line, therearise the Eight Trigrams:

Chien TutMEP

u 17.7Z. ch311.7.1.

Sun = Klan =v. Ken Kul

Originally, the Eight Trigrams may not have hadany specific meanings attached to them, but later onthey were elaborated upon so that each came to besybolically representative of certain things or ideas.

The objects or attributes thus symbolized by theEight Trigrams are made the constituents of the uni-verse, which form the basis of a cosmological sys-tem. By combining any two of these Trigrams to forma diagram of six lines. A A tal of sixty-four combina-tions is obtained and are known as the sixty-fourHexagrams. The Eight Trigrams, together with theSixty-four Hexagrams formed by their combinations,therefore, represent all the possible situations andmutations of creation, a universe in miniature. Thisoffers a good illustrati "n of the transformation fromsimplicity to complexity.

The "I" makes Gillen, or Creative ( = ) and K'unor Receptive (ii.) represent what is easy and simple:for only from what is easy and simple can there be"complex phenomena" and "great movement." Asthe Great Commentary puts it:

The creative is known through the easy.The Receptive can do things through thesimple. What is easy, is easy to know: whatis simple, is easy to follow. . .By means ofthe easy and the simple we grasp the laws ofthe whole world. ISec. I, CH. 1)

The creative is the strongest of all things inthe world. The expression of its nature is in-variably the easy, in order thus to master thedangerous. The Receptive is the most de-voted of all things in the world. The expres-sion of its nature is invariably simple, in orderthus to master the obstructive. (Sec. II, CH)130

This idea of ease and simplicity attached to the"I" explains why the emphasis is often placed onease and simplicity as the gateway to the pure prov-ince of the "I". Because of the concept that lies inthe easy and simple, the I Ching can speak of themost contusion (Hsi Tz'u, Sec. 1. CH. 8).

The second aspect of the concept of "I" is thetransformation and change. The word "I" primarily

means change. In / Ching, it is said that: "All changeand transformation are the result of movements." Inthe / Ching the word "I" is used interchangeably withthe Tao. And Tao is simply defined as "the altera-tion of Yin (the shade/soft) and the Yang (the light/;;*m). Interaction of the e two primal forces producesall kinds of movements and changes. In the Hsi Tzu,there are the following statements:

As the firm and the yielding lines displaceone another, change and transformationarise. (Sec. I. CH. 2)

One Yin and one Yang constitute what iscalled Tao. That which is perpetuated by itis good. That which is completeo by it is theessence: It possesses everything in com-plete abundance: this is its great field of ac-tion. It renews everything daily: this is itsglorious power. (Sec. I, CH. 5)

The Tao, given here as the result of the unceas-ing movement of the Yin and Yang, corresponds tothe Tao as a part of "the unceasing movement" andhence it is good. Everything transform and com-pletes its power in the "unceasing movement." Be-cause of this, the Tao achieves the great field of ac-tion, being abundant and daily renewed; indeed itsachievement is achieved in daily renewal; that is, theunceasing movement going on in the world. As theHsi Tz'u says:

It is the great virtue of heaven and earth tobestow life. (Sec. I, CHI)

As begetter of all begetting it is calledchange. (Sec. I, CH 5)

The dark begets the light and the light begetsthe dark in ceaseless alternation, that to which all lifeowes its existence, is Tao with its law of change.

Moreover, the / Ching equates the Yang and theYin with the Creative and the Receptive, the maleand female principle, as p:iysically represented byHeaven and Earth. As the Hsi Tz'u says:

The creative and the Receptive are indeedthe gateway to the Changes. The creative isthe representative of light things and the re-ceptive of dark things. In that the natures ofthe dark and the light are joined, the firm andthe yielding received form. Thus give mani-festation to the phenomena of Heaven andEarth and comprehension to the power ofspiritual enlightment. (Sec. II, CH. 6)

Because of the union of the creative and recep-tive, all things come into existence, and hence come

.141


all changes and transformation. As is said in the HsiTz'u:

There is an intermingling of the genial in-fluence of Heaven and Earth, and transfor-mation of all things proceeds abundantly.There is intercommunication of seed be-tween male and female, and all creatures areborn and transform. (Sec. II, CH. 5)

In the Hsi Tz'u there is another important pas-sage:

Therefore they called the closing of the gatethe Receptive, and the opening of the gatethe Creative. The alternation between clos-ing and opening they called change. Thegoing forward and backward without ceasingthey called penetration. (Sec. I, CH. 11)

The content of the course of change is the un-ceasing process of "the opening and closing" sym-bolizing the primal forcesthe Creative and the Re-ceptive, the Yang and the Yin. Of these two primalforces, the one is vivid, the other docile, the onegives forth, the other receives; to the one all thingsowe their beginning, and to the other they all owetheir birth. Thus in the Hsi Tz'u, there is the state-ment:

There is Creative: "In a state of rest the crea-tive is one, and in a state of motion it isstraight; therefore it creates that which isgreat. The Receptive is closed in a state ofrest, and in a state of motion it opens; there-fore it creates that which is vast. (Sec. I, CH.6)

Thus, the Creative and the Receptive comple-ment each other and so the things in the universeever change and transform.

The third aspect associated with the concept of Iis invariability. The I in the midst of variability also re-veals an element of invariability. The tings in the uni-verse are always in a state of flux and change. In theTuan, there are the following statements:

When Heaven and Earth deliver them-selves, thunder and rain set in. When thun-der and rain set in the seed pods of all fruits,plants, and trees break open. The time ofDeliverance is great indeed. (About Hsich,or Deliverance, the fortieth Hexagram)

Heaven and Earth undergo their change,and the four seasons complete themselvesthereby. (About Ko, or Revolution, theforthninth Hexgram.)

Nevertheless, these phenomenal changes allfollow a constant order. The Tao of Heaven andearth is constant and unceasing. The sun andmoon, pertaining to Heaven, can shine forever. Thefour seasons change and transform, and thus in theirTao, and the world is transformed to completion.

When we see how there are constant, thenature of Heaven, Earth, and all things canbe seen. (About Heng, or Duration, the thir-ty-second Hexagram.)

As a further expression of the "Tao of Heavenand Earth" which everything obeys, the followingpassage forms the Hsi Tz'u which be expressed:

Good fortune and misfortune are constantlyovercoming one another by an exact rule.The Tao of Heaven and Earth is constantlyto manifest themselves. The Tao of the sunand moon is constantly to emit their light. Allmovements of the world are constantly sub-ject to one and the same rule. (Sec. II. CH. 1)

All the passages quoted above clearly indicatethat all things in the universe follow a definite order- -i.e. the Tao of Heaven and Earth -- according to whichthey change and transform constantly. These pas-sages also imply the ideas of the invariability as a ne-cessary attribute of the concept of I.

In conclusion, the concepts of "I" has their im-portant attributes: ease and simplicity, change andtransformation, and invariability. These attributesshould make clear three points.

First, the process of transformation starts fromthe easy and the simple, and hence when oneknows the cause of the easy and the simple,one can predict the causeof the complex andthe difficult.

Second, things in the universe are ever chang-ing and changeable, but the underlying princi-ples, for which the Tao can be employed, areconstant and invariable.

Although all the things in the universe are com-plex, forever changing, yet among the complexi-ties simplicity can be found, among the changessomething unchanging.

The Concepts Derived from I Ching for Instruction

There is a paper about curriculum from PHilip H.Phenix (1962).

My thesis, briefly, is that all curriculum con-tent should be drawn from the disciplines, orto put it another way, that only knowledge

142


contained in the disciplines is appropriate tothe curriculum.... (p. 273)

Phenix further defines that a discipline is knowl-edge organized for instruction (p. 273). Then he ex-plains how to make knowledge instructive:

...There are three fundamental features, allof which contribute to the availability ofknowledge for instruction and thus providemeasures for degree and quality of disci-pline. These three are:

1. analytic simplicatio,

2. synthetic coordination, and

3. dynamism. (p. 275)

Phenix explains that the prime essential for ef-fective teaching is anairic simplification. All intelligi-bility rests upon a radical reduction in the multiplicityof impressions which impinge upon the senses andthe imagination. Phenix continues to explain thesecond feature of a discipline which makes knowl-edge in it instructive, namely, synthetic coordination.Analysis is set an end in itself; it is the basis of syn-thesis. By synthesis is meant the construction ofnew whole, the coordination of elements into signifi-cant coherent structures. A discipline is a communityof concepts. Just as human beings cannot thrive inisolation, but require the support of other persons inmutual association.

The third quality of knowledge in a discipline thatPhenix dynamism. It is the power for leading on tofurther understanding. Phenix explains:

A discipline is a living body of knowledge,containing within itself a principle of growth.Its concepts do not merely simplify and coor-dinate; they also invite further analysis andsynthesis. A disciplinary contains a clue todiscovery.

In the similar way as Phenix does, the writer ad-vocates to fit the three attributes of I Ching into thefield of instruction.

For educational purpose, the writer advocatesthat electronics technology should be able to beclassified, ordered, and codified. If it is classified,then It becomes simplified and can be taught. if it isordered, then it has a hierarchy and can be taught ina logical sequence. If it is codified, then It becomesflexible and suitable to different situation and inter-val. The classified, ordered, and codified electronicstechnology can be arranged and become a struc-tured instruction. A structured instruction will help

the learning of the student. What is a structure?

Chung Ying Chong (1985) indicates that tareare two forms of transformation in the I Ching: thetransformation of things through the self-transformation of the creative source--the Tai-Chi;and the transformation of the interaction of things viatheir relative relationships in the totality of things (pp.9v-91). The first form of transformation can be calledvertical transformation, and the second form of trans-formation can be called horizontal transformation.The transformation from the Tai-Chi to the sixty-fourHexagramatic situation is a matter of vertical transfor-mation. The inter-relationship, interaction and mutu-al transformation among all the sixty-four Hexagramsis a matter of horizontal transformation. The verticaltransformation illustrates how the totalities on differ-ent levels of ontological differentiation relate to eachother and how they differentiate as wellas integrate.

In the horizontal transformation, things are paral-lel on the same level. One thing may exist in mean-ing to a certain condition, but an other may not be rel-evant to the condition.

The writer's structural learning concept is thatbasic concepts can be extended to become learningblocks. Using these blocks many complex conceptscan be developed. The model is shown in Figure12. This structure does not mean that complex con-coots will be fewer in number than basic concepts.On the contrary, complex concepts can be buiff al-most infinitely.

An Instructional Model for Electronics TechnologyDeveloping the Model

Electronics technology is changing, complex,and comprehensive in nature. The followings arethe characteristics of electronics technology instruc-tion which are identified from the findings of previousdiscussions:

Electronics technology instruction should actu-alize some goals of total education for today'scomplex and changing world.

Electronics technology can be classified, or-dered, and coded in a flexible structure which isadequate for different levels and purposes of anelectronics technology program.

An adequate model is necessary for electron-ics technology instruction to carry out the learn-ing objectives.

Because of the inevitability of change of elec-tronics technology, some of the educational goalscan be actualized by learning activities of electronics

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4

Figure 12. A Structural Concepts Model

technology. The following goals are seieVied fromthe goals which derived from ASCD (Brandt & Mod-rak, 1980, pp. 9-12).

Bases actions and decisions on the knowledgethat it Is necessary to continue to learn through-out life because of the inevitability of change.

Bases actions and decisions on an under-standing that change is a natural process in soci-ety and one which increases exponentially.

Works now for goals to be realized in the fu-ture.

Entertains new perceptions of the world.

Selects viable alternatives for actions in chang-ing circumstances.

Because of the nature of complexity and com-prehension of ^lectronics technology, the followinggoals should be considered:

* Apply basic principles and concepts of thescience, humanities and formal knowledge to in-terpret the nature, the process, and the issuesof electronics technology.

* Generates a range .1 imaginative alternativesas stimuli.

* Entertains and values the imaginative alterna-tives of others.

It is necessary to develop the model in a flexiblestructure which can be adapted for different levelsand purposes of an electronics technology programin order to have efficient instruction.

The Diagram of the Instruction Model

The following are the bases derived from theprevious discussions for establishing the instruction-al model.

The writer advocates that learning is a spiral pro-cess, so we can assemble the concepts upon which

we can build a number of complex concepts. Tneseconcepts are like the bricks in a wall or converselythem form an ever enlarging fanlike effect. In bothmodels they are examples or endless constructionboth or ordered any yet uncontainable.

The writer extends these ideas to develop thefollowing model for use in electronics technology in-struction illustrated in Figure 13.

This model can consist of a single block or thecombination of many woks as a more complexmodel following the writer's structure concept.

Motivation is depending on learning content orlearner's condition, and the Confucian remark--to learn with indefatigable zeal and diligence inteaching--is deeply rooted in Chinese mind thatcan be used for both the teachers and the stu-dents when learning electronics technology.

Doing in this model is different from conductingan experiment. It is not used to prove a theory ora fact. It is used to learn simple skills, knowl-edge, or concepts which can be used to expandto more skills, knowledge, and concepts. Thedoing is for learning.

Expansion is used to integrate the humanknowledge into the field of electronicstechnology.

Conception is important in this model for identi-fying some specifications which serve as out-puts that can in turn serve as another input'sspecifications.

Both input and output specifications contributeto the model. Only when a model has input andoutput specifications can it be connected to an-other model and become a structurable modelconnected to other models and become a unit inan even more expansive model.

INIPA

1.116.1se Irapordne C-

1Z. An Instructional Model for ElectronicsTechnology

144


References

Asimov. (1972). jssac Isimov's guide to science.New York: Basic.

Braudt, R. S., & Modrak, N. C. (Eds.) (1980). Meas-nudnon. Alex-andria, VA: Assodation for Supervision and Cur-riculum Development.

Deken, J. (1981). The electronic cottage. New York:New American Lbrary.

DeVore, P. W. (1980). Technoloav: An introduc-tion. Worcester, MA: Davis.

Evans, C. (1979). The micro millennium. New York:Simon & Schuster.

Feigenbaum, E. A., & McCorduck, P. (1984). Thefifth generation. New York: New American Li-brary.

Friedrichs, G., & Schaff, A. (1984,. Microelectronicsand society. New York: New American Library.

Inaba, L A. (1970). The development of a frame-work for and a model teaching- teaming sygeLrtinelectronics technology for the elementary=pa Columbus: The Ohio State University.

Lindsay, R. B. (1963). The role of science in civiliza-tion. New York: Harper & Row.

Miller, J. G. (1978). laylliosystems. New York:

Phenix, P. H. (1964). Realms of meaning. New York:McGraw-Hill.

Towers, E. R., Lux, D. G., & Ray, W. E. (1966). Aia:tionale and structure for industrial arts subjectmita Columbus: The Ohio State University.

Von Bertalanffy, L. (1972). General system theory:Foundations. development. applications. NewYork: George Brazil ler.

Williams, F. (1983). The communications revolution.New York: New American Library.

Yazdani, M., & Narayaran, A. (1984). Artificial intelli-gence: Human effect. West Sussex, England:Ellis Norwood LTD.

145


"Jackson's Mill" and "Industry and Technology Education"Project Reports as a Guide for Organizing

Content for Technology Education

Technology educators face major challengesand opportunities as they convert industrial arts pro-grams, with their tool skill emphasis, into technologyeducation, with its technology literacy mission. Anumber of individuals and groups suggest that thistransition is an educational imperative. A recentworkshop sponsored by JETS (Junior EngineeringTechnical Society) on "Fr ndamentals in PrecollegeTechnology Education" (1983) suggested "a foun-dation in technology be regarded as fundamental forallnot just the high-achiever. . .Every student de-serves to be aware of the impact of technological ad-vance, and be able to understand the underlyingtechnology itself. .Society must insure that an un-derstanding of technology be a part of each stu-dent's basic education" (p. 1).

In a similar vein, Walker (1985) suggested that agood liberal education for life in a technological soci-ety will contain more than a smattering of study inscience, mathematics and technology. He elaborat-ed by writing, "The responsibilities of managing ourenvironment are fully as high a calling as those of citi-zenship traditionally defined. Buildings, bridges,highways and machines are cultural artifacts as char-acteristically human and worthy of study in their ownway as poems, novels, plays and paintings" (p. 97).

Waetjen (1985) presented a parallel view whenhe wrote, "A central role of an educational institufionis to offer a curriculum that gives its students a basicunderstanding of the society in which they live. Pro-ceeding from that premise, it is logical that 'in a demo-cratic, technological society, the curriculum wouldstrongly reflect those characteristics" (p. 9).

These and other writings suggest that the edu-cational experience of youth should be enlarged tooffer programs that promote general understandingsof technology (technological literacy) and that theseprograms should be viewed as being as important asmathematics, science, social studies, language arts,etc. A major problem faces any person accepting the

Dr. R. Thomas WrightDepartment of Industry and Technology

Ball State UniversityMuncie, Indiana

challenge to develop these educational programs:namely; "Hot/ should the curriculum be organized toprovide articulated learning." Some states have trav-eled a provincial, narrow path developing theirunique answer to this problem. This path has a num-ber of hazards including (1) a diminished ability to ex-change materials with other states, (2) a failure insending commercial publishers a clear signal for de-veloping text materials for the entire range of tech-nology courses needed, and (3) confusion for stu-dents moving in and out of the state.

A better course of action seems to be develop-ing technology education experiences using broad-er-based philosophies and documents. Boyer(1985) suggested an appropriate avenue when hewrote "your profession must take that remarkabledocument, the Jackson's Mill statement, and bring itinto fashion to the school and the classroom" (p. 6).This paper will address this challenge which hasbeen enlarged to incorporate Jackson's Mill compan-ion document Industry and Technology Education:A Guide for Curriculum Designers, Implementors,and Teachers.

The Jackson's Mill Theory

The Jackson's Mill Industrial Arts CurriculumSymposium was a group of 21 individuals who metover an 18-month span to live the "challenge of in-quiry, assimilation, compromise and consensus"(Snyder & Hales, 1981, p. ii). The result was a philo-sophical position that the several "camps" in the pro-fession could view as a legitimate compromise and,hopefully, use so that the various technology educa-tion curriculum efforts would have a common thrust.The key points in this philosophy were:

1) Technology education is a study of tech-nology, industry, and their impacts.

The project document (Snyder & Hales, 1981)states "industrial arts <technology education> is acomprehensive education program concerned with

146

152 A Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education

technology, its evolution, utilization, and signifi-cance; with industry, its organization, personnel, sys-tems, techniques, resources, and products; andtheir soclaVcultural impacts" (pp. 1-2). This definitionwas reaffirmed in the Standards for Technology Edu-cation Programs (1985, p. 7). Accepting this state-ment, curriculum planners must develop programswhich help students understand creating and usingtools to extend the human potential (technology),AND the societal institution developed to convert re-sources into products and services (industry) ANDthe impacts these have on individuals and society.

2) The study of technology and industry is bestorganized around the human technicalactivities.

The project report (Snyder & Hales, 1981) sug-gests that the "subsystems of the human technicalendeavors are communication, construction, manu-facturing, and transportation. Each of the subsys-tems represent a discrete human endeavor whichcan be studies in isolation. For example, throughouthistory people have manufactured goods, construct-ed structures, communicated ideas, and transportedgoods and people" (p. 23). These four curriculumorgani-ers were defined as follows:

Communication: a technical adaptive sys-tem designed by people to efficiently utilizeresources to transfer information to extendhuman potential (p. 26).

Construction: a technical adaptive systemdesigned by people to efficiently utilize re-sources to buil4 structures and constructedworks on a site (p. 33).

Manufacturing: a technical adaptive systemdesigned by people to efficiently utilize re-sources to extract and convert raw/recycledmaterials into industrial standard stock andthen into industrial and consumer goods (p.33).

Transportation: a technical adaptive systemdesigned by people to efficiently utilize re-sources to obtain time and place utility andto attain and maintaindirect physical contactand exchange among individuals and socie-tal units through the movement of materials/goods and people (p. 36).

These definitions appear in slightly edited formsIn the Standards for Technology Education Pro-grams (1985, p. 7). Additionally, the Standards sug-gest that the philosophy of an exemplary program"focuses on t' ,e broad systems of communication,

construction, manufacturing, and transportation. .

.(p. 12) and that the course content be "offered inthe broad systems of communication, construction,manufacturing, and transportation (p. 17).

3) Each of the human technical endeavors is asystem which has inputs, processes, outputs,feedback, and goals/restraints.

The Jackson's Mill (Snyder & Hales, 1981) docu-ment indicates that viewing the four human technicalendeavors as systems "suggest there is some regu-larity to human adaptive behavior and that the ele-ments in the system relate in orderly, predictableways" (p. 10). it further states that "the jnputs to thesystem provide all the needed resources to accom-plish the goals of the system" (p. 11). These inputsare people, knowledge, material, energy, capital, andfinance. The systems processes, according to thedocument, are "a scheme of actions or practices"and are *the technical means of the system" (p. 13)or the technology employed.

4) Each human technical system often are devel-oped into managed productive systems.

The document (Snyder & Hales, 1981) sug-gests that all four subsystems of the human technicalendeavor use "productive proce,:ces (those activi-ties designed by people which utilize selected in-puts to reach desired outputs), and managerial pro-cesses (those activities designed by people to in-sure that productive processes are performed effi-ciently and appropriately) which result in a "managedproductive systems (a system developed by peopleIn which each step in the transformation of inputsinto outputs is efficiently planned, organized, direct-ed, and controlled with respect to company goalsand in concert with society objectives)" (p. 25).

5) Human technical endeavors are dynamic activi-ties which have a history, present practices,and a future.

These philosophical statements were summar-ized in the Jackson's Mill report (Snyder & Hales,1981) with the diagram found in Figure 1.

Industry and Technology Education Report

Following the Jackson's Mill project a secondproject, the Industry and Technology Education Pro-ject (1984), was conducted to move the .lackson'sMill Curriculum Theory into model curriculum struc-tures for small-, medium-, and large-sized schools.This project suggested that the "mission of educa-tors in our profession is to increase each person'sability to compr6hend and apply the concepts of

147

Technological Literacy Symposium 153111111111111=11111111111

Impacts on Individuals,Society & The Environment

Communication Construction

PAST ORESENT FUTURE

Manufacturing Transportation

Figure 1. The Global Context of Human TechnicalAdaptive System. (Hales and Snyder, 1983, p.25)

industrial and technological systems" (p.9). There re-port further suggests that "the study of industry andtechnology should result in people who (1) adjust toa changing environment, (2) deal with the forces thatinfluence the future, and (3) eagerly participate incontrolling their own destiny" (p. 9).

The Industry and Technology Education Projectused the Jackson's Mill philosphy to develop pro-gram structures based on ten fundamental assump-tions, which were:

1. All students need a basic framework ofknowledge and experience about industry,technology and their societal context.

2. The foundation must include broad in-troductory exoeriences which present the

interface between research and develop-ment, industriaVtechnological systems, ser-vices, use, and personal-corporate manage-ment interaction.

3. The program must include specific ex-periences in each of the four industrial/technological systems--communication,construction, manufacturing, and transpor-tation.

4. The experiences in the industrial/technological systems should include boththe productive and the management activi-ties of the system.

5. The industrial/technological systemsare best understood if examples are provid-ed of the design of the product or system

IEXPLORING INDUSTRY AND TECHNOLOGY I

154 A Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Education

and the productive activity within the sys-tem.

6. The enrollment of the industrial arts<technology education> program will deter-mine the number and variety of courses thatcan be offered.

7. Synthesis coursos in research and de-velopment and in enterprise should be in-cluded in the program of any school.

8. Prerequisites <for the various cours-es> should be minimized to encourage flexi-bility in student enrollment.

9. All courses should use practical labora-tory activities to enhance fundamental con-ceptual development.

10. Experiences about the industrial/technological systems should be integratedinto the elementary school curriculum(Wright & Sterry, 1984, pp. 11-12).

Figure 2 presents the medium-sized programmodel. A brief outline was developed for eachcourse in each of the three program models. Theseoutlines presented a course description and objec-tives, content listings, representative activities, and

suggested time allotments. Additionally the projectreport contained content taxonomies for each of thefour industrial/technological systems.

Using the Reports to Develop Curriculum

The Jackson's Mill and the industry and Technoi-ogy Education Reports provide the curriculum plan-ner with the philosophical basis and content struc-ture guidelines needed to enter the curriculum de-velopment process. The first major step, as one en-ters this process, is to unify support for the undertak-ing. At a local level central office and building admin-istrators along with the industrial arts (technology ed-ucation) faculty must see the curriculum change ef-fort as necessary and become a TEAM. At the statelevel the TEAM must include the state department ofeducation, teacher education institutions, and thestate industrial arts (technology education) profes-sional association. Failure to establish the TEAMconcept early on will create an environment for fail-ure, or at best, limited success in developing and im-plementing the curriculum.

Once the curriculum development team is esta-blished, a goal-oriented leader who fully under-stands the Jackson's Mill and Industry and Technolo-gy Education Documents and the curriculum

INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

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development process must be selected. Many cur-riculum developments have failed duo to the lack ofclarity of the mission and/or effective leadership. In arecent videotape, Peters (1985) suggested that any-thing of value that is accomplished is the result of aturned "n leader or group - monomanics with a mis-sion.

The curriculum development team, with Its effec-tive leader, must then develop an action plan. Thisplan should have at least five basic steps:

1. Philosophy--The development or acceptanceof a philosophy for the curriculum

which answers such questions as:

(a) What is technology, industry, technologyliteracy, and technology education?

(b) Why should students study technologyeducation?

(c) What are the content organizers for a tech-nology education program?

(d) What are the goals of technology educa-tion?

(e) To what extent are laboratory activities im-portant?

(f) Does skill development have a place intechnology education?

What is the relationship of technology ed-ucation to general education? to vocation-al education?

(h) What student population should beserved by technology education?

(i) What content is appropriate for technologyeducation?

2. Curriculum Development--Implementing thephilosophy into a teachable curriculum. This phaseinvolves a number of tasks including:

(a) Selecting program structures with coursetitles

(b) Preparing course descriptions.

(c) Selecting major modules (units) for eachcourse.

(d) Determining the format for the courseguides.

Selecting authors or teams of authors toprepare each course.

(f) Editing course guides.

(g)

(e)

3. Pilot Implementation -- Testing the curriculumin selected schools. This phaseincludes the following tasks:

(a) Soliciting schools to test the total program(not selected courses).

(b) Selecting a limited number of schools (3-6) from the applicants to test the curricu-lum.

(c) Provide administrator, guidance person-nel, and teacher inservin.

Provide field service and monitor progressduring the pilot test.

4. Curriculum Revision--Revise courses basedon pilot school results. Use many of the pilotschool teacher in the rewrite process.

5. State-wide and District-wide Implementation-Introducing the new curriculum to an aver increasing number of schools through a con -trolled growth plan.

It is important to bring schools on-line with thenew curriculum only as fast as inservice and field ser-vice activities can be provided.

This plan was used to develop a new curriculumwhich emphasizes technology literacy for the Stateof Indiana. The program, as shown in Figure 3, hasbeen pilot tested and will enter state-wide implemen-tption in the Fall of 1988.

The ability of the Indiana Industrial TechnologyEducation Curriculum Committee to move for com-mittee appointment through pilot testing in less thanthree years is due to at least four factors:

1. Strong cooperation between the Indiana De-partment of Education, the Indiana industrialTechnology Education Association, and thethree Indiana industrial arts teacher educa-tion institutions (Ball State, Indiana State,and Purdue Universities).

2. A dedicated curriculum committee withequally dedicated course writing teams.

3. Support emanating from the Governor's of-fice who wrote it was with a great deal ofpleasure that I learned of the efforts of the In-diana Industrial Technology Education Cur-riculum Committee to develop new curricu-lum which would be more oriented to thetechnological future which our school stu-dents of today will be facing when they grad-uate...Pursuit of industrial technology

(d)

15u

156 . A Guide for Organizing Content for Technology Eaucation

Fieldawareness

Clusterexploration

courses

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education along these functional lines<communication, construction, manufactur-ing, and transportation> will provide a muchmore useful set of courses than current in-dustrial arts preparation which student re-ceive today" (Orr, 1984).

4. Six school districts and their teachers whowere willing to tar' a risk and accept the chal-lenge of implementing an untested curricu-lum so that other schools could have a field-tested product.

Developing technology education programswhich are viable is made much easier when thechange agents decide that much of the essentialgroundwork Is ther.. The goal of developing a quali-ty technology education program is attainable is a rel-atively short period of time when they rise above pro-vocial thoughts of developing a unique local or statecurriculum and build upon the work of a large numberof professionals who participated in both the Jack-son's Mill and Industry and Technology EducationProjects.

Design Ig andEvaluating

Transportationstems

3

Ref:Kmiec, prom Indiana Industrial TechnologyEducation CurriculumRationale end Structure

References

Boyer, E. L. (1985). A perspective on education intechnology education: A perspective on imple-mentation. Reston, VA: International Technolo-gy Education Association.

Junior Engineering Technical Society. (1983). fun:damentals in precollege technology education.New York: JETS.

Orr, R. D. (1984, December 21). Letter to R.T.Wright.

Peters, T. (1985). Passion for excellance. A pro-gram appearing on PBS.

Snyder, J. F., & Hales, J. A. (Eds.) (1981). JacksodaMill industrial arts curriculum theory. Charleston,WV: Department of Education. (The Jackson'sMill Project is available from the Center of Imple-menting Technology Education, Department ofIndustry and Technology, Ball State University,Muncie, IN.)

151


Standards for technakgy education. (1985). SouthHolland, IL: Goodheatt-Willcox.

Waetjen, W. B. (1985). Pawls and culture in ourtechnological society in technology education:Eelageggylualmglemenlalign. Reston, VA:International Technology Education Associa-tion.

Walker, D. F. (1985). Curriculum and technoloov incurrent thoughts on curriculum. Arlington, VA:Association on Supervision and Curriculum De-velopment.

Wright, R. T., & Sterry, L. (Eds.) (1984). Industry andtechnology education: A guide for curriculumdesionemimplemenlarlandleachera. Lans-ing, IL: Technic!! FarKiation of America. (TheIndustry and Technology Education Project Re-port is available from the Center of ImplementingTechnology Education, Department of Industryand Technology, Ball State University, Muncie,IN.)

Wright, R. T. (1986, April). Indi a's industrial tech-nology education curriculum ,..oject provides ananswer. School Shoo. 34-36.

152


The Future of Work in America:Workers, the Workplace, and Technological Literacy

Introduction

Work in the future will depend as much on thecharacteristics of tomorrow's workers as on the na-ture of the changing economy. We can be fairly cer-tain about the demographic composition of ourcountry in the next 50 years. We are less certain,however, about the effects of technological and eco-nomic changes on the future of work and working.One thing that is certain is that technology is here tostay. It is critical that we prepare a citizenry that istechnologically literate if our nation's productivity andeconomic viability are to remain competitive.

This paper explores the future of work in Ameri-ca focusing on the effects of technology and on thepreparation of workers for the technological age ofthe future. Before outlining the content of the pa-per, it is necessary to clarify what technology means:

Technology is the physical devices and apparatus(tools, instruments, machines, appliances) usedto perform tasks. It is also the technical activities(skills, methods, routines, procedures, and so-cial organizations) that people engage in to per-form the tasks. Technology then, includes

both the activities of people and the way their ac-tivities are combined with materials and physicaldevices in organizations and social systems.

Technological literacy is the possession of theskills, knowledge, abilities, and attitudes necessaryto effectively use technology as a tool for occupa-tional, educational, or personal use.

The paper begins by tracing the structuralchanges facing the economy throughout the remain-der of this century and well into the next. This dis-cussion sets the context for the remainder of the pa-per. The second section explores the effects oftechnology on the nature and availability of work.This is followed by an examination of the preparationrequired for work in the technological age of the fu-ture. The final section offers some conclusions

Ivan CharnerNational Institute for Work and Learning

Washington, D. C.

about and challenges for meeting the changingneeds of a technologically changing workplace.

Structural Changes in the Economy

Education and workplace policies and practicesare developed in response to a complex set of fac-tors. Major demographic, economic, and technologi-cal shifts' are predicted for the next quarter center.These have consequences for the workplace and forthe preparation of the citizenry that can meet thechallenges of the future. (* Because the focus ofthis paper is on technology, the technological shiftsare discussed in Section III.)

Demographic Shifts

The changes in the composition of the U.S.population and in the composition of its labor forcehave both direct and indirect consequences for theworkplace and for the preparation of people to meetthe changing needs of that workplace.

Aging of the Population - Since the baby boomof the 1950's the U.S. population has been aging.The number of young adults (16-24 years old) willdecline through 1995, affecting the pool of entry-level workers in the labor force.

The 1980s and 1990s will see the baby-boomgeneration move into middle age, increasing thenumber of workers thirty to forty-nine years old by 79percent. By the year 2000, the median age of theU.S. citizenry will be almost thirty-five. The labor mar-ket behaviors and attitudes of this cohort of workerswill be affected by "generational crowding" or "mid-career compaction." That is, there will be far fewer ofthe job and career promotions usually associatedwith the mid-career stage than there will be middle-aged workers. Those who are technologically literatewill be at a distinct advantage in competing for thesepromotions. One consequence of this phenome-non is that many in his cohort will need to make majorcareer and life shifts, looking to other word and non-work opportunities for their financial, social, and

1 53

160 The Future of Work in America

personal rewards. The last baby boomer is 27 andlong out of school. Most of this cohort are not tech-nologically literate. They will need lifelong techno-logical literacy training offered through the workplaceor through the more traditional providers of educa-tion and training.

Medical and nutritional advances will continue toincrease life expectancies. .While many older work-ers will retire early, others will remain in or re-enter thelabor force, for financial, social, and psychologicalreasons. New work patterns are expected that willenable these older workers to work part-time (daily,weekly, monthly, or yearly) while pursuing other ac-tivities traditionally associated with retirement. Theseolder adults adults also will need to be technological-ly literate whether they continue to work or not. Theservices and resources these older persons willneed wilt, to an increasing extent, require them to betechnologically literate. They, like their youngercounterparts, will need lifelong technological literacytraining.

More Women and Minorities in the Labor Force -The numbers and proportion of women in the paid la-bor force have been steadily growing. It is estimatedthat women will comprise 65 percent of all new hiresduring the next ten years and over half of the laborforce before the end of the century. At the sametime, the population of Blacks and Hispanics in theU.S. work force will steadily increase. By the year2000, these two groups will constitute almost one-quarter of the work force. Increased immigration(legal and illegal) is expected as a result of shortagesof entry-level workers. These groups have tradition-ally been the last to adapt to new technologies.While women have clearly incorporated new ofizetechnologies they generally have not expanded intoother areas of technology. Minorities, with their low-er levels of education, lower basic skills, and lan-guage problems (Hispanics and immigrants), will con-tinue to suffer from technological illiteracy. it is criti-cal, however, that these groups be prepared for thetechnological age of the future.

Economic Shifts

Major economic shifts and correspondingchanges in the employment sector have occurredover the past two decades, and further shifts are ex-pected through the first quarter of the next century.Some of these shifts have been or will be dramatic,while others will be more gradual. What we produce,how we produce, the way we work, and the distribu-tion of jobs are changing and will continue tochange. While the speed of these changes has

clear implications, it is the changes themselves thatwill have the major impact on the future.

Decline of the Industrial Sector In 1984, 30 per-cent of the work force was employed in the industrialsector. However, this sector has been decliningsince the early 1950s, and the decline is expected tocontinue through the next decade, due, in largepart, to increased automation and robotizatlon, im-proved operational procedures, and competitionfrom developing countries with low labor costs. Thissector is expected to employ only 11 to 12 percentof the work force by the mid 19908. The automobile,steel, dothirk. and support industries have been af-fected by the growing trend of importing, which hasled to large numbers of displaced or dislocated in-dustrial workers.

Growth of the Service Sector - The service sec-tor is, by far, the dominant sector of employment withabout two-thirds of the work force employed in ser-vice jobs in 1984. Over 80 percent of the employ-ment growth projected through 1995 is expected tooccur in the service sector. The growth of this sectoris due to a number of factors. First, the growing pro-portion of women in the paid work force is increasingthe number of dual-income households (75 percentby 1995). These households are "short" on time but"long" on money, and consequently they "buy"more time by purchasing more services, such asmeals, home repair, dependent care, and education.In addition, there is an increase in the number of sin-

gle-parent households, which may not be long" onmoney but will need to purchase many services,nonetheless.

A second factor that will affect the growth of thissector will be the millions of workers displaced by au-tomation, technological advances, and foreign com-petition. Since many service Jobs involve relativelyunsophisticated, commonplace skills and knowl-edge, the service sector has always been the naturalemployer of last resort. The ready supply of dis-placed workers with limited employable skills will leadto low wages in parts of the service sector and thuswill promote the general growth of service-relatedbusiness. Millions of people use low-level serviceemployment as a transitional phase in their careers,while they acquire some form of retraining to qualityfor work in higher-paying jobs in the service and oth-er sectors of the economy.

Continued Growth in Self-Employment - Self-employment, which reached a low of seven percentin 1970, has been on the rise since then and is ex-pected to continue to grow. The growth of the

1 5 4

..,


service sector and of the information industry withinall of the sectors, will reinforce this rise by encourag-ing independent information and service entrepren-eurs. It Is projected that self-employment will doubleby the year 2000 from its low point of 1970. As mid-level, mid-career workers are laid off or not promoted,they will be "forced" to become self-employed innew venture enterprises. Others will see the oppor-tunities for self-realization, independence, and per-sonal advancement in starting their own businesses.The computer software and support industries pro-vide clear examples of this growing phenomenon. Inmany cases these new entrepreneurs will requiretechnological skills if they hope for their new ven-tures to be successful.

Growth of International Trade and Third-WorldDevelopment - Developed countries are rapidly us-ing up their reserves of natural resources while con-tinuing to upgrade the quality of human resources.This will cause increased dependence on develop-ing nations for raw materials and "cheap" labor formass-produced goods. It is projected that, by theyear 2000, one-third of the world's goods and servic-es will be consumed or used outside of the countryof origin.

The structural changes that are anticipated forthe next twenty-five years are sure to affect the workforce, the workplace, the lives of workers, and socie-ty in general. The combined effects of the ongoingeconomic transition, the changing demography ofthe population and the work force, and the nation'sassimilation of new applied technologies assure asteadily increasing demand for training, education,and human resource development.

Technological Effects on Work

From microcomputers to robots, word proces-sors, and genetic engineering, we have witnessedrapid advances in technology in the past two to threedecades. These new applied technologies have af-fected every sector in the labor force and in the gen-eral society. Agricultural advances have allowed few-er and fewer farmers to produce more and more.The microcomputer and word processor have trans-formed the office from one that is largely labor inten-sive to one that relies heavily on electronic storageand transmission of information, creating the"paperless office." Automation has transformed theassembly Nnes and factory floors in many industriesby using robots to perform the tasks of large num-bers of workers. Computer-aided design (CAD) andcomputer-aided manufacturing (CAM) have beenused in a wide array of industries to design and pro-

duce new products and systems. Communicationhas also been affected by new technologies. Tele-conferencing (video and audio), satellite systems,videotext, and car phones are Just a few of the newcommunications technologies that have emerged inthe past few years. The advances in biological andhealth sciences, as a result of technological change,are no less staggering.

The high-technology revolution is all around us --in the factory, at the office, in our communication,transportation, and health care systems, and in ourhomes. The growth of these technologies will con-tinue, but the implications for employment, social re-lations. and personal development are yet to be fullyrecognLed. In this section I explore some of theseimplications. I begin with a general discussion andthen explore how technology effects the nature andavailability of work.

There are many predictions about the ways inwhich technology will impact work and the workplace.It has been suggested that technology:

Decreases the skills required to perform jobs.

Increases the skill requirements of jobs.

Dramatically increases the mismatches be-tween the skills that jobs require and thoseavailable in the workplace.

Requires that workers be "technologically liter-ate."

Eliminates many jobs.

Creates many jobs.

I believe that all of the predictions are true but,in and of themselves, they are too simple. Techno-logical change does not occur in a vacuum. Eco-nomic and demographic factors are powerful in-fluences on the adaptation of new technologies inthe workplace. Productivity, competitiveness, andprofits often dictate when, how, and which technolo-gies will be implemented. Also, technology r.;cnedoes not determine the availability or nature of jobs.

Technology does not, by, itself, decrease, or in-crease skills; cause mismatches; or eliminate orcreate jobs. While technology may set limits or openpossibilities, it is the managers and decision makersthat ultimately are responsible for determining theoptions for workers. In other words, new technolo-gies sometimes compel, but more often permit, in-dustries and organizations to reorganize and restruc-ture jobs. And, the impact of technology on workersis primarily determined by management decisions

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and worker/management relations.

Technology and the Nature of Work

Although technology alone does not determinethe nature of work, it is a strong factor in determiningwork options. Robotization, CAD/CAM systems, andother new manufacturing and industrial technologiesare projected to eliminate five to seven million jobs(mostly blue collar) before the turn of the century. In-formation and communication technologies, on theother hand, are expected to eliminate seven to 12million white-collar positions. The total loss of jobs isprojected to be between 15 and 20 million by theyear 2000. At the same time, the production ofthese new technologies will create two to three mil-lion new jobs, while positions related to the mainte-nance and repair of these new technologies will gen-erate an additional four to five million high-technology service positions. In addition, these newtechnologies will affect the production of finished in-formatior products (books, magazines, disks, cas-settes, and video media) in their "publishing" indus-try. Between 1.5 and 2.5 million jobs are expectedto be generated in this area. The net result is a lossof between five and 13 million jobs due to the newtechnologies.

New technologies can also displace work tasks.Robots that weld car pieces together or new techno-logical processes eliminate tasks performed by work-ers. Work also can be restructured to use technolo-gy, resulting in fewer people performing the sameamount of work. The word processor and computer-ized information system are examples of technolo-gies that reduce the number of workers required toperform specific tasks.

At the same time, new technologies can creatework tasks. Medical technicians, for example, willneed to learn new skills to perform the new tasks as-sociated with new technological equipment. Autoworkers will need to learn programming, machinemonitoring, and maintenance to perform new tasksassociated with the introduction of robots and auto-mated processes.

New technologies, hav3 other potential effectson the nature and organization of work, including:broader definition of productior jobs; the tendencyfor companies to provide more training; allocation togroups of workers sonic of the responsibilities vest-ed in foreman and first-Nne supervisors; motivationaland attitudinal factors may weigh more heavily in se-lection criteria than credentials or past experience;production workers may have a greater say in deci-sions about new equipment and procedures;

product centered work organization will replace com-partmentalization; scheduling will be more flexible;the use of temporary workers will increase; part-timework will increase; and multiple job holding will in-crease.* (* Office of Technology Assessment, Con-gress of the United States. Technology and Structu-ral Unemployment: Re-employing Displaced Adults.Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Of-fice, 1986.)

Technology and the Availability of Work

The availability of work is influenced by a combi-nation of ;actors including technology, internationaltrade, domestic competition, and consumer prefer-ences. It is clear, however, that new technclogIesare transforming many kinds of work and influencethe availability of different types of work. The Bureauof Labor Statistics, in its projection of the fastestgrowing occupations, suggests the potential impactof new technologies. As Table 1 shows, of the tenfastest growing occupations seven are directly relat-ed to new technologies while the remaining threeare impacted indirectly by new technologies.

Table 1

t. Inge in Employment PercentOccupation1984 -1995

Paralegal personnel 97.5

Computer programmers 71.7

Computer systems analysis, electronicdata processing (EDP) 68.7

Medical assistants 6Z.0

Data processing equipment repairers 56.2

Electrical and electronics engineers 52.8

Electrical and electronics techniciansand technologists 50.7

Computer operators, except 46.1

peripheral equipment

Peripheral EDP equipment operators 45.0

Travel agents 43.9

(Source: Silvesti, G., & Lukasiewics, J. (1984, No-vember;. Occupation of employment projections:The 1984-1995 outlook. Monthly Labor Review,lail(11), 51-52.)

In addition to the growth in a number of specificoccupations there are a number of general trendsthat have emerged. First, in manufacturing, ob op-portunities will probably increase for technicians,

156

mechanics, repairers, and installers, as well as for en-gineers and computer scientists. At the same timeopportunities for all production workers will fall. Thisincludes operatives, laborers, machinists, and pressoperators. Lower and middle management job op-portunities may also decline. Second, in officesgrowth opportunities will more than likely slow downand by the 1990's may show a decline. There too,opportunities for lower and middle managers will fall.Third, new technologies are greatly reducing thenumber of opportunities in agriculture. Finally, in theservice sector, particularly health, and communica-tion related, new technologies are creating newtasks and new occupations.

New technology has an indirect effect on theavailability of occupations not directly dependent onthe technologies themselves. For example, the in-crease in free time will result in changes in entertain-ment ocupations. Those involved in literature, mu-sic, the arts, and athletics will be busier than evensince their audience will grow steadily.

Service occupations also are projected to in-crease in the next decade. While not directly due tonew technologies, these increses will greatly impactthe nature of our society. The Bureau of Labor Sta-tistics, has projected the occupation with the largestjob growth. Table 2 presents those occupations withthe largest job growth. (See Table 2)

At first glance these projections may make us resteasy. While many workers will be displaced by tech-nology or will not possess the skills needed for newtechnological occupations, htere will be availablejobs for them. The problem, however, is twofold.First many workers who are displaced cannot *afford"to take these available jobs. That is, the availablejobs tend to be lower paying (substantially) than thejobs workers wer forced to leave. Second the work-ers who do not possess the necessary skills for thetechnological jobs will tend to be less educated, mi-nority, limited English proficient, and/or older adults.The result may be a class, no a caste, society likenone we have seen since the slaves were freed. Un-less we can change this trend the very foundation ofour nation's fabric will be greatly deteriorated.

That technology is, and will continue to be, a ma-jor influence on the nature and availability of workcannot be denied. Changes in technology disruptexisting industries, making some jobs obsolete andreducing opportunities in other occupations Thenature of work also is altered by technologicalchange. While technology eliminates the demandfor some skills and occupations it creates new prod-


Tablet

Occupation 54of Total Job Growth19844995

Cashiers 3.6

Registered nurses

Janitors and cleaners 2S

Truck drivers 27Wailers and waitresses 2 7

Wholesale trade saleworkers 2.3

Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants 2.2

Salespersons, retail 22

Accountants and auditors 1.9

Teachers, kindergarten and elementary 1.9

Secretaries 1.7

Ccrrputer programmers 1.5

General force larks 1.4Food preparation workersexcluding fast food 1.4

Food preparation and serviceworkers, fast food 1.4Computer systems analysts,electronic data processing 13

Electrical and electronics engineers 1.3Electrical and electronics techniciansand technoiogists 1.3

Guards 12

Automotive and motorcycle mechanics 1.2

( Source: Silvestri, G., & Lukasiewics, ,J. (1984,November). Occupation of employment projections:The 1984 -1995 outlook. Monthly Labor Review,

1011), 51-52.)

ucts, new markets, and new jobs. Technologicalchanges also effect non-technologically-based oc-cupations. One potential result of technologicalchange will be a greater division of labor betweenthose citizens who are technologically literate andthose who are not. The chasm, in terms of opportu-nities, income, and standard of living is potentiallyvery wide and threatening to the future of work,workers and the society in general.

Preparation for Work In a Technological Age

Preparation for work in a technologically chang-ing workplace, to a large extent, depends on the

151


skills, knowledge, and abilities needed by differentgroups of workers. For this discussion I focus on thepreparation of three groups of workers: entry levelworkers, mid-career and older workers; and manag-ers. It should be pointed out at the outset that mydiscussion is general and does not focus on specificsectors, occupations, or types of work.

At its most basic level, preparation for work in thetechnological age means preparing people to beflexible and adaptable to change. There are otherskills that are also needed. One set of skills Is directlyrelated to the technology itself. For example officeworkers need to learn word processing skills, autoworkers need to learn to operate robots, and medicaltechnicians need to learn about automatic instru-ments.

Other skills are less technology specific. Work-ers will find that manual and routine mental skills willbe in less demand than the capacity for judgmentand evaluation, an understanding of technologicalequipment, the ability to spot problems, and an un-derstanding of how one's own work fits into the larg-er picture. Social skills such as teamwork and com-munication will be increasingly valuable for workers.New organizational approaches that encourageworkers to participate in solving problems and mak-ing decisions will require new skills for managers.

For workers the skills that could be in demandwill require a good basic education. If workers cannot read they can not be technologically literate. Ifthey cannot do math, think, analyze, and learn theycannot be technologically literate. And. if they cannot work with others, communicate, and make deci-sions they cannot be technologically literate.

A new conceptualization of technological literacywill be required for managers and corporate decisionmakers. It will require them not only to understandmachine or apparatus technologies but "social tech-nologies" which will be necessary to organize andcoordinate human resources, as well.

How do we prepare people for the new and diffi-cult roles and responsibilities they will have in a tech-nologically changing workplace? The process will bedifferent for different groups of workers.

Preparing Entry Level Workers

High school graduates looking for their first full-time jobs need basic skills--communication, mathe-matics, problem solving, working on a team, decisionmaking, learning to learn"--for successful entry intoa technologically changing ,vorkplace. Most of theirtechnological training will take place in the workplace

after they have jobs. They should, however, havesome familiarity with basic technological equipment,especially computers. In addition, these entry levelworkers should understand how technology affectswork, working, the workplace, and society in general.

The college graduate entering her or his first full-time job also will need to be prepared for a t ;hno-logically changing workplace. While many of thesewill enter directly into positions requiring specifictechnological skills others will be managers and deci-sion makers. As such they will need to be "literate" inboth the machine and human sides of technology.

The preparation of both groups of entry levelworkers rests with our elementary, secondary, andpostsecondary education systems. Early emphasisat the elementary and secondary school levels mustbe placed on the basic skills outlined above. Thelack of these skills will greatly limit the options for en-try level workers. Access to math, science, and tech-nology skills should ado be increased. These skillsare critical for further education and training in tech-nological occupations. Also, education at this levelmust stress the human side of technology and anunderstanding of how technology impacts work andsociety. Our elementary and secondary educationsystem must provide students with the skills andknowledge they will need to cope with a changingenvironment. We must teach our students to beflexible and adaptable and we must do this by con-necting the educational system to the real world, inboth theory and practice.

At the postsecondary level the focus should beon delivery of technology specific curriculum as wellas a solid general education. The technology specif-ic curriculum requires postsecondary education sys-tems to adapt to the changing technology of theworkplace and society. In addition, the postsecon-dary institutions need to be concerned with prepar-ing the future managers and decision-makers of theworkplace. This requires preparing students in thehuman resource side of technology as well as in or-ganizational approaches that effectively integratepeople and equipment.

Preparing Mid-Career and Older Workers

New technology will require the (rr)training andeducation of mid-career and older workers. Whilepreparation will necessarily have to focus on basic,social, and specific technology skills, there are anumber of barriers faced by adults that need to beaddressed before we can even attempt to preparethem for a new technological age. These barriers arecategorized as follows:

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--- i--


Structural barriers are those factors which ariseout of an individuars position in a family, workplace, asocial group at a given time. Social-psychologIcedbafflers are those factors related to the attitudes, andself-perceptions an individual has or to the influenceof significant others on the action of the individual.Structural barriers are policies and practices of rgan-izations that overtly or subtly exclude or disc-Jrageadults from participationin education or training accliv-ities. labia 3 provides a listing of the specific factorsthat fall under each category of barriers.

Table 3

CategolY

Situational Barriers

Specific Factors

*CogsLack of time

" AgePrior educational attain-

martHome responsibilitiesJob responsibilitiesOccupational statusLevel of income

Social-Psychological BarriersLack of confidence in&ayFeeling too oldLow self-concept

* Tired of schoolLack of interestFamily or friends don't

Ike the idea

Structural BarriersCourse scheduling1".'ork scheduleInconvenient location ofCOMM

Anandal support restric-tbns

Too long to complete

VOgraniToo much red tapeLack of information onprogram

Lack of information onsupport assistance

Inadequate counseling

With regard to preparation of adults to meet therequirements of new technologies a number of criti-cal elements are required to overcome these barriersincluding: low costs, employer financed training;support services; short length of training; programsat the workplace; remediation; peer instruction;counseling; clear links to future work; programs of-fered in the community; experiential learning op-tions; and joint programs of business and education.

Two basic delivery strategies that can incorpo-rate all or most of these critical elements are possible.The first are employer provided education and train-

ing programs offered in-house or through contractswith education and training providers. The programsshould respond to changes in a company's technol-ogy, organization, or products. Currently, the privatesector spends $30-$100 billion annually on corpo-rate training programs with a larger and larger sharegoing to remedial math and reading instruction. Fur-ther efforts by employers should focus on preparingworkers to meet the anticipated changes brought onby new technology.

The second delivery strategy includes the arrayof offerings provided by education institutions in-cluding public school systems, noncoilegiate post-secondary schools,two-year colleges, and four-yearcolleges and universities.

Educational institutions at all levels would do wellto rethink their missions in terms of preparing adultworkers to meet the needs of a chr.nging workplace.Training and retraining will become ever more impor-tant as new skills are needed by workers over theirlife span. Educators should begin thinking in proac-tive terms, anticipating changing educational de-mands, rather than simply reacting to crisis situationsrelated to the immediate needs of the moment.

If demographic and economic conditions do notbring employers to invest more resources in indus-try-provided training, then, once again, the responsi-bility will revert to the educational system. As othershave suggested, we may be moving toward a "trulycontinuing educational systems--one that is moreflexible and beLer adapted to shorter term pas-sages."

For the educational system to be responsive tothe needs of adult workers, it must look beyond itstraditional role of education of youth toward itsemerging role in training adults. The educationalsystem must be responsive to the diverse needs of adiverse society, but education and training providerscannot work alone; they must work collaborativelywith business, labor, government, and other


educational organizations.

Such collaborative efforts are important becausetechnologies have expanded rapidly in many sectorsof the economy. This has resulted in a formidabletraining task. It is critical that this process ensure theequitable availability of training in all aspects of newtechnologies for all current and future members ofthe workforce. Training that prepares workers to beflexible, adaptable, and competent in the basic, so-cial, and technical skills that will be needed in the fu-ture.

Preparing Managers and Decision Makers

New technologies can only be implemented byhuman decisions. Human decisions are also centralin the distribution of the benefits of change, includ-ing the economic growth made possible by greaterproductivity, and the improved quality of work life insafer and more pleasant surroundings. Some ofthese implementation decisions impose significantcosts on the people least able to bear them, in theform of extended unemployment and reduced earn-ings prospects. Decisions should take human re-source impacts into account to reduce these costsand redistribute them more in accordance with thedistribution of the benefits of change, which shouldalso be made more equitable. There also may be aneed to better control the pace of technologicalchange in order to minimize the social and personalcosts of groups of workers.

These decisions are, to a large degree, made bymanagers and other corporate decision makers.These individuals need to be prepared for thechanges in workers, and the workplace that will resultfrom changes in technology.

The successful integration of technology andhuman potential is dependent on the adequatepreparation of creative and motivated managers.Managers will need new sets of competencies. Theywill need to become skilled not only in the new tech-nologies and in the new methods of organizationand human resource development, but in the socio-technical systems or "humanware" that integrate thetwo. Managers will need to look at the whole system--the people, the work, the culture, the technology,the demand, and the market--and be able to linkhardware and human resources effectively.

This notion of a uhumanware" manager will re-quire the ongoing education and training of manag-ers on human resource strategies and technologicaladvances. Because of the need for training, retrain-ing, communication, and cooperation in the "new"

-.,

work environment, managers will need to be pre-pared to lead in each of these areas. This will requiretime, commitment, and energy. It will also requiremanagers to take on the roles of "coach" and"resource agents" for the teams of workers they su-pervise. Training programs, whether at the graduatelevel in formal higher education programs, throughexecutive or management training offered throughthe workplace, or a combination of the two, shouldstress the new sets of competencies required bymanagers of sociotechnical systems. Such pro-grams should be interdisciplinary focusing on thesociology, economics, politics, history, philcsophy,and psychology of managing a work environmentthat is characterized more by change than stability.

Conclusions and Challenges

The principal resource of the U.S. economy isnot its great stock of money, plants, equipment, ortechnology, nor its abundant natural resources andrich farmland. Rather, it is its human resource. A hu-man resource that is knowledgeable, skilled, enthu-siastic, and versatile. A human resource, however.that is dependent on education and trainingthroughout their lives, to maintain these characteris-tics in light of rapid economic and technologicalchanges. Our nation's ability to respond to competi-tive challenges, to an ever increasing extent, is de-pendent on the quality and quantity of educationand training offered to an engaged in by workers.

The challenge is for employers, workers, unions,government, and educators to work together to re-spond to the need for a skilled, trained, and trainableworkforce. This will require new roles for and rela-tionships among these sectors.

Entry level workers will need to be better pre-pared to meet the changing work and nonworkworlds they will face. This task will rest heavily on theshoulders of our public school system. Educationalresources should be allocated to the teaching of criti-cal basic skills including: reading, writing, math, com-munication (oral and aural), decision-making, plan-ning, teamwork and thinking. Entry level workers willneed to understand that flexibility and adaptability willbe critical in the workplace of the near future. Be-cause the vast majority of technology skill training willoccur at the workplace, these enetry level workerswill need to be prepared for lifelong technological lit-eracy training."

Many new entrants, however, will require somepreparation before they are ready to work. Vocation-al schools, technical institutions, and community col-leges offer programs that prepare and retrain large

16u


numbers of workers. The institutions require up-to-date, state-of-the-art equipment and faculty. Privatesector employers and the government need to helpin these areas. Through direct assistance, tax cred-its, personnel exchange programs, equipmentloans, work experience, and other programs educa-tion institutions can better prepare new entrants intothe technologically changing workplace.

Much of the impact of economic and technologi-cal change is felt at the workplace. Adult workers, to-day and in the future, need lifelong technological lit-eracy training. More effective and timely workplacelearning systems would not only allow us to keepbetter pace with these changes, but would also en-courage more career and human resource develop-ment for workers.

Current federal tax policy gives employers great-er incentives to invest in machines and research thanin people. Comparable incentives are needed foreach factor of production: capitol, technology, andworkers. Through a training tax credit, for example,employers would be encouraged to respond to com-petitive challenges through human resource, as wellas machine investment.

A better understanding of training and develop-ment in the workplace is also needed. This wouldhelp education and training providers outside theworkplace to develop practices that complimentlearning on the job. It would also help create strong-er linkages between learning on and off the job andencourage more cohesive lifelong learning for work-ers. Lifelong learning provided, in large part,through employer supported programs including: in-house education and training; contracts with post-secondary institutions and other providers of educa-tion and training; tuition assistance programs; and la-bor-management cooperative programs.

As state earlier, management decisicns are criti-cal to the successful implementation of new technol-ugies and to the nature and quality of work. A newtype of manager is needed. One which is sensitiveto both the equipment and human sides of technolo-gy. One that is aware of the critical importance of ed-ucation and training for workers, and one that recog-nizes that new and different work organizations willbe required to respond to the changing technologi-cal workplace. The challenge is for the educationand training system to prepare these new managersand for businesses and corporations to identify themand allow them to implement changes at the work-place that will be required in the future.

The basic challenge for our education, political,

and economic systems is to prepare the human re-source to meet the exciting challenges that willemerge as a function of the technological age of thefuture. A human resource that will be essential tomeeting the competitive challenges our nation willbe facing. As Isaac Asimov suggests:

The 21st century, for all its advancement,will be one of the great pioneering periodsof human history, as people work under to-tally new conditions, doing totally newthings in totally new ways, taking totally newrisks to achieve totally new triumphs.

We need to prepare these pioneers--young andold, male and female, and of all races and ethnic per-suasions--to enter, work in, and manage the work-place of the future, and to be trained and retrainedthroughout their lives.

Without technological literacy that links the hard-ware and human resources, the future will be bleak.With a technologically literate popuiation the futurewill be an exciting one full of individual and societalchange and triumph. A technologically literate popu-lation requires that business, labor, government andeducation work together in new collaborative ways tothe benefit of all.

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V.11.1Ma=.. Technological Literacy Symposium 169

Technological Literacy Needs in Preservice andInservice Teacher Education

1 n 2


New Technology, New Lifestyles, and the Implications forPreservice and Inservice Vocational Teacher Education

Dr. Carolyn Litchfield WormsAssociate Professor, Memphis State University

Dr. Allan Joseph WormsAssociate Extension Professor, University of Kentucky

In modem society, change occurs so rapidly thatit is difficult to imagine what will occur within the nextdecade. Long term predictions regarding the futureare even more difficult to make as the possibilitiesbecome unlimited. One item of new technologypresents additional items and thq influence of tech-nological advancement multiplies.

As technological change continues to acceler-ate, its application to agriculture, business, industry,health, education and other fields becomes more di-verse and more difficult to anticipate. Preparation foremployment in current settings is challenging, andthe design of vocational education programs re-quires a great deal of creativity.

As an aspect of becoming technologically liter-ate, vocational teachers need to be aware of recentchanges in technology and the influence of suchtechnology. This paper is designed to present anoverview of some recent changes in technology, fol-lowed by a discussion of changes in personal andprofessional lifestyles which follow technologicalchange. Changes in personal and professional life-styles create challenges for vocational educators.These challenges will be overviewed followed by adiscussion of the role of preservice and inserviceteacher education in assisting vocational teachers inreaching the goal of becoming technologically liter-ate.

New Technology

Society was awakened to the momentum andsignificance of change by Toff lees (1970) FutureShock. Our attention has been confronted by astate of "hyperturbulence" which Selsky andMcCann (1984) define as "the condition that resultswhen available resources and institutions prove inad-equate to deal with the speed and diversity ofchange."

In less than forty years, human ingenuity hasused technology to carry our society from vacuumtubes to transistors to microchips to superchips to

e.

artificial intelligence. Computers, videotext, teletext,teleconferencing, telemarketing, office parks, elec-tronic banking and robots are becoming common-place tools of business and industry. Many of thesetools have enabled the exchange of information tooccur at dramatically increased rates.

Such progress is creating both positive and neg-ative results. Members of our society are quicklylearning that there are two dimensions to technologi-cal progress. Many of the advances in the health sci-ences, communications and business efficiencyhave yielded positive results. Yet hackers and theproblems of crime, fraud, invasion of privacy and val-ue conflicts continue to create dilemmas.

New Lifestyles

New technology has resulted in new options forpersonal and professional lifestyles. Homes, workplaces and schools are changing as a result of newtechnology. Some indicate that the home is chang-ing from an electronic cottage to an electronic castle.

The electronic cottage concept developed withtelecommuting. Through telecommuting, selectedwcrkers are able to work from their homes or other lo-cations through the computer. Most of these em-ployees perform work at home, via computer at timesof their own choosing.

Telecommuting has both advantages and disad-vantages. Some of the advantages include the lackof commuting and parking expenses plus the man-ageable overhead for companies. The convenienceof flexible working hours or "flex-time" is certainly anadantage for selected populations such as parentsof young children, older workers and the physicallyhandicapped. The major disadvantage of this worksituation is the isolated work environment and thelam of social contacts.

The computer has assisted the creation of theelectronic castle. This futuristic home will enable acentral computer to control other household

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172 New Technology, New Lifestyles, and the Implications of Preservice and Inservice

computers including robots who will do householdchores and basic home maintenance. While drivingfrom the last appointment of the day to home, thehomeowner can program the appropriate tempera-ture and humidity, the music desired, the eveningmeal and a planned program of entertainment in thehome media center. Medical alert systems, tele-phone security systems, smoke and fire detectorswill be used and forcefield devices will detectintruders.

Videotext and teletext are entering homes at in-creased rates. Videotext is a two-way informationsystem that can be summoned with a computer key-board. The two-way information flow may be madeby means of a pushbutton telephone, cable-television system or a cable-television and tele-phone combination. Teletext is a one-way informa-tion service activated by pressing a button or keypadto extract information from the television signal withwhich it is intermixed. These technologies havestrong implications for homes of the future. They en-able electronic shopping, banking and correspon-dence from the homes. Such factors could becomeimportant to older populations.

Leisure may become home-based as video-games, cable televisions and "videocassette recor-ders enter the family media center. These conceptsalso raise some interesting questions. For example,will the electronic home be available to all popula-tions or only the affluent? Will this increase the gapbetween the rich and pocr? Will programs be nces-sary to provide access to electronic services forthose who have not elected to purchase or who can-not afford to purchase such systems?

Those who elect to leave the home for work ac-tivities will find that the world of work is constantlychanging. Managerial, administrative and profes-sional roles will not remain constant. In fact, today'sworker is not likely to follow a single lifelong career.Work will require retra: ling and continuing educationor professional development. It is difficult if not im-possible for today's educational programs to com-pletely lrepare individuals who can operate success-fully in the age of technology. Business and industryprobably do not expect this to occur as they will pro-vide training to help meet these needs.

According to an article in Time magazine(February 11, 1985), annual corporate expendituresfor education and training have reached $40 billion.This amount is two-thirds of the total annual collegeand university budgets in the United States. Accord-ing to Knowles (1977), business and industry spend

more money on education for employees and theirfamilies and customers than is spent by all higher ed-ucation, public and private combined. Educatorshave an opportunity to work with business and in-dustry as some corporations have commissionedtechnical institutes to provide such training.

Although many jobs will be eliminated with thenew technology, others will emerge. With opportu-nities for training, workers will find new occupationsto replace those that become obsolete. Displacedworkers will need opportunities to obtain new skills.

As more single parents enter the work force, theneed for appropriate child care services has becomemore and more important. Today, several corpora-tions are providing such centers for preschool chil-dren as one aspect of enlightened self-interest.Managers have discovered that workers miss fewerdays of work when they have adequate child care.

Teleconferencing is another concept that hasbeen introduced In the workplace. This enablesworkers to attend meetings in a cost-effective man-ner. It is not necessary for the worker to be awayfrom the family in order to attend a conference. Thismethod is an excellent manner of educating employ-ees and providing additional professional develop-ment.

Computers have also influenced marketing ef-forts. Telemarketing is now being used to buildmemberships, raise funds, and obtain new informa-tion in addition to making sales.

Today's lifestyle is an enlightened one. As a re-sult of technology, individuals are aware of what isoccurring in a global context. News is transmitted atincreased rates of speed. In many instances, thepublic watches the news as it occurs. Cable televi-sion provides constant contact with news in the mak-ing.

Challenges of New Technology and New Lifestyles

New technology results in new lifestyles andthese items create challenges for educators and par-ticularly vocational euucators. Some of these chal-lenges include:

1. Assisting students in developing appropriateskills in the a'eas of reading, writing, listening,speaking, computing basic math and solvingproblems.

2. Helping students realize the importance ofthe computer and assisting in the develop-ment of computer literacy.

164


3. Helping learners gain appropriate insight andethical judgments needed in the age of tech-nology.

4. Assisting learners in the process of identifyingbias, propaganda, and other techniqueswhich short-circuit personal knowledge.

5. Accepting and promoting the concept of life-long learning.

6. Learning to work cooperatively with businessand industry in order to provide training anddevelopment for employees.

7. Assisting in the development of appropriatechild care centers for employees.

8. Preparing individuals for the growing serviceindustry where employment opportunities areincreasing.

9. Conducting research regarding the impact oftechnobgy on workers, the work place, thehome, the family, school, and the learner(s).

Such challenges will not be resolved without theassistance of preservice and 'nsenfice rationalteacher edvsation which will prepare vocal .al edu-cators to meet their roles.

Implications for Vocational Teacher Education

Vocational teacher education is challenge. toprovide teachers who are technologically literate andable to assist in solving the challenges that societywill face with new technology and resulting life-styles. In order to meet this challenge, vocational ed-ucators will need to work with business and industryin order to design effective programs. in addition tohaving adequate equipment and funds for training,personnel from business and industry will be futuris-tic thinkers who desire creativity and productivityfrom workers.

Vocational education must move beyond advi-sory committees, the cooperative method of instruc-tion and staff industry exchanges to produce moreproerctive partnerships with business and industry.Vocational teacher education is challenged to pre-pare teachers who are able to work in this capacity.Such teachers should be effective ct,ange agentswho are able to work with diverse cultures in globalmarkets.

References

Knowles on outede resourc3s and adult education.gales and MaricetinTraininq.1(2), 18-20.

Seisky, J. W., & McCann, J. E. Social triage: Anemergent response to hyperturbulence. Worldfuture Society Bulletin, 21, 1-19. liam. (1985,February 11).

Toffier, A. (1970). future sh ock. New York: Ran-dom House.

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VCTechnological Literacy Symposium 175

Technology and Eduction: The AppropriateThreads I Or a Complex Tapestry

Introduction

The issue of technology being taught in ourschools brings with it a variety of questions that needour utmost attention as well as our resolve. The tre-mendous changes in industrial arts/technology edu-cation have emerged during the same period of timethat teacher education programs have been under-going comprehensive internal and external scrutiny.This appears to be an appropriate time for rethinkingthe relationship of several of the many threads thatmake up the broad picture (tapestry) of education ingeneral and practical arts and vocational education inparticular. The selected threads woven into thispresentation will involve: (1) the mission of secon-dary education, (2) the scope of teacher preparationprograms for technology teachers, (3) tho relation-ship between technology education and trade andindustrial education, and (4) technological literacy.

Mission of Secondary Education

More than thirty reports issued by task forces,commissions, and individuals r...andate that urgent at-tention be given to our schools. Most of these re-ports emphasize the need to better prepare stu-dents for entering college. Yet, a college educationis not the choice of the majority. Seventy-five per-cent of high school youth never graduate from col-lege. Even more drastic, recent data indicate that3,000 students each day drop out of high school inthe United States. Those who plan and conductsecondary education cannot ignore these data.

The Committee for Economic Development(1985) published a document focusing on the in-vestment we place in our children. A push was madefor placing academics first on the priority list in educa-tion. it would be difficult to find an educator thatwould oppose this recommendation. However, thisdoes not imply that all educators have to teach the"basics." When a student reaches the secondarylevel, should not the teacher be able to assume thatthe student has accomplished grade-level

Dr. John C. ThomasCollege of Education

Eastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

competencies? Those of us in education know thatwe cannot make this assumption--but why not?Should not students academically below grade-levelbe the exception? A history of poor academicachievement develops long before a student reach-es the secondary level and especially before select-ing an occupa.anally specific program. The remedymust lie in requiring much greater attention to basicswhile children are in elementary and junior highschool. Better and earlier academic instruction forstudents would produce a larger payoff for instruc-tors of practical arts and vocational education. Stu-dent performance in the classroom would improve,communication and computational skills would beenhanced, and problem solving techniques wouldhave a sharper focus. All of these student character-istics are required by virtually all of today's employersfor entry level positions. This is not to say that corn-muniction ard computational skills would be ig-nored by teachers in vocational education. Howev-er, many vocational education and technology edu-",ation instructors are ill- equipped for the demandingtask of remediation. If vocational instructors have tospend considerable time on remediation, less time isavailable to deliver quality job-specific training inthese ever-expanding and more complex technicalareas.

A report by the National Academy of Science(1984) on high schools and the changing workplacestated that the largest segment of the American workforce consists of high school graduates who havenot attended college, and that the nation's economicwell-being depends to a very large degree upontheir performance. The report concludea that everyhigh school graduate should possess: (1) the abilityto learn and to adapt to changes in the workplace, (2)mastery of core competencies, and (3) a positive atti-tude and sound work habits. The pattern of futurejob opportunities is very complex. However, it is al-most a certainty that today's young people will face,during their 45 to 50 years working careers,

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176 Technology & Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer Tapestry

cumulative technological and organizational changesevery bit as large as those that confronted theirparents.

As an Important "new basic" in the educationaleffort, technology education must be perceived andimplemented in the context of the modem schoolsetting. Even studerts can see the importance ofdealing with technological Issues in their education.Irwin Hoffman 9987), a high school teacher fromDenver, asked hit high school students, "Whatshould the school in the future offer?" The studentsdeveloped six areas that all high school studentswould be involved with before graduation, which in-clude:

1. The Shrinking World2. Environmental Issues3. Moral Issues4. Technological Issues5. Recreation6. The Future

Students realize that they need to know how tolive in today's society with an understanding of to-day's technology. Perhaps we can liaam from themas we consider the mission of secondary educationand the role technology education in this mission.For some educators the resistance to change isstrong, but we must continually remind ourselvesthat students must be prepared to enter a rapidlychanging job market - -a market built on today's andtomorrow's technology.

Within the field of technology education, thereare numerous decigions to be made regarding thespecific mission of the field. For example, some be-lieve that distinctions should be made in the middleschool and high school setting among the followingmissions:

1. Exploratory programs to assist in careerchoice.

2. Prcgrams geared toward specific entry-levelpositions.

3. Job search and emplo, ability skills.4. Employment counseling5. Participation in joint venture with employers.

We need to clarify the mission of technology edu-cation and the role of trade and industrial educationin the total educational program. Understanding andsupporting a collective mission will fuel our individualefforts on the local levels.

Other decisions that we face include tt 9 specificplanning and implementation of programs in terms ofa standardized curriculum as opposed to the aca-demic freedom of the instructor. Certain groups at

tne state level want a great deal of standardization ofcurriculum which will result In student achievementdata. Other groups desire flexibility and freedom.The main problem is to what degree can academicfreedom be exercised at a time when the professionis being asked to document what students know andcan do as a result of being in a particular program?

Teacher Preparation in Technology Education

Clearly, the strength of our discipline dependson the development and maintenance of an efficientand effective technology education system at the lo-cal level. Maintaining a strong, quality-driven tech-nology education system rests with the preparationof competent and caring teachers. After students,teachers are the most important people in theschools.

Teachers are the only producers of learning inthe education business. Researc1ers have identi-fied which teaching methods work well; school ad-ministrators have organized facilities and created theproper climate for good teaching; state departmentsof education have conducted program evaluations;and legislators have tried to provide the financial sup-port for quality education. But in the last analysis,what counts most is the teacher's performance in anygiven classroom.

We can ask ourselves two questions: (1) whatkind of teachers do we need in technology educa-tion, and (2) what kind of teacher education pro-grams do we need in technology education? To ad-dress the first question, one can tum to Joseph ED-stein and his book, Masters: Portraits of GreatTeachers. Epstein described teaching as a perform-ing art and likened it to opera. He found that inteaching, like singing, there is many a tried, but notrue, method or technique for getting the subjectacross. However, Epstein found that all great teach-ers have some common characteristics, which in-clude:

1. Love of their subject2. An obvious satisfaction in arousing this love in

their students3. An ability to convince them that v,.fat they are

being taught is deadly serious.(Lewis, 1981)

These qualities describe in part the kind of teach-ers we need in teitnolooy education. Many of us al-ready know outstandinc technology teachers whopossess these characteristics and have observedthe powerful, positive influence they have over theirstudents and the quality of their programs. Ofcourse, the beginning technology education


teacher should also have a fair understanding of ourpresent technological society, a broad picture of theindustrial and technological trends of our time andtheir implications for the educational program(Whitesel, 1956).

What kind of teacher education programs do weneed in technology education? Do we need to de-emphasize skill training and focus on technologicalconcepts? Do we place too much emphasis on tradi-tional skill training, while neglecting more currenttechnologies? How do we divide the time and effortdevoted to the general education, major, and profes-sional education components? Many of us arestrongly aware of the differing opinions on thesequestions, but to strengthen our field we need tounify our ideas of how to produce the best possibleteacher of technology education. This teacher willhave to have a basis understanding of the broadrange of today's technologiessomething every fu-ture teacher must be prepared to do. According toDeVore, Maughan, and Griscon (1979), "The perpet-uation of manipulated skill training and teacher edu-cation programs to the exclusion of the study oftechnology, technological systerei, and other relat-ed disciplines that contribute to the understandingof behavior of sociological, ideological, and ecologi-cal systems and their interrelationship, produces aneducator ir.capable of rising to the challenge" (p.214).

Research has been conducted to investigate ar-eas of professional education preparation that arenecessary for technology education teachers. Fos-ter, Kozak, and Price (1985) found that a curriculumfor preparing technology education teachers shouldinclude elements related to:

1. Discipline in the classroom2. Planning, organizing and conducting instruc-

tion3. Financial responsibilities4. Awareness of curriculum changes in the field5. Middle school and high school experiences6. Student organizations.

This list is by no means exhaustive, but it gives usa common core from which to build our teacher ecu-cation program.

The only standardized external avaluation wehave of our teacher education programs is the Na-tion?! Teacher Exam (NTE). The technical portion ofthe teacher preparation curriculum can be evaluatedthrough the results of the NTE specialty examina-tion. The broad spectrum of technologies coveredon the specialty exam will give us some indication of

our success in preparing future-oriented teachers.However, the true test of our success can only bemeasured by the secondary student's ach'evementbrought about by the efforts of the technologyteacher. At this time we do not have a standardizedexamination for evaluating achievement at the sec-ondary level.

Excellence in technology education teacherpreparation will require honest leaders with much vi-tality, a commitment to developing evaluation instru-mentation centered around critical competencies re-lated to technological literacy, the fine tuning of ourteacher preparation programs based upon outcomeresults, and the support of a strong professional or-ganization.Technology Education and Trade andIndustrial Education

s we took at occupational requirements for thefuture, it is becoming more evident that specific rraftskills will give way to understanding systems and thatskills will need to be transferrable so they can be ap-plied in a variety of situations. Vocational educationwill no longer be a narrow field of study. Rather thanan inadequate remedy of quick legislation for astalled economy, vocational education will preparestudents for careers of challenges and changes--notjust for a first job. We must carefully define what wemean by the technical basics. We must also describein detail the roles and relationships between technol-ogy education and that of trade and industrial educa-tion. There are many differences between the twoprograms: teachers with degrees versus teacherswith work experience; teachers that are familiar with awide range of technologies versus teachers who arehighly specialized within a single occupational area,teachers dealing with exploration versus teacherspreparing students for employment -the compel-sons can go on and on. Admist the many difference,however, there is one thing they have in commonthe lack of trust they feel for each other. The tradeand industrial education instructor does not totallytrust the technology instructor to teach the technicalbasics that relate to occupational preparation. Thetechnology teacher does not totally trist the trariaand industrial education teacher to prepare studentsfor careers of changes and challenges. The truth isthat each knows very little about the other. In thisage of keen competition for students, the technolo-gy teacher and the trade and industry teacher musteducate themselves about the other and join forcest- build strength into our programs.

A quality middle grades exploration program can

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178 Technology & Education: The Appropriate Threads for a Computer Tapestry

benefit it boh technology education and trade andindustrial education by alerting young people to thevast number of technical careers requiring highschool or college credentials. In many states thelargest technology education enrollment is at themiddle school level. We must use this resourcewisely.

Technological Literacy

The most difficult, yet one of the most importantthreads to weave into this tapestry of education isthat of technological literacy. Without this thread, theimpact of practical arts and vocational education willbe less than what it could and should be. However,at this point the process of defining technological lit-eracy and the selecting of components from our dis-cipline which relate to technological literacy is precari-ous in nature. Funded research of a continuing na-ture is needed to identify and analyze thosecomponents.

The possession of a bread knowledge of techni-cal basics, together with the necessary attitudes andphysical abilitir - to implement this knowledge in asafe, appropriate, efficient and effective manner ispart of technological literacy. Being technologicallyliterate also requires that one be able to performtasks using tools, machines, materials, and process-es resulting from technology (Dyrenfurth, 1985). Arecent study (Foster, 1986) concluded that a tech-nologically literate person would: (11 be ability to usethe design process in the solution of technical prob-lems, (2) be knowledgeable of computer applica-tions, (3) use acquired knowledge to fi.rther their ed-ucational career, and (4) understanding systems,processes, machines and materials.

In a democracy where it is claimed that all peopleshould have a right to determine their future, a citi-zenry that is knowledgeable of technology is impor-tant. Therefore. as a part of general education all citi-zens should study fundamental technological sys-tems as routinely as they acquire other skills for litera-cy (Richter, 1980).

Sumitvgy

The mission of secondary education in the Unit-ed States is under close scrutiny. Teacher educationprograms have proposed vast changes for the fu-ture. The role of technology education and tradeand industrial education is being reviewed at the lo-cal, state, and national levels. Technological Mere /holds much promise.

The Job of weaving the tapestry is before us.But before the appropriate threads can be chosen,

someone has to have a glimpse of the finished work.Leaders with vie m--step forward.

References

Clark, D. (1985). field experience in teacheueduea-lionA model for industrial arts/technoloay edu-gaga. Series No. 52. Columbus: The NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education,The Ohio State University.

Committee for Economic Development. (1985).vesting in our children. New York.

DeVore, P. W., Maughan, G. R., & Griscon, W. E.(1979). Influence of technology on industrialarts matter. In G. E. Martin (Ed.), industrial artseducation: Retrospect, prospect. Bloomington,IL

Dyrenfurth, M. (1984). Literacy for a technologicalworld. Columbus: The National Center for Re-search in Vocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity.

Foster, P., Kozak, M., & Price, G. (1985). Assess-mantaLlnclasirial arts field experiences. ProjectNo. 84-178. Austin: RCU, Texas EducationAgency.

Hoffman, I. (1987, February). A high school in the fu-bm. Paper presented at meeting of Science,Technology, Society on Technological Literacy,Washington, D. C.

Lewis, A. (1981). Good teachers: What to look for.Arlington, VA: The National School Public Rela-tions Association.

National Academy of Science. (1984). ligh schoolsand the changing workplace. Wash,ngton, D.C.

Richter, J. (1980). The construction and partial vAll:dalionstazaalalaiMISUfftigy of communication_technoloov. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, West Virginia University,Morgantown.

Smalley, L. (1986, October). Technology literacy.Paper presented at Technology Education Sym-posium, Roanoke, VA.

16


Computer Literacy: An Essential Element ofTechnology Literacy

Introduction

Microelectronics have revolutionized the worldof work in industry, agriculture, health, home eco-nomics, and business. The microprocessor has notonly changed the world of work to include robotics,optical scanners, and word processors, it haschanged our everyday lives with devices like pro-grammable appliances, personal computers, and au-tomatic teller machines (ATM). Computers have be-come an everyday fact of life.

The advent of the inexpensive microcomputerhas revolutionized information technology in muchthe same way as Gutenburg's printing press. Thewidespread availability of the printed word created aneed for people to be literate. Recent innovations incomputer technology have necessitated a r-3w kindof literacy. This paper will address the relationshipbetween computer literacy and technological litera-cy, identify definitions for computer literacy, andidentify the computer literacy needs of preserviceand insetvice practical arts and vocational educators.

Computer Versus Technological Literacy

To help prepare students for a life in a society in-undated with computers, most of our schools haveestablished microcomputer laboratories and have im-plemented computer literacy courses. Unfortunate-ly, computer literacy falls short of a greater and moreurgent need, technological literacy. While computerliteracy is essential to technological literacy, it doesnot constitute technological literacy. It is merely asignificant part of a greater whole. In the same wayelectronic switching systems have become an es-sential part of telecommunications, computer literacyis an essential part of technological literacy. Beingcomputer literate can help one understand how atelephone number is processed. However, it con-tributes little to understanding the network of trans-ducers, transmitters, receivers, and links that makeup a telecommunication system.

Kenneth WeltyAssociate Director

Illinois Plan for Industrial EducationIllinois State University

Normal, Illinois

Without a basic understanding of the techno-logical systems at work in our soniety, one has es-sentially surrendered control to those who do. In or-der to participate fully in our technological society,one must be more than computer literate. However,the attention already given to computer literacy canhelp schools meet the technological literacy of theirstudents.

The microcomputer is an indispensible teachingtool when preparing students for life and work in ourtechnological society. It can facilitate learning experi-ence that would otherwise be impossible in a tradi-tional facility. With simulation software, a microcom-puter can be transformed into a nuclear power plant,a flight simulator, an automated factory, or an elec-tronic bulletin board. With CAI software, studentscan explore topics ranging from careers to robotics,from animal husbandry to AC and DC circuits. Withapplications software, students can experience realworld computer application in areas like agribusiness,biofeedback, cardiovascular fitness, word process-ing, dietary analysis, electronic publishing, comput-er-aided design/drafting, and computer-aidedmanufacturing.

In order to address the technological literacyneeds of students, it is safe to say, practical arts andvocational educators need to be computer literate.Unfortunately, while a whole generation is growingup with computers as part of their lives, some practi-cal arts and vocational educators report they havenever used a microcomputer (Welty, 1987). Bothpreservice and inservice teachers need 4o becomecomputer literate, learn how to integrate computertechnology into the curriculum, and be able to utilizetele microcomputer as a teaching tool.

Defining Computer Literacy

A review of educational computing literature willuncover a variety of definitions for computer literacy.Given the evolutionary rature of computer technolo-gy and the growing number of applications for

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180 Computer Literacy: An Essential Element of Technology Literacy

computer technology, it seems unlikely that a singleagreed upon definition for computer literacy is forth-coming. To identify what constitutes computer litera-cy, one must synthesize several definitions.

In a study sponsored by the National Center forEducational Statistics, Lockheed, Hunter, and An-derson (1984) provided the following definition forcomputer literacy.

Computer literacy may be defined as what-ever a person needs to know and do withcomputers in order to function competentlyin our informEtion -based society.

Computer literacy includes three kinds ofcompetence: skills, knowledge, and under-standing. It inckides:

1. the ability to use and instruct computersto aid in learning, solving problems, andmanaging information;

2. knowledge of functions, applications,capabilities, limitations, and social implica-tions of computers and related technology;and

3. understanding needed to learn andQ evaluate new application^ and social is-

sues as they arise. (p. 8)

Watt (1980) defined computer literacy as thatcollection of skih, knowledge, understandings, val-ues, and relationships that allows a person to func-tion comfortably as a productive citizen in a comput-er-oriented society. He suggests that a computer lit-:late person should be able to: (a) program and con-trol a computer for personal, academic, and profes-sional goals; (b) use a variety of computer-applications software within a personal, academic,and professional context; (c) understand the increas-ing social, economic and psychological impacts thatcomputers are having on groups and individuals; and(d) make use of ideas from computer programmingand computer applications as a part of an individuarsstrategy for retrieving information, communicating,and problem solving.

For purposes of discussion, Hunter and Aiken(1984) adopted the following definition in a reportprepared for the U.S. Department of Education,Computer Literacy in Vocational Education: Per-spectives and Directions.

Computer literacy may be defined as theability to use computers and associated in-formation technologies in ways which en-hance one's productivity, creativity, and

ability to solve problems and communicateeffectively with others. (p. 17)

Kay (1984) emphasizes the affective aspects ofcomputer literacy in the following definition:

Computer literacy is a contact with the activi-ty of computing deep enough to make thecomputational equivalent of reading andwriting fluent and enjoyable. (p. 59)

Computer Literacy In Teacher Education

With an idea of what constitutes computer litera-cy, the next step is to Identify a set of competenciesthat characterize a computer literate educator. Theauthor would like to propose the following list of com-puter competencies for teachers addressing techno-logical literacy.

As a result of their preservice and/or inserviceeducation, vocational and practical arts educatorsshould be able to:

explain how a computer works and use com-mon computer terminology.

use software for self-instruction, informationcollection and retrieval, modeling, simulations,problem-solving, and word processing.

analyze and describe a simple problem usingpseudo code, flow charts, or a high level com-puter language.

relate a variety of computer applications in theworld of work and in everyday life.

describe the social and economic issuescaused by computer technology.

evaluate, select, and adapt commercial soft-ware for technology education.

develop and integrate computer-based learn-ing activities into technology educationprograms.

The importance of programming needs to bekept in perspective. Only a small percentage ofthose who use computers need to know how to pro-gram computers. However, learning how computerprograms are structured and encoded is basic to un-dertstanding how computers process information. Interms of technological literacy, some programmingexperience can help the compute. user think logical-ly, develop problem-solving skills, appreciate soft-ware, and discover the real power of computing lieswith people.

Some research suggests the greatest challengefor teacher educators is inservice. Vocational

171


educators seem to know very little about microcom-puters and their potential as a teaching tool (Yuen,1984; Foe II, 1984). In addition, experienced voca-tional educators tend to be less receptive to educa-tional computing than inexperienced and preserviceteachers (Yuen, 1984; Foell, 1984). Inservice activi-ties should emphasize "hands-on" learning activitiesusing "user-friendly" software and de-emphasize thetechnical aspects of computers and programming(Foel!, 1984; Welty, 1987).

In terms of preservice, Hunter and Aiken (1987)recommend integrating computer-based tools andmethods into the curriculum in contrast to address-ing computer technology as an isolated subject. Inaddition, preservice teachers need to learn how touse the computers and software packages common-ly found in schools.

Given the financial constraints in education, it isoften impossible to replicate the computer technolo-gy found In business and industry. Therefore, bothpreservice and inservice teachers need to learn howto simulate real world technology using educationle.fel software and hardware. In addition, they needto learn how to identify and present the concepts be-ing simulated and transfer them to real world applica-tions. For example, industrial educators need to beable to teach the concept of electronic publishing byhaving students make a poster or newsletter on amicrocomputer.

Summary

Computer tertmology represents one of themost powerful and versatile information processingtools developed by humankind. Vocational andpractical arts educators can not ignore a technologyas pervasive in our culture as computer technology.If they are going to address the technological literacyneeds of their students, they need to contribute toand build on the computer literacy movement in theirschool. To achieve this goal, preservice and inser-vice teacher education programs need to producecomputer literate educators.

References

Barger, R. N. (1983). Computer literacy: Toward aclearer definition. T.H.E. Journal,11(2), 108-112.

Foell, N. A. (1984). Microcomputers and vocationalindustrial education: The industrial cooperativeeducation teacher's perceptions. Journal of In-&stria, Teacher Education, 22(1), 6-13.

Hunter, B., & Aiken, R. (1987). The evolution ofcomputer courses in vocational education: Per-spectives and directions. T.H.E. Journal,14(7),54-57.

Hunter, B., & Aiken, R. (1984). Computer literacy invocational education: Perspectives and direc-Wm. State-of-the-art Paper. Knoxville: Ten-nessee University, Office of Research in HighTechnology Education. (ERIC Document Re-production Service No. ED 254 620)

Kay, A. (1984, September). Computer software.SgiolificAmmican. 53-59.

Lockheed, M., Hunter, B., & Anderson, R. (1984).rgomputerikeracylDellnitandsumt itemsfor assessment in school. Washington, DC: Na-tional Center for Educational Statistics.

Tesolowski, D. G., & Roth, G. L. (1985, December).Identification. verification. and importance ofcompetencies for applying the microcomputer invocational education. Paper presented at theAmerican Vocational Association Convention,Atlanta, GA. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 264 392)

Watt, D. H. (1980). Computer literacy: What shouldschools be doing about it? Classroom Comput-er News, 1(2), 26-27.

Welty, K. D. (1987, March). Facilitatina chancrethrough hands-on worlkshops. Paper present-ed during the International Technology Educa-tion Association Convention, Tulsa, OK.

Yuen, C. (1984). An analysis of vocational teacher'sunderstandina of and attitudes toward using mi-crocomputers in vocational education. Universi-ty Park: Pennsylvania State University, Depart-ment of Vocational Education. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 241 744)

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Technolog:r,alLiteracy Symposium 183

Computer Anxiety Levels Related toComputer Use and Teacher Inservice Educational Needs

Introduction

Managing the increased use of microcomputersat all educational levels continues to be one of thegreatest challenges facing educators of the 1980s.U.S. News and World Report (Malpiedi, Papritan, &Lichtensteiger, 1985) estimated that educators andstudents in 86% of all U.S. schools now have accessto microcomputers. Seventy-five percent of the stu-dents and teaches studied by Marshall and Bannon(1985) agreed that people will not be able to escapethe influence of computers on their lives.

Simply having microcomputers in the schoolsserves few purposes unless students and teachersare prepared to use them. Authors (Willis, Johnson,& Dixon, 1983; Zahniser, Long, & Nasman, 1983;Becker, 1984) agree that the uses for computers ineducation include the following: computer assistedinstruction (CAI), computer managed instruction(CM!), computer literacy, and occupational applica-tions - word processing, data base management, andword processing. Vocational educators tend to sup-port the importance of students and teachers learn-ing to use occupational application so, .rare and cur-riculum related software used as computer assistedinstruction software. New York vocational educatorsindicated that occupational application software wasused most frequently and while teachers agreed thatthe ability to use CAI was important, in practice, CAIwas seldom to never used (Sutphin, 1984). Malpie-di, Papritan, and Lichtensteiger (1985) discoveredthat Ohio teachers used commercial farm manange-ment programs most frequently for instruction andHenderson (1985) concurred that Illinois teacherswere using agriculture related software programsmore than other applications.

Beyond the status of microcomputer use anddesired competencies, few studies have investigat-ed the barriers to using compu is in terms of theusers attitude toward computers. Kanderson(4985); Malpiedi, Papritan, and Lichtensteiger

Barbara J. MalpiediAgricultural Education

North Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North Carolina

(1985); and Foster and Miller (1985) indicated thatbarriers to computer use included expensive soft-ware, access to computers, lack of computer teach-ing materials, and lack of computer knowledge. Wig-gins and Trede (1985) studied the influence of stu-dent characteristics on achievement in a computerprogramming class. They concluded that mathemat-ic ability was one of the prime indicators of computerachievement. While microcomputer ownership, for-mal computer instruction, and programmable calcula-tor experience did not significantly influence studentachievement, prior computer experiences tended toinfluence student attitudes toward computers whichin turn influenced student achievement. While nu-merous barriers have been identified, all have thepitential for impeding the use of microcomputersand also serve as blocks toward developing a posi-tive attitude toward computer.

Teachers and students generally have a positiveattitude toward using computers (Jay, 1981; Marshall& Bannon, 1985). However, Norris and Lumsden(1984) quickly pointed out that educators seem tobe positive about computers as long as the functionof computers was removed from their classrooms.Komoski (1984) and Montag, Simonson, and Maurer(1984) contended that computer anxiety was a viablebarrier to the use of computers by students, teach-ers, and administrators. Individuals who experiencecyberphobia, the fear of interaction with computers,rarely enrolled in computer courses (Cowlishaw,1986). However, enrollment in university computerclasses was significantly increased after Cowlishawconducted short courses for those who exhibitedhigh levels of computer anxiety. W.ggins and Trede(1985) concluded that students who were self-motivated to enroll in their computer class had a morepositive attitude and performed better than thosewho were not self-motivated.

Need for the Study

The National FFA computer study revealed that

173

184 Computer Anxiety Levels

only 5% of the vocational agriculture departments inNorth Carolina were using microcomputers in 1984.Over the past three years, the number of microcom-puters in the schools has increased. The North Car-olina State Department of Public Instruction hasidentified required computer competencies for alleducators and competencies for educators relatedto their content areas. However, during the samethree year period, only one on-campus universitycomputer course and three state-sponsored work-shops have been offered for vocational agricultureteachers. No formal plan for computer education hasbeen developed. There is a lack of evidence as towhich teachers are using microcomputers, how theyare using them, and what barriers-particularty attitudi-nal barriers-still impede the adoption of microcompt-ers by the teachers. Before systematic microcom-puter instruction can be conducted in the state, thisstudy is needed to address these concerns.

Purpose and Objectives

The purpose c4 this study wa"o determine thedegree of microcomputer use and the computer atti-tudes of North Carolina vocational agriculture teach-ers in order to more effectively deliver computer edu-cation. A secondary purpose of the study was to ex-plore possible relationships between teacher charac-teristics and computer anxiety levels, a measure ofcomputer attitude.

Research questions answered by the studywere as follows:

1. How much computer educational training andexperience did the teachers possess andwhat were the relationships of prior educationwith computer use?

2. To what degree were teachers using microcom-puters, particularly as a tool for teaching, forclass preparations, and for other school and-personal related work?

3. What computer anxiety levels were exhibitedby the teachers and how did the mean levelcompare to national norm?

4. What charateristics were associated with com-puter anxiety levels ?

5. What were the computer educational needs ofthe teachers ?

Methods and Procedures

The study was of the descriptive research type.Descriptive research studies are designed to obtaininformation concerning current status of phenomena

(Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1985). This was a surveystudy with the major purpose of describing selectedcharacteristics and exploring possible relationshipsby employing correlational techniques (Isaac & Mi-chael, 19e3).

The Sample

A population of 372 teachers was identified fromthe 1985 - 1986 North Carolina Directory of Voca-tional Agriculture Teachers. Revisions includingteacher retirements and position changes as notedby the State Department of Public Instruction wereused in determining the accurate number of currentteachers as of August 1,1986. Sample size was cal-culated from the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formulaso that the sample proportion p would be within ±.05 of the population proportion P with a 95% levelof confidence. A sample size of 189 teachers wasrequired for the study. Each member of the popula-tion was assigned a three digit number. Using a tableof random numbers and a random start, the 189 par-ticipants for the study were drawn.

Instrumentation

The survey used in this study consisted of twoparts. The first part elicited demographic, academic,and computer training information from the respon-dents. The North Carolina State Ur.iwarsity Agricultu-ral Education faculty reviewed Part I to establish thecontent validity of the instrument. Revkions to im-prove readability were made. A five point Likert-typescale was adopted from instrumentation validated byHerring to measure degree of computer use. Pointsof the scale were defined as: 1 .,i very rarely, 0 > 1hrs/day; 2 .. rarely, 1-2 hrs/day; 3 - some, 3-4 hrs/day; 4 - often, 5 - 6 hrs/day; 5 - very often, 7 + hrc/day.

The second part of the survey was the Comput-er Opinion Survey (Maurer & Simonson, 1984) usedto measure computer anxiety levels by obtaining acomputer anxiety index (CAIN) score. The instru-ment consisted of 26 computer attitude statements,such as *Computers are too complicated to be ofmuch use to me', to which respondents indicatedtheir agreement, 1 .. strongly agree to 6 - stronglydisagree. A raw score from 26 to 156 was divided by26 to obtair the CAIN score. The lower the score,the lower computer anxiety and more positive the at-titude. Reliabilty estimates were as follows: the test/retest coefficient of stability was .90 and the Cron-bach's coefficient alpha measuring internal consis-tency was .96.

1 7 4


Administradon

The surveys were administered by the re-searchers in August at the1986 North Carolina Voca-tional Education Workshop. Surveys were mailed tothose teachers included in the sample who did notcomplete a survey at the workshop. Two follow-upmailings of the surveys were done at two week inter-vals. Miller and Smith (1983) discussed several tech-niques for handling non-response error, one ofwhich was comparing early and late respondents.Since research has shown that late respondents aresimilar to non-respondents, one way to estimate thenature of replies of non-respondents is through laterespondents. Third round respondents were treat-ed as late respondents. No statistical differenceswere found on selected variables between confer-ence participants (early respondents) and late re-spondents. The technique was also chosen in orderto dispel! any suspicion that there were differencesbetween those who did and did not attend confer-ence. Finding no differences, the researchers werejustified in generalizing from the respondents to thesample. One hundred sixty-three teachers returnedcompleted surveys for an 86% return rate.

Data Analyses

The StatView microcomputer program(Feldman & Gangnon, 1985) was used for the dataanalysis. Measures of central tendency, distribution,frequencies and/or percentages were reported todescribe demographic, academic, computer educa-tional training, amount of computer use, and profes-sional characteristics. Data were examined and metthe necessary assuptions thus permitting the re-searcher to use relational statistics. Correlation coef-ficients appropriate to the data level were used to ex-plore the relationships between the respondents'characteristics as well as degree of computer useand the respondents' CAIN scores. In order to ex-plore relationships between nominal data and CAINscores, the scores were grouped as high (greaterthan one standard deviation above the mean), mod-erate, and low (greater than one standard deviationbelow the mean) anxiety scores. The alpha level wasset at .05 a prior. Davis Conventions (1971) wereused for the interpretation of the strength of the rela-tionships. The conventions used were as follows:

Coefficient.70 or higher.5010 .69.30 In .49.1010 .29.01 to .09

DescriptionVery strong associationSubstantial associationModerate associationLow associationNegligible association

Lknitations of the Study

Conclusions of the study were limited to thosewho were identified as vocational agriculture teach-ers in North Carolina for the 1986 -1987 school yearas of August 1, 1986. The study represented a*slice of time" and what was true for that time period.The researchers can not control local school systemactivities which might include the sudden infusion ofmicrocomputers and microcomputer instruction local-ly. Therefore, the results of the study must be re-garded as short term. Survey research is also de-pendent on the honest reporting of the participantsand data were interpreted with that assumption inmind.

Findings

Demographic, Academic, and ProfessionalCharacteristics of the Sample

Ninety-five percent of the respondents weremale. The age groups of the respondents included:21-30 years (26.54%); 31-40 (33.33%); 41-50(19.14%); 51-60 (19.14%); and over 60 years(1.85%). All respondents held college degrees with97 bachelor, 63 masters, 2 associate, and I six yeardegrees. College math grades earned by the re-spondents (A4 points) were reported by the re-spondents to be mostly Bs (47.85%), followed by Cs(39.88%) and 12.27% were As.

Most of the teachers were production agricultureteachers (41.72%). Others primarily taught horticul-ture (29.45%) followed by agriculture mechanics(14.11%), introduction to ag/natural resources(8.60%), forestry (2.45%), natural resources(2.45%), prevocational (.61%), and other (.61%).

Computer Experience and Education

Only 89 (54.6%) teachers have ever used mi-crocomputers. Of those who used computers, Applecomputer was the predominant brand used(35.58%) followed by Radio Shack (14.72%). Elev-en percent of the teachers actually owned a micro-computer.

A lack of formal computer course training wasevident as 122 or 74.85% of the teachers had nevertaken a college credit computer course. Thirty teach-ers or 18.40% completed one semester course,eight (4.91%) completed two semester courses, andthree (1.84%) completed 3 semester courses. Onthe other hand, 109 (66.87%) indicated that theyhad Participated in computer workshps or inserviceactivities, while fifty-four (33.13%) teachers had not.The mean number of hours spent workshops/

1 75


inservice was 9.62 hours with a standard deviation of12.56, a range equal to 70, and a median of 4. Thepositvely skewed distribution indicated that while theteachers had computer training, the amount of train-ing for the most part was very limited.

Was there d relationship between computer edu-cation and hours of computer use by the teachers ?As shown in Table 1, there was a significant moder-ate association between the number of computercourses taken and the number of daily hours theleachers use computers. A significant low associa-tion was found to exist between the number of work-shop/inservice hours completed and the number ofdaily hours the teachers used computers.

Table 1

Relationships Between Types of ComputerEducation and Computer Use

Typed Hours alDellyComputer Education Computer Use

University computer courses .323'Hours of workshop/ inservicecomputer training 291'

Note. Relationships determined by Pearson ProductMoment Correlation Coefficient, Pearson r.*p < .01

Educational Computer Uses

On the average, teachers used microcomput-ers .55 hours per day with a standard deviation of1.31. In terms of specific uses, of those who usedcomputers, 36.20% used them as a teaching tool(CAI); 32.51% for school related and other personalwork, applications i.e. correspondence, inventory,budgets, etc.; and 28.22% for preparation of coursematerials, student grades (CMI).

Teachers perceived that managing student in-formation was the most important use for microcom-puters (Table 2). That use was followed by teaching,nonstudeM school related work, networks, personalmanagement, and entertainment. When the rank-ings of those teachers who used computers wascompared to the rankings of 'hot:a who did not usecomputers, the orderings of the twee were identical.

Table 2

Rank Ordered Means of Perceived Use for theMicrocomputer in Education

Rank Computer Use Mean

1 Managing student infor'ation (grades, SOEreaxds,etc.) 2.26

2 Teaching students (tutorials,simulations, ed games,etc.) 2.50

3 Nonstudent school relatedwork (letters, reports, mail1st et.) 2.81

3.854 Networks (Agri-Data,

CompuServe, et)

5 Personal management(budget, tows, etc) 4.00

6 Entertainment (non ed game) 5.51

Note. Respondents ranked the use from1 = most important to 6 = least important.n = 163

Computer Attitude and Anxiety Levels

Teachers tended to be more positive towardusing computers than negative. Out of a possible156 points, scores ranged from 26 to 132, with amean of 64.45, standard deviation of 21.39, medianequal to 61.5 and a mode of 39. The convertedmean CAIN score for the teachers, obtained by divid-ing the raw score by 26, was 2.48 with a standard de-viation of .82, Md - 2.36, and Mo =1.5. No statisti-cally significant or practical difference was found be-tween the North Carolina teachers' mean score,2.48, and the national norm group mean 'or teach-ers, 2.44 (t = .597, df=159, p < .375).

Relationships Between Selected Characteristics andCanputer Anxiety

Statistically significant (p <.01) moderate nega-tive associations were found for the relationships be-tween computer anxiety and the following character-istics: daily hours of use, r = -.361; degree of com-puter use as a teaching tool, r . -.381; degree ofcomputer use for course preparation, r . -.367; de-gree of computer use for other school and personaluse, r = -.387. As the degree of computer use in-creased, anxiety levels decreased. Low significant

176


negative relationships were found between thenumber of computer college courses taken and anx-iety scores (r. -.192, p< .05) and between the num-ber of workshop/inservice hours and anxiety scores(r. -.243, p< .01). It follows that as computer educa-tion increased, computer anxiety scores decreased.

Age and ones computer anxiety score are notindependent (X2 . 15.277, C.V.-12.59, df.6, p<.05). A statistically significant (p <.01) positive lowassociation existed between age and computer anx-iety (Cramer's V ..219). College math ability was in-dependent of the anxiety score (X2 . 7.132, C.V.-9.49, df-4, p< .05). A low association betweenmath ability and computer anxiety scores ( Cramer's V. .149) was not significant. The area of teaching -production agriculture, horticulture, agricultural me-chanics, and others combined - was also indepen-dent of the anxiety score (X2 . 5.178, C.V.-12.59,df . 6, p< .05). A low association, Cramer's V . .127,was found but not significant.

Computer Educational Needs

Computer attitudes and educational needs ofteachers by districts are displayed in Table 3. Only42.94% of all responding teachers indicated interestin participating in credit computer courses while65.64% were interested in computer workshops.State staff members were interested in knowing thefrequency and percentage of teachers per vocation-al education district who desired computer coursesand/or computer workshops. The mean computeranxiety level held by teachers in that district providesan indication as to the computer attitudes held byteachers in those areas of the state. There was norelationship Aween the teachers' anxiety score andtheir desire for computer courses, Cramer's V = -.173. A low negative relationship that was statisticallysignificant did exist between the teachers' anxietyscores and their desire for workshops (Cramer's V = -.212, p< .01).

The teacher computer attitudes in North Caroli-na tend to be more positive in the central part of thestate - districts 3,4,5, and 6, than in the western area- districts 7 and 8 or the eastern and southern coastalareas - district 1 and 2. Teachers in district 1 tend tobe negative toward using computers although 50%are receptive to courses and 57% to workshops.Teachers in district 7 and 8 had higher mean anxietylevels than other teachers but both had more lowscores than high. At least 50% er more of the teach-ers in districts 3,4, and 8 desired computer courses.The desires for workshops were strongest for dis-tricts 2,4,5, and 6.

Table 3

Mitt! Computer Anxiety Levels and theTeachers' Desire for Courses and Workshops

Iselin &Milani Desire Coke121alrist (n) fire 22. petit it_ Cergirskeffe illarialll 211

1 14 2.50 1.00 2.61 3.69 7 50.0 7 50.0

2 26 2.52 .54 2.40 - 5 19.2 22 84.6

3 30 2.46 .72 2.43 2.73 16 53.3 16 53.3

4 26 2.26 .68 2.19 - 16 55.2 19 65.5

e" 15 2.32 .84 2.11 1.50 6 37.5 13 81.3

6 15 2.39 .85 2.04 1.73 6 40.0. 11 73.3

7 23 2.77 .98 2.90 2.00 8 40.0 11 55.0

8 13 2.74 1.20 2.33 1.50 6 53.8 7 58.3

Note. Total number of respondents, n=161. Per-centages do not total 100%; they represent percent-ages of teachers in each district responding yes tocourses and to workshops.

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the follow-ing conclusions relevant to North Carolina vocationalagriculture teachers were warranted:

1. Computer education for North Carolina voca-tional agriculture teachers has not occurred toa great extent. With additional education,teachers should increase their microcomput-er usage.

2. Although there is limited computer use by theteachers, they identified important uses ofthe microcomputer as a management andteaching tool, consistent with the literature.

3. Teachers' attitudes toward computers aregenerally positive and do not differ from thenational norm. With increased computeruse,the anxiety levels felt by computer usersshould diminish.

4. As higher anxiety levels are associated withincreased age, computer workshop /courseinstructors need to be sensitive to providingsuccessful experiences for all, especially old-er students. On the other hand, math abilityand teaching area were not associated withcomputer anxiety levels and should not beviewed as indicators of computer anxiety.

5. Teachers are most likely to participate in

177


computer workshops and seam*, courseseven though higher computer anxiety levelsare associated with the desire for computerworkshops.

Recommendation

1. A systematic computer education plan shouldbe developed and implemented immediatelysince computer use is associated with com-puter education. Short workshops or otherpositive experiences with the computershould be developed for those teacher whohave scored high on the anxiety index.

2. Computer courses and workshops shouldcontinue to emphasize using the computeras an instructional and as a management toolin the classroom.

3. The Computer Opinion Survey should be ad-ministered before instruction as it provides auseful indication as to which students needthe most help in diminishing negative com-puter attitude barriers.

4. Further research should be conducted to in-vestigate those characteristics which are thebest predictors of computer anxiety.

5. Further research needs to be conducted todetermine how various instructional tech-niques affect computer attitude and learning.

References

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieh, A. (1985). Intro-ducto to research in education (3rd ed.). NewYork: CBS College Publishing.

Becker, H. J. (1984). Computers in schools today:Some basic considerations. Amnon Journal ofEducation, 22(1), 22-39.

Cowlisha , C. (1986). Computing for the terrified.perspectives in Computing, ft(2) 16-19.

Davis, J. A. (1971). Elonionianimilexonalysk.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Feldman, D., & Gagnon, J. (1985). Stet View: TheGriakidatislicaalillixthLibitiaCiAlith. Cala-basas, CA: Brain Power.

Foster, R. M., & Miller, W. W. (1985). Microcomput-ers in Nebraska and Iowa vocational agricultureprograms: Competency assessment and usage.Paper presented at the Central States Research

Meeting in Agricultural Education, Chicago, IL.

Hendersou, J. (1985). Microcomputer use in Illinoisvocational agriculture programs. The Journal ofIhe American Association_oLTeacher Educatorsjd Agriculture, 2.6(3) 2-11.

Herring, D. (in progress). Survey of computer/gomputing resource utilization by vocational ad-ministrators, Unpublished doctoral dissertation.North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.

Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1983). Handbook in re-search and evaluation. San Diego, CA: EdITS.

Jay, T. B. (1981). Computerphobia: What to doabout it. Educational Technology, 21,47-48.

Komoski, P. K. (1984). Educational computing: Theburden of insuring quality. at Delta Kaopan,fd(4), 244248.

Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. M. (1970). Determiningsample size for research activities. Educationaland Psychological Measurement, an, 607-610.

Malpiedi, B. J., Papritan, J. C., & Liehtensteiger, M.(1985). Status of microcomputer hardware, soft-ware, and instructional needs for vocational agri-culture in Ohio. Paper presented at the Cen-tral States Research Meeting in Agricultural Edu-cation, Chicago, IL.

Marshal, J. C., & Bannon, S. H. (1985). Computerknowledge and attitudes in rural settings. Besearch in Rural Education, 2(4), 155-158.

Maurer, M. M., & Simonson, M. R. (1984). Computeropinion survey (Version AZT. Ames: Iowa StateUniversity.

Miller, L., & Smith, K. L. (1983). Handling nonre-sponse issues. Journal of Extension, 21, 45.

Montag, M., Simonson, M. R., & Maurer, M. M.(1984). Test administrators manual for, the stan-dardized test of computer literacy and computeranxklyhdox. Ames: Iowa State University.

National Future Famiers of America (1984). Prelimi-nary report of microcomputers in vocational agri-vIture education. Washington, DC: UnitedStates Department of Education.

Norris, C. M., & Lumsden, B. (1984). , 'motional dis-tance and the attitudes of educators towardcomputers. T.H.E. Technological Horizons inEducational Journal, 11, 120-132.

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North Carolina Department of Public Instruction.(1985). 1985-1988 North Cp.rollna VocationalAgricutruce Directory. Raleigh, NC: Division ofVocational Education, Agriculture; Education-Section.

Sutphin, D. (1984). agglicallooistriamanguirareand need for computer competency develog:

rcrogulgelloxyglIsidalgdoullAgalsecondary andextension ts. Paper presented at the Na-tional Agricultural Education Research Meeting,New Orleans, LA.

Wiggins, T., & Trede, L. D. (15 . An evaluation ofstudent characteristics, sto I attitudes, andteachinu -ethods on st.sm achievement in anagricultural computer programming course.The Journal of the American Asseation of

Teacher Educators in Agriculture, 2fi(4), 34-42.

Willis, W. W., Johr.,ton, D. L., & Dixon, R N. (1983).Camaideraileaching,AndleaminaL A gukielausing computers in schools. Beaverton, OR: Di-lithium Press.

Zahnizer, G., Long, J. P., & Nasman, L. 0. (1983).julicro computers in vocational eauggion, clut:rent and future uses. Columbus: The OhioState University, The National Center for Re-search in Vocational Education.

17 i


Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignoranceto Thoughtful Uncertainty

The Energy Dilemma

Energy Is classically defined as the ability to per-form work. This definition in itself is somewhat isolat-ed until the implications are examined from severalstandpoints of relevance. Energy basics dictate thatour supply of this commodity is derived through"energy conversion" techniques that are utilized toconvert fossil fuels, solar, and nuclear energy into ul-timately useful forms. These forms of useable ener-gy manifest themselves in the actual production ofgoods aad services which Is the total gross nationalproduct of our society as we knot, It. Therefore, it isimperative that all persrms within our society be"energy literate" to some degree. Furthermore,since energy directly affects our standard of living, in-dustrial productivity, eccnomic well being, and a hostof other related fai.;tors, those persons involved intechnical education have a tremendous opportunityand obligation to include "energy literacy" in theirhierarchy of educational objectives.

An acute energy awareness was brought aboutL; the Arab oil embargo during which time Americanslined up to purchase a dwindling supply of higherpriced fossil fuels to power their automobl'es. Gov-ernment reacted by initiating tax credits for solarhome systems, lowering vehicle speed limits,preaching energy conservation, and a host of othermeasures designed to ultimately render us " enegy

as a nation. During which time manythought that our energy problems would be an-swered by a scientific miracle while others assured usthat solar energy was really the answer and that therewas enough *free" energy from the sun for our soci-ety to once again flourish as we always did. Otlermore exotic energy answers were advocated in theforms of geothermal energy, wind farms, biomasstechniques, conversion of vegetation to alcohol, andothers. Many Americans discussed these as they"topped oft their automobile gasoline tanks at everyopportunity.

Dr. Thomas A. SingletaryIndustrial Technology Department

Georgia Southern CollegeStatesboro, Georgia

The industrial reaction during the 1970's wassomewhat more definite and constructive. Many in-dustries converted oil-fired systems to coal andadopted cogenen on and heat recovery systemswhere practical. Some of our industrial manufactur-ing segments, such as those engaged in plasticsand petro-chemicals, had little choice and raised theirpricing in order to reflect their base petroleum costs.There was also much talk about synthetics and othersubstitutes deemed possible to alleviate the fossilfuel extractives. However, the vast majority of theseschemes never materialized and were shelved with asigh of relief as OPEC floundered in disagreementover oil pricing and production quotas. In short, weopened our pocketbooks a little wider, purchasedenough petroleum from abroad to conduct busi-ness, and stuck our heads in the sand.

The Reaction of American Education

The Russians launched their first satellite"Sputnik" in 1957. This launching created a mam-moth effort to overhaul American education and aligncurricula with increased math and science require-ments. Congress endorsed 'forts to fund theseeducational improvement thrusts at a level unprece-dented by today's standards. Engineering curriculawas revamped to include increased mathematics andmore abstract design content to enable engineers tocope with the demands of the aerospace industry. Infact, this led to a design oriented, highly abstract en-gineering graduate that had difficulty contributing tomanufacturing industry upon graduation without asubstantial and costly "in-serve" training period.Henceforth, engineering technology was born to fillthis void.

Other reactions to the Russian "Sputnik" werethe revision of textbooks, reviewing and equippinglaboratories, and a general endorsement of any activ-ity that might support science, math, or engineering.Industrial arts, vocational education, end other tech-nical education students could even be seen

u

192 Energy literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty

tinkering with small rockets both Inside and outsidethe laboratory.

In retrospect, American education reacted to thedemands of aerospace during a demonstrated timeof need. However, the crisis of energy in Americahas largely been Ignored even though its implica-tions are equally as important. The science curriculais probably addressing energy education more sothan is technical education. However, science doesinclude the introduction of energy units such asJoules, BTU's, watts, and the like in a :tether frag-mented manner. This results in the science studentnot understanding the American energy picture as awhole. The world energy crisis to typically not ad-dressed whatsoever by the exact science curriculumnor the social science programs within our schools.Furthermore, an analysis of the various national dir-ectories of industrial teacher educators reveals thatiess than thirty (30) technicai educators indicate"energy" as a part of their teaching repertoire or areaof expertise. It is therefore evident that energy edu-cation is presently not an organized thrust withinAmerican education.

Energy Literacy instrument

The author constructed inttrumerd includedwithin the body of this paper was .designed to ascer-tain the level of energy literacy of educators. This in-strument was administered to the following groupsduring the period May 1985 to March 1987:

1. 120 baccalaureate aspiring college studentsenrolled in technical education academicmajors.

2. 48 public school teachers of science, math,and social science currently teaching in thesoutheastern U.S.

3. A cross section of 30 vocational teachers cur-rently employed within the southeastern U.S.

4. 62 senior citizens enrolled in the national El-derhostal program from throughout the U.S.

The results of the administration of the energyliteracy instrument to the previously cited groups wasless than gratifying, however, they did confirm thefact that all groups were indeed not energy literate asmeasured by the instrument. It' was interesting tonote that no one single group scored significantlybetter comparatively speaking. However, the 120college students scored best with a grand pdpula-tion mean raw score of 41.2 percent. The populationmean raw score of all participating groups was only39.4 percent. The group of 30 vocational teachers

scored lower than all other groups with a populationmean of 36.4 percent.

Through discussions, many of the individualswithin the tested groups indicated that they guessedat many test items and that energy wa ot a part oftheir educational preparation.

This author offers the aforementioned "EnergyLiteracy Survey" as an integral part of this paper. Aseducators, perhaps through the process of intro-spection, the void of energy literacy within technicaleducation is best illustrated by your personal reac-tions.

ENERGY LITERACY SURVEY

INSTRUCTIONS: PLEASE DO NnT WRITE ONTHIS INSTRUMENTUSE ANSWER SHEET FORALL RESPON.4ES.

Respond to the energy related items containedherein .(:0 the best of your ability. Please do notguess if you have insufficient knowledge to respondto a particular item. In such instances, indicate yourlack of knowledge by selecting choice "5" which is la-beled "?". This energy literacy survey has no effecton your grade.

1. Which segment of our society utilizes the mostenergy?

1. Residential2. Commercial3. Industrial4. Transportation5. ?

2. Most of our electrical energy is presently pro-duced from:

1. Water power2. Oil3. Coal4. Nuclear5. ?

3. The electrical energy you consume in yourhome is billed or sold to you in what units?

1. Watts2. Kilowatt hours3. Amperes4. Vohs5. ?

4. Which of the following inare electrical appli-ances consumes the greatest amount of en-ergy on a monthly basis?

1. Television2. Refrigerator3. Hot Water Heater4. Electric Range/Stove5. ?

5. Which statement is true?

1. noel accounts for most of our known reservos of fossil fuels

2. Coal produces less air pollution than oil ornatural gas

3. We use more coal than oil or natural gas4. We must currently import massive amounts

of coal5. ?

6. Which energy source is used to produce morethan half of our electe,city?

1. Coal2. Natural gas3. Oil4. Nuclear5. ?

7. Which of the following fuels has more energyper unit volume?

1. Alcohol2. Gasoline3. Diesel Fuel4. Wood5. ?

8. Which of the following terms relates to the ratethat work is done?

1. Energy2. Joules3. Power4. Calories5. ?

9. Which tuel became our leading source in the1880's and played a major role in poweringour industrial revolution?

1. Wood2. Coal3. Oil4. Manpower5. ?

Technological Literacy Symposium 19311=111771M1Nr

10.Whicit t srgy source heats more than half ofthe homes and apartments in the U.S.?

1. Heating oil2. Natural gas3. Electricity4. Wood5. ?

11. Two of the statements below are correct,which is incorrect?

1. Under normal operating conditions, nuclearplants release only a very smallamount of pollution into the atmosphere.

2. Nuclear energy is used commercially for onlyone purpose: to produceelectricity.

3. The major problem for the nuclear industryhas been a poor long term safetyrecord.

12. Solar hot water collectors on the roof of ahouse are an example of which solar energyform?

1. Direct solar heating2. indirea 4olar heating3. Solar-thermal conversion4. Thermosiphon Principle5. ?

13. ti` hich if a potential aource of large amountsof liluid fuel for transportation?

1. Geothermal energy2. Shale3. Nuclear Fusin..4. Peanut oil5. ?

14. Which source makes no contribution what-soever to our energy supply?

1. Wind2. Solar3. Nuclear Fusion4. Fossil Fuels5. ?

15. How much of our total energy supply is usedto produce electricity?

1. Less than 20%2. 35%3. 50%4. 70%5. ?

1 8 2

194 Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignorance to Thoughtful Uncertainty.,..16. How much of the energy consumed In the 23. Which is the most economical speed for an

U.S. each year is used in the transportation automobile?sector? 1. 10 mph

1. 25% 2. 40 mph2. 50% 3. 55 mph3. 70% 4. 60 mph4. 90% 5. ?5. ? 24. Which of the following does not cause your

17. Which of the following electrical appliances is car to use more gasoline?most efficient? 1. Turning on headlights

1. Stove 2. Spt ,..iing up2. Refrigerator 3. Passing another car by accelerating3. TV 4. All of the above increase gasoline use4. Hot Water Heater 5. ?5. ?

18. Which fuel became our leading energysource in 1950 and remains so?

1. Natural gas2. Wood3. Oil4. Nuclear energy5. ?

19. What was the cost of foreign oil t3 the aver-age American family in 1980?

1. $1002. $4003. $6004. $15005. ?

20. What is the leading product made from oil?1. Heating oil2. Gasoline3. Electricity4. Lthricants5. ?

21. Which of the following woods contains moreheat energy?

1. Wet nine2. Dry pine3. Wet oak4. Dry oak5. ?

22. Which solar technology % most practical incost today?

1. Solar cells2. Solar power towers3. Solar space heating4. Solar water heating5. ?

25. Which is the mast efficient home heatingunit?

1. Fireplace2. Electric Furnace3. Heat pump4. Air tight wood stove5. ?

26. When washing clothes In hot water, it costsmore to heat the water than to operate thewashing machine?

1. True2. False3. ?

47. Fluorescent lights are about 3 times more ef-ficient than ordinary incandescent lamps interms of energy vs. light output.

1. True2. False3. ?

28. Electric lighting is one of the major consu-mers of electric energy in the home andthroughout our nation.

1. True2. False3. ?

29. It is more energy efficient to leave Qiectriclights turned "one father than to swrtcrl them"off" and use them only when needed.

1. True2. False3. ?

30. Refrigerators and air conditioners are actuallyheat pumps.

i ' ;TrueI rue

2. False

183


31. What is the typical lead time" from planningto actual production relative to an electricalpower generating plant?

1. 5 years2. 7 years3. 10 years4. 20 years5. ?

32. Concerning outside electric lighting, which ofthe following would be the most energy effi-cient in light vs. electrical power consumed?

1. Quartz- Iodide2. Fluorescent3. Mercury Vapor4. High Pressure Sodium5. ?

33. What portion of the average household ener-gy bill is attributable to domestic hot waterheating?

1. 30%2. 15%3. 7.5%4. 52%5. ?

34. Man-made radioactive materials are moredangerous than those that occur in natureper unit of measure.

1. True2. False3. ?

35. A coal fired electric generation plant produc-es no nuclear radiation pollution but may haveundesirable air emissions.

1. True2. False3. ?

36. One watt of electricai energy is equal toabout BTU's of heating capacity?

1. 3.142. 1.03. 6.254. 1,0005, ?

37. How: many electrical watts ,a equal to onehorsepower?

1. 1,0002. 235

9784. 7465, ?

38. Solar energy is safe and completely non-polluting.

1. True2. False3. ?

Energy Technology for Technical Educators

Since it has been demonstrated that energy ed-ucation and literacy is not presently being includedwithin the framework of teacher-education or voca-tional teacher preparation, it is proposed by this au-thor that such content be adopted. Also, since ener-gy literacy is desirable for all, technical educationcould serve as the vehicle for the insertion of energyeducation into the curricula of vocational, technical,and other industrial education instructional offerings.This can be viewed as a tremendous opportunity as

well as an obligation insofar as energy education isnot being presently addressed on an organized ba-sis by an educational sector.

Traditionally, vocationa; education has been of'less than college" wade. However, in many areas ofthe country, this is rapidly changing to render voca-tional-technical schools to the status of college creditgranting institutions. This change will mandate mam-moth changes in vocational faculty preparation andthe accreditation standards and procedures appliedto such institutions. This new role for vocational edu-cation could better allow it to offer such relevant"spin -off" occupational training related to energysuch as "energy management" or "energy instru-mentation." It is obvious that inservice vocationalteacher training will be required if energy educationis to be included.

Energy Education Topic Recommendations

This author proposes the following topical ener-gy education outline for inclusion within those tech-nical education segments, vocational or not, thatcher -4e to include such There is no claim for com-pie, less or uniqueness of content insofar as eachindividual topic cal be expanded or further subdivid-ed.

In your perusal of the proposed energy educa-tion topic outline, please mentally review the follow-ing objectives of this paper by answering the follow-ing questions:

1. Do you consider yourself energy literate?

2. Do you think our educators should beenergy aerate?

3. Should vocational r Aication serve the cause

196 Energy Literacy: The Changing of Cocksure Ignore-x.0 to Thoughtful Uncertainty

of energy education?

4. Is energy education knportant to aN?

5. Who, If anyone, is presently serving energyeducation needs?

PROPOSED ENERGYTOPIC SUBJECT OUTLINE

I. Basic Energy ConceptsA. Energy-Definitions and TypesB. WorkC. PowerD. Energy ConversionE. Laws of ..nergy Conservation- EnropyF. Energy Units and Conversions

IL Energy Consumption and UtilizationA. World Energy ConsumptionB. U.S. Energy ConsumptionC. Energy ConsurrObn vs. Industrial Produo

My .

D. Sectors of Society as Energy ConsumersIII. Fossil Fuel Energy-Derivation, Conversion

DistributionA. ONB. CoalC. Natural GasD. Electricity

IV. Solar EnergyA. PhotovoltaicsB. Diced SolarC. Indirect Solar

V. Other Energy Sources and AlternativesA. NuclearB. niamassC. 1 ..ermalD. WindE. Tidal PowerF. Wood

VI. Social - economic implications of EnergyA. Industrial ProductivityB. Gross Natbnal Product vs. EnergyC. Per Capita Energy Utilization: State, Nation-

al, WorldD. The Food-energy Equation

VII. Energy ConservationA. History of Energy UseB. Energy in the HomeC. Energy Rsiatod to TransportationD. Conservation Measures

1 S 5


Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers'Training Needs: The First Step in a Five-Year Statewide Inservice Plan

Marvin D. PattersonAssistant Director, Center for Instructional Development & Services

Florida State UnivereyTallahassee, Florida

introduction and Bacicground

The quality of education is largely dependentupon the professional competence of those who de-liver it. in vocational education, this competence isclosely rElated to currency of knowledge. Techno-logical changes are particularly acute in vocationaleducation, where advances in the workplace are rap-id and have an immediate impact on curricuium andinstruction. Thus, maintaining technical currencyamong vocational teachers is of paramountimportance.

The vocational staff development issue in Flori-da in 1985 was to determine how the State could doa better job of helping vocational teachers keep up-to-date technically and professionally. The legisla-ture responded by passing, as part of the TeacherEducation Center Act, a mandate for the Departmentof Education to develop a five-year statewide masterinservice plan for vocational education.

The plan was developed according to the out-comes of an invitational conference and the overallrecommendations of hundreds of individuals from di-verse groups. It was the consensus of these groupsthat the plan should:

1. Be a plan of action, rather than a repor. ofwhat exists,

2. Briefly report on the current status of voca-tional ins srvice to illustrate the need for anew approach,

3. Recognize the worth of existing systems inplace and build upon them,

4. Include plans of action with specific goals,objectives, activities, timelines, and resourc-es, arid

5. Be developmental in nature and use forma-tive evaluation as a part of implementation.

The master plan itself took on an identity when itwas named the Florida kiservice VocationalEducation Plan...The f-IVE plan.

Organization of the Plan

The FIVE Plan contains seven man sectionswithin the three phases of Development, Implemen-tation, and Evaluation:

DEVELOPMENT

1. Coordination2. Needs Assessmei it and Priorities

IMPLEMENTATION

3. Delivery Strategies4. Involvement_ of Business, Industry, and

Other Employers5. Certification6. Resources

EVALUATION

7. Data r Alection and Monitoring

Each section contains a goal, an overview, a narra-tive of the proposed plan, and finally a plan of actionin chart form.

Status of the Plan

The plan was submitted to the State Board ofVocational Education and received provisional ap-proval at its meeting of July 1, 1986. Full acceptancewas contingent upon the following provisions: (1) aninventory of all existing, inservice activities and re-sources would be compiled; (2) an assessment of in-service training needs among vocational instructionalpersonnel would be conducted; (3) regional publichearings would be held on the plan; and (4) the planwould be revised based upon these activities.

The plan itself had called for conducting a needsassessment and an inventory of inservice activitiesand resources. However, with the State Board re-questing these activities their credibility and impor-tance was strengthened.

A. Inventory of Inservice Activities

In Mirch, 1987 the statewide inventory of

1 R 6

198 Florida's Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs

inservice activities and resources was completed.Data for all 28 community colleges and 59 of the 67public school districts were collected. The inventorydocument clearly shows where technical updating isnot receiving much emphasis at the district and com-munity college level. Out of the 16,609 persons par-ticipating in inservice, 53% of them were engaged inprofessional updating activities vs. 43% In technicalupdating activities. (NOTE: the 16.609 figure is notunduplicated persons, i.e. an individual teacher mayhave been counted several times to reflect each up-dating activity experienced by the teacher.) Fourpercent of the activities were classified as a combina-tion of professional and updating activities. Thedata, which described 1985-86 activities showedthat a total of $1,741,241 was spent by Floridaschools to update their vocational teachers. Table 1summarizes the resources expended.

Table 1. Florida Inservice Dollars Spent for Vocation-al Teacher Updating (1985-86)

bunkoActivityPet

Went$ Spent

Sate$ Spent

Loots$ Spent

Other$ Spent Table

Updatino $197,863 $ 411,228 $140,445 $55,459 $ 804,994

Tech.Updadi ci 59,486 684,196 96,686 18,976 860,343

Both CO04 16,624 3,581 396 76,904

Totals $313,663 $1,112,047 $240,711 $74,83 $1,741241

B. The FIVE Plan Needs Assessment

The needs assessment was conducted be-tween August and October of 1986. All vocationalteachers in Florida school districts, community col-leges, and correctional institutions were given an op-portunity to indicate the extent of technical and pro-fessional updating they desired.

One hundred percent of the commur.!.y colleg-es and correctional institutions and ninety-four per-cent of the school districts participated in the volun-tary survey.

The statewide results of this needs assessmenthave been compiled by Florida Stale University forthe Division of Vocational, Adult, and Community Ed-ucation. The Division has used them to establish pri-orities for allocating federal dollars to provide inser-vice training.

Local and regional rep: ^s were distributed to allLocal Education Agencies (LEAs) for their use insetting local staff development priorities

Essentially, th9 needs assessment consisted cf

two instruments designed to identify teacher-perceived needs for (1) professional updating and(2) technical updating.

1. The Professional Needs Assessment

The professional needs assessment was enti-tled: 'The Vocational Self-Assessment Inventory"and was a stream-lined version of a needs assess-ment developed through a study by Dr. Roger Kauf-man at Florida State University.

Instructors were asked to rate their ability to per-form specific tasks related to competency-based in-struction and dealing with special needs students.They were also asked to rate the importance of thetask based on the following rating scale.

Rating Scale Ability to perform tasks:

0 - Not Able 2 - Adequately Able

1 - Somewhat Able 3 - Confidently Able

importance to you:

0 - Not Important 2 - Important

1- Low in importance 3 - Extremely Important

Computer analysis of the data from the instru-ment generated printouts which described respon-dents average ability and perceived importance forteaching competencies clustered along these di-mensions:

A. implementation for instructors/Administrators

B. External Needs AssessmentC. System PlanningD. Instructional 'ManningE. System DevelopmentF. Resource Determination and ProcurementG. System Evaluation and RevisionH. Special Needs

Part of the analysis included the calculation of thedifference between the Ability and Importance rat-ings, called the differential. It was suggested thatplanning inservice activities might take into consider-ation differential figures that described teachers per-ceived low ability to perform a competency that wasJudged of high importance. Competencies judgedto be of low importance and/or perceived high abilityby teachers would not be caused to plan inserviceon that topic.

2. Technical Updating Needs Assessment

The instrument that was designed to assess thetechnical updating needs of Florida's vocational in-structors was entitled: "The Vocational Education

18 ?


Inservice Training Request for Technical Updating."

The technical training needs assessment of in-structors was based upon the mandated curriculumstandards. In Florida, statewidt. Curriculum Frame-works and Student Performance Standards havebeen adopted by the State Board for Vocational Ed-ucation pursuant to Florida Statutes.

Through these standards do not dictate specifictechniques or instructional methodology, they mustbe adhered to by schools in planning, implementingand evaluating vocational courses and programs.The extent to which these standards are adheredforms a primary basis for program review and evalua-tion. The standards are revised and updated annual-ly based upon changes in occupations utilizing inputfrom business and industry employers, licensing andcrednetialing agencies, professional associations,and other -eoresentatives of the private sector.

1achnical updating needs related to specificPerformance Standards and Intended Outcomes ofthe Vocational Curriculum Frameworks were collect-ed through the "Vocational Education InserviceTraining Request for Technical Updating" form.Teachers were asked to respond with the amount oftraining they desired for each intended outcome inthe curricuLim frameworks) for their program(s). Therating scale uss..1v,as.

0 no training desired 2 - moderate trainingdesired

1 a little training desired 3 - much training de-sired

I number of different reports were generated bythe computer for state, regional and local use. For in-stance, one set of reports was prepared that sum-marized the perceived training needs across all In-tended Outcomes for all teachers who respondedstatewide in a particular vocational program.

Another type of report was provided for each vo-cational program which showed the average trainingneeds ahong instructors for each intended outcomein the program's Curriculum Framework. These re-ports aggregated the data statewide, by districts, bycommunity college and even by individual highschool when applicable. The reports have been es-pecially useful to state and local staff developers andvocational personnel in planning specific inserviceactivities. They have also been helpful in conductingjoint planning efforts between various districts andinstitutions. The needs assessment data providedinformation about teachers' perceived needs directlyrelated to classroom instructor and has consequently

made inservice more relevant to these needs.

Results of the needs assessments for individualschools, districts, community colleges, and G,tbnai institutions were disseminated through five re-gional meetings held in Fetruary. A complete train-ing package entitled: "Guidelines for Using the FIVEPlan Needs Assessment Data," was developed bythe Center for Instructional Develoment and Servic-es at FSU to assist LEAs in getting maximum utiliza-tion of the needs assessment results. In addition,the results were disseminated to state level Occupa-tional Program Specialists through a series of work-shops. 1 hese workshops focused on developingand using guidelines and criteria for setting prioritiesfor training in the various vocational program areas.Appendix F lists the criteria that was used for settingstatewide training priorities.

Although it la still too early to say exactly howuseful the FIVE Plan needs assessment has been,several significant activities have occurred:

1. Most, if not all, RFP staff-development dol-lrrs have been allocated based on theneeds assessment results;

2. A $300,000 sabbatical program for vocation-al teachers has been operationalized and ap-plicants' needs were validated using the as-sessment;

3. virtually all tecnical updating activitiesplanned for Florida's Annual Statewide Vo-cational Conference will be based on theneeds assessment;

4. All federal staff development doilars in voca-tional education must now be used for tech-nical updating;

5. There is some evidence of regional planningor consortium arrangements materializing asa result of common needs having been iden-tified; inservice activities are being jointlyplanned between neighboring districts and/or community colleges; and

6. Bridges are being built between vocationa'directors and district staff developers in or-der to meet the updating needs of vocation-al teachers.

What are some of the technological trainingreeds in Florida that might to of interest to this sym-posium? Let's look at the top two priorities identifiedoa a program-by-program basis:

lea

200 bridals Assessment of Vocational Teachers' Training Needs.m.=a,

Table 2

Florida's Top Statewide Technical Updating inservicePriodlies for Vocational Teachers (1986417)

Pmcr ElfatimiliolaktollattlaMa

Agabusineu Control Insects, diseases,and plied pathogens

Operate. maintain. maskequipment

Business Perform data processingactivities

Perform decision makingaciAties

Industrial Ms Demon. technologicalMeng al:cut Industrialsystems

Demon. computer Homyand wink:Eon

tearketbg Role of mangier and theEd. antrepreneur

Knowledge of merchandis-

kVactivities

Ha= Demon. empioyablity side

comfiti201

riming Proorams Tweets'

Farm Prod. ManagementAg ProductionOrnamental HorticultureNursery Operation

Ag. Business TechAg. MechwicsAg. ProductionOamental HorticulaxeNursery Operations

Accounting OperationsSecretarialClerk TypistReceptionist

Office Sys. & MenagementWord Processing 1.42t.

Practical Ind. Systems

Al LA. programs

Rai Estate Mar 'gementParts MarketingRestaurant Management

Marketing ManagementReel Estate Management

EMI'Health Cara Mr Anon!Message

Appty Computers in Medical Health link Coord.Tech Explor. of Health Occ.

hi& Demon. employability skills

Sake,

Apply first aid/CPR

aygragg Demon. employability skills

DcGualksilEducalka

Industrial Apply plasma arc skills

F4113120Appy basic heat gain, heal

ices, and design sidle

11002e Provide for special needs of

F.0O221MIGI frraiEilitGatiBB

Care for children with'pedal needs

Fire Sdenoe TechOATS

Correctional OfficerLaw EnforcementFirefightirp

Diwirsified CooperativeTraining

Welding

Ak ConditioningRerigeradon and HealingMechenIcs

Horne and Fvnly Mgmt

Chid Dev., Guidance andCwe

Reflections of the Researchers

Aftor all the forms had been submitted, the lastcomputer run had been completed, and the lastworkshops to disseminate the results were over, theresearch team reflected on the events of the pastyear. Truly some incredible things had occurred. Inlight of the fact that participation was voluntary, coop-eration by so many schools and teachers was al:raz-ing. State-level staff are encouraged by the demon-strated desire of schools to learn about the trainingneeds of their vocational teachers.

Still, there are measures that can be taken to im-prove the process, the number of useful returns,and the dissemination process. The following is a listof actions that the researchers propose to implementwhen the assessment Is repeated.

1. Since about 12% of the responses were un-usable due to erroneous information record-ed on the response sheets by teachers, averification system to provide essential infor-mation on the forms should be implement-ed...such as having local administrators vali-date the course, school and district identifi-cation numbers. It was impossible to checkthese at the state level since no teachernames appeared on the form to provide thebasis to correct or enter missing information.

2. Even though forms and sample reports werefield tested, as It turned out not all the re-ports have been found to be useful. For in-stance, the reports that showed data com-piled by school type (e.g. all high schools, allcommunity colleges) were not found to ben-efit either state or local planners. Streamlin-ing other reports was found to be desirableand will be incorporated in the next cycle.

3. A number of person complained about thelength of the professional instrument and itsapplicability to inservice planning. A numberof the items seemed to confuse or bewilderrespondents. A more thorough evaluationof the usefulness of this instrument is cur-rently underway.

4. Results from the assessment wL 'e providedto local vocational deans and directors. How-ever, the planning and organization of mostinservice activities are typically theresponsibility of others such as staff devel-opment personnel in districts. To maximizethe resources available to them, the voca-tional administrators have to communicate


with staff development personnel. Havingobserved the general lack of communicationbetween these groups, the researchers areinclined to recommend that more formal link-ages be established if necessary, and joinplanning be initiated within districts where itiEnot naturally occurring.

5. Refinements should be made in the analysisof the results. Priorities were set within pro-gram areas. Procedures, criteria and meth-ods for establishing priorities across programareas still need to be developed and imple-mented. In order to set priorities across pro-gram areas and fund activities, additionaldata besides needs may need to be provid-ed to decision makers. For instance, aweighting system might be developed andapplied to favor programs with certain charac-teristics, e.g. new and emerging programs,high technology programs, programs criticalto the economic development of the state orregion, etc.

6. Questions whether or not LEAs are gettingmaximum benefits from the assessment isbeing explored. For instance, feedback tolocal agencies is limited to the printed re-ports provided by the state. Future assess-ments may explore the feasibility of provid-ing schools with electronic access to theirown data. Menu-driven software could bedeveloped to allow districts and communitycolleges to merge and sort the data in manyways to provide information in planning localupdating activities.

The Future and the FIVE Plan

There are other indicators that the FIVE Plan andthe assessment have had an impact in Florida.Teachers may now use back-to-industry experiencessuch as summer work for their updating require-ments for recertification. Program Reviews will nowinclude a series of questions to determine if teachingstaff have had updating experiences that meet theirneeds reported through the FIVE Plan needs as-sessment. The statewide assessment results can beused to document professional and updating needsof vocational teachers in order to acquire additionalfunding from the Florida Legislature and other sourc-es so that more training activities take place.

Many examples can be found of counties and/orcommunity colleges Joining forces to pool their re-sources to meet common staff development needs.To assist persons planning activities, Florida has

available to every district and community college anelectronic communications network called the FloridaInformation Resource Network (FIRN), through whichelectronic mail, calendars or bulletin boards can beused to announce workshops, conferences, techni-cal updating activities, etc. However, since too fewadministrators and staff developers have used thesystem, a series of training sessions in the use ofFIRN should be implemented.

In addition, a new Clearinghouse for EconomicDevelopment has been established by the Depart-ment of Education to provide information to districtand community college inservice planners. Informa-tion availablt )ugh ACCESS (the title of the clear-inghouse) describes training proarams, education-business partnerships, names of inoi:duals in theprivate and public sectors that can act as 3ducationalconsultants, etc.

Conclusion

The Florida Division of Vocational, Adult antCommunity Education (DVACE) has long supportedthe professional and technical updating of vocationalinstructional personnel and believes in the value ofinservice training.

The FIVE Plan was developed in the belief thatcurrent inservice programs in Florida are generally ef-fective, accessilk, and responsive to the needs ofvocational educators. The important point for the fu-ture of vocational inservice in Florida is the belief thatit can be improved. The legislation calling for thisplan emphasized improvement in the current systemof vocational inservice, particularly in better use ofcurrant resources, increased use of technology, andfurther integration of the business community intothe process.

An overview of the plan will reveal that it is compre-hensiveyet reasonable; practical--yet bold; and rea-listicyet far-reaching. In time, it may prove to be oneof the more important planning documents ever de-veloped by the Department of Education. TheDVACE believes that this plan, which is the result ofa great deal of thought and communication, providesa framework for change that builds upon the suc-CeageS of the paii, accepts the challenges of thepresent, ani meets the needs of the future. If ;bri-de is to keep pace with changes in technology, infor-mation, and population, it can do no less than offerthe best possible plan for improving its most valuableeducational resource -- teachers. It is to all theseends that the FIVE Plan has been committed.

1 9(i


KART I

The Board Impact of Present and Future Comput-er Technology on Graphic Communication. (Boyer)

Introduction

Within the last 15 years, a near revolution hastaken place within graphic communication, and that isthe common use of the computer. Graphics classesat virtually all levels of the educational spectrum nowuse co--,puters to some degree. My comments willbe principally directed towards the drafting or engi-neering design portion of the graphic communica-tion field. Several major topics such as Technologicalliteracy, hardware, software, and trends will be dis-cussed.


The classroom at any level is the formal settingfor teaching people to use computers to help per-form tasks faster, more accurately, etc. It la in this set-ting that the terminology of both software and hard-ware can be presented to the students. Prior to the1970's drafting and design was accomplished usingmanual techniques. During this period, large indus-tries were using CADD (Computer-aided design anddrafting), but high costs prevented the use of thisequipment in schools. In the late 70's and early 80's,the introduction and wide acceptance of the PC(personal computer) level computers meant that thecost of computers had reached a level that theschools could afford. One area of graphic communi-cation, the design and drafting area, benefittedgreatly by this acceptance and the availability of com-puters and related software.

It is now common to visit a school design anddrafting area and see students using a computer tocreate designs and drawings. Through this expo-sure to computers and computer applications, thedoor has been opened for students to learn the no-menclature and techniques necessary to use thecomputer to their advantage.

The Impact of Computer Techno!ogy onGraphic Communication

Dr. Edwin T. Boyer and Gary R. BertolineDepartment of Engineering Graphics


It is interesting to note that in most school or in-dustrial settings a blend of some manual drafting andsome computer assisted drafting is common. Fewclasses are either 100% manual, or 100% computer.However, most students will at least have had someexposure to CADD during their technology class-room experiences.

Hardware

The computer is only a tool for the professionalto use to help produce more accurate work in lesstime than by manual methods. Many PC's are "stand-alone" computers. Others may be linked togetherwith a host computer; this is called networking. Net-working allows a person at any computer in the net-work to share and contribute to the common database of information within the network.

The cost of hardware has reached a level lowenough that most of the design and drafting pro-grams can afford one or more computers for theirclassroom. Those who complain about lack of fundsto purchase such equipment are generally trying topurchasa enough computer work stations to fill aclassroom all at once. Manufacturers often have srq-ciel educational packages to help solve this problerm

New technology reaches the market every day.Some of the more recent developments to be ac-cepted into common use are hard discs, laser disctechnology, laser printers, color printers, the ability tomake 35mm color slides from a screen image, etc.

If the past trend continues, the cost of the hard-ware will decrease even more, but the power, speed,and capacity of the computers will greatly increase.Within the past few years, "lap-top" computers haveproven this rationale.

At several universities, students aro providedcomputers to virk on, either in an academic build-ing, or in the student's dormitory room. Someschools require their students to purchase their owncomputer before enrolling in classes.

204 The Impact of Computer Technology on Graphic Communication

Software

When the PCs first entered the educational mar-ket, softare packages were available. Now there is anabundance of CADD software for any hardware sys-tem your purchase.

At first a knowledge of computer programmingwas necessary if a person was to create drawings us-ing a computer. Then the various software packagesbegan to emerge on the market. This user friendlysoftware allowed the user to create drawings by se-lecting from a set of displayed commands that ac-cessed internal programming. The user no longerhad to be a programmer. With the introduction of ic-ons, light pens, special keyboards, digitizing pads,etc., as input devices for this software, the commer-cial CADD packages are much more "user friendly."

One of the biggest problems concerning soft-ware is the length of time necessary for a beginninguser to master the menu format of commands in or-der to manipulate the program successfully. This isoften referred to as "up time." The biggest of thecommercial CADD programs are so powerful that ittakes a considerable number of hours to becomecompetent enough to maneuver around the pro-gram comfortably. The cost of some of software isstill very high. There is also a problem of unauthor-ized "pirating" of software. Site licenses are a step inthe direction of solving this problem, but they rely onvoluntary compliance.

Trend: in Hardware

Hardware changes will be evident from a market-ing standpoint. Computers will be smaller, morepowerful, and have more memory. As soon as thetechnology of screen readability improves, the "lap-top" computers will possibly replace the present PCconfiguration. This is true because the lap-tops willbe truly a portable computer that is at least as power-ful as todays PC's.

As for printers, advances will be made to improvethe speed and quality of the printer output. Evenmore fonts of type will be available than are presentlyoffered to the public.

The new computers will become more compati-ble with other manufacturer's computers. Tele-phone links will assume a much greater role in help-ing computers communicate with each other.

Trends in Software

Within the last few years software has becomemore powerful and easier to use. In the near futurecommercial CADD packages will hopefully become

Tess expensive. The formatting of these programsmust be presented in each a mrr that the "uptime" for the learner can be reduced isiderably.

3-Dimensional mod ling is presently available inexisting sophisticated and expensive CADD packag-es. The trend will be to offer 3-D solid modeling at amore affordable price. This should become one ofthe next major trends.

Technological advances indicate that voice rec-ognition is on the horizon. Some knowledgeablepeople predict that voice recognition will take theplace of typing input into the computer within just afew years. This could be a bit optimistic on the timescale, but it should happen in time.

Some university engineering programs requiretheir students to create their own CADD package inorder that the student can custom design a CADDpackage that meets his/her own specific needs.However, most educators see a decline in the needto program to create technical drawings. There lasuch a variety of good CADD programs available thatthe user ;.:an employ these within a knowledge ofprogramming. Some educators even suggest thatprogramming will son be the nearly exclusive domainof the computer science major.

Trends in General

Some people suggest that the computer willlead to the "paperless society." Hard copies will al-ways be needed, but data manipulation time and or-ganization can and will become greatly enhanced.

The engineer will become very adapt at creatingdesigns and drawings using sophisticated CADDpackages.

There will become a resurgence of the need forsketching skiPs for engineers and designers. Withgood sketching skills, seetches can be used to aid inthe creation of technical drawings on the computer.

2-Dimensional drawings will always have theirplace, but 3-dimensional drawings and graphics arejust on the horizon.

Self-paced instruction will have 16 place in thetraining of people to use CADD programs for theproduction of drawings.

The designer will not only communicate with thecomputer, but via networking or phone lines, com-munication with other designers and engineers willbe possible. The designer will also have a *eel linkto the machine tools used in manufacturing.

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Educational environments will have more hard-ware and software available for students to use. Theshift from manual drawing to computer drawing is ine-vitable. Manual drafting will become an "endangered3pecieJ," but should not become "extinct."

Summary

If you think there has been a lot of change in thelast fifteen years, be prepared, be flexible, and al-ways have an open mind for new hardware and soft-ware technology. The change in the future will beseveral times greater than in the past.

PART

Technological Literacy Nieds in Graphic Commu-nication. (Bertoline)

Introduction

The evolution of communications has closelyparalleled the technological development of human-kind. Through many years of development, draw-ings used as a means of communicating graphically,has evolved into a very complex system. Graphiccommunications is an extremely important compo-nent of many industries. The generation of graphicimages is rapidly being automated through the useof computers. The use of computers for graphiccommunications has slowly evolved until recently.The rapid development of computers used forgraphic communications has occurred because ofthe development of the microcomputer and relatedhardware and software. It is now possible to design,modify, document, illustrate, and produce cameraready copy of new products entirely with a computer.Much of this is accomplished using the graphic data

base of the design produced on a computer. In addi-tion, it is possible to control the manufacture and as-sembly of the product using the same graphic database. This automation of graphic communicationsthrough the use of computers and software is com-monly called CADD (Computer-aided design/drafting).

CADD in the Commu sications Curriculum

It is important fc the technology teacher to real-ize the tremendous pmer and flexibility available tothe user of a CADD system. ft is also important to re-alize that CADD is a communications tool and shouldbe taught at a subset of communications technolo-gy. By making it a part of the total communicationstechnology curriculum, the full power and applicationof CADD will be realized by the student.

CADD is a tool used to supp!ament traditionaltools used in designing and engineering. This might

seem obvious to many, but It is important that thisidea be the center of any curriculum changes con-templated by technology teachers. Do not becomeenamored with one particular CADD system or soft-ware to the point that the use of CADD becomes anarrow type of vocational training. If technological lit-eracy is the goal of the curriculum then CADD simplybecomes a different tool to be used for graphiccommunications.

If CADD is only a tool used to communicategraphically, then what do technology teachers needto know about this tool to effectively integrate it intotheir curriculum? The proposed method is not toteach CADD at all but to teach graphic communica-tions using CADD as one of the tools that can beused to create graphics. This might be called the"generic" method of teaching graphics with CADD.Unfortunately this is not the method most used asevidenced by the proliferation of CADD textbookswritten specifically for a certain type of CADD system.With these approaches, the CADD system becomes

the focus of the curriculum and the tool becomesmore important than the subject. This can be com-pared to the "tail wagging the dog," where the tech-nology used to create graphics becomes more im-portant than the human adaptive system of commu-nications. This flies directly in the face of what tech-nological literacy should be. If the goal is technologi-cal literacy and one of the components is graphiccommunications, then CADD should not be taughtas a stand-alone course. It should not be taught on asingle system with the focus on learning specificcommands and procedures.

Integrating CADD into Graphic Communications

What might be the best method of integratingCADD into draphic communication? For a number ofreasons, the student should have a solid foundationin orthographic projection and sketching. If CADD isa tool used to create graphics, then technological lit-eracy in graphic communications should have aCADD component. However, it should be taught asany tool is that can be used to create graphics. Forexample, when teaching the basics of design one ofthe components is the documentation a; the finalproduct. In the past, this documentation was accom-plished using hand tools such as the compass, t-square, triangles, pencil, and eraser. When this wasdone, was the focus of the course on the use of thetools or the accepted methods of documentation?Why should this change? Some wi:; argue that thesoftware is too difficult and time consuming to learn.A better approach is to teach CADD first, then show

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206 The Impact of Computer Technology on Graphic Communication

how the tool can be aplied to graphic communica-tions.

This is a strong argument that must be carefullyconsidered before a CADD component in graphiccommunications can be Implemented successfully.It is true that CADD can be very difficult to learn and aslow introduction to the use of the tool may be ne-cessary before the student becomes productive.However, this can be accomplished by followingsome of the same techniques used to introduce stu-dents to traditional tools. One of the first problemsassigned to drafting students is to draw horizontal,vertical, and inclined lines. This is followed by circles,arcs, simple figures, and lettering. The same ap-proach can be used with CADD. Traditional graphicconcepts are introduced and reinforced with a spe-cific drawing assignment that is chosen to meet aspecific goal. Because of the complexity of even themost simple CADD programs, it is recommended thatmore time be spent on learning the basics of the sys-tem than would be normally spent with traditionaltools.

After the basics of the system are learned by thestudent, the CADD system should become a trans-parent tool to the student and the teacher. CADDcan now be used to create graphics and to introducethe student to other graphic communication topicsusing CADD and related software. However, thereare times when it will be necessary to demonstratehow CADD is used to perform a particular task.

Related Areas Served by CADD

The topics to be discussed in graphic communi-cations may depend a great deal upon the availablehardware and software and the ingenuity of theteacher. Micro-based CADD systems are becomingvery powerful devices that cd..1 be used for design,drafting, illustration, manufacturing, and publishing.This could be called CAD/CAM literacy. This can bedefined as krowledge of the capabilities and applta-tions of CAD/CAM in communications and manufac-turing. Important topics to be included are: design-ing, wire-frame and solid modeling, design analysisfunctions, desktop publishing, CAM (Computer-. sided Manufacturing), robots, flexible manufactur-ing, CIM (Computer-Integrated Manufacturing), thefactory of the future, and the social implioations ofthese technologies.

Alth..ugh some of thc_ A f: les may be betterserved under manufacturing :: !s '-nportant to showthe interrelations between technologies and the arti-ficial harriers that hai.e b4an impased by man. Is notone of the goals of technological literacy to provide

an understanding of technological systems and howthey relate to each other and to humanity? Given acommon data base, design and manufacturing canbe more closely linked because of the computer.The same data base that is used to communicate adesign can be used to generate the programs to runNC (numerical control) machine tools to finish raw ma-terials, control robots to supply, direct, monitor, andcorrect the manufacturing and assembly of the prod-uct, and order the materials, plan the production, andtransport the product.

This powerful tool should be an important part ofthe communications curriculum. It has the potentialto change our understanding of communications asa human endeavor. The computer can change theway we think about communications and how it re-lates to other technoiogies. There is the potential tochange the very nature of communications. Tradi-tional methods of documenting designs for manufac-turing and communications may no longer be neces-sary. The communications medium for manufactur-ing will be a stream of electrons. Blueprints will be re-placed with bits of data. Designing will change from apaper intensive task to a paper-less and powerfulgraphic image displayed on a computer screen or animage suspended in space similar to a hologram.Technical illustrations will come directly from the 3-Dmodel produced when the part was designed. Thegraphic image of the design will be merged with textfor technical manuals, advertising, and other printedmedia. It is conceivable that television commercialswill be produced using the same 3-D design modelthrough animation programs.

summary

Preparing teachers and students for technologi-cal literacy in communications is not an easy task. Itwill take a dedicated professional e lucator willing totake the extra time and energy necessary to offer acurriculum that will be judged of value to all studentsregardless of their role in society. Communications isan important element of technological literacy.CADD might se em like a small part of communica-tions but it has the capabilities and the potential tobecome the unifying element for a better under-standing of the communication and manufacturingprocess.

194


Impications of Technological Literacy forVocational Service Areas

195

Technologice Literacy Symposium 209

To the best of my knowledge, one of the first in-dividuals in the field of education to use the descrip-tor "technological literacy" was Dr Marshall Schmitt,the industrial arts specialist for the United States Of-fice of Education. He was exploring the issue in theearly 1960s, over 25 years ago. He was convincedthat a technologically literate citizen was essential In ademocratic society where an increasing complexityof the technological base had become the norm.

In this paper I continue, with members of thissymposium, the exploration of the issue of techno-logical literacy begun by Marshall Schmitt. Concernand interest about technological literacy has grownconsiderably since Marshall Schmitt's early explora-tions, some legitimately, some illegitimately, someself serving, some from the concern for the humancondition and good for all.

There have been several national conferences,numerous reports on education, a number of articlesand several research efforts which addressed tech-nologicai literacy as a major concern. At this stage,even after some 25 years of increasing concern,they, seems to be considerable confusion, yet con-siderable interest in the topic.

One must question, "Why the confusion?". Ifthe issue is so vital, an educational issue, why can wenot derive a structure and an approach that will ena-ble the many components of the education enter-prise to move out with the assurance that they knowwhat they are about and get on with it?

Perhaps the problem in that the issue is beingviewed from too many narrow provincial perspec-tives, by the State, by education associations or bycorporate interests. Perhaps technological literacy isa multifaceted, mulidimensional construct. At thispoint in time this seems to be a valid and reasonableconclusion.

Therefore, the focus of my presentation will beto explore soma of the dimensions of technologicalliteracy. Perhaps we can identify some of the

Dichotomies, Relationships and theDevelopment of Technological Literacy

Dr. Paul W. DeVoreProgram for the Study of Technology

West Virginia UniversityMorgantown, West Virginia

categories and levels of technological literacy thatcan serve as a base for discussions about the roleand function of formal instructional programs In thedevelopment of technological literacy among our citi-zens. My effort will be to attempt to direct our atten-tion to the more significant issues of technological lit-eracy, the ones truly worthy of professional educa-tors' time and energy and taxpayers' dollars; and theones that relate to the centria mission of education ina democracy.

A Growing Concern

The issue of technological literacy of our citizensis a relatively recent but growing concern in our soci-ety. An awareness has surfaced that a major problemexists and that something should be done about it.However, as is evident from the literature, the per-ceptions of the problem are many and varied andthere seem to be few generally accepted solutions.

A number of editorials, articles and reports pub-lished the last several years have addressed the sub-ject of technological literacy. Among the most promi-nent reports were by the Commission on Excellencein Education, the Education Committee of theStates, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-ment of Teaching and the National Science Board'sColeman Report. The general conclusion of the re-ports was that technological literacy needs to be apart of general literacy. There was also the recogni-tion that technological literacy is different from scien-tific and mathematical literacy even though in the vari-ous sections of the reports the writers were unableto transcent their own biases and often returned tothe now thoroughly rejected premise that technolog-ical development follows scientific discovery. The re-ports exposed a general confusion as to what tech-nology is, yet a recognition by some that it Is a newand emerging field of scientific study the same as bi-ology, sociology or physiology and other sciences.

Several organizations, including the Council forUnderstanding Technology in Human Affairs, the

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210 Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technol ical Literacy

Academies of Se..ence and Engineering, the Interna-tional Technology Education Association, the Ameri-can Association for the Advancement of Scienceand the National Science Foundation, have spon-sored meetings on the topic of technological literacy.The Alfred P. Sloan Foundation has awarded

$250,000 grants to ten liberal arts colleges for thepurpose of developing curricula to increase the tech-nological literacy of liberal arts graduates. Businessand industry have been heavily involved also. Theyare investing some $3 billion yearly to fill what theyconsider to be an education gap between what peo-ple are learning in education institutions and whatthey need to know to be competent employees.

There is a growing acceptance that it is not onlynecessary to be trained in certain technical skills butthat the study of technology is a necessary compo-nent of an educated person, of an informed citizen-ry; that not only are there skills to be learned in thetechnologies, as there are skills to be learned thatenable one to read another language, but also mas-tery to be attained that enables one to create and uti-lize appropriately the technical means. Being edu-cated today implies, more and more, a knowledgeand understanding of the creation, use and impactsof technical means. This involves the emerging fieldof study known as technology. To be an educatedcivilized person today means attaining a level of liter-acy about technology similar to our expectations ofthe attainments of an educated civilized person inart, history, language, literature, mathematics and theother sciences (Haberer, p. 223).

Yet, if each of us was to evaluate ourselves in anobjective truthful way we would have to admit a grow-ing ignorance about the field of technology.

The Growth of Ignorance

In a recent column William F. Buckley, Jr. wrote:Second perhaps only to AIDS, there is concern overthe growth of ignorance (p. 4A). Buckley cites arti-cles in Newsweek, a book by E. D. Hirsch, Jr. calledCultural Literacy: What Every American Needs toKnow, a column by James J. Kilpatrick on geographi-cal literacy, a proposal by Senator Bill Bradley for aGeography Awareness Week and a program on "60Minutes." He cites polls that expose the fact that 25percent of U.S. high school seniors believe thatFranklin Delano Roosevelt was president during theVietnam War and that over two thirds could not placethe Civil War within 50 years of when it took place.Twenty-five percent of the college seniors in Dallas,Texas, couldn't name the country south of the Texasborder, while 39 percent of the college seniors in

Boston, Massachusetts, could not name the six NewEngland states.

Apparently our people are becoming more ig-norant, not less, at a time in the civilization processwhen growth in new knowledge Is increasing at al-most an exponential rate. James Kilpatrick discov-ered that, in 1950, 84 percent of high school seniorsknew where Manila was. In 1984, oniy 27 percent ofthe seniors knew where Manila was (Buckley, p. 4A).

To my knowledge we do not have records ofknowledge or literacy about technology by studentseven in the basic areas such as energy conversionsystems, propulsion systems, materials manufactur-ing processes or technology valuing and assess-ment. We can only surmise that the resulu.; would besimilar.

Most thinking citizens would agree that there is arelationship between education and democracy; thata primary component of a democracy is an educatedcitizenry. And most would agree that to function ef-fectively as responsible citizens in a highly techno-logical democracy, knowledge and understanding oftechnology is essential. Yet, we face a rather strangedichotomy in our society. At a time when the needfor greater knowledge and understanding by our citi-zens is needed, we find a growing anti-intellectualism among many of our youth and, insome cases, citizens in general. There seems to bea reversion back to simplistic answers and folk knowl-edge in the search for answers to rather complexquestions. There is a growth of ignorance.

One questions why there is this growth in ignor-ance. Why the lack of interest in learning? Whenquestions are asked of students about their lack ofknowledge the general reply is, "Why should I knowabout some other country"? "Why should I knowabout the Vietnam War?" Why should I know aboutenergy conversion systems?" "Why wshould I un-derstand about telephonic communication?" Withrespect to telephonic communications there is an in-teresting story from Iowa City, Iowa.

Iowa City, Iowa (AP)At least a few listeners of anIowa City radio station fell for a real line this week.

They covered up their telephone receiverswhen Ted Burton Jacobsen, morning deejay onKKRQ -FM, and Steve Sinicropi, sales manager,claimed the phone company was "cleaning out thelines."

Jacobsen ran a fake commercial several timesTuesday saying the phone company planned to"blow soot and dust out of the line" and that people

197

Technological Literacy Symposium 211AMMIIIMMIlliI

should "bag the phones" to keep dirt from blowingaround homes and offices.

Then Jacobsen interviewed Sinicropi, whoplayed the part of "Bill" the telephone company rep-resentative.

Sinicropi said the station received a number ofcalls.

One convenience store reported people werebuying plastic bags to cover their phone receivers.Others stopped to call spouses to tell them to takeappropriate action.

"Somebody called from one of the malls to saythey had covered all the phone receivers there. Weeven had a call from someone at the Unive:sity (ofIowa) saying they had bagged the phones," said Sin-icropi.

Noithwestem Bell officials in Cedar Rapids andIowa City were not amused. Each had about a dozeninquiries about the sham.

"It was an inconvenience to some customersand unfortunate the station played a trick on some ofits listtiners," said Bell regional manager VicPinckney.

Sinicropi said the station, after a request fromNorthwesiem Bell, ran a disclaimer pointing out thejoke. (Dominion-Post, July 3, 1986)

How long can we remain a quality civilized socie-ty if we have a continual increase in ignorance amongour citizens? Ignorance is a cancer for democracy.The condition of ignorance cannot be accepted in ademocratic society just because people are satisfiedto languish through life as irresponsible self-serving,non-civilized beings.

The potential for the rest of society is too gravegiven the power of the technical means of today.The choices of the ignorant in the form of collectivehuman action can bring on all forms of disaster. If weare to preserve our democracy there is no choice;well educated responsible citizens are a necessity;and if there are those who are not able to motivatethemselves on the basis of their own thoughtful ac-tions to seek an education, then they must acceptthe directions of other citizens and pursue educationor choose to live elsewhere where ignorance is ac-ceptable. The alternative is to abandon the conceptof democracy and agree to an authoritarian state. Ifthe growth of cultural and technological ignorancecontinues the outcome will be a technical elite con-trolling the ignorant. Why is this so? Simply becauseknowledge is power and those who understand and

control technological knowledge have the power tocontrol others and public policy.

The World of Yesterday

We five in a time in civilization that is truly unique.Vice Admiral James B. Stockdale wrote in A VietnamExerierce as follows:

The thin veneer of civilization that we knowis precious. It is also modem. We couldbring together one couple, husband andwife, for each generation of man since heacquired his present appearance and char-acteristics about 50,000 years ago. Therewould be only about 2000 couples, andmost of them would seem quite odd. Thefirst 1400 of the couples would have lived incaves, and only the last 33 would have everseen a printed page. (p. 168)

Most of the people in this audience can recitethe major changes that have come about in the worldthrough %:echnical inventions, Innovations and devel-opments. Thee who reflect on changes in theirown families will recall that their parents were borninto an era where the airplane came of age, where ra-dio and television developed, where new and exoticmaterials such as rayon, nylon and compositesevolved, where the internal combustion engine wasimprove through new materials, better fuels and tur-bo charging, where a new form of heat engineevolved from the work of Ellings of Norway, Whittle ofEngland and Von Ohain of Germany, and worldwidecommunications via satellites, digital electronics andprogrammable electronic computers.

The World of Today and Tomorrow

Each of us has witnessed major changes in therelation of our country to the rest of the world. Weare no longer an isolated nation. We live in an inter-dependent, ever-changing world, a world of acceler-ating industrialization, rapid population growth, wide-spread malnutrition, increasing depletion of non-renewable sources of minerals and energy, and a de-teriorating environment.

Our futures are linked irreversibly to the rest ofthe world. More and more people of the world aredependent on each other, whether the context isthe environment, raw materials, energy supply, fi-nished products, food supply, or knowledge andknow-how. 'The advent of television and communi-cation satellites and the resulting rising e-:pectationsof people throughout the world, coupled with the mi-croprocessor and its potential for accelerating thepace of technological change, portend a future far

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212 Dichotomies, Relationships and the Development of Technological Literacy

different from the presort. Yet, many of our highschool graduates are ignorant not only of the tech-nologies on which these worldwide changes are tak-ing place, they are also ignorant of the geographyand culture of the rest of the world.

On a local scale we find that man; of our neigh-bors are unemployed and may never return to theirformer places of work. Those who are employedhave discovered that, because of continual inflationand cyclic recessions, they cannot maintain a life-style that only a few years ago was considered nor-mal. This is true for millions of we'r educated middleclass people.

We are finding that the United States is no long-er competitive in heavy industries, and faces heavycompetition from other nations in the developmentand production of computers, machine tools, con-struction equipment, automobiles, textiles, electron-ics and home appliances. Our mounting anc contin-uing trade deficits are manifestations of theseevents.

In less than eighty years the United States haschanged from an agricultural, to an industrial, to whatis now called a service economy Manufacturing,mining, and construction combined account for only35 percent of the current jobs in the United States. Itis predicted by various sources that by 1990 the ser-vice sector--banking, insurance, the communicationand information industries and fast food restaurants- -will provide 80 percent of the jobs. Many jobs inthese fields are low in pay, part time, and offer few ca-reer advancement opportunities.

The heavy industries -- steel, auto, and machinetools--will be replaced in the economy by businessesand industries thrt facilitate, move, service, and man-age, rather than make things. Manufacturing firmshave been and are moving their operations to othercountries for a variety of reasons including lowerwages. The new plants utilize the most sophisticat-ed equipment and management techniques.

The new era we have entered is focused on el-ectronic computing equipment, telecommunica-tions, instrumentation and control devices, thehealth fields, entertainment equipment and spacevehicles and satellites. S,..rme of the new communi-cation firms are already recording market values twicethose of the large steel and aluminum producers.

The Infomiation Revolution

During the current decade r.;croprocessors areushering in a technological revolution that, from allpredictions, will have a greater and more profound

impact on societies throughout the world than didany other technical event at any other time in history.

All aspects of living are being affected directly orindirectly; education, the home, agriculture, trans-portation, recreation anc health care, to name a few.New uses and applications are being developedevery day. Microprocessors provide the means forcontrol of all forms of industrial and business opera-tions providing what has been called intelligent auto-mation. Microprocessors are used in oil r. glneries,chemical plants, paper mills, steel .Hills, power sta-tions, research laboratories, offices, and homes.They are being used to control internal combustionengines to improve fuel economy and lessen pollu-tion. The range of present and potential applicationsis staggering.

The design and construction of integrated cir-cuits, the core of microelectronics, have improved sothat greater numbers of transistors, resistors, diodesand other electronic components can be placed on asingle silicon chip. In 1971, Intel, Inc., following thework of their engineer, M. E. Hoff, brought out themicroprocessor by putting the entire central process-ing unit of a compute: on a chip. By 1980, the powerand the capability of the microprocessor were in-creased by new manufacturing capability enablingthe placement of 200,000 components on a singlechip. The Japanese have chips in development thatwill contain 250,000 circuits. Currently, manufactur-ers are working on integrated circuits with one millioncomponents and by 1990 they predict as many as 10million transistors on a single chip.

The microprocessor has brought about the po-tential of robotics and with robotics there will be acontinuing change ir. the nature and distribution ofjobs. It is evident that most people in the world areentering a new world for which they are not very liter-ate or very well prepared.

No technical development in history, includingthe computer, has had the potential of altering jobsand employment worldwide as has the developmentof microelectronics and the microprocessor. Notonly will jobs be eliminated through intelligent auto-mation, but many Jobs will be lost in the manufactur-ing of electronic products because they contain few-er parts than the products they replace.

The Social Dimension

Another dichotomy and relationship categoryhas to do with social behavior. We live in an interest-ing era. At a time when the complexity of technicalmeans is increasing and major problems have

1 9 J


developed with respect to trade deficits and thegrowing ignorance of our citizens in most al! phasesof learning, we find the social behavior of the nationas evidenced by a majority of business leaders to beshort-term and bottom line.

Norman Lear spoke about some of the issues ashe perceived them in a recent forum of the J.F.K.School of Government at Harvard University broad-cast by Public Television (4/17/88). In addition to theshort-term and bottom line behavior Lear noted thatthere seems to be a loss of pride in product andlcng-term commitment to a business or industry.One business or community seems to be a good asanother so long as it turns a profit. The goal is instantsuccess for self, perhaps a natural attitude in a "me"generation and a culture that celebrates commitmentto self and instant success.

The problem runs deep in the psych of the na-tion. In an era where most of a lifetime may be re-quired to master a field of technological endeavorand where the road to even small successes is lit-tered with many failures, we promote values and atti-tudes that are detrimental to the long-term benefitsof society as a whole. We seem to forget that the civ-ilizing process is critical to the commonweal and thatthis takes times; that learning and mastery of knowl-edge and know-how and the development of valuesand attitudes are long term efforts.

Eric Sevareid in a recent interview for ChristianScience Monitor expressed his concerns about ourproblems today. He cited three. Each is directly re-lated to the creation and use of technical means. Hebelieves there are three things that are new in histo-ry. "One is the leap into space. Another is the exis-tence of ultimate weapons. And the third is the poi-soning of the natural sources of life--the rivers, air,food." He goes on to point out that he does not be-lieve that any of our real problems will be solved inouter space. "I think," he said, "they're solved in in-ner space and inner man and terra firma" (p. 6). Thereal problems are with our attitudes and values aboutself, others and our life giving and life sustaining en-vironment. Short of abandoning the Earth we mustaddress our present and future here on Earth.

At issues is freedom and democracy as we knowthem. The dichotomies and relationships concern:

1. Freedom vs slavery

2. More control vs less control

3. Independence vs dependence

4. More options vs fewer options

5. Freedom and responsibility

6. Freedom and creativity, growth, andadvancement

The need in a fully functioning democracy is in-telligent well educated and responsible citizens. Asthe complexity of the society increases socially andtechnologically there is a corresponding increase inthe requirements for basic literacy in social and tech-nological realms.

The technological society is a knowledge socie-ty; a society that today requires a new form of literacyif all citizens are to function effectively as free and re-sponsible members of the society. To participate ef-fectively in a democratic society it is critical that allmembers understand the muliiple relations amongvarious technical systems and human affairs. Manyof the decisions that have been made individuallyand collectively, by highly educated scientists, in-dustrialists and businessmen, as well as collective di-cisions by average citizens, have, in many cases,been highly detrimental to the long-term enhance-ment of the quality of life and the sustainability of thetechnological and ecological systems on which hu-man civilized life depends.

Thomas Jefferson recognized the need for intel-ligent citizens for the proper functioning of a demo-cratic society.

I know no safe depository of the ultimatepowers of the society but the people them-selves; and if we think them not enlightenedenough to exercise their control with awholesome discretion, the remedy is not totake it from them, but to inform their discre-tion by education.

A New Form of Literacy

The basic premise of Thomas Jefferson holds astrue today as when he wrote it. But things havechanged. We are discovering that technological sys-tems designed and developed by a mentality of an-other era are not sustainable. The problems and is-sues facing citizens today concern the search for al-ternatives to present technical systems, either by thedesign of new technical means or by the redesign ofpresent ones. Successful designs will require newknowledge and understanding of the behavior ofsystems and the relation of the various elements andcomponents of a system to the total. Today, techni-cal systems function on a global basis and decisionsmade by businesses, industries, and governmentselsewhere affect directly the businesses, industriesand people in our own community.

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To gain control of our futures will require, espe-daily in a democratic society, a new form of literacy byall citizens if appropriate decisions are to be madeand implemented. The basic question becomes:"What learning is of most worth with respect to thedesign and control of technical means at the commu-nity level by citizens? At the regional or national lev-el?" Simply answered, It is the knowledge and know-how that has to di with the behavior and control oftechnological systers in relation to human affairsand social purpose.

What should all citizens know about technicalmeans? What should they be able to do? Obviously,every citizen cannot know all there is to know aboutall of technology and human affairs. Therefore, thesearch must be for the structure of the discipline; thecentral themes, systems, concepts, and principlesthat provide Insight Into the behavior of technicalmeans, not only technically but in relation to, andwithin, social-cultural and environmental contexts.The goal is control of technical means by technologi-cally literate human beings. This means to attain con-trol Is to gain knowledge and understanding of thebehavior of socio-technical systems and their relationto human beings and their environment.

True literacy will require sustained effort overtime to develop knowledge and understanding ofthe abstract concepts upon which the technicalworld has been created and functions. This level ofunderstanding cannot be gained from hearing orreading about inventions and technical systems.What is required is direct and sustained involvementin the processes of the technologist. The mind mustbe prepared to be capable of observing and esta-blishing differences, similarities and relationships.Human beings are not only perceptual beings, theyare also conceptual. They are capable of learningand using technological modes of thought; the intel-lectual processes or methods of inquiry usestechnologists.

A significant part of the literacy issue is lan-guage. Language is not just a means of communi-cating thoughts, ideas, concepts or technical infor-mation; it also structures the way people perceivethemselves and Now they act and function. Beingtechnologically literate requires that the individual beconversant in several technical languages, includingthe symbolic languages of the various technologicalsystems.

Technological systems are composed of ele-ments that are related and which interact in someway. Everything exists in relation to other elements

within an immediate and total environment. Thismeans that there is some context within which anelement, particle, person, tool, event, action or someother part of a system, acts and is acted upon. Per-ceiving the dynamics of a system requires first theidentification of some central theme, function or be-havior, whether the concern is with the compositionand behavior of a given material, a component of anelectronic communication system or the relation oftechnical devices to social or environmental change.The goal is understanding and predicting the behav-ior of technical means.

What has been occurring is the evolution of anew discipline, a new form of literacy, which is not de-pendent upon or subservient to science, as com-monly known and perceived, but is a new science,the science of technology. The intellectual endeav-ors involved in the creation of the technical means oftoday are of a different order from those of the craftera of the past. The new modes of thinking have es-tablished the base for the new discipline and thenew science. Those involved in this new science areconcerned with the behavior of tools, machines andtechnical systems in relation to human beings, theirsocieties and the environment. Technologists basetheir work on information about the behavior of multi-ple variables and dynamic environments. The goalsare predictability, replication, reliability, optimizationand efficiency of system operations based on objec-tive knowledge. Emphasis is on logical, instrumen-tal, orderly and disciplined approaches. The view issupported by most recent investigations that con-clude that technology and science, as commonlyperceived, are distinctly different forms of human be-havior. The concept of technology and science be-ing different ends of the same continuum is probablyfalse. What is probably true is that technology is oneof the sciences as is biology, psychology, anthropol-ogy, sociology and other disciplines concerned withhuman behavior, and the term science, as commonlyused, is the source of the problem. Even if the prob-lem is explored using the commonly accepted defini-tions of science and technology, we find two distinct-ly different forms of activity with different goals, ques-tions, and means. Each field is mutually exclusiveand not mutually dependent, although as with all sci-ences, each has been enhanced by the other.

Technology Education

The design of an education system to develop alevel of technological literacy in all citizens is a com-plex task. It is, however, a critical and necessary taskfor a democratic society.

2


The belief that human beings attain their highestlevel of human attainment in a free society and thatparticttatoty democracy is the best form of govern-ment presupposes that citizens must participate indecisions concerning the design, development, anduse of technical systems. Participatory democracy ina society with more than a primitive order of technicalmeans requires participatory technology. One with-out the other will not work.

Participation in social or technical decisions re-quires social and technical knowledge and access tosocial and technical tools.

These are the preconditions if citizens are toagain become part of the process with a sense of in-telligent participation and not alienation. The chal-lenge to education brought about by the random de-velopment of technical means demands major altera-tions for one primary reason. The characteristics of asociety based oli a high order of technical means al-ter the questions with respect to error and failure.Failure in a complex, modem society is of far greaterconsequence than in earlier societies.

In earlier times are technical means was not aspowerfui, dependency on multiple subsystems notas great. If systems were disturbed they returned toequilibrium in a relatively short period of time anddamage to human beings and the environment waslimited. Not so With respect to the technical systemsof the twentieth century. Yet, as dependent as thesurvival of society is on the efficient functioning ofhighly complex technical systems, we find that todaythe great masses of people are denied access to thetools. The tools of our technical systems have be-come the property of experts and are under the con-trol of specialists. Thus, the control of the evolutionof technical means and society becomes the prov-ince of select specialists, none of whom have the re-sponsibility or mandate to be concerned about i.u-man affairs, social purpose and total systems.

If citizens are to regain their freedom and obtaincontrol of their destinies, then they must become in-volved in the study of technology and gain access tothe tools' (*Tools in the sense used in this secitonrefers to all devices from the most simple to the hie 1-ly complex which are used by society to producegoods and services; transmit, store or retrieve infor-mation; and transport goods and services; togetherwith the know-how of their use.) Dependency oncommon sense and the folk knowledge of yesterdaywill not suffice. The techia.cal means of today, with itssophisticated tools and knowledge, requires disci-plined and systematic study, from a technical

standpoint as well as a social-cultural perspective.

Most citizens have never had the opportunity forthe disciplined and systematic study of these sys-tems. Even the technical experts are limited in theirunderstanding. The generally know about and un-derstand the physical forces and principles whichprovide stereophonic sound, linear induction motorsand color photography. Those who create these de-vices know about and can control these devices.But the issue is not the control of a single device; theissue is the understanding and control of the behav-ior of technological systems as a major component ofsocial systems and as a critical factor in culturalchange and disruption within societies.

The education of citizens for participation in de-cisions about and the management of society for hu-man purposes concerns not only the study and com-prehension of the behavior of the various technolog-ical systems and the technical elements and thetools associated with these systems, but also the be-havior of total systems including the relationships tohuman beings, the social/cultural components of theenvironment and the total system. The concernwould be with the dynamics of the system. The fo-cus would be on what eAch element does within thesystem, not what a thing is. The goal of educationwould be to provide citizens with a means to gainknowledge, to gain contr., and thereby masteryover the tools to serve human purposes.

Unfortunately, education efforts with respect tothe study of technology have been narrowly direct-ed, for the most part, toward the preparation of indi-viduals for jobs and specialized role in society ratherthan the preparation of self-governing citizens. Also,it has become evident that Ike new and expandingknowledge base of technology has transcendedmost educators, and the compett..n,e o' the averagecitizen. Many educators have treated the study oftechnology as something apart from the daily affairsof citizens and the responsibility of public education.By doing so they have effectivoly turned over thecontrol of a powerful tool to a regime of experts anddenied their students access to the very knowledgeand tools so vital to the processes of creating, man-aging, regulating, and directing technical means forhuman purposes. Educators often view technologyas an "object" and not as a "subject," as something"out there" not really important to education for lifeand living and thus inappropriate for study. Thetechnical mean 3 of society seems to be an abstractcreated by some individuals which exists outside thesphere of awarene3s of educators.

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Because of this the education system has mut-ed the awareness of citizens of their ignorance oftechnology and pursued the policy of machine tool-ing citizens into marketable commodities in narrowspecialities.

The education system creates what ArthurKoestler calls an "urban barbarian" by denying stu-dents access to knowlige and tools and limitingtheir interest in and awareness about technology.Citizens are placed in the position of being effective-ly shaped e..d controlled by those in command ofthe tools and know:edge of the new technologies.Also, the comprehension of the behavior of total sys-tems is voided and technology becomes less andless responsive to citizens and human purposes.

The issue seems to be one for which education,as a social institution, has not developed successfulalternatives. Most education programs have focusedon the past, the here and now, and on meeting rath-er specific vocational needs. What is required is anew mentality, a different way of perceiving societyan:. technology. All citizens should be involved indetermining the questions and finding the answers,and they should be prepared for participation in theprocess with adequate knowledge and tools for thetask. This means a comprehension and understand-ing of the concept of system and the understandingof the interrelatedness of systems and the elementsof a system. Everything effects everything else.

The goal of education should be to provide indi-viduals with the means to find order in a complex glo-bal society and to attain the knowledge, skills, tools,attitudes, and values required to participate fully indetermining the nature and direction of their societyand in the management and operation of theirsociety.

The issue of technology education and techno-logical literacy impacts on all levels and categories ofsociety. Technologically literate citizens would notonly enhance and protect our democratic way of lifeat all levels by being capable of participating in thedecision making and management of their society,but they rould also be better able to contribute insignificant ways to the needs of business and indus-try in a highly competitive global economy wherechange is inevitable and continual learning and re-laming is required. The new literacy, technologicalliteracy, can enhance our competitive potential.

The technologically literate citizens would alsobe more self-reliant and capable of meeting their ownneeds and those of their communities, thus enhanc-ing the quality of life at the local level. The new

literacy focuses on the role of the individual In a freesociety who functions in many roles and is ultimatelyresponsible in democratic societies fcr the properfunctioning of their communities and nations.

It Is also important to remember in the age ofhigh technology that technologically literate citizensare better able to serve the needs of their nation intimes of national emergency, political or otherwise.

Without access to tools and knowledge of tech-nokrgical systems, citizens effectively lose control oftheir technology. They have become totally depen-dent on technical means, yet ignorant about them.To alter this course will require that technology be-comes a basic component in the education of all citi-zens so they are conversant In the language of tech-nological systems and can comprehend the basicconcepts, the dynamics, and the interrelatednessand Impact of technological systems at all levels ofsociety.

The Human Dimension

The human factor in society presents us withmany problems because of the great variabilities thatexist. These variabilities bring to the field of educa-tion many problems which pose serious obstacles toany effort addressing complex issues such as tech-nological literacy. As one explores the issue, it be-comes obvious that in addition to the dichotomiesand relationships already explored, there are also di-chotomies and relationships related to human traitsand behavior.

Some 17 years ago, I had the pleasure of orga-nizing, with Wil J. Smith, a conference at West Virgin-ia University on the theme, "Education in a Techno-logical Society."

It was a two-day conference and during this timewe explored topics such as Technology and SocialPurpose, The Future of Man in a Technological Soci-ety, Technology and Change: Educational Impera-tives, and Education, Technology and HumanValues.

One paper was delivered by Waiter Lowen whoat that time was Dean, School of Advanced Technol-ogy, State University of New York, Binghamton (pp.34-351.

Walter Lowen made three points in his oresenta-lion which impressed me. One, he said he was veryoptimistic about the role of technology in -3ociety. Hebelieved we should not become enslaved by tech-nology; rather, technology should make us free andtherefore add to the dignity of man and give us more

2

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Technological Literacy Symposium 217IM

of an opportunity to be human, not less. Second, headdressed the reason why many people are nega-tive or less hopeful about technology. He stated thatthe primary reason Is that there is confusion aboutwhat technology really Is. He noted that technologyis not the products produced or the things such aslight bulbs, automobiles, Jet engines or nuclear reac-tors. Rather, he stated: It is a way of thinking, a ser-ies of methodologies that have evolved for solvingproblems." Lowen noted that certain words have en-tered our language as concepts that enable us to'think about" and solve technical problems. Theseinclude feedback, critical mass, network, parametricsystems, programming, algorithms and operationalmodeling, to name a few.

The importance of the second point made byLowen at that time has, I believe, been overlookedby educators. For the most part educators considertechnology to be things and thus focus the curriculaon teaching about things, thus missing the potentialto develop the field of study so that students gain in-sight into the discipline and are able to reduce theconfusion that exists about technology in society.

The third and very significant point that Lowenreminded us about in the fall of 1970 was that peopleare different; that there is a whole spectrum of hu-man traits or behaviorally built-in characteristics. Inhis presentation Lowen developed a model whichhe referred to as a map of human characteristics.

The model is shown in Figure 1. You will notethat in the model there are two axes. The vertical axishas one pole which focuses on people and verbal

tobas

Figure 1. Classification of human traits. (Lowen,1970, p. 39)

sensory inputs, while the other pole focuses onthings and graphical sensory inputs. The horizontalaxis dichotomizes the concrete and abstract andIdentifies people who are characterized by the waythey relate to their world, some in a coordinated wayand others in a symbolic manner.

Lowen further analyzed personality types follow-ing Cad Jung's work. Jung postulated there were in-troverts and extroverts and later proposed that therewere people who could be classified as feelingtypes, intuitive types, thinking types, and sensationtypes. Lowen superimposed these characteristicson his dichotomous diagram as is shown in Figure 2.In his analysis Lowen noted that peole can be combi-nations of adjacent fields by rarely combinations ofcross fields. Thinking and feeling are opposite polesas are intuition and sensation.

Figure 2. Human traits in relation to curricular offer-ings. (Lowen, 1970, p. 41)

The importance of Lowen's work is that it illus-trates the difference in people. His work has impor-tance for those in education as they consider currier:lum development or abstract concepts such as tech-nological literacy. If we relate various types of humanendeavors to the various segments of Figure 2 wehave an interesting and informative model which en-ables us to observe the spectrum of human traits andtheir related human endeavors.

Notir:e that schooling, for the most part, hasdichotomized the curriculum into similar com-partments. The goal is to produce highly

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compartmentalized, focused, polarized individualswho function appropriately as biologists, sociolo-gists, mathematicans.

The problem is that the probloms of today aresystems problems. There are no one-disciplineproblems. Our problems today have to do with urbanand rural housing, toxic waste, energy conversion,unemployment, health care, international competi-tion, privacy, transportation and education, amongothers. The appropriate solution to our problemsrests with people who are able to bring the oppositepoles together toward the center where they can becreative and where the thinking concerns concepts,policy, structure and management.

In 1982 Walter Lowen authored a major worktitled A Systems Science Model of the Mind and Per-sonality-- Dichotomies of the Mind. In this work hedeveloped a 16-pole model, expanding on his earlierwork. Figure 3 illustrates this model. The original di-chotomies exist, abstract-concrete and people-things, together with the identification of the"capacity traits" related to mouth output, mind out-put, hands output and bcdy output that relate towords, tone, data, and facts. Lowen calls this dia-gram a "map of capacities." Each individual is differ-ent. It can be posited that this diversity of traits and

capacities were the prime factors in tt, creation ofour complex, pluralistic society of today.

Lowen in his study provides examples of varioushuman profiles that relate to certain work activities(see Table 1). The profiles are categorized by thefour poles -- intellect/abstract, verbal/people, hands/things and body/concrete.

The two poles that have traits associated withthe field of technology are intellect abstract andhands/things. Within these modes as Lowen identi-fies them are profiles which are identified by termssuch as analyst, conceptualizer, suspector, and the-oretician for the intellect/abstract mode and imple-mentor, organizer, operator and moider for thehands/things mode.

Concepts, Consequences andTechnological Literacy

The dichotomies and relationships that have di-rect impact on the question of technological literacyrange from the growth of ignorance in an era of in-creasing technological complexity, to the lesseningcommitment to teaming and an increased concernfor short-term monetary gains in a society that re-quires more intellect commitment, not less, moreknowledge. nC/i iess and longer-term commitments

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2 015


to mastery of the complexities of an interdependentincreasingly technological world. it is difficult to de-termine how best to approach the question of tech-nological literacy in a democratic society especiallywhen we recognize the great diversity of human be-ings. Are there any constants? Are there any centralthemes that educators can use to aid in addressingthe problem? Certainly it would be impossible to re-quire all citizens to become experts in all phases ofknowing and doing in music, art, literature, biology,psychology, technology and other fields of humanendeavor. How, then, can the problem be ad-dressed? Where shall we direct our efforts?

I suggest that any valid approach must emergefrom one's world view. What are your assumptionsabout life and living, about people, resources, life onEarth and the purpose of life? Who are we? Why arewe here? Where are we going? Answers to thesequestions, which are as old as civilization, providethe base to determine "how are we going to getthere?"

Various approaches to the question of techno-logical literacy have been proposed. Some are nar-row or instrumental and focus on corporate needs,national defense and job preparation. These ap-proaches serve the operational needs of society.Other approaches focus on the larger cultural anddemocratic dimensions of technological literacy(Haberer, p. 225).

Given the problems of the growth of ignoranc ,,,and the social behaviors of short-term goals, instantsuccess and the bottom line, and the ever limited re-sources of public education, it seems best that atten-tion be directed to basic literacy first, together withemphasis on human goals and social pu rpose. If onedoes not have the basic tools for learning and hasnot determined answers to the quest on of whereand why they are tending, ft is of little Lee to attemptto address the complex question of technologicalliteracy.

Secondly, it seems imperative that the equationof technological choice and social and environmentalconsequences be addressed. Rather than acceptas a given the continual infusion of technical meansinto society, the equation must be reordered. Theprimary equation should be the design and selectionof technical means for an agreed-upon social pur-pose. This approach then provides a base to ad-dress technological literacy for all citizens. This ap-proach focuses on knowledge about and assess-ment of technical means in a context that providesfor intelligent choices.

The preparation of intelligent responsible citi-zens for life in a complex interdependent changingworld then rests on the identification of those con-stants relating to knowing and doing in the technolo-gies required of all citizens. This assumption followsNetzet's Rule of Irretrievable Loss which says:

Students should be taught on a compulsoryor universal bans, only those things that'ergo proportion* of them will nailer learn un-less exposed to the material at the stage inthe education process in question, andwhich ft is important that most people pass-ing through that stage do learn.

There are many ways of approaching the ques-tion of "what should be universal and compulsory inthe study of technology studies?" There are manyways to answer the question. An economist wouldfocus on the production function, an engineer onthe technical, an anthropologist on the cultural and asociologist on the sow!. None of these single disci-pline external views of technology 'A sufficient tostructure a program of technological literacy today.What is needed is a focus whkh has been evolvingfrom the new and emerging science of technology,namely, the study of the creation and use of techni-cal means' -- tools, machines, techniques, technicalsystemsand the behavior of technological systemsin relation to people, their societies, the environmentand the civilization process." ( Technical means isused by the author rather than technology. Technol-ogy is the discipline or field of study (-ology); techni-cal means are the elements created and used whichare the object of study.) A technological literacy fo-cused on the creation, use, b9havior and relationalfactors of technical means provides a base uponwhich to develop programs of study for the prepara-tion of intelligent and capable citizens of a democrat-ic society.

To place the foregoing definition in focus and toprovide a perspective from other standard forms ofliteracy, the question can be asked: "What does ftmean to be literate in French or Russian?" A typicalreply would be that the student should be able tospeak, read and write in the French or Russian lan-guage, implying a knowledge and ability to performusing the language. It also implies a knowledge andunderstanding of the history and culture of the coun-tries where the language is primary. Similar criteriawould apply with respect to technological literacy.

The definition of technology provides clues tothe learning activities that would be meaningful, cu-mulative, and have long-term applications. For

206


instance, studies concerning the creation and evolu-tion of technical means and systems would provideinsight into the relation If these means and systemsto human beings and society, thus establishing datafor the derivation of concepts and principles con-cerning their behavior on which assessments andpredictions could be based.

Understanding how technical means are createdwould aid in improving our ability to design andcreate appropriate technical means for our communi-ties. Citizens knowledgeable about the use of tech-nical means and systems would have better Insightinto the best or most appropriate procedures as wellas problems associated with the adoption and use oftechnical means by society. The latter knowledgecould then be used in the design of alternatives toour present problem-plagued technological systemsor for the redesign of current systems to attain agreater degree of compatibility with human beings,their communities, and the environment.

An example of the relation of technical means tohuman beings and society is provided in Figure 4.Here we observe that changes in sanitation facilities,brought about by changes in population, are relatedto increases or decreases in disease carryingbacteria.

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Knowledge of the technical aspects of systemswould focus on the behavior of material transforma-tion processes. However, the operational behaviorof systems and subsystems would focus on techno-social relationships, perhaps one of the more com-plex categories of learning. The techno-social rela-tionships would concern the relation of technicalmeans and systems to individuals, communities,work and employment, and the natural environment.Here, the focus of learning would be on the Identifi-cation and use of concepts and principles for assess-ing and predicting the effects of the introduction of a

new technical means into a social and natural con-text. Involved would be the processes of technolog-ical assessment and the prediction of probable im-pacts and risks.

Emerging from an analysis of the definition is therealization that there are four basic interrelated sys-tems that determine the structure and ethos of anysociety.There are: the ideological, sociological, tech-nological and ecological systems shown in Figure 5.

The diagram in Figure 5 provides a structurewhich illustrates the major systems and their relation-ships. In addition to a system relational diagram thereis a need for a structure which illustrates the dynam-ics of the processes of the system. The participatoryprocesses in which people are involved as they pur-sue the design of technological systems to serve so-cial purposes are shown in Figure 6. The first dia-gram answers questions about systems and relation-ships while the second diagram illustrates the dy-namics of the content by showing the relationshipsamong the systems -- ideological, sociological, andtechnological- -and the human intellectual processesinvolved in the evolution of the ideological, sociolog-ical, technological, and ecological systems and soci-ety. Three critical processes are involved--valuing,enabling, and assessing.

Other categories implied by this focus would bestudies about evolving and future technical meansand public policy concerning the adoption and useof new technologies. Included in the latter would bestudies concerning employee adaptability to techno-logical change and the appropriateness of giventechnical means and systems with respect to qualityof life and sustainability of communities.

Figure 5. The Interrelationship of a System (DeVore,1980, p.339).

.i2 ''7


The structure illustrated provides the means toidentify content for curricula for the study of technol-ogy and the measurement of outcomes to determinetechnological literacy.

PlIph Slaght cautions us to not confuse coursesin technclogy, where a technical system itself istaught and mastered, with courses about"technology," where a technical syste.n is examinedand evaluated but seldom learned. Slaght stressesthe need to know and be able to use the intellectualprocesses of the technologist by having direct ex-periences in the technologies (p. 30). Slaght's posi-tion is valid. Just as it is not possible to be literate inanother language without being able to read, speakand write the language so too is it impossible to betechnologically literate without becoming involvedwith technical knowledge and technical systems andtheir elements and operations.

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The same is true for those who would proposeprograms for attaining technological literacy that donot involve the relation of technical systems with hu-man beings, social knowlecige and social systems.Such approaches will be abortive and interfere withthe development of the kinds of programs requiredto attain true technological literacy, a critical and ne-cessary component of today's education if the goal isto return the control of technical means to people toserve human purposes.

Given the multiple dichotomies and complex re-lationships, those who have accepted the mantle ofleadership in education have a monumental chal-lenge. It is: Design and implement a curriculum and

system of instruction in the field of technology thatwill meet the needs of al! students as part of theirbasic education as citizens in a democratic society.This is the basic challenge, the rest is commentary.

References

Buckely, W. F., Jr. (1987, April 25). Growth of ignor-ance attracts media. Dominion Post 4A.

DeVore, P. W. (1986). Measuring technological liter-acy: Problems and issues. Bulletin of Science.Technology and Society, fi(2,3).

DeVore, P. W. (1980). Technolooy An introducfign. Worcester, MA: Davis.

Haberer, J. (1986). Technological literacy and theuniversity: Concepts, priorities, and political real-ities. Bulletin of Science. Technology and Soci-WY., fi.

Kidder, R. M. (1987, January 28). Eric Sevareid onU.S. future. Christian Science Monitor, 7 9., 1, 6.

Koerner, J. D. (Ed.) (1981). The new liberal arts: Aptexchange of views. New York: Alfred P. SloanFoundation.

Lowen, W. (1982). A systems science model of themind and personality -- dichotomies of the mind.New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Lowen, W. (1970). Technology, education and soci-ety. Education in a Technological Society. Con-ference Proceedings. Morgantown, WV: Officeof Research and Development, AppalachianCenter, West Virginia University.

Miller, J. D. (1986). Technological literacy: Someconcepts and measures. Bulletin of Science,IfILhOplatiorlerid 1Y, fi.

Netzer, D. (1981). Response no. 5. The New Liber-al Arts: An Exchange of Views. New York: Al-fred P. Sloan Foundation, 36-38.

Sevareid, E. Christian Science Monitor.

Slaght, R. L. (1987, February 18). We can no longerseparate the thinkers from the doers in the liber-al arts. The Chronicle of Higher Education.

Stockdale, J. B. (1987, May). Points to ponder.Reader's Digest, 168.

208


Two truths have emerged regarding the age oftechnology. First, technological development willcontinue to expand at its apparent exponential rate.Second, the hamlet of technology will continue toproceed from the laboratory through prototypes andsophisticated application to widely used consumerproducts. While we can forecast these technologytrends with reasonable confidence, we cannot pre-dict accurately incremental changes and specificapplications.

For educators concerned with the relevance ofcurriculum and the timely infusion of advanced tech-nologies into programs, this systemato planning ofeducational change is a monumental task. Not onlyare curriculum experts seldom included in the tech-nological development processes they do not pos-sess sound systematic models for analyzing the im-pact of technology on the nation's labor force.

Their choices are few in number. Curriculum ex-perts can pilgrimage to the mecca of the futurist.Careful study of futurist predictions will lead to thedevelopment of worthy concept pieces, but seldomdoes this fountain of knowledge lead to concreteprogrammatic changes. The information is essentialbut not sufficient. Or, the curriculum experts canconduct occupational survey and document specificknowledge and skills. But this process assumes ma-jor adaptations of the technology into common prac-tice. In this case the information is sufficient but nottimely. In sum, these in exact methods do not offersound guidelines for determining what knowledgeand skills are appropriate for the educational systemand at what level. What has been lacking is an organ-izational strategy which would enable educators toanticipate technological change which in turn will af-fect programs. In-depth, sustained, and collabora-tive efforts are needed.

By way of example, let me recount an event in1964. (1) A teacher education class at a midwestemuniversity included (a) the observation of an injection

Technology's Impact on Education:Don't Leave it to Chance

Dr. Robert C. HarrisIndiana University

Bloomington, Indiana

molding machine and (b) a field trip to an on -line poly-mer raw material producer. Both activities were fasci-nating experiences though they provided limitedstructured information. However, the course wasreally about fabricating materials, so all other leamingexperiences were in woods and metals. After all, thatwas the knowledge industrial education teachersneeded in 1964, or was it?

Twenty-three years later, there is more volumeof polymers than metals produced in the UnitedStates. (2) And, in Indiana, the polymer industry isone of a few which shows growth. Yet, what doesthe curriculum of the state's industrial education pro-grams emphasize? You guessed it, we are heavyinto metal. In retrospect, what should the teachereducation program have taught?

Perhaps this isn't a serious problem. No secondchances on this question. Indiana and many otherstates are losing jobs rapidly in the steel producingand metal fabricating industries. Little wonder themidwest is unkindly referred to as the rustbelt.

Well, the purpose of this paper is not to kick thesigns of conscientious educators who want desper-ately to offer the soundest educational programs andwo struggle constantly with the difficult task ofchanging school curricula. The purpose of this pa-per is to describe one approach which has success-fully brought together educators, scientists, engi-neers, and managers to consider the pervasive im-pact of advanced technology.

The Corporation for Science and Technology

The Corporation for Science and Technology(CST) was established by legistlative enactment in1982. It was created in part, to undergrid the state'seconomic development effort. First, state leadersknew many jobs would be lost to changing technolo-gy through the relocation of major employers and theproduction efficiency reeked through advancedtechnology. Second, the state had to refoct's its in-dustrial base; however, it was realistic for Indiana to

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224 Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave it to Chance

remain product production oriented. To achl-mia thisobjective required focused efforts in specialized ad-vanced technologies. Government and private sec-tor representatives collaborated on the identificationof the most promising technological fields. The ef-fort culminated in the CST's working agenda.

Wisely, legislators did not set their new corpora-tion creation adrift in the uncharted seas of technolo-gy with a ten year budget of 150 million. From thebeginning, a powerful tri-representative governingboard was created. This board was composed of ma-jor government leaders (e.g. the lieutenant govern-or), educational officials (e.g. university president),and economic sector representatives (e.g. CEO ofMagnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Com-pany). See Figure 1.

Figure 1. Partners in the CST Organization

Among the members of the 25 person board arethree individuals readily identified with vocational ed-ucation including the State Director of Vocational Ed-ucation and two college presidents. The board man-ages the Corporation, a non-profit entity, and as-sures its consistency with the legislative man-date, the needs of the state, and the emergingtechnologies.

The purpose of CST is to strengthen the longterm industrial base of the state by infusing ad-vanced technology into new business start-ups andnew product lines within businesses (Campbell &

Hague, 1986). Thus, CST is a planned response tothe forecasted dramatic change in the economic sec-tor. Over the next two decades the state's factories,offices, hospitals, medical offices, libraries, stores,schools, transportation systems, communication sys-tems, and homes will change significanly because ofscientific breakthroughs and applications of ad-vanced technology. Consumer demands for (a) low-er unit costs and (b) increased quality of productsand services will continue to be a driving force.

Through the partnership with government, edu-cational institutions, and the private economic sec-tor, CST has the capacity to promote application ofnew technologies to products and services, engi-neering and design systems, design and test simula-tions, manufacturing and quality control programs,office operations, sales and marketing programs,training activities, and accounting and managementoperations. Thirty-one million dollars have been in-vested to date in a number of projects. The projectsare of three types: (a) start-up and initial support ofseven research centers, (b) research and initial engi-neering pha_ees of a number of advanced technolo-gy new product lines, and (c) start-up of new ad-vanced technology businesses.

The investment of the public funds is a means ofleveraging private funds which have been matchedon an average of 11 to one. Grants for new productshave a pay back provision which provides for a por-tion of the products' revenues to be returned to theCorporation for reinvestment. Clearly, a major dimen-sion of the Corporation is its investment in promis-ing projects which are consistent with targetedtechnologies.

Working Structure of the Corporation

The small professional staff of the Corporation isprimarily concerned with daily operation, proposaldevelopment, and contract administration. However,the backbone of the organization Is its technologycommittees.

There are 13 technology committees and twoeducational committees (see Table 1). As noted ear-lier, Indiana has identified special advanced technol-ogies for development. State leaders felt thesetechnologies were consistent with the human andcapital resources of the state and offered thegreatest competitive advantage for economicdevelopment.

In general, the committees' mission is to "identifythe technological threats and opportunities" whichwill impact Indiana's future and to maximize thestate's public and private abilities to seize economicopportunities. in short, these business, academic,and government leaders are creating the state'sfoundation for economic expansion and applicationsof advanced technology. The technology commit-tees are composed of some of our state's finestminds in research and engineering. They come fromuniversities, government, and the private sector.Over 500 members contnbute their insights, monitortechnological development, plan communicationactivaies, provide technical consultation, and

2 i 0


recommend funding priorities and projects.

Table 1

Technology Interests of CST Committees

Committee

Advanced Materials

Agricultural Genetics

Artifidal intelligence

Biotechnology

Control Systems

Energy Development

Industrial Byproducts

Information

Integrated Optics

Manufacturing

Medical

Microelectronics

Telecommunications

Woods

Powdered metallurgy: super plasticsand adhesives; polymer, ceramic & metal

based composites; superconductivematerials; structural ceramics

Genetic manipulations, embryo trans-plants, plant genetic modfications, Allapplications to agricultune operations

Expert systems, computer architec-ture, natural language driven processkg, vision for robotics, optical scanners of written text

DNA probes, monoceonal antibodiesand enzymes, medical diagnosis, wastemanagement, biotechnic quality control

Computers, microelectronics, opticalsystems, sensor systems, iterativefeectiack process control syclems

Combustion technologies, post combus-tion treatments, shale oil, cogenerationsystems, solar voltaic systems

Elimination of waste, usable products,regulation of hazardous and solid waste

Computing pcmar, Interface processingstandardization, simultaneous voiceand data handing

Optical sensors, optical metrology, op-tical signal processing, fiber optics,nonlinear optics semiconductor electro-optic devices

Automated process controls, integrateddesign, Interfere standards, 3-D vi-sion, color and pattern recognition

Out patient treatment in homebased systems, less invasive sur-gery, Implanted microelectronic circuitsfor musde and function control

Higher density, speed, and reliabilitychips, broader applications In mediumand small industries

Integrated digital netwoiksystems;optical applications; extensive appilcaions In homes, medical care, busi-ness and industry

This information on committee interests was drawn from apresentation of CTS President John Hague (1987) and theCST Annual Report (Campbell & Hague, 1986).

During the current year, each committee devel-oped long range plans which synthesized its opera-tional approach with the knowledge of the threatsand opportunities it envisioned for the state. Addi-tionally, a new plan piloted which brought selectedcommittees together to study anticipated changes ininstitutions and the implications these changesmight stimulate in the technologies. Thus, a kind ofmatrix analysis of these changing institutionswas de-veloped.

Unquestionably, homes, hospitals, schools,farms, and factories will change dramatically in thenext two decades. These changes will no doubt re-spond to advanced technologies in many of theidentified areas and a change in one technologyquite possibly will prompt major developments in an-other. For example, medical practice will likely in-clude diagnosis aided by application of expert sys-tems, the so-called artificial intelligence, perhaps fol-lov.i by surgery using laser beam technology.What will these changes require in workstation de-sign, advanced materials, and power sources? Toconsider such questions, experts from the five com-mittees would interact. The creative potential of thiscross team effort shows great promise.

The committees, through members' expertise,are the link between the frontiers of advanced tech-nology and applications in the economic sector.They provide a window through which one can viewthe likely impact of technology on the workplace andthe implied impact on those workers whose skills willbe most affected by these changes.

Vocational Training Committee

The Vocational Training Committee and theScience Education Committee are the two educationoriented committees. While each has its own mis-sion, their common missions are (a) to consider theimpact of advanced technology on the needs of thestate's citizens and (b) to develop recommendationsand informational programs for the education andtraining enterprise.

The specific mission of the Vocational TrainingCommittee (VTC) is to monitor developments,trends, needs, and opportunities resulting from ad-vanced technology to which employment educationand training systems must respond if the state'shuman capital is to complement the economicopportunities.

This Committee was established in 1984 underthe very able leadership of Ms. Geneva FletcherShedd, State Director of Vocational Education. Con-

2 1 1

226 Technology's Impact on Education: Don't Leave it to Chance

Shedd, State Director of Vocational Education. Con-sistent with the CST membership principle, the Com-mittee's members are training directors in the privatesector, vocational and technical educators for all lev-els of public education, heads of propietary institu-tions, and leaders of job training programs.

The Committee's task is to monitor trends in ad-vanced technology, develop interpretive materials,plan communication activities, provide technical con-sultation, and recommend funding priorities and pro-jects. The Committee acts as a facilitator betweenthe scientific and educational communities.

Regarding the advanced technology linkage,two activities merit elaboration. These activities ad-dress the questions "How is advanced technolo-gy monitored? " and "How is this informationdisseminated?".

All technology committees include at least twomembers from the Vocational Training Committee.These VTC members attend the technology commit-tee meetings. There are three settings in whichcommunication occurs (a) participation in deliberationof the technology committee, (b) informal interactiveconversation with individuals and small groups (e.g.in social context), and (c) personal consultive con-tacts. In the technology committee deliberations,VTC members may direct questions to speakers andencourage lines of thinking among the technologycommittee members about educational implications.However, it is important to realize the advanced tech-nology scientist is an information source, not a curric-ulum expert or program planner.

Thus, the critical function of the VTC member isto link the advanced technology with education plan-ning. This function calls for understanding thechanging technology and interpreting this informa-tion in terms of educational implications. Sometimesthis task is vet), straight forward, other times it is com-plex. Let me illustrate by an example conceming arti-ficial intelligence.

Even an elementary understanding of expertsystems suggest two critical principles. First, themore complex the system, the greater the reductionin the labor force and knowledge needed amongtechnicians who perform the original diagnostic deci-sion tasks (Harris, 1987). This principle will argue for(a) shorter term specific training (one consultant, onlyslightly tongue in cheek, suggested training couldbe reduced from two years to two weeks) and (b)more comprehensive education in science, basicskills, and professional styles (e.g. attitude towardquality, team relationships, work ethic, etc.). This

...MM..MEW

implication is straight forward. Second, developersof expert systems presently appear to bring one oftwo thinking approaches to their tasks. The confron-tation of these styles is often counter productive tothe creative process. Thus, by implication the ques-tion arises what can the educational system do toovercome these potential barriers to Al systems? Ona more ethical and philosophical level should the ed-ucational system attempt to alter thinking styles?These questions go to the very root of educationalprinciples. The issue of what to teach is elevated tothe issue of how to teach and toward what goats.Content and process will once again be analyzed furtheir integration.

These examples suggest the types of informa-tion which can be obtained by the committee linkag-es. However, the linkage alone is not sufficient;thoughtful probing, careful listening, and critical in-terpreting are required of VTC members. Once ide-as are developed, members report to the VocationalTraining Committee. This Committee must filter andsynthesize the information and determine its impor-tance to education and training programs.

Information dissemination is an important Com-mittee task. initially, the Committee sponsored twostatewide conferences for this purpose. A videotape of the initial conference's highlights was pro-duced to be used in regional planning efforts, someof which have been held. While the conferenceswere well attended and received, the Committee'sassessment of specific attainments was below ex-pectation. Three major weaknesses were identified(a) the information was too general, (b) speakers hadinsufficient time to develop essential points, and (c)the relevance of the information to educational pro-gramming was not readily evident as presented.

The current dissemination plan is designed toovercome these limitations. Smaller, topically inten-sive workshops are envisior,ed. Tor,Jics will includespecific advanced technology trends and implica-tions and include substantial participant interaction.This approach should produce more prescriptive in-formation. Workshops will culminate the Commit-tee's synthesizing efforts and draw upon the infor-mation derived from advanced technology commit-tee reports.

The Vocational Training Committee has a criticaltask, the linking of trends in advanced technology toeducational and training programs. Clearly, its role isanalytic and advisory.

2 i 2

Technological Literacy Symposium o 227

Reflections

In the preceding sections, the organization anaoperation of the Corporation for Science and Tech-nology in general have been highlighted and W, par-ticular the link between education and technologythrough the Vocational Training Committee hasbeen developed. The paper concludes with somepersonal observations about these processes.

A tangible though unmeasured outcome of theCorporation for Science and Technology results fromthe ongoing interaction among members of the pri-vate sector aid educators. The dialogue involveswide ranging consideration of advanced technology.Sir.ce we are all in a speculative position, there is a

genuine sense of brainstorming, creating, and ana-lyzing. Through this process a sense of mutual re-spect for each other's expertise develops, and, I amconfident a synergistic outcome is derived. Thecreative potential of this aggregated knowledge fo-cused on the future is a positive and powerful force.

In my Introductory remarks, a concern was raisedabout the adequacy and timing of change under old-er and established means of accommodating ad-vanced technology. The approach described in thispaper for addressing those issues appears promis-ing. However, one can not say with certainty that thetime required to implement curriculum change andaccommodate new technology has been reducedwith greater accuracy. At best a scheme has beenimplemented and we know it works to create newproducts and businesses. The process possessesinteresting facets and there is clear policy directionand legislative support for the agency's agenda.One of the most important principles in this modersdesign is the purposeful involvement of educators,scientists, and government officials as equal partnersin the dialogue of threats and opportunities.

The longer and more complex the dialogue pro-cesses, the clearer the need for a systematic ap-proach to analyzing the impact of technology on ed-ucation. The established "positivist" approach togenerating knowledge through survey research hascritical limitations such as poor timing and Lend over-sights. Clearly, new approaches are needed and re-searchers skilled in these new paradigms are essen-tial. The interactive approach of probing and synthe-sizing described in this paper, while not sufficientlyrigorous, points to important methodological Ideas.Perhaps adaptations of the naturalistic paradigm(Uncoln & Guba, 1985), which is dearly a more syste-matic approach to interactive analysis could lead ourfield toward new power and timely insights.

Finally, one impact on the education participantsin this process is clear. It can be simply put. One cannot dismiss the likely impact of advanced technologyon education while an active participant in a dialogueabout it. The content is too powerful to ignore.There is not an educator on the committee who doesnot have that throbbing unanswerable question con-stantly on his/her mind "Are my programs relevant tothe people I serve?". if you believe, as I do, thatchange cannot occur without leaders' commitmentsto change, then the idea behind the Corporation forScience and Technology does not leave change tochance.

References

Campbell, E., & Hague, J. D. (1986). Annual report:Ina. Indianapolis: Indiana Corporation forScience and Technology.

Hague, J. D. (1987, April). Technology overview re-gm/. Presented at the CST combined target-ed technology committee member meeting.Indianapolis: Corporation for Science andTechnology.

Harris, R. C. (1987, March). grief meeting: Artificialintelligence committee. Indianapolis: Corpo-ration for Science and Technology.

Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry.California: Sage.

Notes

(1)

(2)

(3)

Account from a class observation by theauthor in 1964.

Seport by Dr. J. P. Lisack of Purdue Universityto the Vocational Training Commhtee. Dr. Li-sack is a noted manpower researcher.

An observation developed by Mr. Richard Erd-man, Director of Expert System Developmentas Magnavox Corporation.

2 1 3


Implications: Technological Literacy andVocational Education Service Areas

In attempting to relate technological literacy tovocational education there is one variable which edu-cators, including vocational educators, should espe-cially seek to address; that is the organization oflearning experiences around SELF-CONCEPT as avehicle to student understanding of both technolo-gy and their potential place in the technology-dominated workplace.

The link between technology instruction and oc-cupational choice--and subsequent training--became a concern in the mid-seventies as career ed-ucation peaked and as vocational education beganto fund industrial arts for the first time. The field's re-sponse was to include mention of occupations andcareers in textbooks and to offer instructional units inoccupations related to industrial arts subject matter.Neither have been completely satisfactory as far asthe vocational community Is concerned.

The options available in various vocational ser-vice areas are still vague to students; there are still fartoo many students who switch from curriculum to cur-riculum in the vocational program. The bridge be-tween technology education and occupationalchoice is difficult at best when we use occupationsalone as the vehicle.

In the mid-seventies, an early seventh grade cur-riculum was introduced into the junior high schoolsof Virginia called "Careers and You". It was, and is, anattempt to enable students to relate to occupationsvia the frame of reference of "work environments."

The curriculum was based upon the "tentativeselection" stage of career development. Among thegoals of the experience were included:

The investigation of several occupationalstyles and work environments found in theworld of work, [and]

The determination of the whereabouts ofsuch occupational styles and work envi-ronments [within each career cluster or

Dr. Ralph ResslerExecutive Director

Alabama Council on Vocational EducationAuburn, Alabama

vocational areas].

in this approach, designed to alert students totheir personal potential relative to career selectionand to aid them in determining where appropriate oc-cupational styles can be found, the cognitive subjectmatter becomes of lesser importance. The opportu-nity for students to simulate various occupationalstyles and roles becomes of primary importance.From this perspective, vocations can be examined todetermine those occupational styles or modes of op-eration most prevelant or which most typify particularservice areas.

There is much more to this curriculum, of course,but the work environment concept proposed byJohn Holland has potential as a vehicle to bring tech-nology education and vocational service areas to-gether. Holland hypothesized six work environ-ments:

REALISTIC characterized by aggressive be-havior; many times requiring physical skill.

INVESTIGATIVE characterized by organizing,thinking, arid understanding.

SOCIAL characterized by interpersonal skills,caring.

CONVENTIONAL characterized by concern forrules, routine, self-control.

ENTERPRISING characterized by verbal skills,maniplating behavior.

ARTISTIC characterized by self-expression, in-direct relations with people via art media.

It should be obvious that these work environ-ments are not found in their "pure" form; that is, workinvolves us in a mix of activity, not simply one workenvironment. As an integral part of the curriculumunder discussion, the SDS (Seg-Directed Search)was used by students which gives one a profile ofhis/her affinity to all six environments. The fact thatinterests and aptitudes are an outgrowth of one's

2 1 4

230 Implications: Technological Literacy and Vocational Education Service Areas

personality should give educators the first clue as tothe need for an intermediate step between placing amenu of occupations before a young person andasking him, in essence, to select a vocational servicearea for training.

The Virginia experiment has several assets. ..aswell as a few liabilities. Certainly the concept is ac-ceptable to technology and vocational teachers. It

does not threaten turf. The approach Itself can besuperimposed over any existing curricular organiza-tion with little or no disruption.

Finally, it can work. It can not only be used to re-late activity to eventual occupational choice, but canbe used by instructors to check on the comprehen-siveness of their instructional methods as well: Am Iteaching to only the students comfortable in the rea-listic work environment? Are students who have anaffinity for the enterprising work environment beingaddressed? Those "turned on by other workenvironments?

The approach also has two liabilities which seemobvious. First, it is limited as to grade level (the"tentative selection stage"); second, as a curriculum,it does not "belong" to anyone as do others andhence can become nobody's concern.

Yet, as a way in which to interface technologyeducation and the vocational service areas, this con-ceptual frame of reference has some potentialand should be considered as a supplementalapproach.

215


Introduction

The Machine Vision Team is comprised of a di-versified group of people who devote their time tosolving industrial problems. Vision provides us with alarge amount of information and enables us an intelli-gent interaction with the environment. Applying vi-sion in industry allows for controlling of the processproblem.

Definitions of the various competencies re-quired to maximize career opportunities as a memberof the machine vision team, assessments of the vari-ous titles used to discriminate between membersand findings of the machine vision survey on compe-tencies necessary at the technician, technologist,and engineering levels are presented. The initialcompetency list was subjected to the Machine VisionEducation Committee on Certification. The Certifica-tion Committee is responsible for determining thecompetencies of the technician, technologist andengineer. This presentation provides the compe-tencies which make up the certification criteria.

Machine Vision Teem

We begin with the machine vision team becausemost work done in industry involves team effort. Theteam members include scientists, engineers, tech-nologists, technicians and craftspeople. The team'sactivities center on problem-solving tasks. This re-quires that members constantly develop solutions totasks within their team, or use the knowledge of oth-ers. Technology continues to accelerate at an ever-increasing rate as it develops one innovation afteranother. The new knowledge due to advancingtechnology directly affects the machine vision team.Requirements for many of today's jobs have alreadychanged; however, people are unaware of the teen-nological changes until they consider a job change.

Many are shocked when they do not possessthe competencies for the new position. Projectionsof future jobs reveal a serious mismatch between thecompetencies for new jobs and the preparation of

Machine Vision Literacy

Dr. Al L. AndrewsNorthwest Missouri State Uni-ersity

Maryville, Missouri

those seeking new positions. Many times displacedworkers seem the logical candidates to fill the posi-tions created by new technology, but when match-ing the position to the candidate, a lack of skills,knowledge, attitude and capability for retraining elimi-nate the displaced worker. The machine vision teamrequirements vary with each of the team membersand their educational level.

The Scientist

The relationship bef--,een the positions of scien-tists, engineers, technologists, technicians andcraftspeople are provided. Note that the scientist isthe most theoretical member cf the team, develop-ing theory and laws from science. This Investigationmay require many years of study and may have verylittle application. Some scientists are labeled as ap-plied or pure. Many of the presentations at "Vision86" listed as research and developmental can beconsidered as applied activities carried out by ap-plied scientists. These activities require a strong aca-demic background and usually demand a DoctorateDegree. Machine vision scientists will need to con-tinue their acquisition for knowledge throughouttheir working lives. The major competencies o; thescientists are found in Table 1. With scientists, the"Scientific Area" will relate to the type of position andthe tasks raquired.

The Engineer

Engineers apply the development of the scien-tists. These solutions to problems Involve systems,procedures, product, facilities, human resources andfinarres. The solutions also require standards,specifications and requirements both internally andexternally. The engineer is driven by the desire tcdevelop a better way to accomplish a task in an at-tempt to maximize profit. Many "Engineering Areas"of specialization exist and require variations from onespecialization to another. Since each area of special-ization can also be divided into more sub-groups, theability to specialize is related to the company's size.

2 1 6

232 Machine Vision Literacy.........4.

A large number of people emproyed by industry aretitled as engineers and do have a four-year degree.Companies have titled positions due to their tasksand training acquired by serving an apprenticeship,ov gaining work experience and education through avariety of sources.

Recent movement in human development signi-fies that the title "Engineer may only be given tograduates of accredited programs. The Accredita-tion Board of Engineering and Technology (ABET)accredits engineering, engineering technology andtechnology-type programs. Accreditation demon-strates that a program has met criteria establishedand evaluated by a peer team. Programs are provid-ed that allow students the ability to gain the Bache-lors of Science Degree, Masters of Science Degreeand Doctorate Degree. Many practicing engineersmust comply not only with State requirements, butalso with professional societies' requirements to be-come certified or registered.

Table 1Competencies of the Machine Vision Scientist

Mathematics CompetenciesAlgebraGeometryCalculusDifferential EquationsMatrix Algebra

Science CompetenciesPhysics

PureTheoretical DiffractionTheoretical ElectricityTheoretical MagnetismTheoretical MatterTheoretical NuclearTheoretical OpticsTheoretical ParticleTheoretical Quantum MechanicsTheoretical RelativityTheoretical Solid StateAppliedDiffractionElectricityMagnetismMatterNuclearOpticsParticleQuantum MechanicsRelativitySolid State

ChemistryAnalyticalBiologicalInorganicInterdisciplinaryOrganicPhysicalSolid StateGeochemical

Communication CompetenciesEnglishSpeech

Additional General Education From:Humanities, Social Science, Art, Music

Science AreasBiologyBotanyChemistryPhysics

Table 2Competencies of the Machine Vision Engineer

Mathematics CompetenciesAlgebraGeometryCalculusDifferential EquationsMatrix Algebra

Science CompetenciesPhysicsChemistry

Communication CompetenciesEnglishSpeech or Report Writing

Additional General EducationHumanities, Social Science, Art, Music

Machine Vision Engineering CompetenciesArchitecturesComparison to Human VisionDigitizing/SamplingEvaluating Vendor ResponsesFundamental ConceptsImage AnalysisImage ProcessingImage SegmentationLightingMachine Vision ApplicationsOpticsProject JustificationProject ManagementThree Dimensional TechniquesSensors/CamerasWriting a Specification

2ii


Table 3Competencies of the Machine Vision Technologist

Mathematics CompetenciesAlgebraGeometryCalculus


Communication CompetenciesEnglishSpeech or Report Writing

Additional General EducationHumanities, Social Science, Art, Music

Machine Vision Engineering Technology/Technology Competencies

ArchitecturesComparison to Human VisionDigitizing/SamplingEvaluating Vendor ResponsesFundamental ConceptsImage AnalysisImage ProcessingImage SegmentationLightingMachine Vision ApplicationsOpticsProject JustificationProject ManagementThree Dimonsional TechniquesSensors/CamerasWriting a Specification

The Technologist

The Technologist Is a four-year graduate of anengineering technology or technology program. Al-though similar in many details to the engineer, thetechnologist usually lacks depth in mathematics andscience. The college and university programs are of-ten titled "Industrial Technology" or "EngineeringTechnology". The tasks of the technologists aremore applied than those of the engineers. This mayrequire the debugging of machine vision systems,the installation of vision systems, or the feasibility of avision system. Accreditation of these programs maybe by ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineeringand Technology) or NAIT (National Association of In-dustrial Technology) and may cover bachelors, mas-ters and doctoral programs in technology or engi-neering technology. Coursework will include a larg-er amount of laboratory work with skills in develop-ment and applied sciences. With the large numberof two-year associate degrees, many students con-tinue their education by transferring the sixty-plus

hours toward the bachelors program. The capstone,or 2 plus 2 programs, provide a vision system teammember the ability to work and complete degree re-quirements at night. You may wish to refer to Figure2, the relationships between the positions of scien-tists, engineers, technologists, technicians andcraftspersons for a usual relationship.

The Technician

The vision system team members apply the skillsand knowledge acquired by a specialized edgy- ationor training program emphasizing manipulative skills.They often take courses with a core similar to all tech-nologies and specialize in a field such as electronics,design, manufacturing, quality control, laser and ro-botics. Many of these programs provide competen-cies to fulfill a local demand and become very special-ized. These competencies are acquired at a commu-nity college or technical college. Graduates com-plete an Associate of Applied Science or other asso-ciate degree and have a career path toward the tech-nologist level with the 2 plus 2 type program. Theneed to verify research and development testing ac-tivities provides an ideal position for the technician.This also aids the other team members to better uti-lize their theoretical expertise.

The Craftsperson (Trade)

The crafts member of the team is certified as acraftsperson, usually completing a period as an ap-prentice and requiring a set period of years. in addi-tion to the on-the-job training, the apprentice is re-quired to complete related instruction offered by theTrade Association or by a local educational institu-tion. Certification is accomplished by the UnitedStates Department of Labor, Bureau of Apprentice-ship. These programs are very closely tied to unionswhich many times coordinate the related training ac-tivities. Electricians, plumbers and tool and die mak-ers are several examples of the skilled trades whichare recognized as craftspersons. The craftspersonbecomes an important member of a team when thetraditional components of a machine vision must beassembled. The craftsperson's skills provir'c theability to manipulate the components into an ii..egrat-ed system and also debug the problems not eliminat-ed during the engineering phase.

218

234 Machine Vision Literacy

Table 4Competencies of the Machine Vision Technician

Mathematics CompetenciesAlgebraTrigonometryGeometry


Communication CompetenciesEnglishSpeech or Technical Report Writing

Additional General EducationHumanities, Social Sciences or above list

Machine Vision Technician CompetenciesArchitecturesComparison to Human VisionDigitizing/SamplingEvaluating Vendor ResponsesFundamental ConceptsImage AnalysisImage ProcessingImage SegmentationLightingMachine Vision ApplicationsOpticsProject JustificationProject ManagementThree Dimensional TechniquesSensors/CamerasWriting a Specification

Table 5Competencies of the Skilled Person

Mathematics CompetenciesAlgebraTrigonometry

Science CompetenciesPhysicsApplied Sciences

Communication CompetenciesEnglish and Report Writing

Sid II-Trade-Craft AreaAutomechanicConstructionElectrician

GlazerPlumberSheet metalTool and Die

Conclusion

School is the most ideal place to begin an under-standing of technology and the role it plays in ourculture. Tectiology education students will be ableto mace an educated decision on the benefits oftechnology in our society. As a society people canand must control the development and application oftechnology.

Machine Vision Technology provides educatorswith an opportunity to apply science, mathematicand technical concepts with applications in all fields.The Department of Technology at Northwest Missou-ri State University wishes to note the support fromState of Missouri, Department of Elementary andSecondary Education; Micron Technology, Inc.,Honeywell, Inc.; Microswitch Division, the Society ofManufacturing Engineers; Machine Vision Associa-tion, and the many people that provided informationfor this research.

2 1 .9


Technology Education In New York State

Introduction

The enterprise with which we have been in-volved in New York State is now four and one-halfyears old; it has involved the participation of literallyhundreds, perhaps over a thousand individuals, hasconsumed thousands upon thousands of hours oftime, and millions of dollars in financial resources; yetwe are still in an evolutionary phase.

This endeavor, managed by the New York StateEducation Department, was known as the "futuringproject" and stemmed from the desire to match cur-riculum to the needs of learners in the decadesahead. As a result, eight committees in occupationaleducation and the practical arts were convened andwere challenged to redefine their missions and clarifytheir goals.

This comprehensive review of educational pro-grams began in 1981 and brought together educa-tors, business and industrial leaders, social scien-tists, futurists, and engineers. New York State Com-missioner of Education, Gordon Ambach, gave thecommittees their charge. The business and industri-al leaders were asked to help identify what compe-tencies were needed. The educational leaders wereasked to determine how these competencies wouldbe delivered. The committees deliberated for twoand one-half years during which time experts werecalled upon to present papers, professional literaturewas reviewed, approaches debated, missions clari-fied, and a philosophic base was built.

Teachers from within the field were intimately in-volved in all phases of the project. A group of thir-teen industrial arts practitioners (called regional facili-tators) attended all committee meetings. These indi-viduals provided ongoing liaison with the fieldthrough written correspondence and local meet-ings, and solicited feedback from the teachingconstituency.

Futuring came at a time when the social climatewas right for education about technology. It was the

Michael HackerAssociate State Supervisor for

Technology EducationNew York State Department of Education

time of excitement about space shuttles and satel-lites; and there was a growing interest in technologyin general.

It was the time when the National Commission onExcellence in Education stated at "our nation was atrisk of losing its preeminence in science, and tech-nological innovation."

And the National Science Board's report,"educating Americans for the 21st century," identi-fied technology education as an entity; and recom-mended that a full year of mathematics, science andtechnology should be required each year in gradesseven and eight. It was the time of Naisbitt's Mega-trends and Toffler's Third Wave; and there was visiblebroad-based support for an educational responsethat addressed the need for a technologically literatepopulation.

During this period, the transition within our ownprofession accelerated. The professional journalwas renamed, The Technology Teacher, and theAmerican Industrial Arts Association (now the Inter-national Technology Education Association) provid-ed new leadership in assisting teachers to developimplementation strategies for technology-basedprograms.

The sense that there was indeed a professionalsupport base, influenced the futuring committee toidentify the inculcation of technological literacy asthe paramount mission of industrial arts; and to rec-ommend in January 1983 that the name "industrialarts" be changed to "technology education" in NewYork State.

While the futuring project was drawing up its rec-ommendations, the New York State Board of Re-gents began work on its "action plan to improve ele-mentary and secondary education in New York."

As a result of these parallel state-supported ef-forts, and the timeliness of the national reports, theBoard of Regents saw fit to include a one-unit

220

2361 Technology Education in New York State

technology mandate as one of the middle schoolrequirements.

Differences Between Industrial Arts andTechnology Education

There are several major differences betweentechnology education, and its predecessor, industri-al arts. These differences relate to content base,methodology, and mission. The content base of In-dustrial arts was based primarily on the inculcation ofskills and knowledge in the use of tools, materials,and industrial processes. The content base of tech-nology involves understanding generic conceptscommon to all technological systems (inputs, re-sources, processes, output, feedback and control).

The methodology of both programs relies uponhands-on, laboratory-based, "design and construct"activity, however, technology programs stress pro-cess rather than product. Problem solving and diver-gent thinking are fundamental skills which are care-fully integrated into laboratory activities.

The mission of Industrial arts was to prepare stu-dents for life in an industrial society. Manufacturingwas the chief enterprise which underpinned theeconomy. The mission of technology education is toprovide students with technological literacy in aknowledge-based, post-Industrial society. Techno-logical literacy transcends a knowledge of technolog-ical processes, and Includes and understanding oftechnology within a social and economic context.(See Appendix A, Definitions) The transition from in-dustrial arts to technology education is a logical evo-lution of the discipline.

NN

N30

30

IS

INDUSTRIAL ARTS --TECHNOLOGY EDUCATIONA LOGICAL EVOLUTION

JUYSON'S MILLCHARLES IMOIA14011 WILLIAM WARNIR IAC.0. Al0 NYE FUTURING

INDUSTIMAI. wouSTIMAL INOWITMAL MCNN01.00TANTS ARTSTTICITNOLOCIT 11C10301.00T IDUCATION

ISM IMP Mrs ISM

MASS TOODUCTION IRAMOIL 1-

WRIGHT ONOTTNINSPIASTICNYLON

RALL POOR NW*AMMO*

MCI KIIMWITS

TRANSISTORSWIMS

001041ADIDCUICINTSSON/ WRIT RAM

PRICLIAR POSTONLAMAS1,01

PIIIISONAL COAINNIRSSPACA SmurTTS

WWI PRATTMOON tAND150

OIWITIC SNONSIOlimaNORTISNIDI

SAT1tutt COMMUNICATION

,CusiTTOTool

nentracie a ilORKFOloCt IN MANUFACTURING AND 01,01,3TION !OilHSS

Major Differences: industrial Adsrod Technology Education

Industrial Arts

Mission Teach about tools,materiels, industrialprocesses,Providestechnological literacy

Conceptual Base Undefined; teacher

ContentOrganizers

Use of Project

Mental ProcessSklls (ProblemSoMng; Dedslonmaking, Creativethinking)

Activity Base

Relationships toother disciplines

choke

Discrete materials,Or processes

Often used as anend h ibelf

An informal programprogram element;occasionallyoverlooked

75% hands-on; UnitShop

Philosophicallyyes; in practice,

rare. Uttle formalattempt to matchinterdisciplinaryconcepts to irxte-Mal arts activity

Technology Education

Defined; major con-concepts andbehaviors we bent-in state sylabus

System elements;Inputs, resources,

processes, outputs,feerbacWconkol

Means to an end

Planned as a formalelement of program;entrel to activity

75% hands-on;technology systems

laboratories

Constants addressedin each activity;technology educationIs conceived as anIntegrating deciPlihe

The Systems Approach

The most baffling questions that faced the futur-ing committee were "How do we teach about tech-nology? What are its essential concepts, and how dowe teach about a sublqct that is undergoing suchrapid change?" For several months members of thecommittee explored these Issues.

After Intense professional discussion, the indus-trial arts futuring committee suggested a systems ap-proach, which would Incorporate hands-on learningactivities similar to those which have made industrialarts so popular with students for generations.

Technology was viewed as being comprised ofvarious systems and subsystems. We are surround-ed by examples of these systems, large and Email,such as hydroelectric systems, and automated pro-duction systems.

This general systems model can be used topoint out the similarities that exist among all techno-logical systems. If we can identify those systems

22j


concepts that are generic, ourstudents will be betterable to see familiar patterns reoccurring although thetechnologies themselves may be new to them.

Whet is a System?

A system, simply stated, is a means throughwhich we can accomplish our desired results. All sys-tems have inputs, processes, and outputs. The in-put to the system is the desired result; the commandwhich tells the system what to accomplish. The pm-cess is the action part of the system. It combines re-sources in response to the input command. It is thetechnical means we employ, the "how" componentin the system. The output is the actual result. It maybe the expected, desired result. The output alsomay include unexpected, undesired results. A sys-tem, consisting of an input, a process, and an out-put, is called an open-loop system.

An open-loop system. The process combinestechnological resources (people, information, materi-als, tools, and machines, capital, energy, and time) toproduce an output in response to a command in-put.

Closed-Loop Systems

How do we know if we get the output we want?We monitor the output, and derive "feedback." Thefeedback permits us to make a comparison betweenthe desired result (command input) and the actual re-sult (output). Once the comparison is made, we canadjust the process so that the system's output moreclosely agrees with the input.

Input

Resouroes

General System Model of Closed-Loop System

The operation of technological systems (e.g. ahome heating system), can be clarified through theuse of the universal system model. In this closed-loop system, the input is the desired temperaturesetting. The process is the furnace which combinesresources (like oil and electricity) to produce an out-put (the actual room temperature). A thermometermonitors the temperature and a thermostat com-pares the desired and actual temperature and ad-justs the process (by turning the furnace on and off).

arcOes load

Timonium

Resources014 Gio, or Eliculdoi

OutputRoom Tomonnun

Conceptual Content Framework Based onthe Universal System Model

A new vision for organization of technology edu-cation content may be borne out of the precedinganalysis. Based upon the universal system model,curriculum may be generated which identifies ele-ments whk,h are generic to all technological systems.These elements are inputs, resources, processes,

outputs, feedback, and control, and may be used todefine content for technology programs in any or allof the cluster areas.

These universal system elements are integral toall systems, whether they are production, communi-cation, transportation, biological, economic, or socialsystems. Understanding the common principles thatapply to all systems can help students transfer knowl-edge from one specific occurrence to the next. Stu-dents will be able to see familiar patterns reoccurringalthough a particular technology may be new tothem!

The System Model as a Content Organizer

The systems analogy can provide the contentorganizers for technology education program: theclusters can be viewed as lachnological contextswithin which the systems operate.

The benefit of using the systems analogy is thatit not only can be used to help students analyze fa-miliar technologies, but can also be used to helpthem interpret previously unericountered technolo-gies as well.

A robotic material transport system might be atechnology new to most students. The systemsmodel can help explain this technology.

The input (desired result) is to move material to adesired position. The process involves the roboticarm and its motors; the output is the actual positionof the material. A sensing device, perhaps an opticalsensor, monitors the position. The comparison be-tween the desired position and the actual position ismade by a digital computer. The computer adjuststhe process by sending a signal to the motors in therobotic arm.

222

238 ,- TochneWy Education in New York State

The systems analogy can be used to model vir-tually any technological system, and therefore, canbe used as a means through which content can beorganized for technologies such as manufacturing,construction, communications, or transportation.Consistency can thus be achieved in the way subjectmatter is presented. Transfer of learning will thus befacilitated for students.

Problem Solving as a System

Those of us who have ever taught 7th grade rec-ognize that we will have only a modicum of success ifwe depend upon drawing systems diagrams on theblackboard. We must do what we've always done ingood industrial arts teaching; that is, provide the stu-dents with an activity, and then elicit the conceptsfrom their own base of experience.

In this case, the student were presented with atechnological design problem to design a rubber-band powered vehicle which could carry a raw eggsafely over a distance of seventy-five feet, at a speedgreater than that of any other competing group's ve-hicle.

The students were encouraged to do a lot of trialand error, testing, and crative problem solving...andto refine their design until it worked the way theywanted it to.

It is well accepted that these kinds of investiga-tive activities are an excellent way to stimulating high-er level mental process skills, like decision making,and critical thinking; but this problem solving experi-ence is really an expertise in systems thinking, andserves to introduce the students to systemsconcepts.

We can look at the problem solving process insystems terms: the input was the goal, or what thestudent wanted to accomplish. The process consist-ed of generating, selecting, and implementing alter-natives; and the output was the actual result.

What systems thinking can do for the student, isto help them develop a problem solving routine, andto create the perception that we don't have to be sat-isifed with the initial results. We use our failures tohelp us improve our performance.

Thus, the basic systems model becomes a sim-ple conceptual tool that the student can picture easi-ly and employ to assist in the solution of problemsand in the analysis of technical systems.

Conceptual Cuniculum Framework

The systems analogy provides the content

organizers for the New York Technology EducationProgram. At the seventh grade level, the resourceinputs, systems, and impacts of technology serve toprovide structure. Several contexts are suggestedfrom within which examples might be drawn. Theseare systems in biotechnology, communications andinformation technology, production technology, andtransportation technology.

Seventh Grade Program

Module 1 introduces the student to this newfield of study, addresses the evolution and impor-tance of technology, and focuses on reasons whypeople must study about technology. Studentsshould know that technology influences their rou-tines and satisfies human needs. They should knowthat technology predates science; that before thescience of chemistry, people were making glass.

Module 2 focuses on the seven resourceswhich are generic to all technologies. Whether "yeare referring to ancient technologies like flowing, orultramodern technologies like satellite communica-tion, the resources of people, information, materials,tools and machines, energy, capital, and lima, arerequired.

Resourose

Module 3 is a problem solving module wherestudents could be challenged to solve a prescribedtechnical problem, design a device for a handi-capped person, or participate in a competitive prob-lem solving event. It serves as a natural introductionto the systems module, since when people are solv-ing problems, they are working within a system.

80 GoalsEstablishCreeds

Idol* and

AllernathlosSelect II. Results

223

MonitorResults }-


In Module 4, students are introduced to systemsterminology at this point. Inputs, processs, and out-puts are studied. The concept of feedback is lightlyintroduced.

Input

Resources

Module 5 focuses on the positive and negativeimpacts of technology. (The outputs) as well as thematch between technology and the environment,and technology and the human user are illustrated.

The Eighth Grade Program

The eighth grade program wanes the 1000" inour technology model.

Module 6 revisits the resources for technology,however, emphasizes the choices people may makein selecting resources.

Module 7 addresses the process component ofthe system and looks at three types of processing:processing energy, materials, and information.

EnergyMidi& leblorrnstfon

Module 8 introduces concepts of sensing andcontrol. Thus, the feedback loop is studied. Con-cepts of open and closed loop control are intro-duced.

Module 9 is a look to the future. Students lookat future impacts of technology, from a global per-spective. The student is placed at the center of atime continuum from his or her grandparents era tothe time when the student will most likely be a grand-parent, and is asked to discuss the changes in

outPuts(Future

Oriented)

technology that have or may occur during thatperiod.

Module 10, the final module, illustrates how thesystems model itself can be used as a problem solv-ing tool. Students are encouraged to use systemsthinking to design a system. It is in this module thatstudents are encouraged to synthesize their newknowledge in the creation of a functioningtechnological system.

2 2 4


Input

Risouross

Output

Technology Learning Activities

One of the most unique facets of the New Yorkprogram is the evolution of an activity format knownas the Technology Learning Activity (TLA). The TLAserves two major functions: first, concepts are identi-fied and become the driving force behind the choiceof the activity. Thua, a match between major con-cepts and student dctivity is assured. Second, theTLA's identify a series of stonstart3," among whichare those that directly relate middle school mathe-matics, science, and social studies concepts to thestudy of technology. These concepts have beenspecifically identified by subject matter specialists.

The constants serve to provide genuine inter-disciplinary connections to other school subjects,the world of work, and to life's experiences.

There are ten constants which have been identi-fied within each TLA. They include: systems, math-ematics, science, social science, safety and health,psychomotor skills, communications skills, problemsolving, career related information, and transfer oflearning. Attention to the constants epitomizes theessence of technology education. A distinct empha-sis is placed on the interdisciplinary nature of tech-nology as an integrating discipline.

Presently, several dozen TLAs have been gen-erated. Among them are the following:

Time,The Fourth Dimension (Module 1) - Stu-dents construct samples of time keeping devices(e.g. sand, water and candle clocks, sundials, burn-ing rope clock, etc.) that reflect the evolution of timepieces.

Logo Design (Module 2) - The seven generictechnological resources are represented by a logowhich the students design, and reproduce as but-tons, or on silk screened T-shirts.

Mouse-Trap Powered Vehicle Design Problem(Module 3) - Working inteams, students will designand build a mouse-trap powered vehicle. One hun-dred dollars in play money will be given to each team.A basic bag of parts is purchased for twenty-five dol-lars. Additional parts and tools may be purchased for

additional money. A distance competition is heldand results discussed. The winning vehicle is theone which is most cost-effective.

Systems and Subsystems in Model Rocketry(Module 4) - Students will construct, pre-flight test,launch, and measure baseline and flight altitudes ofmodel rockets and analyze the component systemsand subsystems.

Hydrcponic Greenhouse (Module 5) - Proto-types of hydroponic greenhouses will be construct-ed as a means of exemplifying how technology canbe better adapted to the environment.

Optimizing Resources in Transportation Sys-tems (Module 6) - In this TLA, students will identifyresources that can be replaced by others in order tooptimize a transportation system.

Material Processing: Drying Foods for Preserva-tion (Module 7) - Students process various fruits,vegetables, nuts, spices, by subtracting moisturefrom the foods. A variety of drying processes areused, comparisons made as to cost, effectiveness,and efficiency.

Controlling Technological Systems (Module 8)Sensing and control concepts are studied throughthe use of toys such as armitron robots, and feed-back games.

The Committee on World Repair (Module 9)Students will identify a variety of global social issueswhich parallel the growth of technology, will proposealternative technological solutions, and physicallymodel one solution.

Clean the Air (Module 10) Students will applyprevious technical knowledge to the design of a sys-tem to remove air pollution from a room. The originalset of TLAs was developed by a group of selecttechnology teacher-trainers as part of an intensivethree week inservice workshop at Oswego Universityduring the summer of 1984. These TLAs are de-signed to serve as models for teachers who are en-couraged to develop their own. Presently occurredduring the 1984-85 school year involved the genera-tion of the second part (the eighth grade portion) ofthe syllabus. A planning group comprised of fiveproject leaders met to develop the framework for theeighth grade syllabus.

The planning group members served as teamleaders for 3-4 person satellite curriculum writingteams. Each team was met often to assess work inprogress, and to ensure continuity among the writingteams. The entire group of curriculum writers met

226


three times during the curriculum writing process topresent its work to the group at large, and to receivefeedbadc.

The eighth grade portion of the curriculum hasbeen twice field tested across the state. Reactionwas formally solicited, and resulted in a syllabus revi-sion which win be distributed to teachers before the1987-88 school year begins. Full implementation ofthe program has occurred for grade seven student inSeptember, 1986, and will occur for grade eight stu-dents in September, 1987. The Commissioner ofEducation and New York State Board of Regentshave mandated that one year of technology educa-tion must be taken by all students who complete theeighth grade by June, 1988.

Technology and Occupational Education

Technology education is an integral part of theoccupational education continuum In New York. Acoordinated curriculum has been generated whichviews the introduction of technology program (alongwith another course entitled home and career skills)as providing occupational educational core compe-tencies at the middle/junior high school level.

As a component of all high school occupationaleducation sequences, students must take two re-quired introduction to occupation courses (personalresource management, and the working citizen).

Students may fulfill graduation requirements inattaining sequence credit in any of several occupa-tional education programs including agriculture edu-cation, business education, health occupations edu-cation, home economics education, technical educa-tion, technology education, or trade and industrialeducation. The high school technology program isviewed as providing core skills for students pursuingfurther experiences in technical education, and/orgrade and industrial education.

GENERAL ED tre4

1104,.000

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TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION AS PART OFTHE OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION CONTINUUM

hunk* Training

Over a period of four years (1984-1987), approx-imately 1300 industrial arts teachers have beentrained by the New York State Education Depart-ment's Technology Teacher Training Project. A su-perb corp of 40 technology teacher trainers has de-voted many weeks to intensive study of the syllabusand to the generation Of technology learning activi-ties to support its delivery. These teacher trainershave dispersed across New York state to provide lo-cal inservice training to groups of industrial arts/technology teachers at 19 regional centers. Theteacher trainers have provided the critical functionsof translating a theoretical document into an activity-based program, developing implementation strate-gies, and communicating the feasibility of the entireapproach to their peers.

The professional commitment that has been dis-played by the teachers themselves is astounding.The regional inservice programs were entirely volun-tary, required between one and two weeks of sum-mer attendance, and did not offer financial support tothe teachers.

Teacher Reaction to the Program

The technology education program is a signifi-cant departure from traditional industrial arts. Teach-ers therefore have been challenged to assimilatenew content, new Procedures, and accept a newconceptual base for their discipline.

The teacher trainers report that the overwhelm-ing majority of the teachers who have participated inthe inservice program have additional contributions.Attending teachers were encouraged to view thecurriculum as dynamic, and therefore felt free to sug-gest changes, many of which were incorporated intothe approximately 125 TLAs in various stages ofcompletion during the first year of field testing. Thecommitment to the new program appears to be quitesolic among those who have participated in the inser-vice sessions.

There remains a corps of teachers who have nothad the opportunity to study the new material, andtherefore have not had the benefit of the sharingand support of colleagues. Among that group thereare mixed perceptions. Some have heard goodthings from their fellow teachers and are receptive,while others remain committed to more traditionalapproaches.

The technology fair, held at the New York StateTechnology Education Association's annual confer-ence last spring, was Inspiring. Field testing

226


teachers displayed computer controlled hydroponicgardens, exhibited time keeping devices used toteach the evolution of technology, and an impres-sive array of problem solving activities.

This has not been an easy road. There havebeen challenges right from the beginning: this hasbeen a radical upheaval for many of us. Technologyeducation represents a substantial departure fromtraditional industrial arts and involves quite a newcontent base.

But those involved in the technology movementshare a vision that has united our profession. Thecomraderie that exists can only be felt by those com-mitted to a common cause.

No one ever promised us that change would beeasy in our profession, but the changes have comefrom teachers from within our own discipline. Wehave not forgotten that it is industrial arts that hasbreathed life into the technology education move-ment in this country, and much of what will sustaintechnology education is the best of our presentpractice.

I believe that we are in fact, evolving a new disci-pline. Very few educators are provided with that con-summate opportunity during their careers. And I be-lieve that we are to be envied.

Appendix A

Basic Definitions

TECHNOLOGY: The use of accumulated humanknowledge to process resources to satisfy humanneeds and wants.

TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION: An integrating dis-cipline designed to develop technological literacy aspart of all students' fundamental education, throughan activity-based study of past, present, and futuretechnological systems; their resources, processes,and impacts on society.

TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY: The ability touse, maintain, design, construct, analyze, and as-sess the impacts of technological systems.

TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEM: A means of accom-plishing a desired technological result by processingresources in response to a command input. A sys-tem may be open-loop (feedback) or closed-loop(using feedback).

221

111W' Technological Literacy Symposium 243

Technological Literacy: Roles for PracticalArts and Vocational Education

The educational establishment of this latter partof the twentieth century is beset by a task that hashad no parallel in the history of humankind. This taskis to educate a generation of citizens who would notbe strangers in a world they hay( lnhelited, as well ashaving had a part in its shaping. The central issue isone of technological literacy for practically all personsliving in a democratic society that is so profoundly im-pacted by technology in envy aspect of the human'sexistence.

Literacy, as a concept with respect to Technolo-gy, is a dynamic phenomena in itself. That is to say,technological literacy is an ever-changing quality thatis dependent on time, place and conditions.

The factor of time creates its own unique dimen-sion of literacy when we speak about technologicalliteracy. The agrarian society, the industrial society,the post-Industrial society, and the super-industrialsociety, all operating within given time frameworks,provide for a dynamics of literacy in relation to thestate of the technology in each.

The factor of place plays an important role whenone takes into account the tremendous variation intechnological developments as experienced by thecitizens of Silicon Valley, the City of New York, theThird World countries of Africa, or the primitive tribesof New Guinea in the year 1987.

The conditions factor brings into play the circum-stances in which a given group or society live or carryout their livelihood. Such varying conditions may beidentified as one views the life styles of the astro-naut, the wandering nomad of Saudi Arabia, or theboatpeople of Hong Kong, all living in the year 1937.

Technological literacy in the present age here isthese United States is as fundamental to humanfunctioning as is the need to read and write. It is bas-ic to human performance in practically all areas of liv-ing, as well as the very existence of the individual onthis planet.

0:4

Dr. Donald MaleyDepartment of Industrial, Technological

and Occupational EducationUniversity of Maryland

College Park, Maryland

Technological literacy is sc encompassing in itsscope that there are no areas of the human's exis-tence that are not under its pervasive influence.Technological literacy is a universal requirement thatreaches into all sectors of society and all levels of hu-man activity.

The earlier concepts of literacy, centeringaround reading, writing and calculating, were largelyone of skill or task development. The issue of tech-nological literacy reaches into every dimension of hu-man involvement, ranging from skill development,manipulation, broad understanding, philosophicalpositioning, ethical and moral consideration, and atti-tude formulation.

There are two important concerns at the heart ofthe issue of technological literacy. The first is a con-cern for effective citizenship in a democratic ad-vanced technological society wherein the individualcan feel some sense of control as well as contribu-tion and accommodation. The second major con-cern is for the future,the nature of a world that ourfuture generations will inherit, since humankind nowhas the technology to design the kind of a world thatis wanted. The human, for the most part, is no longerat the mercy of the elements (natural and man-made)as was the case with earlier generations. Advancesin technology in a broad range of fields have put thefuture to a much greater degree in the hands of thehumankind.

Technological literacy is based on the concept ofunderstanding and not the possession of artifacts ofan advanced technological age. "Technological liter-acy is the possession of a reasonable understandingof the behavior of technological systems and re-quires knowledge of scientific and mathematical con-cepts" (NSF, p. 74). Technological literacy instruc-tion must help "people understand the limitations aswell as the capabilities of emerging technologies.The technologically literate person should have asense of what technology can and cannot do. He or

228

244 Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocationa; Education

she should not believe that technology can solve allills, nor that technology is responsible for most prob-lems" (NSF, p. 74).

The publication, Educating Americans for the21st Century (NSF, 1983) contains tt ., statement:

Technological literacy needs to be a part ofgeneral literacy and "numcracy." In a sense,we are speaking of "basics" in education,and we are identifying the knowledge andunderstanding of technology as basic.. .

(NSF, p. 73).

Technological literacy is an area of literacy thatextends across practically every discipline in the sec-ondary school program and as such, it's pursuit in ourschools must include strong implications for mathe-matics, science, history, economics, social and envi-ronmental impact, as well as the areas of technologyeducation, practical arts and vocational education.

The cross-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary na-ture of technology as an area of study was ex-pressed by Truxal (1986) as follows:

Technology, after all, (in the present setting)is simply the application of scientific knowl-edge to achieve a specified human pur-pose. As technology is directed toward asocietal goal, every new technology in-volves questions of ethics and values,which must be judged from aesthetic, histor-ical and philosophical viewpoints. Further-more, technological change has economic,sociological, and behavioral implications forboth the country and those individuals di-rectly involved. (p. 12)

Thus, knowledge of technology becomes fun-damental in this latter part of the twentieth century.Life and living in this technological society demand aliteracyan understanding that makes technologicalliteracy an imperative.

The National Science Foundation report, Edu-cating Americans for the 21st Century (1983), listsfive important areas of understanding that wouldcontribute to technological literacy. These areas ofunderstanding are:

1. The historical role of technology in hu-man development,

2. The relationship between technologicaldecisions and human values,

3. The benefits and risks of choosing tech-nologies,

4. The change occurring in current tech-nology, and

5. An understanding of technology assess-ment as a method of influencing the choiceof future technologies. (p. 74)

The above five areas of understanding provide aframework within which the practical arts and voca-tional education can function.

The historical role of technology has been anintegral part of the industrial arts/technology educa-tion program in the study of early innovations on theanthropological unit approach (Maryland Plan, 1973).

The relationship between technological deci-sions and human values can be integrated into thepractical arts and vocational education as the respec-tive professions deal with such areas as housing andconstruction, transportation, communications, pow-er, energy and manufacture. Human values enterinto the application, purchase, use, maintenanceand selection of technologies within each of the are-as listed.

The benefits and risks in choosing technolo-gies can be dealt with in the practical arts and voca-tional education by including these two elements(benefits and risks) as additional areas of concernWhen studying the respective trade areas as well asthe areas listed for the practical arts. There are fewtechnological areas that can not be subject to thescrutiny of benefits and risks.

The changes occurring in current technology isan area of literacy directly applicable to every servicearea of vocational education, as well as the previous-ly mentioned construction, manufacture, power, en-ergy, communications and transportation. The in-structional plan or strategy should include an empha-sis on such changes as well as their impact.

An understanding of technology assessmentas a method of influencing the choice of future tech-nologies is another area of technological literacy inwhich the practical arts and vocational education canmake a contribution. The broadening of instructionin the practical arts and vocational education may wellinclude discussions and analyses of the merit or lackof merit of the technologies involved in the program.Such analytical examination of the technologies pro-vides a whole new dimension for literacy which maylead to more effective decision making. It might alsoinvolve raising the right questions, such as:

What are the alternatives?

What are the soda; impacts?

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What are the environmental impacts?

Who should be involved in the decision?

What are the principles of science and/or mathinvolved?

What role has the technology or innovationplayed?

What are the ethical, social, oral and legal issuesassociated with or brought into play by thetechnology?

The role of the practical arts and vocational edu-cation in the development of technological literacy isone that may be plotted along a continuum rangingfrom relatively small or insignificant to a broad and en-compassing function. The determining factor islargely a matter of perspective, as well as choice andcommitment on the part of the profession.

The matter of perspective is related to a numberof issues that the profession must face or resolve.

1. Is the profession interested in being a vitalcomponent of the education of all students or isit concerned with a limited constituency?

2. Is the profession interested in being an inte-gral part of an interdisciplinary involvement withthe total school and community?

3. Is the profession willing to broaden its scopeof content to include the dimensions of literacythat extend beyond the parameters of the tradi-tional practices and limited craft activities?

A Unique Role by Virtue of Settkig,Process and Content

A unique role that technology education, practi-cal arts and vocational education can play in technol-ogy literacy is related to the nature of the instruction-al setting, as well as the kind of instruction that canbe carded out in each of these fields.

The instructional setting contains many of thetools, materials and equipment associated with thetechnology of such areas as communication, power,energy, medical science, construction, manufacture,transportation, business and agriculture.

The opportunity for students tc have concrete,first-hand experiences with the tools, materials, andprocesses of an advanced technological society pro-vides the fields of technology education, practicalads and vocational education with unusual opportu-nities to contribute to the technological literacy of thestudents.

The experiential nature of instruction, as carried

out in technology education, practical arts and vcca-tional education, adds a whole new and important di-mension to the development of technological litera-cy. It is that dimension of reality with respect to whatis being studied, and also to the realities of the worldbeyond the school. The programs in technology ed-ucation, practical arts, and vocational education pro-vide a unique setting in the modem school for the in-tegration of mathematics, science, social studies, ec-onomics, history, art and environmental studies. It isa setting conducive to a holistic study of technologyas opposed to the atomistic approach so characteris-tic of much of one's education.

A Place In the School to Put tt All Together

Another very Important role that technology ed-ucation, the practical arts and vocational educationcan play is serving as a point in the school where thestudent can put it all together in the context of theworld beyond the school.

Such areas of instruction can provide the settingwhere mathematics can be applied in the world of re-ality with concrete appiications of principles and con-cepts. The principles and concepts of science areused to explain and interpret the phenomena of heatexchange, power transmission, forces, lift, drag, fric-tion, and numerous other realities of the technolo-gies associated with the area of Industrial Arts/Technology Education and Vocational Education.

In addition to science and mathematics princi-ples and concepts, the Industrial Arts/TechnologyEducation and Vocational fields abound in the op-portunities to real with the social impact and the en-vironmental impact of many of the items studied inthe laboratory instructional programs.

This plea for a place in the school where the stu-dent can put it all together is supported by a com-ment by Alfred North Whitehead (1952) in the follow-ing quotation:

The solution which I am urging is to eradi-cate the fatal disconnection of subjectswhich kills the vitality of our modem curricu-lum. There is only one subject-matter foreducation, and that is Life in all its manifesta-tions. Instead of this single unit, we offerchildrenAlgebra, from which nothing fol-lows; Geometry, from which nothing follows;Science, from which nothing follows; Histo-ry, from which nothing follows; a couple oflanguages never mastered. . . It is a rapidtable of contents which a deity might runover in his mind while he was thinking of

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246 Technological Literacy: Roles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education

creating a world, and had not yet deter-mined how to put it together. (p. 18)

Later on in the same writing, Whitehead summar-ized the need In education by stating that ". . .Thepupils have got to be made to feel that they are stu-dying something and not merely executing intellec-tual minutes (p. 21).

That setting, that place in the school and theprogram areas, are most appropriately in the fields ofIndustrial Arts/Technology Education and VocationalEducation. The professions in these respective are-as need to broaden their focus of what is obviouslypossible In their instructional settings.

The Process Skills Required of the Future Citizen

A third role that the areas of Industrial Arts/Technology Education and Vocational Educationcan play in developing technological literacy must beseen in the larger context of current and future edu-cational thought. These are with respect to the de-velopment of skills in the processes of problem solv-ing, inquiry, synthesis, analysis and decision making.These skills are the skills 0 the future. They will re-

quire new emphases and new perspectives on thenature of schooling and its function in a highly accel-erated changing world.

All of the ingredients for such human potentialdevelopment exist in abundance in the world andprocesses associated with the fields of IndustrialArts/Technology Education and Vocational Educa-tion. The essential concern must be one of how thestudent gets the answers rather than the answersthemselves, for as we all know, the answers willchange.

Bridging the Gap of Technological Ignorance

One of the most important roles for IndustrialArts/Technology Education and Vocational Educa-tion in their involvement with technological literacycertainly must be the contributions they can make inhelping the citizen achieve a greater understandingof the technological society in which he/she mustfunction. This increased citizen role goes beyondthat of career information, work skills and those attrib-utes of a successful employee. The new dimensionis in the broad arena of technological literacy, where-in the future citizen can make effective decisionsabout technological alternatives, the merit of onetechnology over another, and the application oftechnologies in the sokrtion of major problems in thecommunity, the nation and the world. The citizen-ship contribution issue is brought into focus as oneconsiders the responsibilities as well as roles, for

those of us who have the great privilege of being citi-zens in a democracy that also happens to be one ofthe most advanced technological nations in theworld. This important citizenship role has causedsome of our educational and public leaders to seewhat has been happening in our schools with re-spect to the need for technology studies.

There have been numerous concerns about asociety that has given littie direct attention to thestudy of technology in our public secondary schools.Boyer (1983), in his book, High School: A Reporton Secondary Education in America,wrote: "We arefrankly disappointed that none of the schools we vis-ited required a study of technology. More disturbingstill is the current inclination to equate technologywith computers" (p. 111).

This lack of attention to the study of technologyhas implications for a concern that sees a growingchasm or gulf that tends to separate the technolo-gists from the population in general. John Slaugh-ter, a former Director of the National Science Foun-dation, quoted in the publication, Educating Ameri-cans for the 21st Century (1983), warned of thegrowing chasm between a small scientific elite and acitizenry ill-informed, indeed, uninformed on issueswith a science component" (p. 10).

Maley (1969), in a presentation at the 1969 con-vention of the American Vocational Association inBoston, made the following comment: "The brightertomorrow will be there only if a bridge can be de-signed that would span the gulf of technological ig-norance which exists between the vast majority ofthe populace and the technical elite" (p. I).

This position has been supported by a numberof citations warning of the consequences of the gulfof ignorance that appeared to be so obvious sometwenty years ago. Wafter Finke (1967) pointed outthat the gap between the technologist and the pop-ulace in general was a concern of Sir Charles Snowwhen he said:

. . .that he feared that technologicalprogress would eventually lead to a situationin which life-or death decisions would oneday be made by a small scientific elite 'whodo not quite understand what the depth ofthe argument is'.

That is, he said, 'one of the consequencesof the lapse or gulf in communication be-tween scientists and on-scientists'. (p. 50)

A similar concern was expressed by BarbaraWard (1966) in her text, Spaceship Earth, in which

231

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there is a concern for trio impact of technology andthe control of political and economic policy.

In a world that is being driven onward atapocalyptic speed by science and technolo-gy, we cannot, we must not, give up theidea that human beings can control their po-litical and economic policies. . . (p. 1)

Perhaps an even more pointed element wascontained in the report from the Commission on theYear 2000 that appeared in an article by AndrewSquibb (1968) in The News American (Baltimore).The report projected:

The end of democratic government as peo-ple lose interest and leave the decisions toan intellectual, technological elite. (p. F-1)

Thus, I would propose that the practical arts andvocational education take up the challenge of doingtheir share in narrowing that gulf of ignorance thatseparates the technocratic elite from the citizens ingeneral. This is not a task that can be accomplishedby these areas alone. There are, however, very im-portant roles that they ran and must play.

The Consumer, User and Producer Literacy Needs

Other roles for Industrial Arts/Ter,qinology Edu-cation and Vocational Educatior. are related to thecontributions that these areas can make to the indi-vidual as a consumer and user of the fruits of an ad-vanced technological society. The tools, processes,systems and equipment available to the individualcall for a form of consumer understanding that ishighly dependent on technological literacy.

Likewise, the user of technology in practicallyevery area of Ilvirv,jwork, play, communrlion, trav-el, food preparation, home maintenance, and health,all require the individual to have a level of technologi-cal literacy unprecedented in human history. The ar-eas of Industrial Arts/Technology Education and Vo-cational Education have a significant role in this, theconsumer and user functions of the individual.

The producer role is one that, in today's work-place, wilt require increasing sophistication In thearea of technological literacy. Vocational educationhas a great opportunity for contributing to the Individ-uars technological literacy as well as his/her capabilityin using the technology as tools in a productive,wage-earning capacity.

Technological Literacy and the Need forContinuous Literacy Development

Technological literacy is not a one-shot deal,wherein a student has taken a good program or ser-ies of courses contributory to technological literacy.The requirements for technological literacy will re-main with the individual throughout his/her workingor useful life. This has grave implications for what wedo in education in this latter part of the 20th century.

That is to say--the processes by which the indi-vidual is able to maintain a reasonable degree oftechnological literacy throughout one's life in an ev-erchanging technological society is one of educa-tion's greatest challenges.

The picture is one of the individual movingthrough a life of changing environment, changinghuman requirements, and certainly, changing tech-nologies. The picture gets more complicated by vir-tue of the fact that it is reasonable to expect that thepace of the two entities, i.e. the individual and thetechnological society, are not the same, as oneseems to outdistance the other.

The past forty years have seen a technologicalexplosion outpace and outdistance the populationof this nation in its ability to even be a reasonablecompetitor in the race. The increasing gap betweenthe individuars understanding and the state of tech-nological affairs continues to widen and will continueto do so in the forseeable future.

But now you say: "What does all of this so-calledrace of the human with the state of technological af-fairs have to do with the role of the practical arts andvocational education in dealing with technological lit-eracy?' I would reply that there is an extremely im-portant role that such educational programs can andmust play. Earlier, I made the comment thatthe pro-cesses by which the individual is able to maintain areasonable degree of technological literacy through-out one's life in an ever-changing technological soci-ety is one of education's greatest challenges. Theword "processes" is the key to a much closer race.The "processes" in this case are the processes oflearning. Alvin Toffler (1970) best described thecondition and the requiremz.nts in the comment:"-Tomorrow's illiterate will not be the man (person)who can't read; he will be the man who has notlearned to learn" (p. 367).

Thus, I would propose that one of the most im-portant roles for the practical arts and vocational edu-cation is to assist each and every student in theirability to learn. To do less would be to educate for

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248 Technological Literacy: Poles for Practical Arts and Vocational Education

obsolescencd in a fast changing in technologicalsociety.

A First-Hand Experience Leading toTechnological literacy

Furthermore, I would contend that the practicalarts and vocational education have one of educa-tion's most fertile gardens for developing the individ-ual's ability to learn. The environment, as well as thecontext, in which such idsming takes place is condu-cive to a broad range of learning styles. It Is also thesetting for a multi-sensory, multi-dimensional learn-ing that emanates from a first-hand encounter withthe technology and its principles of mathematics,science, social and environmental impact. The im-portance of this first-hand experience in the learningprocess was the subject of a comment by AlfredNorth Whitehead (1952) in his concern for a "basisfor intellectual life."

. . .First-hand knowledge is the ultimate ba-sis of intellectual life. To a large extent book-learning conveys second-handed informa-tion, and as such can never rise to the 1111-portaik* of immediate practice. ...What thelearned world tends to offer is one second-hand scrap of information illustrating ideasderived from another second-hand scrap ofinformation. The second-handednessof the learned world is the secret of itsmediocrity. (p. 61)

The role of helping students to learn how toler, n is one that is enhanced in the practical arts andvocational education by virtue of the environment,the direct involvement with the technology, and theuse of technology to study other technologies.

The development of programs in the practicalarts and vocational education with a high degree ofeffectiveness in achieving greater technological liter-acy may be one of our greatest challenges--and atthe same time, it may be our finest opportunity.

As to the role or roles that the practical arts andvocational education can play in the development oftechnological literacy here in the United States,--it isa matter of perspective of the roles they can play. It

also is a matter of choice and commitment on the partof the respective professions.

References

Boyer, E. L. (1983). High school: A report on sec-pndary education in America. New York: Harper& Row.

Finke, W. W. (1967, January). Making technology auniversally available tool. figagaDjgelf.

Maley, D. (1970, March). A new role for industrial artsin a senior high school. &hoot Shop, 2a(7), 41-45, 65.

National Science Board Commission on PrecollegeEducation in Mathematics, Science and Tech-nology. (1983). Educating Americans for the21st century (source materials). Washington,DC: The National Science Foundation.

Squibb, A. (1968, January 14). The year 2000:What will life be like? (Pad One). The New Amed-r, an, Baltimore, MD.

Truxal, J. G. (1986, March/April). Learning to thinklike an engineer. Ghana la(2), 10-19.

Ward, B. (1966). Boalahluatth. New York: Co-lumbia Jniversity Press.

Whitehead, A. N. (1952). The aims of education.New York: Macmillan.

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This paper will begin to explore the role of voca-tional education in developing technological literacy.To accomplish that end, the paper will, first, briefly ex-amine the evolving concept of technological literacy.Second, it wil' review the present status of vocationaleducation, particularly at the secondary level. Finally,the paper will attempt to answer the questions,"Should the twain meet, and, if so, how?"


The development of technological literacy is nota new idea for industrial arts educators. William War-ner and his students began studying the idea in the1940's (Warner et al., 1965). One of Warner's stu-dents, Delmar Olson, completed a dissertation in the'50's which outlined a structure for the study of tech-nology and advocated ail industrial arts adopt a cur-riculum that would reflect the technology (Olson,1963). But the great surge of curriculum activity inthe '60's ignored technology. Towers, Lux, andRay's "Industrial Ms Curriculum Project," Face andFlug's "American Industry," Maley's "Maryland Plan,"Yoho's "Orchestrated System," and Stadt's"Enterprise" (to name just a few) were all designed toimprove the ability of industrial arts to interpret indus-trynot technology. The interpretation of industryrather than the development of technological literacywas accepted as the dominant purpose of industrialarts education.

Why was the study of technology and the devel-opment of technological literacy ignored then, but isnow being urged upon industrial arts educators?Certainly it is not because industrial arts educatorshave debated and explicitly chosen to shift the philo-sophical orientation of the field from its traditional stu-dent-centered, humanistic approach to a subject/society-centered approach based upon academic ra-tionalism (Zuga, 1985). Despite some serious studyof the t. .3ot by Paul DeVore (1980), it is certainlynot because practitioners better understand tech-nology and how to teach it now than they did then.

Technological Literacy: The Role ofVocational Education

Dr. Jerome Moss, Jr.Division of Industrial Education

University of MinneostaSt. Paul, Minnesota

The most twicel explanation for the motivation tochange is the desire for survival--the need to fit bet-ter into the new wave of educational thought andpractice, epitomized by the emphasis on the newbasics. Industrial arts educators are being driven todon a mantle of greater academic respectability.

Despite the self-serving motivation, a changefrom industrial arts and interpreting industry to tech-nology education and developing technological liter-acy is not irrational. It is not difficult to argue that it isimportant for all youth (general education) to under-stand technology in a society driven in large measureby technology. Further, the change can be madewith relative ease: (a) the traditional laboratory, multi-sensory, activity-oriented approach can be retained;(b) a more credble claim can be made for reinforcinga wide variety of mathematical and scientific conceptsand for enhancing problem solving and creativethinking skills; and (c) the curriculum clusters, whichgrew out of earlier industrial arts curriculum projectsand which were further developed during the careereducation years, can be adapted as content organiz-ers for the study of technological systems.

But several important questions remain to be an-swered if the change to technology education andthe development of technological literacy is to besuccessful. Greater concensus is needed about themeaning of technology and of technological literacy.The justification for this conference, and the focus ofevery presentation in it, is to explore these conceptsand to begin to build that concensus.

What is Technology?

There are many definitions of technology; it isuseful for industrial arts/technology educators tothink of them in four categories. Each category re-flects a different breadth of potential content.

The definitions of technology included in thefirst category reflect the broadest interpretation ofpotential content. These definitions consider tech-nology as systems for making and doing things--all

250 Technological Literacy: The Role of Vocational Education

the way from making machinists to making love. J.Kenneth Galbreath's (1967) use of the term providesan exemplar 'Technology means the systematic ap-pli' +ion of Scientific and other knowledg.) to practi-cal tasks."

The definition in the second category are nar-rower in scope. They speak of technology as sys-tems (or adaptive means) for enhancing the capacityof society to produce goods and services. The defi-nitions limit the systems to those involved in the pro-duction of goods and services, but do not restrict thesystems to those associated with "industry." Medicaland agricultural systems, for instance, are included inthe scope of content Identified by this category ofdefinitions. The Technology Act of 1986 definestechnology in this manner (100th Congress, 1986).

The third category contains definitions that limitthe systems to those which enhance the industrialcapacity of society--industrial technology. Thesedefinitions typically organize the systems into suchcomponents as communication, manufacturing, con-struction, transportation, etc. The Jackson's Mill doc-ument reflects this more limited interpretation oftechnology (Wright, 1987).

Fourth, and finally, a few definitions interprettechnology as computer (or as electronic communi-cations systems). These are obviously the most limit-ed of all.

What Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes CompriseUtemcy?

The goal of developing technological literacy im-plies that r.irtain knowledge, skills and attitudes(ksa), drawn from the content of technology(however technology is defined), will be taught andlearned. Presently, the technology education litera-ture appears to contain three interpretations ofthe primary set of ksa's that comprise technologicalliteracy.

One interpretation is that technological literacymeans understanding the application of scientificprinciples (mainly those drawn from mathematics andphysics) to the creation of tools and machines.When this interpretation comprises the primary com-ponent of technological literacy, then the content oftechnology education needs to be organizedaround the scientific principles that are to be rein-forced; technology content is selected and struc-tured to best illustrate and clarify the scientific princi-ples. Pedretti's "Principles of Technology" illustratesthis interpretation.

A second interpretation of technological literacy

is to prepare students to work with technical sys-tems; to have them learn skills, knowledge and atti-tudes about the systems that are uniquely techno-logical (however broadly or narrowly technology isdefined). This "technical" interpretation leads todrawing the content for technology education fromthe technological processes themselves, and to en-gage students in the processes.

The third interpretation of technological literacyis to understand and appreciate the impact of tech-nology and its changes on individuals, on societyand culture, and on the environment. One approachto achieving this .ype of literacy is historical, that is, toillustrate over time the impacts of technology and theeffects of technological change. Another approachmight be to have students plan, organize and con-duct a production project, and then require them tointroduce a "new" significant technological advanceinto the production process to illustrate the effects ofsuch a change.

Thus, one can conceive of the content of tecinological literacy as varying within a 4 x 3 matrix. Fourdefinitions of technology, each with a differentscope, and three interpretations of the most criticalkinds of knowledge, skills and attitudes to be learnedfrom that content. Two/0 definitions, plus innumer-able combinations, can, therefore, be readily identi-fied. But the problem of defining technological litera-cy does not end here.

What Level of Achievement Constitutes Literacy?

To define technological literacy for educationalpurposes, that is, to design instructional programsthat will develop technological literacy, it is not onlynecessary to specify the kinds of knowledge, skillsand attitudes that comprise the meaning of literacy, itis also necessary to identify the level of achievementthat constitutes literacy. There is, after all, really acontinuum of achievement in technology; inditmualshave varying degrees of competence. We maychoose to bifurcate the continuum of achievement atsome point to identify a minimum level of compe-tence (what's above the line is literate and what's be-low the line is illiterate), but an artificial dichotomy isbeing created. Nevertheless, expectations ofachievement do need to be expressed in designingformal education programs.

The literature of technology education alreadycontains expressions which recognize a wide rangeof possible levels of achievement. As Dyrenfurth(1987) has already pointed out at this conference,the affective, cognitive and psychomotor behaviorsthat comprise literacy can be learned to different

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levels of complexity. Or, as Hameed (1987) andWhite (1987) have put it, literacy can be defined ashaving different functional levels, such as recogniz-ing, using, controlling, making and designing, or putmore simply, the consuming and the producinglevels.

V'hat is Technological Literacy?

Technological literacy at this time is, therefore,an ambiguous concept. Its meaning depends uponthe interaction of one's choice or (a) a definition oftechnology, (b) the kinds of knowledge, skills and at-titudes that comprise the primary substance of litera-cy, and (c) the level of competence it is necessary topossess to attain literacy.

By inference, technology education is an equal-ly ambiguous concept. It too is in transition, in a stateof "becoming." Progress as a field will depend uponreaching broader consensus about more precisedefinitions than presently exist.

Vocational Education

Vocational education, particularly at the secon-dary level, a; also in a state of transition. Lke industri-al artaffe-..hnology education, the time available in thesecondary curriculum for vocational education Is be-ing decreased because of increases in academiccourse requirements for graduation. But of evengreater impact, the value of specialized occupational°reparation 0 the secondary level is being seriouslywestioned i;), a growing number of influential critics.The criticisms are directed at issues of equity and of

efficiency.

Criticisms of Vocational Education

In 1916, Dewey predicted that a narrow interpre-tation of vocational educatior as specialized pro-grams for less-than-professional level occupationswould harden the dichotomy of vocational and aca-demic education. The former for the masses and thelatter for the few ecor. mically able to enjoy it. Now,in 1985, Oakes reports that disproportionately great-er numbers of students from the lower socio-economic groups are taking vocational classes, andthat the lower the skill level of the vocational coursethe more likely it is that the students will come fromthe low.sst soca-economic groups. She joins De-wey in the charge that vocational education perpetu-ates a tracking system which intensifies an inequita-ble class system.

The charges of inefficiency have several bases.A number of studies, like Grasso & Shea (1979),have found that there is little (or no) economic

benefit to secondary students who take vocationaleducation courses. Employers often claim that thequality of graduates' performance is low, and that thetime in vocational courses could be better spent im-proving basic academic skills (Research & PolicyCommittee of the Committee far Economic Develop-ment, 1985). Further, as Thurow (1986) believes, itis too costly to maintain equipment representative ofmodem industry in comprehensive high schools. Fi-nally, there are those, such as the Panel on Secon-dary Education for the Chrnging Workplace (1984),who say that there is too great a discrepancy be-tween the kinds of occupations demanded by the la-bor market and the kinds of vocational programs of-fered by schools.

Not all vocational educators find these chargescredible, but a growing number do, and they are be-ginning to propose solutions that would significantlyalter the curriculum of the secondary school.

A Propoead Solution

The solution most commonly proposed is to in-tegrate vocational and academic education(Goodlad, 1984; Finn, 1986; Silberman, 1986). Theproposal calls for defining the purpose of vocationaleducation as improving "employability," broadly inter-preted and career long. This means recognizing thatvocational education is not only a form of specializededucation, but that it must also seriously concern it-self with aspects of the general education of allyouth.

Proponents of this solution justify its reasona-bleness on both praC.cal and theoretical grounds.They argue that the public continues to see the sec-ondary school as a place to prepare for work (Gallup,1985); work in the future will be more important thanever to a growing proportion of the population. It isclaimed that much of the knowledge, skills and atti-tudes needed for success in any one occupation (orgroups of occupations) Is also needed ,r success inall occupations - -in fact, the same competencies arealso needed in many other life rolesand are therebyimportant for all youth to poasess. Further, like in-dustrial arts/technology education, vocational educa-tion is believed to provide an effective alternative ap-proach to instruction; it provides a reason to learn, away to learn, and a place to learn that can reducedrop-outs and improve the social and academic per-formance of students (National Commission on Sec-ondary Vocational Education, 1986). And finally,while the need for specialized occupational prepara-tion will not be eliminated, it will be delayed to thepost-high school for an increasing number of

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students and become a life-long effort (Thurow,1986).

Thus, it is likely that vocational education In thesecondary school Is also in transition. Most signifi-cantly, it appears that the direction of change is to-ward making the general education aspects of voca-tional instruction an increasingly important part of thehigh school program.

Bringing the nvain Together

Given the emergence of technology educationwith the purpose of developing technological litera-cy, and the possible transformation of vocational ed-ucation to improve the employability of all youth(general education), the two fields appear to beheading on a converging course in the secondaryschool. What relationships between them should beedvisioned? Are they on a -311Ision course, or arethey getting closer to working cooperatively?

A Reason for Cooperating

There is a very practical reason for cooperatingfor seeking a common denominator that will permitthe development of a conceptually coherent highschool curriculum in corporating both fiek:s. The rea-son is that by cooperating the chances of both fieldsfinding a satisfactory place in the curriculum will beenhanced; by competing the chances of both fieldswill be substantially reduced.

Both fields are now competing with academicsubjects for a place in the curriculum. Even the ser-vice areas within vocational education, agriculturaleducation, business and office education, etc., of-ten appaar to be making independent arguments fortheir contributions to the secondary school curricu-lum. Separately, it is too easy for school boards andadministrators to ignore the arguments, to place littlecredence in the claims, and to play one field (or service area) off against the other. Separately, we areviewed as claiming too much and producing too little.Together, by presenting one comprehensive plan,

the probability of convincing other educators, as wellas the public, increases dramatically.

A good example of cooperation is what hap-pened in New York State (Good, 1986). The Boardof Regents approved a plan that is not just technolo-gy education nor just Vocational education. TheBoard approved a single, comprehensive plan for alloccupational education and the practice: arts. Theplan allows for increased academic requirements,and it presents a systematic, sequential, inclusive ap-proach to the development of core competenciescommon to all occupational areas, as well as those

specific to more specialized areas (including technol-ogy education). It is quite likely that Board of Re-gents approval came as the result of the cooperative,unified planned undertaken by the practical arts andvocational educators in the State.

Technological Uteracy: A Unifying Concept

Technological literacy may be the umbrella con-cept under which technology educators and voca-tional educators can jointly develop a conceptuallycoherent curriculum that includes both fields. It hasthat potential, provided the definition of technologyemployed is appropriate, and the interpretation oftechnological literacy is adequate.

A definition of technology recommended byboth a historian of technology and the curator of aspecial library collection on the history of romputersand technology at the University of Minnesota is oneproposed by Gendron (1977). It reads:

Any systematized practical knowledge,based on experimentation and/or scientifictheory, which enhance the capacity of soci-ety to produce goods and services, andwhich is embodied in productive skills, or-ganization, or machinery. (p. 23)

The definition serves the intended purposewell. It places science and technology in proper rela-tionship; it limits technology to those systems whichproduce goods and services, but does not restrictthem to industrial systems; and, importantly, it expli-citly includes the practical knowledge embodied inthe productive skills of individuals. The definition de-scribes the source of content for vocational educa-tion as well as technology education!

Technological literacy mild then mean the ac-quisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes abouttechnology necessary for informed citizenship andfor satisfactory productivity in and satisfaction withwork roles. (Note that the concept of literacy is suffi-ciently encompassing to include both the consumerand the producer roles; the knowledge, skills and at-titudes necessary for occupational performance issimply considered to be a high level of specializedtechnological literacy.]

The development of technological literacy couldbecome a major purpose of schooling, viewed as aprocess requiring life long learning to satisfy both itsconsumer and producer applications. The majorcomponents of literacy include (a) understanding thesystems of producing goods and services and theirimpact on individuals, society and the environment,(b) developing a vocational self-concept, and

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(c) acquiring selected occupational competencies.

Thus, the development of technological literacywould span both general education and specializededucation. It would be seen as an essential part ofgeneral (and liberal) education- -the preparationneeded by everyone for living In a society beingtransformed very rapidly by technology. It would beseen as an essential part of specialized educationthe acquisition of specialized knowledge, skills andattitudes needed to make persons employable inhighly technical productive systems. And it would berecognized and accepted that some of the special-ized learning may occur for some individuals In thesecondary school.

Concbsions

Vocational education can, indeed, play a role indeveloping technological literacy. More precisely,technological literacy can be the vehicle called for bythe critics of vocational education to reconceptualizeits purpose in the secon&sy school. But even moresignificantly, technological literacy can provide theumbrella concept under which technology educationand vocational education can join hands and be-come part of the same developmental processtheprocess of achieving and maintaining tedmologicalliteracy. As Thompson says, "Culture and vocationare inseparable and inseverable aspects of humani-ty" (1973, p. 226).

Obviously, this paper has concluded with onlythe germ of an Idea. Whether it is an antidote to becultivated or a virus to be exterminated, the readerwill have to decide.

References

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White, M. R. (1987, May). DidloklosisleminInundconiLibutiogialortffiladicallittuacx. Paper pre-sented at the conference on Technology Litera-cy, Columbus, OH.

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CO-SPONSORS

The Ohio State University, College of EducationAmerican Vocational Association

International Technoloby Education AssociationInternational Vocational Education and Training Association

National Center for Research in Vocational Education

T H E

OHITE OSTAUNIVERSITY

INTERNATIONALTECHNOLOGYEDUCATIONASSOCIATION

AVii

rA: i 1 )

THE HMIONAL CENTER

FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION