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Weber, Wilhelm K.Training Translators and Conference Interpreters.Language in Education: Theory and Practice, No.58.ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics,Washington, D.C.National Inst. of Education (ED), Washirgton, DC.ISBN-0-15-599299-684400-82-000974p.Harcourt Brace Jovanovich International, Orlando, FL32887Information Analyses - ERIC Information AnalysisProducts (071) Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Advanced Courses; Career Ladders; Classroom

Techniques; Curriculum Development; *EmploymentOpportunities; *Ethics; *Interpreters; LanguageSkills; Second nguage Instruction; *SecondLanguages; Teaching Methods; *Testing;*Translation

IDENTIFIERS Foreign Language Careers; *Professionalism

ABSTRACTAn examination of translation and conference

interpretation as well-established academic professions focuses onhow they should be taught in order to maintain the integrity of thetwo professions and the highest standards in their exercise. Anintroductory section answers the question, "Can translation andinterpretation be taught?," noting that these professionals mustpossess an extraordinary array of qualifications, including flawlessmastery of their working languages, including their native one. Asecond chapter outlines the basic qualifications and aptitudes forsucceeding in the profession as weWas the characteristics of thosewho should not try to enter it..A chapter on learning and teachingresources discusses textbooks, dictionaries, periodicals, textmaterials, and needed, equipment (booths and consoles). The structure,duration, and sequence of translation and interpretation curricula,specific instructional methods for the different kinds of work, andtesting issues are discussed in separate chapters, and two concludingsections look at career options and job opportunities and issues inprofessional ethics. In the latter section, the translator's andinterpreter's responsibilities are detailed. A concluding chaptercontains some advice to prospective students in the field, and abibliography is appended. (MSE)

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TRATN1NC TRANSLATORS AND CONFERENCE INTERPRETERS

Wilhelm K. Weber

A publication of Center for Applied Linguistics

Prepared by ;EPIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: Theory and Practice No. 58

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIDNNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION'CENTER (ERIC)

?L !his document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating itMinor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality

Points of view or opinions stated in this dock]',lent do not necessarily represent official NIEposition cr policy.

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED PY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

This publication was prepared with fundingfrom the National Institute of Education,U.S. De?artment of Education under contractno. 400-82-0009. The opinions expressed inthis report do not necessarily reflect thepositions or policies of NIE or ED.'

Copyright s 1984 by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by,

any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopy, recording, or any information°storage andretrieval system, without permission in writing fromthe publishers.Requests for permission to make copies of any part ofthe work should be mailed to:

Permissions, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, PublishersOrlando, FL 32887

Printed in the United States

ISBN 0715-599299-6

CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD vii

1. CAN TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION 13ETAUGHT? 1

2. BASIC APTITUDES AND QUALIFICATIONS . 3

3. LEARNING AND TEACHING RESOURCES . 11

4. CURRICULUM 21

5. INSTRUCTION 29

6. TESTING 45

7. CAREER OPTIONS AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES . 53

8. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODE OF CONDUCT . 59

9. CONCLUSION 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY 67

`C,

FOREWORD

Many learned books have been published aboutthe "sciences" of translation and interpretation.Thos book is. somewhat less pretentious. It dealsneither with linguistics, nor with psycholinguis-tics, nor with the importance of translation andinterpretation in the communicative process..

It deals rather with the importance of trans-lation and conference interpretation as well-established academic professions and how theyshould be taught in order to maintain the integrityof the two professions and the highest standards intheir exercise.

It is an attempt to show, on the basis of mytwenty years of experience in the practice andteaching of both fields, what the professionaltranslator and interpreter must know, and what canbe done--and cannot be done--to help many youngpeople interested, in these careers achieve thisgoal.

It is an attempt, however modest, to inspirerespect for these very difficult and exacting, yethighly satisfying, professions, without which to-day's world of international interdependence couldnot. function.

Those who prepare students for careers intranslation and interpretation must have the high-est regard for the skills that thpy are trying toimpart to future members of the profession. In-

deed, it would be inconceivable for anyone to tryand teach these skills as merely ancillary tolearning foreign languages.

These skills--or arts, if you will-'-have be-come part of two distinct, although related,

vii

'\ professions that provide thousands of practitionersaround the world with their livelihood and endlesspersonal satisfaction.

Both professions must be taught only by thebest-qualified instructors to those students whodemonstrate clearly that they, too, possess thenecessary aptitudes and maturity to enable them tobecome outstanding professionals.

I encourage all the many dedicated teachers oftranslation and tnterpretation around the world topursue their efforts toward shaping this excellenttalent and bringing it to its full fruition in theexercise of these two professions that help peopleto understand one another across many barriers.

Carmel, Spring 1984

viii

CHAPTER CAN TRANSLATION AND rNTERPRETATION RE TAUGHT?

Although the profession of interpreting is asold as man's ability to speak, and although the..first translators performed their art when the firstdiplomatic notes and trade papers were exchanged, itis only since the end of World War I and the inter-national crises that followed that these two pro-f.,:ssions have developed in their present form.Consecutive interi-etationl was used exclusivelyuntil about 1945, when simultaneous interpretationwas used for the first time at the war criminal.

trials at Nuremberg.Good translators and good interpreters must

possess an extraordinary array of

Just as an outstanding instrumental soloist or aperfect figure skater must have a flawless tech-'nique, translators and interpreters must have acomplete mastery of their working languages, includ-ing their native language.

In order to answer the question asked in thechapter heading, I must first say something aboutthe way in which people currently become-trans-lators and interpreters.

Whereas one can still enter the field oftranslation with every imaginable background (and,in fact, all too often without the proper

1Although I address myself only to the professionof conference interpreters, I feel that all otherinterpreters--and in particular, court interpreters--should benefit from the same training.

S1

background at all), the access to the profession ofconference interpretation is much more structured.

The most recent statistical survey of theInternational Association of Conference Interpretersshows that 95 percent of the respondents between theages of 30 and 45 were trained in a univc -pity pro-

gram. There is a good reason for these statistics:one, can be a poor translator for a long time beforecomplaints arise, whereas a faulty interpretation iscaught immediately, most of the time to the utmostembarrassment of all concerned. Moreover, the fact

that interpreters work in teams assures a certainquality control, for nothing is more painful for aconference interpreter than to work with a colleague

who is doing a poor job.There are two important points to consider when

attempting to answer the question whether transla-tion and interpretation can be taught:

(1) The'first interpreters in oux century were

all self-taught. They were full-fledged diplomats,whose training and whose professional experienceendowed them with extraordinary linguistic and com-municative skills. They developed their skills onthe basis of an unusually broad general knowledge,education, and perfect fluency in several languages.

(2) It is sometimes said by members'of ourprofession that "so-and-so would have made it evenwithout a school" or that she or he "became a goodtranslator /interpreter in spite of the school she

or he attended." Although remarks of this natureare heard less often nowadays and are based on atime when students were taught by the "sink-or-swim" method, the implication remains that teachingis not everything and--more important--not all theskills can be taught to everyone.

It will come as no surprise to the reader thatI am of the opinion that translation and interpre-tation must be taught, and taught properly.

Only exceptionally gifted people (of whom Ihave only met one or two during my professionalcareer) can hope to accede to these professions ontheir own without developing serious bad habits andmaking mistakes that will tarnish their profes-sional performance for the rest of their careers.

2

CHAPTER 2: BASIC APTITUDES AND QUALIFICATIONS

Before I attempt to describe'the "magic"aptitudes that a successful translator or inter-preter must possess, a definition of both fields

seems in order. This should also automaticallyclarify who should NOT try to enter these pro-

fessions.Translation is the transposition of a text

written in a source language into a target lan-

guage. The translated version must be absolutelyaccurate in meaning, contain all nuances of the

original, and must be written in clear, elegantlanguage that can be easily understood by the-

reader.' Needless to say, punctuation, spelling*,

and grammar must be flawless. In addition, trans-

lators have at their disposal dictionaries and

reference material in both languageS.Interpretation is the oral transposition of an

orally delivered message at a conference or a meet-

ing from a source language into a target language,

performed in the presence of the participants.This function can be performed simultaneously (at

the same time as the.speech is given) or consecu-tively (after the speaker has finished a part orthe totality of the speech). At times, the inter-preter has, tO go from the written medium (text) to

the oral medium (interpretation). This is called

sight translation.The important distinction is that the product

of the translator is meant to be read, whereas that,

of the interpreter is meant to be listened to.It immediately becomes apparent from these

definitions that translators have to be able to

hold their own with the authors of the texts that

3

they are aL:ked to trawAate, and that intor-preters need to he intellectually equal to thespeakers whom they have to interpret.

This absolutely rules out any attempt to train

these professionals at any level but the graduate

level.. This is particularly true for interpreters.No participant in any important meeting would trusta twenty-year-old to catch all the important details

in a speech.

TRANSLATION

Aptitudes for Students

Scholastic transcripts can be very helpful indetermining a student's aptitude for translation.Good grades in advanced compositiOn.and essay writ-

ing are a particularly good indication of aptitude.One might justifiably ask why a translator needs

all these exceptional qualities to produce a trans-

lation of a highly technical nature. My answer to

this question is that writing and stylistic exer-cises are exercises in intellectual self-disciplineand flexibility--two extremely important aptitudes

in 'a translator:Although they never express their own ideas in

their work, future translators must be eiceptionallycreative in their native language in order to beable to convey the message contained in the original

text in the most accurate and understandable, yet

elegant, way posSible.It would be fair to say that only students who

receive straight A's in their native languagecourses can aspire to the degree of perfection

needed by a translator.As professional translators are very rarely

experts in the subject matter of the text they are

asked to translate, the ability to absorb new

ideas and processes'and then explain them in the

target langUage is of .the utmost importance.Translators must also be able to convey com-

plicated ideas accurately. Good training in their

own language, which should always be the language

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ita.0 which they translate, in WI absolute prerequi-site. Technical writing courses as well as classesin editing and proofreading will be of great helpto the future translator.

Although technical experts Who also translatewill initially have a distinct advantage overgeneral translators, who need training to becometechnical translators, the former will remaintranslators in their own field of expertise only,whereas the latter will be able, to deal with' anymaterial that ends up on their desk. Moreover,most technical experts rarely possess outstandingwriting skills'.

Experience has shown that graduates in tranf;-lation can easily be, trained to become technicaltranslators. Many of them finish their careers incorporate managerial positions, which underscorestheir extraordinary flexibility.

Finally, it is often argued that it is betterto have a technical background for technical trans-lation; however, there are not many engineers ortechnicians who would be interested in doing full-time translations as long as language personnel inthe corporate world continue to receivo'the lowsalaries that they arc paid today.

Aptitudes for Instructors.

Teachers of translation must possess the samebasic aptitudes as the students. This statementmight seem like a truism, but it must be made none-theless, as there are far too many instructorsoftranslation who (1) have never had one of their owntranslations evaluated by a professional or (2)have never even produced a translation of any sig-nificance.

Translation is no accurate science that can beacquired in one,step. It has to be practiced dailyin order to improve one's skills and to build upthe kind,of experience that is needed to teach thefield. Each translation adds to one's preparednessto deal with the next one.

5

1t i naive to believe that a knowledge of. a

language ruin literature, not to mention a familiar-ity with linguistics, qualifies one to teach trans-lation. Only the very experienced translator caninstruct students how to avoid pitfall and how totranspose a message written in one language to thegenius of another language in such a way that read-ers of the translation are led to believe that theyare actually reading a text drafted in their own1 aIlg aCje .

INTERPTJ-7PAT ION

Aptitude.; for Students

As mentioned earlier, conference interpretershave to have the same level of intelligence as theperson they are called upon to interpret. This

does not imply, however, that all people possessinga high degree of intelligence and language fluencycan become conference interpreters. What, then,are the aptitudes that distinguish the student withgood potential from all others?

Perhaps this is the appropriate time to con-sider aptitude tests for futirre conference inter-preters. I have administer Aptitude tests at theUniversity of Geneva, Switzu.,and; the UnitedNations European Office; NATO; the European Com-munities; and Gedrgetown University. Although thetests used by these different institutions vary intheir modalities of application and specific con-tent, all attempt to test the following:

IntelligenceAbility to abstract and paraphraseReaction timeMemoryPoise and presentationVoiceUnderstanding of and fluency ill theforeign languages

6

o Quality of the native language

These aptitudes are norma.ly tested in the

following manner:(1)' Candidates are asked to talk in their

foreign languages about their studies, livingexperiences abroad, and general intellectual inter-

ests. This test gives a fairly good picture of thecandidates' way of thinking and of presenting their

own. ideas. The evaluation criteria are voice, pre,_sentation, accent, logiCal sequence of ideas,general attitude, and general knowledge.

(2) The second part often consists of an exer-

cise in abstracting and paraphrasing. A short ex-

comprisi a section with dense informationand one tha ,is rather wordy but does not contain

many cone ete ideas, is either read or improvised

in one of the students' foreign languages by one of

the;examiners (there are usually two).The candidates are then asked to repeat orally

in their native language as much information as they

have been able to retain. The expOse is usually no

longer than three or four minutes. Candidates arediscouraged from taking any notes (with the excep-tion of numbers and proper names), as this is also

a memory test.The evaluation criteria are completeness and

accuracy (retention), understanding of the foreign

language, lOgic of presentation, ability to abstract

and retain key ideas, concentration, and ability to

deal with such translation difficulties as humor,

idiomatic expressions, or proverbs.(3) The third and last part usually consists

of a sight translation from both foreign languages

into the native language.. The emphasis here is on

the understanding and rendering of a somewhat

higher language level. Evaluated are speed, accu- .

racy, and technique of dealing with unexpected

difficUlties (it is important that candidates, begiven absolutely no time to look at the text before-

hand) .

Most tests in consecutive interpretation areconducted with improvised exposes, including witty

and humorous ones, which are particularly suited

7

13

for testing the general interpreting skills of

candidates. Incidentally, these tests are neverterminology tests, but general skills tests.

This kind of aptitude test has cut down thefailure rate at final exams or successive testsduring the training period to quite acceptable pro-

portions. Students who do not exhibit the requisiteaptitudes are either not allowed to enter the pro-gram or are encouraged to improve their languageskills before taking the test a second time.Usually, they can take these tests only twice.

Aptitudes for Instructors

The qualities of good instructors of interpre-tation will be discussed in greater detail in thechapter on teaching methods. However, it can besaid at this point quite emphatically that interpre-tation should be taught only by professional inter-preters. As in the case of translators,, someonewho does not have the skills and aptitudes to inter-pret cannot teach interpretation effectively. More-

over, instructors have to keep up these skillsthrough constant practice and must keep abreast ofprofessional developments and innovations orchanges.

It is quite inconceivable for anyone to teachinterpretation without being able to demonstratethe skills, just as it would be unimaginable for achoreographer to teach dance without having experi-enced all the movements. It would be professionallyand morally dishonest to students to try and com-municate to them .the extremely difficult art ofinterpretation without having been extensively ex-

posed tc the practice.While translation can sometimes be integrated

into the mainstream of.programs for language majorsas an additional means for acquiring and perfecting

language skills,--but not to:prepare professionaltranslators, except in the literary field -- inter-pretation needs its own well structured curriculumcomposed of many complex' elements.

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The occasional "exercises in consecutive orsimu3'aneous interpretation" for language majors,of which we see too many at present, are, in myopinion, complete nonsense. They are useless atbest, and counterproductive and unethical at worst.The attempt to increase the enrollment in foreignlanguage classes by offering courses in pseudo-interpretation is a sin against the whole pro-fession!

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CHAPTEI' 3: LEARNING AND TEACHING RESOURCES

In this chapter, I am assuming that the trans-lation and interpretation program is offered at auniversity and that students have access to a well-endowed reference library in all fields that theyneed to investigate within the framework of theirstudies. I shall therefore concentrate on onlythose resources that are needed specifically toteach and study translation and interpretation.

TEXTBOOKS

It is always surprising to people wanting toadd a translation and interpretation component totheir language instruction that there are very few--if any--textbooks in these fields. The reasonfor this state of affairs is that instruction isbased primarily on personal professional experienceand that teaching methods are constantly being im-proVed and adjusted on the basis of this ongoingexperience. Moreover, conference interpreters whoalso teach are normally too busy to write abouttheir experiences. (For some general introductorybooks on the two professions, please refer to thebibliography at the end of this publication.)

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DICTIONARIES

It is always a good idea to encourage studentsto work with monolingual reference dictionariesrather than to adopt the easy solution of lookingup words directly in bilingual or multilingual

dictionaries. The process of looking for synonymsof the unknown word in the source language firstand then trying to find the equivalent in the targetlanguage develops. a great deal of sensitivity andaccuracy in both languages. Even for technicalterminology, students should be discouraged fromtaking the easy shortcut of referring directly tothe bilingual or multilingual technical dictionary.This procedure only encourages students to compareword pairs before even understanding the exact ,

meaning of the source word.This is not to say, of course, that one can do

without bilingual dictionaries, which are oftenmore carefully prepared than multilingual diction-

aries.The best dictionaries in any technical field,

in my opinion, are thoLa that are compiled by pro-fessional organizations. These are at times diffi-cult to come by, but.it certainly pays to try and

find them.The choice of technical fields and specialties

to be covered by a program's library largely de-

pends on the topics covered in the classes. In this

day and age, however, they should include at /east

all the following:

Medicine (general)Medical specialties, e.g., Neurology

DermatologyUrologyGynecology and

obstetricsSurgeryOphthalmologyOtolaryngologyDentistryOrthopedics

12

e Biologyo Chemistryo Petrochemistryo Pharmacology and pharmaceuticso Computer scienceo Pollution controlo Iron and steel industryo Armaments

Nuclear energy

In the more general fields, the followingshould be accessible to students:

International organizationsPolitics and w;,rld affairsEconomics'CurrenciesFinance and bankingStatistics

. Budgeting and accountingInternational and trade negotiationsDevelopment and technical assistanceInternational law and comparative law

All thee topics should be dealt with at leastonce during the students' training period. An addi-tion to translation and interpretation exercises,courses should include a general introduction tothese fields. Therefore, general reference materialin these areas must be available in all languagesthat are offered in the program. A good translationand interpretation library should not only help stu-dents during their studies but also provideassistance to them for their work after graduation.

PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS

The program must subscribe to at least onedaily newspaper in each language offered as well asthe most important and most widely read weekly pub-lications. For languages that are spoken in several

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countries, subscriptions should cover several - -ifall--of these countries in order to allow stu-

dents to compare styles, points of view, andregional idiosyncracies.

Moreover, at least one scientific and technicalmagazine in each language must be available.

TEXT MATERIALS

For Translation

The best text materials are those that havebeen translated by instructors themselves. How-ever, very few professicnal translators are familiarwith all the fields that mvst be included trans-lation courses, unless they have retired from a longprofessional career (in which case some of thematerials might be outdated).

Several sources can be tapped for translationtexts:

Internal organizationsThe :,pecialized agencies of the UnitedNati,-,:is should not be forgotten. Someof these, such the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency, the World HealthOrganization, the International Telecom-munications,Union, the Universal Postal,.Union, etc., deal with highly technicalfields. Many of them distribute publi-cations at little or no cost. The publicinformation offices of these organizationsare normally helpful in locating such. -materials.

Tests used for testing new translators byinternational organizations, translationagencies, government agencies, and pri-vate corporations

Newspapers

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Technical publications

o Publications an3 reports of banks andfinancial institutionsSome of these are r;:,blisMd i i severallanguages and provide ideal material.

o Legal publications and documents

Contract forms

When choosing the text material, instructorsshould take care that students are exposed to theterminology and the jargon that are commonly usedby experts in the different fields. Using the cor-

rect "style of the trade" will make the differencebetween a translation that reads like a translationand a rendition that colald have been written by anexpert in the target language. Obviously, all

translation mat.-,..cials must be regula.1y updated.It should be stressed that in order to assimi-

late the particular style, students must read intheir own language material on the topic dealt within the translation assignment, even before startingthe translation. There is a German expression forthis process, which is "sich einlesen" (literally,"to read oneself into").

Although the material described above shouldform the core of the courses, there is, of course,more general material that poses particular prob-

lems of structure and syntax in the source lan-guage and that remains timeless.

For Interpretation

All course material for interpretation coursesmust consist of speeches. Absolutely no articlesshould be used, as they are.meant to be read andnot listened to. The information contained thereinis often too dense to be interpreted, even by themost experienced professionals, and would only dis-courage students. Ideally, the instructor should

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Improvise these speeches, both in consecutive and

simultaneous interpretation' courses.However, as most technical papers read in

scientific conferences and conventions are prepared

in writing, an extensive collection of these should

be on hand in a training program for more advanced

students. Such materials c-n only he used by par-ticularly experienced instructors who are able to

rearrange the content of these articles and come up

with what sounds like a spontaneous speech.The same material can be used for both simul-

'taneous and consecutive classes, although the texts

used for consecutive classes are usually more de-

manding, since students have more time to think and

to analyze the original.Recordings of good as well as unsatisfactory

interpretations serve as excellent tools for demon-

strating to students the quality- -and the problems- -

of professionals. Practical demonstrations by the

instructor should, of course, be given regularly.

In addition to their pedagogical value, they also

increase the respect and confidence that the stu-

dents feel toward their instructor.

MATERIALS FOR INTERPRETATION

Booths and Consoles

Good simultaneous interpretation equipment is

extremely important if students are to be prepared

for the realities of their profession. I do not

recommend the use of language lab facilities for

the following reasons:(1) The lack of soundproofing (open booths or

"stations") induces students to whisper, or, atbest, to reduce their voice volume unnaturally.

This leads to additional stress in an already

stressful environment.(2) As conference interpreters always work in

teams of at least two interpreters-per booth, it is

l6.

important that students learn how to cooperateefficiently with their colleagues.

(3) Students have to get used to the kind ofequipment that is used in international conferencesin order to develop the correct reflexes in operat-ing microphone switches, channel selectors ("In" and"Out"), volume controls, cough buttons, etc. More-over, maintaining the correct distance from themicrophone and choosing voice modulation that bestsuits the listener, the equipment, and themselvesare of extreme importance.

Ideally, a large classroom or auditoriumshould be equipped with eight to ten regular-sizedbooths. To allow for the organization of mock con-ferences, the same room should also contain a con-ference table large enough to seat a dozen people.

If an auditorium is available, it should beoutfitted with booths, so that students can prac-tice whenever guest speakers are lecturing. In

some cases it might be possible to provide an audio

link between the auditorium and the classroom forsimultaneous interpretation, so that the number ofstudents who can practice with a "'five" lecturercan be increased.

However, it must be pointed out that interpre-tation without a direct visual link with the speakershould be limited to exceptional cases. The visuallink is a basic element of the communicative processamong the speaker, the interpreter, and the listen-

ers_and should not be eliminated.The classroom should have a separate console

for the instructor, allowing 'Thr the followingoperations:

Listening to each booth individually

Listening simultaneously to the originalspeech on tape or cassette and one stu-dent (student in one ear, speech in theother ear)

Reading a speech in the original languagewhile at the same time listening to onebooth

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Listening simultaneously to a speechgiven at the conference table and toone student

o Playing for all booths a speechrecorded on tape or cassette

o Recording each booth individually andat the same time, i.e., there must beas many recorders as there are booths

Playing back the original speech

Playing back each student's recordedinterpretation with feedback into room(loudspeakers) and booths (throughsystem)

Operating a call system to all booths

Operating an individual intercom witheach booth, enabling the instructor togive corrections during the student'sinterpretation

Recordings of Speeches

A comprehensive collection of recordings ofactual speeches of varying:difficulty and speed isindispensable. Conditions that correspond to thoseactually encountered in multilingual meetings canbe recreated only with difficulty in the classroom,and even an experienced instructor-sometimes findsit difficult to maintain normal speed while readinga speech out, loud and listening to the simultaneousinterpretation at the same time.

A number of experiments have been conductedwith the use of videotaped speeches. The prevail-ing opinion among teachers of interpretation isthat a real situation cannot be recreated withvideotapes and that looking at an image on a screendoes not really replace looking-directly at aspeaker- It is therefore not really worthwhile for

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a school to invest in this type of.equipment,unless' a large screen can, be used, allowing a full

view of the speaker or at least his or her entireface andrall gestures.

I Jfessional interpreters always demand-to seethe speaker directly and refuse to work unless thiscondition is met. This excludes the use of tele-vision monitors, unless these are used as supple-ments (for instance, in very large meeting hallswhere the interpreters' booths are far away fromthe speakers' podium).

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CHAPTER 4: CURRICULUM

Only.full training programs should be offeredin translation and interpretation. Isolated coursesare only counterproductive, as they lull the stu-dents into the false impression of having masteredthe profession. At best, the more gifted studentsfeel frustrated, because they cannot pursue theirstudies any further. At worst, studenti will tryto advertise their "skills" after only one or twocourses and find out that they are totally unpre-pared for reality. Ideally, there should be twocompletely separate curricula for each field. Thisalso depends, however, on the age, intellectualmaturity,'and language background of the students.

Again, a strong warning seems in order at thispoint: the training of professional translatorsand interpreters is a "package" that needs to be,carefully balanced. Just as no one in his rightmind would, think of offering one or two courses in"The Practice of Medicine," no one should attemptpiecemeal training of translators or interpreters.

In Europe, students usually start their trans- .

lation and interpretation studies as soon as theyfinish high school; it is at this point that theyenter the university. This implies that the Euro-.pean curricula must include extensive generalstudies as well as language studies.

On the basis of my expeiience with approxi-mately five hundred graduate students, I feel that,in the United.States the ideal.program would con-sist of two preparatory years at the upper-divisionundergraduate level,: followed by two years of inten-sive graduate work.

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DEGREES

The degree per se is actually less importantthan the assurance that the graduate will be ableto perform satisfactorily in his or her profession.However, two factors have to be taken into consider-

ation:(1) The status of the two professions is

largely dependent upon the university degrees heldby its members. Translating and conference inter-preting are fully recognized academic profes-

sions, both by the United Nations family of organi-zations, where they are classified in the profes-sional category, i.e., requiring a universitydegree (usually Professional Category 2 or 3 asbeginners), as well as by government agencies allover the world. Anything less than a graduate de-gree would jeopardize the status of both profes-

sions.Let me acid a remark about so-called "Certifi-

cates" at thd ?Dint: Certificates create the

false impres' a that their holders are officially

certified. makes potential clients believe

that they ale ling with particularly capable

individuals. 11 ...nigh many certificate holders

are, in fact, well qualified, this is not always

the case. In addition, certificate programs arenormally much shorter than full degree programs.

Only court interpreters are certified byfederal or state governments; this certification isfor interpieting in the courtroom only, and not for

any other work that might be performed outsidq.The titles "translator" and "interpreter" have nolegal status -- except in Austria and the FederalRepublic of Germany, which are, to my knowledge,the only countries that offer this protection.

(2) Many graduates in translation or interpre-tation may want to switch to other activities at a

later time. The experience and knowledge they haveaccumulated during their professional activitiesenable many of them to take on managerial positions

in private industry, open their own businesses, orgo back into the academic world. This they can do

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far more easily if they hold a full-fledged aca-demic degree. Teaching positions in accreditedtranslation and interpretation programs, of course,

. also require university degrees.

DURATION

Program duration may vary slightly from onecountry to another, but regardless of the degree,the duration of studies should be at least fouryears in addition to the European baccalaureate orits equivalent, i.e., after completion of the lower-division undergraduate studies in the U.S. In a

.normal university setting--excluding intensivecrash courses for exceptionally gifted adults--.this means a minimum of 60 semester (or 90 qUarter)units of credit. The length of studies needed byany individual student over and above the minimumrequirement will also vary, depending on the stu-dent's general background and language knowledge.It is highly counterproductive for students and in-structors alike to attempt to accelerate the train-ing period, except as noted above.

At the Monterey Institute of InternationalStudies, where we run a two7year-graduate program,it has been our experience that with the exceptionof a few extremely gifted students, the most suc-cessful are those who can afford to take a fullyear off between their first and second year inresidence to live in the countries where theirforeign languages are spoken.

Students in-the-14-.9. usually know their firstforeign language quite well, but have seriousdeficiencies in their second foreign language,which they cannot correct during their studies.We usually advise these students either to takesome time off to fill these gaps or to concentrateon their stronger language, graduate in this lan-guage, and then add on other foreign languages ata later time.

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It is, in fact, not uncommon for both trans-lators and interpreters to add more languages totheir professional repertoire in the course oftheir careers. Once the basic skills are acquired,they are more easily transferrable to new lan-guages.

On the other hand, gaps in general and lin-guistic education are he:t filled during the yearsof study. Starting out in the profession with toolittle preparation not only can result in a badreputation (which spreads rapidly in a small pro-fession), but also chances are that because oftime constraints, this gap can never be closed.

I do not wish by any means to imply, ofcourse, that one learns nothing during one's pro-fessional career. On the contrary, our two pro-fessions offer unique opportunities for self-improvement. This is one of the attributes thatmakes them so enormously rewarding. However, inorder to be able to benefit to the fullest fromthis learning process, students must be fully pre-pared when they start their professional careers.

SEQUENCE

As in all teaching endeavors, it is importantnever to make too many demands on the good will,the patience, and the abilities of the students.This implies that the curriculum as a whole, andthe course contents in particular, must be care-

,fully sequenced. This is all the more importantin translation and interpretation, as we are deal-ing with skills that have to be developed gradually,and not with subject matter that can simply bemastered through diligence or rote learning.

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Translation

It is always a good idea to start translationwith some contrastive analysis, in order to makestudents aware from the outset of the typical pit-falls of translation. This will teach them to readthe source texts with a professional eye. At thesame time, their faculty for analysis will besharpened. They learn how to retain the main ideasinstead of the original words, or--better yet--theylearn how to strip the ideas of all cumbersome lin-guistic forms before attempting to express thesesame ideas as a native of the target language would.To this end, exercises in paraphrak7 g and substi-tuting--first in the source language alone and thenin both languages--have proven to be very helpful.These exercises can be done either in writing ororally, as, for example, in a public speakingcourse.

At this point, I would like to include an asideon the question of whether training in translationis a necessary first step for future conferenceinterpreters.

The answer to this often-debated question verymuch depends on the quality of the students.Immediately exposing to interpretation studentswho still need much work in their languages, in-cluding their native language, would be somewhatlike asking a rider to jump over high fences be-fore he or she has acquired a good seat. More-over, there is a danger in interpretation that stu-dents may become careless in style and syntax, ifnot in grammar. Therefore, interpretation shouldnot even be attempted before the students have ac--quired a "safe linguistic seat," especially intheir native language.

But let us come back now to the future trans-lator.

Exercises in avoiding translations that readlike translations will normally take up most of thefirst year of training. It is always a good ideaduring this initial period to expose the studentsto many different posSible translations and to show

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them the work of professional translators--even badexamples.

During the second year, more complicatedtranslation problems should be solved, calling forinventiveness and resourcefulness on the part of theinstructors as well as the students.

Assuming that the purpose of the training isto produce professional translators who can earn aliving with these skills, my observations on liter-ary translation can be summed up in a single re-mark: literary translation is a luxury in a pro-fessional program. What the professional translatorneeds is a profound knowledge of source and targetlanguages in as many fields as possible. I am notagainst literary translation as such; on the con-trary, literary translation can lead to extra-ordinary insights into the complex structure andthe beauty of a language as well as into the geniusof the people who speak it. Students should, there-fore, always be strongly, encouraged to read goodliterature and literary translations in order toimprove their abilities.

The student's masterpiece should be his or herthesis. The thesis should be done by the student-alone, but should be closely supervised by the ad-7.visor. It'should be read by two readers, one ofwhom does not know the source language at all. Theother reader, when applicable, should be a techni-cal expert. The thesis project should be at least100 pages long (about 30,000 words).

The thesis also offers a marvelous opportunityto introduce the student to the professional world:the preparation of a printable translation, typingand typesetting, corrections and proofreading, foot-notes, translator's notes, research, quotes, corre-spondence with authors and'publishers4 translationrights, copyright, contracts, etc. Many, of these

aspects of the profession should also be-coveredin a special course on the profession, which shouldinclude professional ethics, professionallassoli-ations, responsibilities, fees, and negotiationswith clients.

Three courses should be mandatory for bothtranslators and interpreters:

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Sight. Translation

Precis WritingConference Terminology and ParliamentaryProcedure

Sight translation is the process through whichevery translator must go before putting anything onpaper. Moreover, it is really what translators doif they dictate their translations. And, finally,translators are normally called upon to do sighttranslations in meetings and negotiations, becauseinterpreters are not available to do this job.

Likewise, all precis writing is done by trans-lators. This fulfills a very important function inlarger international organizations, where minuteoare not published in extenso, but rather in theform of a "Summary Record." Writing these requiresa special technique that translators must master.

Interpretation

Courses in interpretation should adherestrictly to the following sequence:

Sight translationConsecutive interpretationSimultaneous interpretation

The most difficult aspect of interpreting isthe speed with which it must be accomplished.Therefore, students have to be led gradually to apoint where they are able to cope with this prob-lem.

Through sight translation, students learn howto conduct themselves in front of an audience.They also acquire the basic reflexes required totranspose a message-into another language (assuming that they have not had any translation coursesbeforehand). Moreover, they develop a swift eye-brain-voice coordination, which becomes vital inthe process of simultaneous interpretation ofspeeches that have been prepared beforehand andare read at top speed by the speaker. Finally, it

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is a little easier to analyze a message that ispresented visually than one that is presentedorally.

During the next phase, consecutive interpre-tation, students learn how to analyze a messagethat is presented to them orally at increasingspeed, to strip this message of all superfluouslinguistic forms, and then to express it in theirtarget language in the same way as a native speakerof that language would have presented this messagespontaneously. (At this stage, studentS controltheir own timing, at least during the actual inter-pretation.)

The simultaneous interpretation course crownsthis whole process. The students have learnedthrough sight translation and consecutive interpre-tation how to go about the basic steps of the wholeinterpretation process and will now find it easierto cope with the extraordinary stress of the simul-taneous where they mustsiepend totally onthe speed at which the speech is given.

It can easily be seen why offering simultaneousinterpretation courses in an isolated fashion or atthe beginning of the program simply does not makesense. The omission of the preparatory work onlyproduces parrots who repeat words at high speed,without making any effort to analyze and transposethe original message. The result is that thelisteners are buried under an avalanche of wordsthat they in turn have to analyze in order to under-stand. Under such circumstances, thelinterpreteris obviously not fulfilling his or het basicmission, which is to help people communicate. Themessage coming out Of an interpreter's booth mustbe absolutely clear. The listener should not haveto make any special effort in addition to listening,which sometimes is enough of an effort to beginwith, as it is unnatural for anyone to wear ear-phones all day.

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CHAPTER 5: INSTRUCTION

METHODS

Translation

Translation classes must be made interesting.Although this is, of course, true of all classes inall subjects, a translation class runs a greaterrisk of becoming boring because of its five-dimensional character. There are not_only theusual ingredients of the instructor, the students,and the subject matter at hand, but a source textand a target text as well.

To keep all these five elements under controlsimultaneously requires exceptional pedagogicalaptitudes on the part of the instructor. Therefore,it is vitally important that there be a sense ofcooperation in the classrOom. The ideal situationwould be for the instructor to be familiar withonly the reading and the terminology of the assign-ment. The instructor's major effort, should go intosolving problems along with the students.

It is also a good idea to have students choosetheir own material on occasion. This gives them afeeling of being able to "test the teacher," whichis good for their own confidence. Needless to say,instructors must be extremely solid in their knowl-edge--and possess strong egos--to be able to dothis.

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The following points seem particularly impor-tant to me:

A translation course is not a lecturecourse, but a common effort involvingstudents and instructor to find thebest possible solution to the translationproblems at hand.

The instructor needs to be well enoughprepared to be able to give immediatefeedback to the students. In caseswhere some research is necessary, thefeedback should be given, at the latest,during the following class session.

4) The instructor must be well versed inthe subject matter treated in the textmaterial and must be able to introducethe students to the subject before anyattempt at translation is made.

Homework assignments are just as im-portantif not more important--thanwork done in class. Each student mustreceive a corrected translation backeach week. 'The length of the assign-ment may vary, but it should be atleast 500 words.

CorrectiOns must be detailed and include expla-nations of the nature of the errors. The weakestpoints of thestudents..performance should be sum-marized, whilestrthe same time the student shouldhe encouraged tciWTOrk.hard to correct these areas,The instructor'Shouldalso indicate how this can'pest be achieved.

Moreover, translation courses should includean introduction to available resources (diction-aries and reference materials) and their use. Stu-

dents must be warned about the dangers of the in-correct use of dictionaries.

The whole process of translation must betaught: (1) preparing for a translation (in this

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case it is a good idea to announce a subject one ortwo weeks ahead of time and ask students to preparefor it with glossaries of their own; (2) attachinga new text, i.e., reading the entire text beforestarting the translatior; (3) establishing glossa-ries, keeping terminology card files, and improvingvocabulary through the use of such resources asdictionaries of synonyms; and (4) going through thevarious phases leading to a perfect end product.

I have found it useful to go over homeworkassignments at the beginning of the class (assum-ing that the class lasts at least two hours) andthen work on a new text before giving some indica-tions for the next homework assignment. In thisway, three different subjects or texts can becovered in a single class period. It is also agood idea to have a backup text ready for thosedays when the students simply do not relate to thetext that was chosen originally.

During oral work in class, the instructorshould avoid giving students any opportunity to dofast sight translations of the text at hand. Thisrisk exists whenever students are also taking sighttranslation classes at the same time. Although thework in class is performed orally, the instructormust demand the purest written style.

Bilingual editions of texts are always anexcellent means of instruction. Students can learnfrom bad as well as good translations. A homeworkassignment can consist, for example, of criticizinga translation; Students are always surprised--andreassured about the quality of their own work--tofind errors in meaning even in published transla-tions.

An enjoyable exercise in advanced translationclasses can be the translation of humor: passagesfrom "Asterix le Gaulois" (compare different lan-guage versions), or anecdotes, plays, situationcomedies, cartoons, or comic strips.

Ascertaining the degree of difficulty to whichstudents can reasonably be exposed in translationcourses is a very delicate task. ,A careful balancemust be maintained both within and across courses

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in order to ensure the uriform progress of all stu-dents

The difficulty of the course material shouldnever go beyond the capacity of the students, with

one exception: the first few weeks of the intro-ductory semester.

It is important to present the beginning stu-dent with difficult material right from the outset(difficult in structure, not in language). The

reason for this is that the beginner has to under-stand immediately that translation is going to bedifficult and, more important, that it is a processthat cannot be accomplished word-by-word.

The temptation is great, of course, to exposestudents to easy material in the beginning. How-

ever, particular attention must be paid to avoidgiving them the opportunity to take the easy wayout by translating word-for-word.

The instructor should put particular stress aLthis stage on breaking through the language barrier:the unnecessary linguistic and stylistic ballastthat prevent the student from getting to the essen-tial message. This barrier can consist of compli-cated structures, redundancies, repetitions, con-fusing conjoiners or modifiers, and so forth. It

is the teacher's responsibility here to help thestudent to "peel" the unnecessary skin and togradually reach the core. Once this has beenaccomplished, the process is reversed, and thestudent has to learn to reshape the core and todress it in a new skin: the target language.

This process should'not always follow theoriginal sentence structure, but rather the origi-nal thought pattern. Students should be encour-aged to adopt the sentence pattern that they feelmost comfortable with in their target language.

It helps at this stage (and also later on inthe training process), to break up classes intoseveral working groups.and to give each of themthe same assignment. The results can then be com-

pared and students can defend their translations.Also, to create an especiall" warm atmos-

phere in the classroom, teachers can at times askadvanced students to criticize beginning students.

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This usually has the added advantage of giving theadvanced students some understanding of the prob-lems that an instructor must cope with.

Interpretation

The teaching of interpretation is a veryexacting activity, as it requires constant concen-tration on several processes that are going on inthe classroom at the same time. It is, in fact,more strenuous than interpretation itself, wherethe interpreter needs to concentrate on only twoprocesses simultaneously.

Sight translation. Sight translation is oneof the basic ingredients of interpretation. Theinstructor should closely observe in class theskills of the student in the following areas:

Public speaking quality, poise, pre-sentation, and voice

Speed

Clarity and conciseness of the rendition

As a first step, students could prepare seg-ments of speeches at home but not bring any noteswith them. An almost perfect rendition should thenbe expected in class. This accustoms students to aquick pace from the outset, which then automaticallycarries over to those texts that are to be trans-lated without preparation.

For work in class, I do not recommend givingthe students time to read over the text beforestarting to translate. To be prepared for the un-expected is part and parcel of the interpreter'strade. At most, a brief introduction\to the con-tents of the text can be given by the instructor,together with the necessary vocabulary.

On the more practical side, it is important tohave students perform at a speaker's rostrum, sothat they .face the class. This will help them to

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cope with stagefright and nervousness. Occasionalvideotaping of the students' performance is alsohelpful.

Consecutive interpretation. The teaching ofconsecutive interpretation is an art in itself--onethat has made great strides only over the last tenyears. I remember having learned this mode of in-terpretation without any introduction at all, beingplaced with advanced students from the outset andtold to "sink or swim."

Two questions are often asked about consecutiveinterpretation:

Why is it still taught, considering thatapproximately 99 percent of the inter-preter's work is done in tlie simultaneousmode?

When is'consecutive interpretation used?

The answer to the first question is that con-secutive interpretation constitutes the basis of allinterpretation, as it develops the requisite ana-lytical skills. Moreover, most employers first testinterpreter candidates in consecutive interpreta-;tion, before even allowing them to perform simul-taneous interpretation. It is still considered tobe the best test for the interpretation skills as awhole.

As for the second question, consecutive inter-pretation is still used whenever a high degreeofaccuracy is required, e.g., in drafting committees,in legal negotiations, in high-level political talksbetween heads of state or government, and in after-dinner speeches; it is also used when participantsin a meeting find it useful to have additional timefor reflection during interpretation.

There is the additional possibility that simul-taneous interpretation equipment can break down,especially in countries where spare parts and goodmaintenance are not the rule. When this occurs,all interpreters must be able to perform in theconsecutive mode.

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1 usually recommend that students start theirtraining in interpretation with some memory exer-cises. For instance, one student tells a shortstory that is repeated in toto by another student.The length and difficulty of the original storiesare gradually increased until they take the form ofshort lectures on a variety of subjects.

At least until the middle of the first semester(the introductory course usually lasts one semester),absolutely no notes are taken. The students end updoing consecutive: interpretation from English intoEnglish without any notes. The added difficulty ofgoing from one language to another is only intro-duced during the following semester.

The memory exercises stress concentrating onthe essential elements of the message. Theseexercises force the students to analyze the originalmessage and to retain its key elements. They alsoare a good indication to the instructor of the wayin which each student's mind functions.

During this phase all class material should be"natural," and formal written speeches or news-paper articles should be avoided. Gradually, theinstructor asks the students to take some notes onwhat they have heard, but only from memory and onlyafter the speaker has completely finished--not dur-ing the listening process. Only then should theinstructor show the students how these notes can .

best be abbreviated; replaced by symbols, signs,and acronyms; and arranged on the paper so as toallow a speedy rendition.

It is of the utmost importance in these initialphases not to make any concessions as to the speedin which the oral messages are presented. This isnot easy;to do, as one tends to be merciful withbeginners, ,especially when one remembers one's ownintroduction to interpretation. However, a slowdelivery only encourages the students to followthe words, not the meaning. This introductoryperiod is the most difficult of all and requires agreat deal of experience in order to strike theright balance between corrections and encourage-ment. It is. also during this stage that studentsshould be asked to give several different versions

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ot th or presentation in order to increase

their stylistic flexihility.The phase when students first take notes on

entire speeches is again a turning point in theirdevelopment. They must be immediately correctedwhenever they tend to take too many notes.

At this point, I would like to'reply brieflyto two additional questions that invariably ariseduring the introduction to consecutive interpreta-t i on :

Should notes be taken in the source lan-guage or in-the target language?

Why not simply use shorthand?

(1) It does not matter in which language thenotes are taken, since notes are only symbols thatcontain a message. Interpreters should retain ideas

in their memory, not words. Words are only retained

(and made note of) if they are of extreme importanceand if they carry a message of their own. In fact,

it is not uncommon for interpreters to start theirconsecutive interpretation inthe same language asthe original because they "forget" abotit the lin-guistic form of the original message. I myself

often find that I take notes ih English when,Iinterpret between German and French, my two activelanguages, simply because I find many English wordsparticularly useful as message- carrying symbols.

Quite naturally,. beginning students will takemost of their notes in the source language, notbeing used to the imectediate transposition of ideasfrom one language to another. After having beenexposed to simultaneous interpretation, they willthen gradually take more and more notes in thetarget language.

It is important to stress that there can beno universal note-taking system. Just as there

are many different styles of thinking and learning,

there are as many different note-taking systems asthere are interpreters. Therefore, we can only help

the students develop their individual systems.

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Never can such a system be imposed or learned byrote.

(2) There ._ire several reasons why the use ofshorthand should be formally discouraged for notesin consecutive interpretation:

Shorthand notes must be deciphered at themoment of interpretation, thereby slowingdown the whole process. A consecutiveinterpretation must never be longer thanthe original speech, but should, as ageneral rule, be a little shorter.

Shorthand notes are automatically taken inthe source language, without any effort totranslate or analyze. This then leads toa word-for-word interpretation, which isprecisely what must be avoided.

The words as such are unimportant for con-secutive interpreters. They must concen-trate on the meaning alone, since this isthe only way for them to be able to retainall the information contained in the original speech. The process of consecutiveinterpretation is basically the same assumming up the plot of a movie for somefriends who did not get a chance to see it.The important difference, however, .s thatthe interpreter also must fill in all thedetails.

Shorthand notes would constitute an un-necessary burden on interpreters anidwould, in fact, make their work morecomplicated instead of facilitating it.

The only time when some knowledge ofshorthand can be useful is when/symbolscan be used to replace certain/key wordsor when direct quotes are given fromwritten documents. In this latter case,however, interpreters will always have theoriginal text at their disposal, which

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they can then sight translate withouteven taking notes.

Once the students have assimilated the tech-nique of consecutive interpretation, the followingexercise can be useful:

Ask the students to read their notes, startingwith every single word or symbol that they have onpaper. This makes them totally independent stylis-tically from the original structure of the message,increases their flexibility in style in'their targetlanguage, and allows the instructor to test whetherthey have really understood the original message.

Whenever recordings are used as teachingmaterial, or when students give their own presen-tations, it is important that instructors maketheir corrections on the basis of their own notes.This is the only way for them to be aware of thedifficulties of the exercise. . Moreover, this pro-ceduie has the advantage of keeping the studentsparticularly alert, as they are always eager tocatch their instructors missing one of their ownmistakes or missing something in their notes thatthey themselves were able to remember.

I would like to end these brief observationson consecutive interpretation by reminding thereader that this is certainly the most rewardingform of interpretation. It has been developedinto a genuine art form by many of its practi-tioners.

Simultaneous interpretation. The teaching ofsimultaneous interpretation is basically easy, oncethe students have mastered the processes involvedin consecutive interpretation.

Although it sounds like a truism, it must bestated here that teaching a simultaneous interpre-tation class does not just consist of playing atape in one language and listening to the students'interpretation while checking with a written ver-sion of the speech, if one is available. Under no

circumstances should the instructor be locked intoone single version of the interpretation and checkit against a written translation. There are as

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many good interpretations of one original as thereare interpreters, just as Haifetz, Menuhin, andOistrakh are able to give equally excellent, yetsubstantially different, interpretations of a violinconcerto: Therefore, instructors must compare onlythe original with the interpretation, without everconsidering their own interpretation.

In order to choose appropriate teachingmaterials and methods, the instructor must takeinto consideration the types of meetings where thesimultaneous mode of interpretation is used:

Discussions or negotiations, where speakersspeak "off the cuff"

Formal speeches, mostly of a general orpolitical nature, which may or may not beread from a prepared manuscript

Technical and scientific papers, which arealmost always read

Lectures, which are normally prepared inwriting

Students must be prepared for all these differ-ent types of situations.

Here again, an obvious observation might seemin order--one that is nevertheless frequently over-looked: a simultaneous class. must be spent in thebooth that will be the interpreter's working environment for at least six hours every day. Since this isnot a normal environment for most people, studentsmust gradually be made to feel comfortable in thesesurroundings.

Just as pilots must react.in a plane's cockpit,interpreters must develop certain automatic reflexeswhen handling their equipment. Following are someimportant rules that the student must learn immedi-ately:

Always make sure that the microphone isturned on while interpreting, and offduring private conversations or remarks.

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Always leave one ear uncovered, so thatyou can hear your voice. Nonobservanceof this rule can lead to too much amplif i-cation and eventually to hearing damageand an unnecessarily tired voice by theend of a long working day.

Always control your voice volume so thatit feels comfortable and sounds pleasantto the listener, who is the only "raisond'etre" of any interpretation.

Always keep a proper distance from themicrophone and maintain this distance.A frequent change in this distance forceslisteners to adjust their volume con-tinuously and distracts them from thebusiness at hand, which is not listeningto the interpretation.

Always use the "Cough" or "Interrupt".buttons and NOT the microphone switchwhen coughing or clearing your throat.The reason for this is that the former"bridges" the floor channel sound,whereas the latter, when in the "Off"position, feeds the original sound,.instead of the interpretation, into thelisteners' ears. It is highly unpleasantfor delegates to have the sound of theinterpretation constantly interrupted bybits and pieces of original speech.

Always make sure that you are switchedto the outgoing channel that correspondsto your language, as indicated in theprogram or the meeting room. This isespecially important when two differentlangUages are coming from the same boothin bilingual conferences and the inter-preter, not:the technician, selects theoutgoing channel.

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o A aays test your equipment, especiallythe "Cough" buttons.

o Always test the "relais." This is theinterpreter's means of listening toanother interpreter who works from alanguage unknown to the former.

Introductory Exercises

Several techniques can be used to teachsimultaneous interpretation. All these complementeach other and should be used at one point or an-other during the course.

After they feel reasonably comfortable withtheir working environment, future interpretersneed to be introduced to the process of listeningand speaking at the setae time. Although this modeof interpreting is called "simultaneous," there isa slight time lag between what interpreters hearand what they say. This time lag can be as longas a full'sentence, if the source language is verydifferent structurally from the target language.

This can actually be quite a traumatic experi-ence for beginning students, and instructors needto take great care to be very encouraging at thispoint. They should talk about their own earlyexperiences in the booth. At the same time, theyshould keep the class moving along and not let thestudents get bored, as speed is the essence of all

interpretation.As a first exercise, students should simply

listen to the instructor through their earphones.In the next step, "shadowing," students are

asked to repeat what they hear7,simultaneously andin the same language. This exercise, however,must not be carried on for too long, as it con-sists of a word-for-word repetition, which isprecisely what we expect the accomplished inter-preter to avoid.

As soon as possible, therefore, students. mustbe asked to provide summaries--first of sentences

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and then of whole paragraphs. At this point, theinstructor normally still improvises most of thematerial or asks students to contribute shortspeeches themselves.

Shortly afterward, students should listen torecordings of real-life speeches and then be askedto summarize them. Speeches that are difficult tounderstand (foreign accents, high speed, unclearlogic, etc.) can be used at this stage. Also,series of numbers should be introduced at this time,as many students have problems memorizing longnumbers.

One of the most important aptitudes for simul-taneous interpreters is the ability to anticipate.Students should therefore be requested to finishsentences that were not completed by the instructor.Later on, they must be required to finish wholeparagraphs on their own.

After all these exercises have been carriedout for one full semester (assuming that each classperiod is of one hour's duration), the students canthen be exposed to a bilingual situation. If theintroductory exercises have been properly carriedout,.with constant feedback from the instructor andconsiderable guided practica (including recordingsto check voice and pace), students should now startto make rapid progress.

Advanced Exercises

Neither sight translation nor consecutiveinterpretation should be dropped when students paSson to the simultaneous mode. All three activitiesare indispensable and must be continued concurrentlyuntil the end of the training perioa.

In order to be able to provide constant feed-back, the instructor must always keep in mind. theelements of 7: good simultaneous interpretation:the rendition should sound effortless; it should bepresented in a pleasant,- confidence-inspiring voice;it should be rigorously accurate in meaning and ascomplete as possible; and it should include all the

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innuendos, inflections, nuances, and "atmosphere"of the original speech.

Breathing techniques normally present no prob-lems for the average student. However, when underpressure (for example, when students know that theyare being listened to or when they are required tospeak very rapidly), some students develop breath-ing difficulties. The instructor should draw thestudents' attention to this immediately in order toprevent them from developing bad habits that cannotbe corrected later on.

Teachers should always indicate which studentthey are listening to so that the students can getused to the pressure of being "on the spot." Thispressure is a fact of our professional life, andstudents must learn to cope with it at an earlystage in their training.

Incidentally, not all students will benaturally rapid speakers. The best way for themto acquire an adequate speaking speed is to readdifficult technical material aloud at high speed,including technical terminology that is difficultto pronounce, e.g., chemical compounds.

For the more advanced students, the coursecan be conducted in one or more of the followingways. For the sake of variety, all these methodsshould be used at one time or another.

The instructor reads a speech and listensto one interpretation at the same time.This should pose no problem for a pro-fessional interpreter.

The instructor improvises a speech andlistens to the student's interpretation atthe same time. This method is extremelydifficult to keep up over a long period.

The students interpret a speech that hasbeen recorded on tape'or cassette.

The students interpret an expose presentedby a fellow student or a guest speaker.

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o The whole group organizes a discussion ona prepared subject.

As nothing replaces reality in the classroom,regular mock conferences or interpretation seminarsshould be organized at least twice.each semester.Several languages should be used during these con-ferences, and students should be required to per-form both consecutive and simultaneous interpreta-tions.

One last remark: as in consecutive interpre-tation and sight translation, it is important thatstudents be regularly exposed to performances ofprofessional quality, so that they have a goal to.strive for. In addition to demonstrations by theprofessor, tape recordings of good and bad inter-pretations can be used. It has been ny experiencethat colleagues always readily oblige when askedfor permission to be recorded during their work.

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CHAPTER 6: TESTING

TRANSLATION

Testing is less important in the case oftranslation than it is in!interpretation. In myopinion, homework assignments with extensive cor-rections are more conducive to the learning processthan testing is. However, translators are generallyunder constant pressure, due to very tight deadlinesimposed by clients. Therefore, they must also betested at the end of their training period underpressure conditions. Staff translators in theUnited Nations are expected to translate an aver-age of eight pages per day. However,. freelancetranslators will find it necessary to double thisdaily output.

After the first year, students should be ableto translate correctly about 300 words per hour,provided that the text does not require too muchresearch or use of a dictionary. Professionalshave disagreed for a long time on whether or not toallow the useof dictionaries during exams or tests.Nowadays, most potential employers do permit theuse of dictionaries when they test new translators.This makes a lot of sense, as this is the normalworking situation for the translator. Moreover,it is important that translators demonstrate theirskills in using dictionaries, which more often thannot makes their work even more complicated.

For final exams, students should be expectedto translate about 1000 words in three hours. Afinal exam should accomplish the following:

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o Test the student's knowledge of generaland technical terminology

o Test the student's aptitude to workrapidly, yet correctly, under timeconstraints

o Test the student's skill in usingdictionaries

Test the student's general resourceful-ness in cases in which the dictionary isof no help

Test the student's general readiness toenter the job market

Prepare the student for future testswith potential employers

Grading

It seems important to make some basic obser-vations on how to grade translations. There is, ofcourse, no generally applicable recipe, but certainbasic rules should be adhered to.

First and foremost, grading should be basedon precise criteria, including meaning, accuracy,style,terminology, and grammar. The grader mustbe entirely familiar with the text and its termi-nology When grading, just as in class, the in-structor must under no circumstances compare thestudent's product with a ready-made translation,as this would tend to bias the grade.

Some instructors read.all the translationsbefore making any corrections in order to get anoverall view of the quality of the work of thestudents. This helps to ensure .a fair gradingstandard. CorrectionS must include detailed com-ments on the student's performance, including thecorrect version of improperly translated passages.

Under no circumstances should more than twomeaning errors be allowed, regardless of the

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difficulty of-the text (provicled, of course, thatthe text material is adaptr,:. to the student's level).However, it is not that !-Imple to define a meaningerror. Grading becomes ilarticularly,difficult inthe "gray zones." F .()L7%. a wrongly translated

word, for instance. counted as a meaning errorif it changes th, mening, or should it just countas an error in terminology?

At the Melterey Institute of InternationalStudies we are working on precise definitions andrating scales of several categories of errors. Wehope to publish the results in the near future.

In any event, a maximum number of acceptableerrors should be set beforehand, so that gradingis uniform for all students. If several studentshave the same number of mistakes, the style willmake the difference in the final grade.

One word.on grading exams in the students'foreign languages: I am again taking it forgranted that these exercises are required forpurely academic purposes and that it is made quiteclear to students that they should never translateprofessionally into their foreign languages. The

possible exception might be commercial corre-.-Ice, which is highly r titive in charabter

and does not require great 1 guage skill. Thewhole ,art of translation is ifficult enough whenworking in one's own language, and attempts totranslate into foreign languages will always be ofpoor quality, unless the translator has lived formany years in the country of the target language.

At least two graders should grade final exams,for the students' professional careers can be atstake. In cases of a tie (one fail, one pass), athird grader should be consulted.

Graders need not necessarily be faculty mem-bers. In fact, it is a good idea to use outsideprofessionals, especially when not all the in-structors are professional translators. This isalso a way to ensure that students meet the stan-dards required by the profession.

In programs that offer several foreign lan-guages, a uniform grading policy among all lan-guages is extremely important. It makes absolutely

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no sense to be more lenient in so-called "difficult"languages, such as German or Russian, as the re-quirements in those languages will be strictlyidentical to those for all other languages.

Also, no consideration should be given to thefact that a student is working in a second or thirdforei-n language. The person who reads a transla-tion cannot be expected to make allowances for thetranslator's language background.

INTERPRETATION

Interpretation exams are generally graded onthe basis of the same criteria as translationexams, except that voice, speed, presentation, and"credibility" of the performance are also evalu-ated.

Consecutive Interpretation

In the early stages of consecutive interpre-tation, the students' note-taking technique shouldbe evaluated in addition to the above Criteria. Noconsecutive test should last any less than three

minutes. The text should be read or spoken at anormal speed, as a slow pace does not really helpstudents. Instead, it induces them to take toomany notes, which are usually badly structured anddifficult to read back.

In a final exam, no test should be longer thanten- minutes. Normally, speakers interrupt afterabout four to five minutes to allow time for theinterpretation. Consecutive interpretations ofmore than ten minutes' duration are extremely rare.It is most important that all examiners take notesthemselves, on which to base their evaluations, assome of the students' difficulties may otherwiseescape them.

Although the student interpreter's memory isto be tested, a relatively short test can give a

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good indication of the candidate's skill in thismode of interpretation. Tests in internationalOrganizations rarely last more than five minutes.

For final professional exams, candidatesshould be required to do at least two interpreta-tions into their native language from each of theirforeign languages, and two from their native lan-guage into their first foreign language.

Unlike translators, interpreters may be re-quired to work consecutively but never simultaneouslyinto their first foreign language. Also, as inter-

pretation is an oral skill; one expects a conferenceinterpreter to be fluent in several fokeign lan-guages.

TI le tests into the foreign language should begraded on the basis of clarity, completeness, andgrammatical correctness. The accent may be foreign,

but it should be understandable to a native speakerwithout special effort.

One very important quality to look for inexamining an interpreter is the candidate's aptitudeto sound convincing, especially under difficultconditions. However, the overriding criterion mustalways be the accuracy of meaning., A candidate who

N gives what may sound like a very convincing or evenbrilliant interpretation with more than one meaning,.error must fail the exam.

Amazingly enough, some instructors have beenknown to allow candidates to look over their con-'secutive notes before starting their interpretation.

This is a serious error. The consecutive interpre-tation must be attacked immediately after thespeaker has finished. Consecutive interpretationis already time sconsuming enough in a meeting andtends to irritate participants toward the end of aday. Interpreters must make a strict effort tokeep the tiFe they need to an absolute minimum.

A consecutive'interpretation4 therefore, mustnever be'longer than the original. It should, ifat all possible, be shorter, not because the inter-preter should give a summary,,but because he or she

is a professional in the art of oral communication,which speakers seldom are. On very rare occasions,especially when time iS of the essence, the

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chairman of a meeting might ask the interpreter togive only a Summary of the original remarks.

How complete should a consecutive interpreta-

tion be? The rule is basically simple: the inter-pretation must contain everything that is necessaryto the understanding of the original message thatthe speaker intended to communicate, including allnonverbal content.

Simultaneous Interpretation

Exams in simultaneous interpretation shouldconsist of two parts: a rendition of an improvisedexpose and an interpretation of a more technicalpaper, the written text of which has been given to

the student approximately fifteen to twenty minutesbefore the test to allow for preparation. This is

the normal procedure in all scientific Meetings,and the studenemust be able to listen, read, andinterpret at the same time.

Among the criteria of evaluation in exams ofsimultaneous interpretation, in addition to thosealready mentioned in the section on consecutiveinterpretation, are technique, anticipation, speed,and pleasantness of voice.

The simultaneous interpreter must never soundboring when interpreting a slow speaker, or, hurriedand incoherent when interpreting a very fast speaker.

However, a final exam should not be a speed contest,as candidates tend in any case to do less well under

exam conditions. The pressure should be thatnormally encountered in a meeting, but not arti-ficially high.

.Some interpreters' schools do not admit candi-

dates to the simultaneous interpretation exams un-less they/have passed the consecutive interpretation

section.' Although I agree that-no-one-should-enter-the.profeSsion without having passed both exams, Ifeel-that students should be allowed to take bothsections and only have to repeat those parts thatthey did not pass.

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Incidentally, students shoUld not get more thantwo chances to take any interpreters' exam. If theyare not fully prepared for the exams, they shouldbe discouraged from taking them. If they had a badday during their first attempt, they deserve asecond chance. If they cannot handle the exampresSure the second time, they are definitely notready to enter the profession.

An effort should be made to have professionalobservers present, particularly for interpreters'exams. Also, it gives the exams a particular"panache" if they are open to the public. A realconference interpreter should be stimulated by alarge crowd and, like an actor, should performbetter.

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CHAPTER 7: CAREER OPTIONS AND JOB OPPORTUNITIES

It must be stated emphatically from the outsetof this chapter that only the very best candidateswill be able to find career employment in transla-tion and interpretation.

It is difficult to assess how many people arecurrently employed as translators and interpreters,as not all of them belong to professional organiza-tions. Moreover, the number of people who work astranslators less than full time is enormously high.

The International Association of ConferenceInterpreters (AIIC) numbers 1600 members in about 40countries. It is recognized as the official negoti-ating partner with the UN and all its specializedagencies, the European organizations, and most Euro-pean government agencies. The best known profes-sional associations in the U.S. are the AmericanAssociation of Language Specialists (TAALS) and theAmerican Translators Association (AM).

Although there still is a great need for well-qualified translators and interpreters, there are,many unqualified people who call themselves pro-fessionals, and it is difficult for potentialemployers to screen candidates. Especially in thecase of translators, there is a need for more rigidprofessional standards so that potential clients'can immediately judge the abilities of applicantsfrom their credentials. In the meantime, peoplewho want to enter the two fields will have to provetheMselves and build up their own clientele, justas newly established physicians, architects, orattorneys are obliged to do.

Most professional translators and interpretersstart out by freelancing before they find permanent

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employment. Translators, nowever, tenu Lo Laalupermanent positions more often than interpretersdo. Most interpreters tend to remain freelancers.

The most difficult period for new graduatesis the time immediately following the completionof their studies. Most employers are hesitant togive a beginner a chance; on the other hand, be-ginners must establish their credentials. Unlessgraduates have a language combination for whichthere is a high demand, they should expect a wait-ing period of at least one year before they areable to earn a living through interpretation ortranslation. Furthermore, access to the professionis now open almost exclusively to candidates with auniversity degree and graduate training at a pro-fessionally recognized school, of which there areonly three in the United States at present: theMonterey Institute of International Studies (trans-lation and interpretation), Georgetown University(translation and interpretation), and State Uni-versity of New York at Binghamton (translationonly).

In many other professions, mediocrity canremain undetected for relatively long periods. In

our field, however, the effect can be immediate:a corporation can lose a contract, an individualcan misunderstand directions given in an operatingmanual for a machine or an appliance, a contractcan be misinterpreted and give rise to lawsuits,discussions in a meeting can be unnecessarily pro-longed because of a faulty interpretation, resultsof a vote can be incorrectly reported in the press,etc. In brief, this leads to an\interruption ofthe communication process between\people or groupsof people--a process that we'are expected to helpmake possible, not make more difficUlt. If trans-

lation and interpretation are not excellent, theyhave not achieved their principal purpose.

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\SOURCES OF EMPLOYMENT

Finding employment depends on the candidate's

language combination. This aspect is so vital thattraining programs mint ascertain which combinationsare most in demand at\any given time before decidingwhat languages to offe

Both translation nd interpretation are fieldswith limited employment possibilities, but thesechange constantly. Lat6qy, for example, thereseems to be an increased demand for people with aknowledge of Portuguese.

The United Nations has six official languages:English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, andArabic. Candidates must possess French and Englishto enter, regardless of their other languages. Some

of the specialized agencies of the UN use otherlanguages at times. The International Labor Organi-zation in Geneva, for example, uses German but no

Chinese.The European Communities in Brussels, the

single largest employer in the world of both trans-lators and conference interpreters, uses the follow-ing languages: English, French, German, Dutch,Italian, Danish, and Greek. It is expected thatSpanish and Portuguese will be added as soon asthese two countries are admitted to the organiza-tion. However, 'the EC hires only citizens of one

of the member countries as permanent personnel.(This rule does not apply to freelancers.)

Other international, intergovernmental organi-zations in the United States that employ translatorsand interpreters are the Organization of AmericanStates, the Panamerican Health Organization, theWorld Bank, the International Monetary Fund, andINTELSAT (International Telecommunication SatelliteConsortium).

Among American government agencies, the Depart-ment of State, the International CommunicationAgency, the Library of Congress, and the CentralIntelligence Agency (with several subagencies, suchas the Joint Publication and Research Service) are.the largest employers of language personnel.

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In private industry, language personnel areneeded on a more sporadic basis, depending onwhether or not business conditions are favorablewith certain foreign countries. For this reason,it is difficult to survey the translation needs ofthe American corporate world, which is not onlyhuge, but also undergoes constant changes. Mostprivate corporations farm out their language work,very few have permanent in-house translators orinterpreters.

Translation agencies are probably the beginner'sbest bet to get started in the profession. TheYellow Pages should provide useful information.However, future professionals must make sure thatthey deal only with agencies that enjoy an excellentreputation in their field. Getting involved withagencies that do not offer work of the highestquality might jeopardize their future career.

A word of warning is in order at this point:beginners must always be aware of their value to anagency and must not let employers take advantage ofthem. They should be paid decently and make surethat the agency's fee is not out of line. Theyshould also guard against the oc:..1.sional unethicalpractice of some agencies of sell 719, their 'te:vt"

translations directly to thents..The question of job r%icament always arises

among students in t?ailling programs. Training pro-grams do not offer professioAal p/aceent. Atraining program can help graivates c:Intact poten-tial employers, but z7:ctual plerement in jobs isextremely rare. This is another Viason why trans-lation and interpretati6n should only be taught byprofessionals, who have the necessary contacts tohelp students find jobs.

Location is obviously an important considera-tion. Anyone wno intends to make the investmentnecesry to become professional transla.t]: orinteroreter and, for some reason, does not wish toor cannot leav_, his or her immediate area of resi-dmce, should fimt explore the jOD opportunities

that a%ea very thoroughly. Generally srp:Ak*ng,working as a freelancer involves a groat deal c'mobilii-y. One has to be ready to move to where trz.

work is being offered. In the case of freelanceconference interpreters, this means a great deal oftraveling. This is probably one of the few trulyinternational professions in the world. Freelanceconference interpreters are constantly traveling,which can be quite disruptive to family life. Thismust also be taken into consideration when making acareer decision.

A question that is often asked is, "Can one beboth a translator and an interpreter?" As statedearlier, no translator can interpret without havinghad proper training. Although both professions arelanguage related, they are two distinct professions.Interprete :cs, on the other hand, are normally quali-fied to do translations, especially if translationwas part of their training, which is usually thecase. In fact, all interpreters should expect tohave to survive on translation work for a while,until they can earn a decent living through inter-pretation alone.

In the U.S., freelance conference interpretersusually work a maximum of 100 days per year. Thisfigure is considerably lower on the West Coast.

Many graduates from training programs even haveto accept jobs in totally unrelated fields for awhile, in order to survive and pay back studentloans. In these cases it is very important thatthey not lose the professional skills that have beenso painfully acquired.

Internships are normally not available,although there are two exceptions for conferenceinterpreters:

The European Communities has its own trainingprogram. The admission requirements are at least aMaster's degree in a field other than languages andthe passing of a highly selective aptitude test. If

accepted, candidates receive a salaiy during thetraining period and are.then integrated into theranks of staff interpreters upon passing anothertest (usually after six months).

The United Nations, both in Geneva and in NewYork, also offers a six-month training program forconference interpreters, but only for candidateswith language combinations for which there is an

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opening. This is at present the case for candi-dates with Spanish as a native language. All

applicants must have been previously trained in auniversity translation and interpretation program.

Interpreters who become international civilservants eventually earn quite handsome salaries,but these positions are rare and highly coveted.Only the very best will be accepted.

One field that offers increasing job oppor-tunities is that of court interpreting. Testingprocedures have been federally regulated for federalcourts, as well as by a number of states, for state,county, and municipal courts. Information on this

career is available from the state court system orthe local court interpreters' associations.

In summary, persons interested in careeropportunities in translation and interpretationshould explore the following sources:

University training programsProfessional associationsTranslation agenciesInternational organizationsGovernment agenciesPrivate corporations engaged in inter-national tradeForeign chambers of commerce

Professional associations should be contacted

for information on rates and fees.I would like to point out in closing this chap-

ter that we seem to be in a period of transition.

On the one hand, the demand for language personnel

is increasing; on the other hand, there seems to be

an oversupply of candidates. However, at least one-third of the translators and interpreters who arenow employed will drop out of the professionalranks over the next ten years or so. ,So, although

the job market is extremely tight right now, ourprofession appears to have a good future, even fornewcomers, who will eventually replace those who

are presently engaged in the profession.

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CHAPTER 8: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND CODE OF CONDUCT

RULES OF CONDUCT

The professional associations publish theirown codes of conduct, but I would like to stresssome of the mostrimportant professional rules thatapply to both translators and interpreters.

Maintain Professional Confidence

With the exception of work done for govern-ment agencies or the courts, translators and inter-preters are generally not sworn to professionalsecrecy. Nonetheless--and this is extremelyimportant for the image of the profession - -onedoes not discuss or volunteer ire7ormation aboutsensitive material that one has had access to dur-ing the performance of one's professional work.Even apparently harmless material might be highlysensitive in some quarters, without the translatoror interpreter's even being aware of it.

Only Accept Assignments for Which You Are Qualified

This rule is just as important as the firstone and places the responsibility on language per-sonnel, esp4!cially the beginner, of finding outabout the exact character of an assignment beforeaccepting.

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When in doubt, professionals should consultcolleagues who have worked in the same field orwith the same client in the past. Graduates fromtraining programs should ask their former teacherswhen unsure about accepting an assignment.

I must dissipate a myth here: technical workis not necessarily more difficult than work of amore general character. The beginner should notautomatically reject technical assignments as beingtoo difficult to handle, provided that he or she isgiven ample time and documentation for preparation.In fact, beginners will sometimes find that theyare more thoroughly prepared than some oldtimers.

The most difficult mz.,:rial tends to be thatwhich involves a high deg..ee of accuracy in thetarget language and many nuances to catch in thesource language. Terminology can always be lookedup in a reference book or found through consulta-tion with the author or an expert in the field,whereas the complete understanding of a foreignlanguage takes a lifetime.

Always Go through Channels

For the translator this means consulting theclient directly (with the previous approval of thetranslation agency, if one is involved). Clientsare naturally eager at times to establish directcontact with the translator, in order to bypass theagency's fee. In the end, the translator will bemore respected for being honest, even if it involveshaving to argue with a particularly insistent client.

For the interpreter, this means first contact-ing the chief interpreter of the meeting, and thenthe client if there are any problems to be solved.

Never try to establish contact with a clientover the head of the person who has recruited theteam. If this happens, it can mean the end of aprofessional career, as most interpreting assign-ments are channeled through colleagues who act asconsulting interpreters.

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Respect the Rules

When rules are pt.blished by professionalassociations, they must be observed. In cases

where membership in these associations is not opento beginners, they should still make the effort to

keep themselves informed about these rules, as it

will increase their chances of becoming a member

later on.

RESPONSIBILITIES

Members of our two professions carry a heavyresponsibility, which I see as consisting of seven

aspects:(1) The responsibility toward the reader or the

listener. A good translation and a good interpreta-

tion should both read and sound like originals. The

obvious goal in this whole process of interculturalcommunication is to make the reader or listenerforget that an intermediary was involved. The

highest compliment that can be paid to an inter-

preter, for instance, is when a delegate startsinsulting him or her instead of the original

speaker. Professionals must be able to effacethemselves and never appear as more than theyreally are: go-betweens.

(2) The responsibility toward the client. The

client is not necessarily the same person as the

reader/listener. Although clients are normally notdirectly concerned with the results of our work, it

is they who pay. And if complaints do reach theclient, it is usually too late to do something to

correct them.(3) The responsibility toward the author or the

speaker. The main goal here is to be sure that theintentions expressed in the original message areclearly understood by the reader/listener. In the

case of translations, this requires careful check-

ing with the author whenever this is possible.

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(4) The responsibility toward thy language.This aspect of their responsibility is too oftenoverlooked by many translators and interpreters.They are the guardians of their language, in thesense that many people read what they write andlisten to what they say. Too many professionalstreat their language just as a working tool, with-out love or respect, and tend to develop a stereo-typed vocabulary and style. Those who constantlywork with the same subject matter must make aspecial effort to read good literature regularly.Interpreters should go tack to written translationsin order to avoid sounding like an official docu-ment when they interpret.

(5) The responsibility toward one's colleagues.This is almost self-evident, but it must be stressed,since both our professions enjoy a particularlycordial climate. Each time freelance translatorsor interpreters negotiate with a client, they set aprecedent for their colleagues. Therefore, it is ofthe utmost importance that they maintain a profes-sional attitude under all circumstances, good andbad.

For interpreters in particular, whose workingconditions are especially stressful, a cooperativeworking spirit is essential. Being helpful in theinterpreters' booth with notes, water, or even byjust providing an unobtrusive yet efficient pres-ence, does much to make a colleague feel comfortableand to assure high-quality work for the whole team.

(6) The responsibility toward oneself. In

our two professions there is a strong temptationto overwork by accepting too many assignmentsat one time. Managing one's own resources andknowing one's limitations, both in quality and inquantity, contribute to a long and satisfying pro-fessional career. Even a freelancer must take arest and vacation at regular intervals, especiallyafter heavy working periods, although it means notbeing paid during this time. This is an inherentrisk for any freelancer or self-employed person.

(7) The responsibility toward the profession asa whole. Translators and interpreters must neverforget that with each assignment they are

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representing the entire profession. The best wayto assure a good reputation for these two profes-sions, which enjoy no legal protection, is to. netonly the highest standards of quality. Employers

often generalize from one bad experience and willnot hire any interpreters or translators.

It should be made clear to employers that notranslations should be delivered with unsolvedproblems because the author or an expert could notbe contacted as a result of the reticence of theagency to let the translator communicate directly.

Likewise, no interpreting assignment must beaccepted unless the interpreter has the guaranteethat he or she will be provided with ample prepara-tory material. When written papers are read, theinterpreter must receive advance copies.

And, most important, interpreters must be sureof the quality of the sound equipment they Will beusing for simultaneous interpretation. They must

not be afraid to ask to have a say in the client'schoice of the equipment. Instances where inter-preters have to refuse to work with bad equipmentonce the meeting has started are always unpleasant,

and one should try and avoid these by making surethat the client provides only outstanding equip-ment, even if it is a little more expensive torent.

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CHAPTER 9: CONUUSION

In conclusion, I would like to infer some ad-vi (7(., to prospective students.

Do not rush your training! Take as much time

as you can. Learn as much as you possibly can abouthuman nature in general and the culture of thosewhose languages you are studying in particular.

You will be dealing with written and spokenideas for the rest of your life. Even with an out-standing professional preparation, you will fail inyour endeavors if you have not developed the degreeof maturity that is obligatory for effective communi-cation.

If you do not have a genuine love for your ownlanguage as well as for foreign languages and cul-tures, you should not attempt to become a translatoror interpreter.

These professions require a great deal of per-sonal devotion and sacrifice. They are definitely

not a means to acquire wealth. At times, they can

be quite frustrating and even uninteresting,especiWy if the source material is boring, whichit well may be. But you will often find that evenmaterial that might seem boring at first sightpresents the true professional with a genuine lin-guistic challenge.

Many people feel,Ithat translation and inter-pretation are good fields to work in at the begin-ning and at the end of their professional careers.There is a certain truth to this,'. although mostprofessionals nowadays remain in these fieldsthroughout their entire careers.

Translation and interpretation are activitiesthat leave considerable free time to engage in other

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intellectual occupations, which are usually relatedto the great variety of subjects that one encountersduring one's professional life. Many translatorsand interpreters have parallel careers in teaching,business, writing, and editing.

I hope that with these guidelines I have beenable to accomplish the following:

Translate some of the often mysteriousideas that people have about these twoprofessions into more realistic concepts

Interpret what the readers hoped to findin this publication

Raise the degree of respect for bothprofessions.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bowen, D. and M. Bowen. Steps to consecutiveinterpretation. Washington, D.C.: Pen andBooth.

Cerrens, L. 1875. Enseigner la consecutive - -la

fin justifie-t-elle les moyens? L'Interprete2&3. (Geneve: AIT.)

Cerrens, L. 1976. Enseigner la consecutive.L'Interprete 2. (Geneve: AIT.)

Dejean le Peal, K. 1973. Quelques aspects nonlinguistiques de l'interprgtation et de latraduction. Etudes de linguistique appliquge12 (exggese et traduction). Paris: Didier.

Enseignement de l'interprgtation--Dix ans decolloques 1969-1979. Geneve: AIIC.

Gaddis Rose, M. 1981. Translation spectrum,essays in theory and practice. Albany:State University of New York Press.

Galgr, R. 1974. A vindication of shorthand.AIIC Bulletin 2(1).

Gerver, D. and H. W. Sinaiko. 1978. Languageinterpretation and communication. New York

and London: Plenum Press.Haensch, G. and G. Schmidt. 1957. Technik and

Praxis internationaler Konferenzen. MUnchen:

Sprachen and Dolmetscherinstitut MUnchen.Herbert, J. 1965. The intc?roreter's handbook.

Geneve: Georg.Ilg, G. 1980. L'Interprgi n consecutive._

Paralleles 3. (Ecole £raduction etd'Interprgtation, University de Geneve.)

Kirchhoff, H. 1976. Das dreigliedrige,zweisprachige Kommunikationssystem Dolmetschen.Le Langage et l'Homme 31 (Bruxelles).

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Kirchhoff, H. 1979. Die Notationssprache alsHilfsmittel des Konferenzdolmetscher imKonsekutivvorgang. In Sprachtheorie andSprachpraxis. TUbingen: Gunter Narr.

Lampe-Gegenheimer, V. 1972. Fragen zur Praxisdes Notizennehmens beim Konsekutivdolmetschen.Diplomarbeit, Dolmetscherinstitut derUniversitat Heidelberg.

Lederer, M. 1973. La traduction: transcoder ou.

reexprimer? Etudes de linguistique appliquee12 (exegese et traduction). Paris: Didier.

Longley, P. 1978. An integrated programme fortraining interpreters. In Language interpre-tation and communication. New York: PlenumPress.

Moser, B. 1976. Simultaneous translation: Lin-guistic, psycholinguistic and human informationprocessing aspects. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni-versity of Innsbruck.

Paneth, E. 1957. An. investigation into conferenceinterpreting (with special reference to thetraining of interpreters). Thesis, Universityof London.

Paneth, E. 1962. The interpreter's task and train-ing. The Incorporated Linguist. (London:

Linguists Club)Rozan, J. F. 1959. La prise de notes en inter-

,pretation consecutive. Ecole d'Interpretes.

Geneve: GeorgSeleskovitch, D. 1968. L'interprete dans les

conferences internationales--problemes delangage et de communication. Paris: LettresModernes Minard:

Seleskovitch, D. 1975. Langage, langues etmemoire--etude de la prise de notes eninterpretation consecutive. Paris: LettresModernes Minard.

Thiery, C. 1976. Interpretation consecutive.L'Interprete. (Geneve.)

Van Hoff, H. 1962. Theorie et pratiquel'interpretation, aVec application particulierea l'anglais et au francais. MUnchen: Hueber.

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Willett, R. 1974. Die Ausbildung zumKonferenzdolmetscher. In Ubersetzer andDolmetscher, V.' Kapp, ed. Heidelberg:

UTB Quelle & Meyer.

Wilhelm Karl Weber (Dipl8me de Traducteux-et-Interprete Parlementaire, University of Geneva,Switzerland) has taught interpretation in theUnited States, Europe, and South America. He is

currently professor, and director of the graduatedivision of translation and interpretation, at theMonterey Institute of International Studies. He

has worked as a conference interpreter for theUnited Nations and its agencies, the Council ofEurope, and the European Communities; organizedand directed language services of numerous inter-national conferences and conventions throughoutthe world; and served as executive secretary ofthe International Association of Conference Inter-preters. Dr. Weber interpreted at the Helsinki(1975) and Williamsburg (1983) Summit meetingsand was chief interpreter for the Olympic gamesheld in Los Angeles in 1984.

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LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION:THEORY AND PRACTICE

ERIC (Educational Resources information Center) isa nationwide network of information centers, eachresponsible for a gi,ren educational level orof study. ERIC is supporLc'...4 by the National Insti-

tute of Education of the U.S. Department of Educa-tion. The basic objective of ERIC is to makecurrent developments in educational research,instruction, and personnel preparation more readilyaccessible to educators and members of related pro-fessions.

ERIC/CLL. The ERIC Clearinghouse on Languagesand Linguistics (ERIC/CM), one of the specializedclearinghouses in the ERIC system, is operated bythe Center for Applied Linguistics. ERIC/CLL isspecifically responsible for the collection and dis-semination of information in the general area ofresearch and application in languages, linguistics,and language teaching and learning.

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: THEORY AND PRACTICE. Inaddition to processing information, ERIC/CLL is alsoinvolved in information synthesis and analysis. TheClearinghouse commissions recognized authorities inlanguages and linguistics to write analyses of thecurrent issues in their areas of specialty. Theresultant documents, intended for use by educatorsand researchers, are published under the title Lan-guage in Education: Theory and Practice. Theseries includes practical guides for classroomteachers and extensive state-of-the-art papers.

This publication may be purchased directly fromHarcourt Brace Jovanovich International. It alsohas been announced in the ERIC monthly abstractjournal Resources in Education (RIE) and is avail-able.from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service,Computer Microfilm International Corporation, 3900Wheeler Avenue, Alexandria, VA 22304. See RIE forordering information 4nd ED number.

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For further information on the ERIC system, ERIC/CLL, and Center/Clearinghouse publications, writeto ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguis-tics, Center for Applied Linguistics, 3520 ProspectStreet, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007.

Sophia Behrens, editor, Language in Education

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