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Cohen, Donald J.; Brandegee, Ada S.Day Care: Serving Preschool Children-3.Office of Child Development (DHEW), Washington,D.C.DHEW-OHD-74-105774I77p.Superintendent of Do.:uments, U.S. Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C. 20402
MF-$0.75 HC-$9.00 PLUS POSTAGEAdministration; *Child Care Centers; ChildDevelopment; Consultation Programs; CurriculumDevelopment; *Early Childhood Education; *Guidelines;Health Services; Models; Nutrition; Parent Role;*Preschool Children; Program Budgeting; ProgramDescriptions; Program Evaluation; *ProgramPlanning
ABSTRACTThe handbook offers information and guidelines for
establishing model daycare services for preschool children. Topicsexamined include: the nature of day care for preschoolers, thedevelopmeAtal patterns of preschool children, administration,budgeting and funding, licensing and other forms of regulation,facilities, parent involvement, curriculum development, modelcurricula, and curricula for family day care. Also considered arehealth, psychosocial, and consultation services, nutritionalservices, staffing, evaluation, exemplary centers, and exemplarynetworks and systems. Additional references are provided at the end
of each chapter. (GW)
1.1 01PANTAII NT OP HAWN.OUCATION I POILPAIIINATIONAL INSTITUT& OP
AOUtATIONttslw DOCUMENT HAS BEEN SarniaOPTED FRAM, AS RECEIVED PROMTHE PERSON Olt OTIDANItAtION OR tOINAtIND IT PCPNTSOT VIEW OR OPOcONSSTATED DO NOT Ivr CT SSAML v REMcENt ORPtClAk NATIONAL iNsTiTute coEDUCATION POSITION OR POLK%
_ervin resc..00l_..il...ren
3 Serving Preschool
ChildrenDonald J. Cohen, M.D
in collaboration with Ada S. Brandegee, M.A.
/ la
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
OFFICE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENTOFFICE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1974
DHEW Publication No. (OHD) 74-1057
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402
ii
Day care is a vital national concern deserving thoughtfuldiscussion and understanding. To promote such discussion and toimprove the quality of day care in the United States, the Office ofChild Development is publishing a series of handbooks whichrepresents the current state of knowledge on all major aspects of daycare. In this volume dealing with day care for preschool children,Dr. Donald Cohen and M .. Ada Brandegee survey a very broadfield. T170% .,ave reviewed and synthesized various viewpoints in away that is both useful and interesting to professionals, practitioners,parents, and others. This handbook is the result of their experience,thinking, and research and does not necessarily reflect theposition of the Office of Child Development, the Office of HumanDevelopment or the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Saul Rosoff,Acting Director,Office of Child Development.
iii
Table of Contents
ForewordPreface and Acknowledgments
Page
XI
xiiiChapter 1 Day Care: Serving Preschool Children 1
Chapter 2 Development of the Preschool Child 9Chapter 3 Administration 33Chapter 4 Budgeting and Funding 41Chapter 5 Licensing and Other Forms of Regulation 49Chapter 6 Facilities 55Chapter 7 Parent Involvement 63Chapter 8 Curriculum 71
Chapter 9 Model Curricula 81Chapter 10 Curricula for Family Day Care 93Chapter 11 Health, Psychosocial Services, and
Consultation 99Chapter 12 Nutritional Services 109Chapter 13 Staffing 115Chapter 14 Evaluation 121Chapter 15 Exemplary Centers 131Chapter 16 Exemplary Networks or Systems 145
V
Chapter Index
Chapter 1. Day Care: Serving Preschool
Page
Playing and Reality
Page
19
Children 1 Learning 20
Types of Child Care Arrangements - ---Custodial Day Care
1
1
Reinforcement TheoryAssociation Theory
2020
Nursery Schools 1 Cognitive Theory 21
Developmental Day Care 1 Psychoanalytic Theory 21
Comprehensive Child Development Relations Between Theories 22Programs 2 Problems in Development 23
Compensatory Education 2 Disturbances in Developmental Prog-The Function of Day Care 2 ress 24
Day Care as an Extension of the Sensory Problems 24Family 2 Mental Retardation 24
Day Care as an Aid to Child Develop- Environmental Deprivation 25ment 2 The Role of Day Care 25
Day Care as Intervention 3 Attention Problems 25Dangers of Day Care 3 Language Problems 26Day Care Settings 4 Social Problems 27
In-Home Day Care 4 Physical Problems 29Family Day Care 4 Fears and Habits 29Family Group Day Care 4 Understanding Developmental Prob-Center-Based Day Care 4 lems 30A Day Care Network or System -- 5 How Day Care Supports Development - 30
Starting Day Care Programs 5 References 31
References 6General 6Some Organizations Which Publish Chapter 3. Administration 33
Materials Relevant to Day Care -- 6 Administration of a Family Day CareJournals Related to Child Care 7 Home 33
Administration of a Family Day CareNetwork or System 34
Chapter 2. Development of the Preschool Administration of a Day Care Center 34Child 9 Administrative Considerations at
Preconditions of Development 10 Start-Up 34Healthy Genetic Endowment 10 Leadership 34Prenatal Care 10 Developing a Start-Up Plan 34Physical Care, Love, and Attention 10 Incorporation and Tax Exemption 34Models 11 Bylaws 35
Major Aspects of Development 11 Seed Money 35Language 11 Administrative Structure 36Identity 12 Board of Directors 36
Physical Identity 12 Program Director 36Personal Identity 13 Administrative Responsibilities 37
Competence 14 Policy Setting 37Cognition 15 Program Planning 38Social and Emotional Growth 16 Financial Management 39Personal Styles 17 Records 39Morals 18 Resource Mobilization 39
vi
Supervision of OperationsStaff DevelopmentParent InvolvementCommunity Relations and PublicityProgram Evaluation
References
Chapter 4. Budgeting and FundingBudgeting
PurposeOverview: Making a BudgetFiscal YearCost ItemsIn-Kind Donations in the BudgetBudget JustificationCost Per Child
FundingPublic FundsCommunity Fund-Raising CampaignsIndividual Fund-Raising Campaigns -Endowments and Other PropertyGrantsIn-Kind DonationsFees From Parents
References
Chapter 5. Licensing and Other Forms ofRegulation
The Development of Day Care Regula-tion
Present Forms of Day Care Regulation -LicensingZoningBuilding SafetyIncorporationAdministrative Procedures ActsFederal Requirements Tied to Federal
FundsRegulation Through Purchase of CareProposals and Accounting SystemsAdministrative SupervisionApproval of Facilities by Parent Or-
ganizationsVoluntary Agency AccreditationStaff CredentialingRegulation of Family Day Care
Appropriate Goals for RegulationFacts of Current Day Care LicensingReferences
Chapter 6. FacilitiesCenter Facilities
Page
393939394040
414242424343454546464647474747474748
49
49505050505050
50505050
50515151515253
5555
LocationType of BuildingEnvironmental Criteria
LightingClimate ControlSound ControlWalls and FloorsDoor;StorageSafety
Indoor Space: PlayroomSize ..
ShapeInterest AreasEquipment and Supplies
Indoor Space: KitchenIndoor Space: Toilet and Handwash-
ing FacilitiesIndoor Space: Other Areas
Entry AreaNap AreaAdult AreasHealth Care AreaUtility Room
Outdoor Play AreasSpaceOutdoor EquipmentStorage
Family Day Care FacilitiesIndoor SpaceOutdoor Space
Facilities Are Important, But . .
References
Chapter 7. Parent InvolvementInterest in Parent InvolvementForms of Involvementcoals of Parent Involvement
Consistency Between Home and DayCare
Parent Understanding of the Day CareProgram; Staff Understanding ofthe Parents and Community ..----
Parents' Skills OA.=.Parents' Influence on the Community
Strategies for Parent InvolvementMembership on Decisionmaking
BoardsContacts Between Parents and Staff -Direct ParticipationAdult EducationAdapting to Special Needs
Problems of Parent InvolvementReferences
Page
55565757575757585858585858595959
5959595960606060606061
61
6161
6262
63646464
64
64656565
65666767676869vii
Page Page
Chapter 8. Curriculum 71 Care Outside of Centers 93The Curriculum 71 Programs with Possibilities for Adapta-
Types of Curricula 71 tion 94Curricula and Public Schools 73 Ypsilanti Home Teaching Project -_ 94"Compensatory" Education 73 DARCEE Training Plan for Family Day
The Day Plan 74 Care Workers 95Designing the Day Plan 74 Family Day Care Variation of the
Determining Goals 75 Mother-Child Home Program ---- 95Intellectual Skills 75 Clinch-Powell Home Start Project -- 96Sense of Self or Identity 75 References 97Relating to Other. Children 75Relating to Adults 75Relating to a Group 75 Chapter 11. Health, Psychosocial Services,
Selecting Learning Experiences 76 and Consultation 99Arranging Experiences in a Logical The Role of Day Care in Coordinating
Sequence 76 and Providing Services 99Planning to Evaluate the Program -- 77 Confidentiality 101
Final Note 77 Provision of Services 101References 78 Physical Health Services 101
General 78 Psychosocial Health Care 102Art Education 78 Consultants and Developmental DayGames and Activities 78 Care 103Movement and Dance 78 Consultants and Consultees 103Children's Literature 79 The Need for Consultation 103
Publications Containing Annotated Types of Consultants 104Bibliographies 79 Locating a Consultant 104
Professional Journals Which Review The Consultant's View of Consulting 104Children's Literature 79 The Consultee's View of Consulting - 105
Annual Reviews of Children's Lit- The Mental Health Consultant 105erature 79 Types of Mental Health Consultation 106
Practice of Mental Health Consulta-tion 106
ChapLta 9. Model Curricula 81 References 107Th? Rank Street College Model 83
Tit, Open Education Model 84Institute for Developmental Studies Chapter 12. Nutritional Services ----. 109
Model 85 Objectives of Nutritional Services - -_- 109The Responsive Model 85 Essential Elements of 'Nutritional Serv-The Tucson Early Education Model 86 ices 109The Cognitively Oriented Curriculum Ni trition and Feeding of the Preschool
Model 86 Child 110The Primary Education Project Model _- 87 Developing Good Food Habits 110The Responsive Environments Corpora- Records 112
tion Model 87 Staffing and Resources for NutritionalThe Academically Oriented Preschool Services 112
Model 88 Education 112The Behavior Analysis Model 88 Education for Staff 112The Florida Parent-Educator Model - -- 89 Education for Parents 112The Enabler Model 89 Education for Children 113References 90 Safe Food Service 113
New Technology in Food Service 113References 114
Chapt?r 10. Curricula for Family DayCare
viii93
PagePage
Chapter 13. Staffing 115 Social and Health Services 139
Competencies and Requirements 115 Greeley Parent-Child Center 139
Staff : Child Ratios 116 Parent and Community Participation 139
Continuity 118 Eligibility 140
Recognition 118 Education 140
References 119 Facilities 141
Health and Social Services 141
Staff 142
Chapter 14. Evaluation 121 Funding 142
Types of Evaluation 122 Planning for the Future 142
Making a Formative Evaluation 122 References 143
Secure Understanding and Coopera-tion 123
State the Goals 123 Chapter 16. Exemplary Networks or Sys-
State the Objectives 123 tems 145
Specify the Method of Evaluation -- 123 Kentucky Rural Child Care Project 146Plan What To Do With the Evaluation 125 Facilities 146
Sequencing Evaluations 125 Transportation 146
Additional Information 127 Education 146
References 128 Nutrition 147Health 147Staff 147
Chapter 15. Exemplary Centers 131 Preservice Training 147Amalgamated Child Day Care and Inservice Training 149
Health Center 131 Training Results 149
Facilities 132 Social Work and Homemaking _ - -- 149The Children and Their Families - - -- 132 Parent Involvement 149
Notable Elements 132 Berkeley Early Childhood Education Sys-
Organization 132 tem 151
Budgeting 132 Background 151
Staff 132 Program Goals and Objectives - - -- 152
Social and Health Services 133 Administration 152
Education 133 Staff 152
Parent Involvement 134 Parent Involvement 152
Child Development Center: Atlanta Community Relations 153Resid.mtial Manpower Center - - -- 134 Children's Centers 153
The Atlanta Residential Manpower Parent Nurseries 154
Center 134 Early Growth Center Program 154The Child Development Center - - -- 135 Early Learning Centers '154
Demand and Capacity 135 The Pasadena Community Family DayProgram Approach 135 rare Project 155
Staff 135 Recruitment 155
Health 135 Project Goals and Program 156
Funding 135 Services 156
Parent Involvement 135 Student Assistants 156
Evaluation 136 Community Resources 156
Ute Ind'in Tribe Full Day Head Start Referrals 157
Center 137 Nursery Schools 157
The Children and Their Families --- 137 Trips 157
Facilities 137 Loan Fund 157
Education 137 Toy Loan 157
Parent Participation Bulletins 157
Funding 138 Parent Involvement 157
Staff 138ix
The Houston Neighborhood CentersDay Care Association
Page
157Day Care Homes 158
Program 158Licensing 158Training 158
Day Care Centers 159Psychological Screening and Refer-
ral 159Program 159Inservice Training 159Parent Involvement 159
Santa Monica Children's Centers -- 160Program 160Facilities 160Community Involvement 160Parent Involvement 161Evaluation 161
Observed Behaviors 161The Center's Environment 163
References 164
X
Of the many important problems confrontingAmerican children and their families, the 1970White House Conference on Children selectedday care as the most serious. It is easy to seewhy.
Since World War II, there has been a majorshift in the work and child-rearing patterns ofAmerican families, without a correspondingdevelopment of good child care facilities. TheAmerican family has gone through a dramatic,though quiet, revolution. The extended familyhas given way to the nuclear family. Mobility hasbecome characteristic of many. Yet perhaps themost striking change has been that the per-centage of women who have preschool andschool-age children and who work outside thehome has more than doubledfrom 20 percentat the end of World War II to almost 50 percenttoday.
The reasons for this trend are numerous. Inmany families, both parents must work becauseof economic necessity. In some, such as one-parent families, the mother is the sole support ofthe household. In others, both parents work tokeep up with an ever-increasing standard oflivingto have those things which have come todefine the "good life" in America. And in manyfamilies, both parents work because of personal,as well as economic, motivationeach seekingto fulfill himself or herself.
Yet no parent wants to purchase self-fufillmentnr a better standard of living at the expenseof his or her children. That's the very realproblem facing so many parents today: who is tocare for these children, and how? All too often,the children of working parents are not cared forproperly, and the working days of too manyparents are marred by the gnawing fear that thissituation creates. Too many children receive nocare at allthe so-called "latch key children."Too many are cared for by siblings who arethemselves too young to be responsible forsupervising other young children. Many workingmothers have found that the only solution is totake their children with them to the places oftheir employment. According to Windows on
Foreword
Day Care, a recent report prepared by theNational Council of Jewish Women, too manychildren are in unstable, inadequate, and in somecases horrible child care settings. This IF not tosay that excellent day care is unavailable.Unfortunately, there is just too little of it. Cus-todial day care is often considered adequate day
care, though a child is hardly well cared forwhen only his physical needs are met and hisphysical safety guarded.
Parents raise children. But when the preschoolchild is placed in day care for 8 to 10 hoursdaily, day in and day out, often for several years,the day care setting becomes an adjunct to thefamily in determining the kind of person that thechild will eventually become. A child's interac-tions with adults in day carejust like hisinteractions with his own parentsinfluence his
attitudes, values, aspirations, and intellectualdevelopment. To say that this responsibility isfulfilled by guaranteeing only his physical needsand safety is as unrealistic as to say that a par-ent's responsibilities end once the child is given
food, clothing, and shelter.The day care setting must then become what a
good home is. There should be concern not onlywith feeding the child's stomach, but his mind,curiosity, and enthusiasm as well. Day care mustnever be a setting in which boredom is the rulenor one in which the child's sense of self-worthis destroyed by the indifference with which he istreated. Day care personnel and parents mustform true partnerships. Caregivers must besensitive to the culture an values of each child'stamily, careful to supplement, rather than sup-plant, family life. Caregivers and families mustwork together to create a continuity in the life ofthe developing child.
All of this might sound difficult, if notimpossible, to accomplish, but it isn't. Good daycare requires neither saints nor paragons, onlyordinary people who have some knowledgeabout the developing child, a sensitivity tochildren and their families, and the patience andstamina needed to work with children.
Excellent child care models can be found in
xi
neighborhoods thro.,ghout urban and ruralAmerica. Thanks to Head Start and other suchprograms, our knowledge about the developmentand care of preschool children has increasedgreatly. What we now need is a way to dis-seminate this knowledge, and Dr. Cohen hasdone precisely that in this handbook.
It covers the realities of budgeting, legalrequirements, operating procedures, and everyother aspect of the day care setting and alsoprovides basic information about the 3- to 6-year -olds it serves. Dr. Cohen's knowledge andtraining in pediatrics and child psychiatry are
xii
evident throughout. In the discussion of thedeveloping child, we are treated to the wisdomof an extremely sensitive developmentalist. AndMs. Brandegee's editing gives the book a
straightforward, easy-to-read style, making ituseful for both professionals and newcomers tothe day care field. The reader senses the genuineconcern of both for the individual child and thatchild's family. It is exactly this type of concernthat will help America solve its number one childcare problem, day care. I am sure this manualwill be a milestone on the way toward thataccomplishment.
Edward Zig ler,Professor of Psychology.Yale University,Formerly Director of the Office of
Child Development and Chief ofthe Children's Bureau.
Preface and Acknowledgmentspie tocus of this handbook is day care for
children aged 3 to 6 years. An appropriate sub-title might be "Caring for children, collaboratingwith families, and creating a viable communityinstitution." What I have attempted is to providea broad overview of the day care field, a basicstate-of-the-art guidebook for those seriouslyconcerned about preschool day care. The goalhas been to provide a starting place for generaldiscussion, a. synthet ;s of available knowledgeand experience, a basis for further study, and,
above all, some practical information for those
actively involved in day care.Many of the subjects we discuss are treated in
greater detail in other sources, particularly in theseries on day care published by the Office ofChild Development, of which this is one volume.In the preparation of this work, hundreds ofrecent articles, reports, research studies, books,and monographs, both published and unpub-lished, were reviewed. Many of these are notedin the text and in the references at the end ofeach chapter.
Source material, reviews, and manuscriptcorrections for the descriptions of exemplaryprograms used in chapters 15 and 16 werecontributed by the following individuals: MurielTuteur, Chicago, Amalgamated Child Day Care
and Health Center; Dr. Jon Fielding, Atlanta Job
Corps, Child Development Center; Elaine Val-verde, Ute Indian Tribe Full Day Head StartCenter; Ann Heiman, Greeley Parent-ChildCenter; Joseph Perreault, Kentucky YouthResearch Center; Susan Thompson, BerkeleyUnified School District; June Sale, PasadenaCommunity Family Day Care Project; MarceleeteH. Womack, Houston Neighborhood CentersDay Care Association; Dr. Docia Zavitkovsky,Santa Monica Unified School District Children'sCenters; and Dr. Elizabeth Prescott, Pacific
Oaks College, fx the evaluation of the SantaMonica day care program.
The source material and reviews for the textsof specific chapters were contributed by thefollowing: Mary Egan, nutrition; Edna Hughes,licensing and regulation; Dr. Jenny Klein, cur-riculum; Ms. Gwen Morgan, licensing and reg-ulation; Dr. Sally Ryan, evaluation.
The ideas and viewpoints presented in thishandbook reflect many discussions with currentand former staff members from the Office ofChild Development, U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare.
The School of Medicine, Child Study Center,and Departments of Pediatrics and Psychiatry at
Yale University provided support and opportunityfor work on this book. I am particularly gratefulfor the advice and support of Dr. Albert J. Solnit,
Sterling Professor of Pediatrics and Psychiatry,and Director of the Yale Child Study Center.And I offer sincere thanks to Margrethe Cone,my secretary at Yale. Dr. Phyllis Cohen andMr. Lawrence Burger reviewed theentire manuscript.
In addition, Dr. Julius Richmond, the firstdirector of Project Head Start and now Professorof Child Psychiatry and Human Development,Harvard Medical School, was an important guidein understanding services for children and fam-ilies and in relating medical competence to socialconcern.
Donald J. Cohen, M.D.,Yale University School of I
Medicine and the Child StudyCenter,
New Haven, Conn.
1
Chapter 1Day Care: Serving Preschool Children
As a society, we believe that all childrendeserve care that encourages their social, emo-tional, physical, and intellectual growth. Ournation has a long history of commitment tochildren and the institutions that serve theirgrowth. We have established public education,promoted medical services, and.created manyother resources for children. But we have alwaysrecognized that parents are the primary influenceon the development of their children and havethe fundamental right to guide their children'sexperiences.
Today, American life places increasing pres-sures on parents and families. More and moreAmerican parents are unable to care for theirpreschool children all day, 7 days a week. Thereare growing numbers of single-parent familiesand families in which both parents work outsidethe home. Other parents, present during the day,either lack needed resources or face problemsthat affect the quality of the care they give theirchildren. In the past, these families might haveturned to trusted relatives or to lifelong friendsand neighbors. Now, however, increased mobilityand the disruption of the extended family haveeliminated these alternatives for most Americans.
In recent years, day care has emerged as anatural response to these and other changes inAmerican family life; it has become a valuableand often vital resource for a broad range ofAmerican families.
Types of Child Care ArrangementsThere are different types of child care pro-
grams besides day care. And there are differenttypes of day care ranging from makeshift baby-sitting by an older child to comprehensive pro-grams designed to meet broad community needs.
These different child care arrangements must bedistinguished in order to understand what wemean by quality day care.
Custodial Day CareCustodial day care amounts to babysitting,
either for individual children or groups. Only the
immediate needs of the child are considered:health and safety, something to eat, and somesort of activity to pass the time. There is noplanning to meet developmental needs, eitherimmediate or long range. There is no attempt toplan for the child's need for personal, responsivehuman relationships; for intellectual stimulation;for health or nutrition beyond immediate needs;or for parent involvement in the care beingprovided.
Nursery SchoolsNursery schools are educational programs
available only part timeusually half a day, from2 to 5 days a week. They do not attempt toprovide comprehensive care as a service toabsent parents. They concentrate on the child'ssocial, emotional, and cognitive development,with the assumption that the parents will be ableto provide for his health, nutrition, and all otherneeds. A nursery school is not developmentalday care, but developmental day care includesthe essential elements of a nursery school.
Developmental Day CareDevelopmental day care, which is also called
quality day care, provides security and warmth,together with a range of developmental oppor-tunities that parents normally provide when theyhave the necessary time and resources. Theseopportunities include the chance to be withother children; individual attention to eachchild's strengths and needs; and activities de-signed to promote physical, social, emotional,and intellectual development. To insure thatthese opportunities are provided, quality day
care employs trained caregivers; follows acarefully planned curriculum; uses the services ofconsultants in health, education, nutrition, and
other fields; and encourages rarent interest and
involvement in all aspects of the program.Two other forms of child care which are
sometimes confused with quality day care arecomprehensive child development programs and
compensatory education.
1
Comprehensive Child Development ProgramsComprehensive child development programs
provide many varied curricular activities, services,and opportunities to children and their families.Their purpose is to support family life in thebroadest sense and to facilitate the developmentof the children in the family. A comprehensivechild development program may include qualityday care for those who need and want it. Inaddition, it may include such services as familycounseling, genetic counseling, health and nu-tritional services, home visiting programs, pro-grams for adolescent mothers, vocational trainingfor parents, homemaker services, and otherprograms designed to meet the needs of thefamilies who take part.
Compensatory EducationCompensatory education, by definition, is a
special program for children with special needs.The term, "compensatory," does not necessarilyimply a deficiency in the child or his back-ground; needs regarded as special may be onlythe result of a cultural or economic differencefrom the surrounding community. The essentialidea of compensatory education is that it shouldmake up for some special disadvantage, pro-viding disadvantaged children with the basicattitudes and skills most other children acquirenaturally during the preschool years. Althoughcompensatory education may be offered as partof quality day care, the two are not the same.Day care is care of the whole child, in all hisaspects. Compensatory education has certainclearly defined goals and objectives chosen toprepare the child for what society will expect ofhim. (Compensatory education is discussed atgreater length in ch. 8.)
The Function of Day CareQuality day care has three major functions: it
serves as an extension of the family; it aidschildren's development; and it is a way for so-ciety to intervene constructively when familiesand children need help.
Day Care as an Extension of the FamilyQuality day care provides the positive expe-
riences that most families try to give their chil-dren. It extends and supplements the parents'care in a way consistent with the values andgoals of the child's family and culture. Qualityday care strengthens the child's basic attachmentto his parents and sustains them as the majorforce in his personal development.
2
Day care programs are more successful whenparents are deeply involved in them. In fact,parent involvement is vital for a quality program.A full-day program with no involvement of theparents can actually tend to separate somefamilies by subjecting the children to a second,conflicting set of rules, values, and expectations.
For many parents and probably for mostprograms, parent involvement in day care mightbetter be seen as a right than an obligation.Whatever is expected of parents in the programmust be sensibly weighed against the other de-mands on their time and energy. However, whena day care program is open to parent involve-ment in a free and easy manner and when par-ents are invited to participate as much as theyare able, even overworked mothers and fathersare often eager to share in the ork and re-sponsibility of starting and operating a day careprogram. When they do, not only their ownchildren but the entire program will benefit.
in many communities, day care as an extensionof the family will encounter problems of ethnicrelevance. Children achieve dignity and self-respect with the help of positive images ofthemselves, their parents, and their communities.To ignore or slight a child's background is todefeat the basic goals of the program by dam-aging his self-image; impeding his social devel-opment; weakening the family; and encouragingdivision between the child, his ethnic group, andthe rest of society. A mixture of ethnic back-grounds in one group requires careful planningto encourage each child to retain pride in hisown culture, display it to other children, acceptand appreciate their differences from him, andyet remain a member of the Foup.
Day Care as an Aid to Child DevelopmentThe years from 3 to 6 are an optimal period
for mastering certain developmental tasks. Pre-school developmental day care presents manyopportunities to help a child master such tasksas:
developing a sense of self and a sense ofautonomydeveloping a healthy personal identitydeveloping concepts of morals and personalrightsdealing with certain psychological impulsesand with guilt, anxiety, and shamelearning how to get along with othersmastering language and using it to producedesired results
learning more about the symbols and con-cepts of culture (for example, numbers and
letters, drawing "realistically")acquiring concepts of space, time, and ob-jects.
For an extended discussion of the developmentof 3- to 6-year-old children, see chapter 2.
Day Care as InterventionAnna Freud commented that "any child's
normal development is based on the fulfillmentnot of a single need but of a whole series andhierarchy of needs, stemming from all sides ofhis personality. A normal and happy familycan, with luck, fulfill all these conditions, butmost families fail to do so for one reason oranother."' She goes on to say that no institutioncan fully meet all the child's requirements, butthat families in trouble can find the help theyneed by taking elements from a variety of in-stitutions, including family care, foster care,residential care, and day care. "Even destitutefamilies would function better if day care cameto their permanent help, and if residential carecould be asked for in short-term emergencies."2Day care, then, can function as one componentof a system of supports to the family, togetherwith such components as social service programs,health programs, and programs to increase em-ployment.
The intervention function of day care is par-ticularly important for three groups of children:children who are vulnerable, those who arehandicapped or disabled, and those from familieswho live in poverty.
Vulnerable children are those whose devel-opment is at risk. Through special circumstancesof birth, physical endowment, or difficult lifeexperiences, some children are particularly un-able to measure up to developmental tasks andproblems. They have special needs for the con-tinuity of care, stimulation, affection, stability,and thoughtfulness of a quality day care pro-gram.
Handicapped or disabled children includethose who suffer from such afflictions as severemental retardation, physical handicaps, or achildhood psychosis. The care of these childrencan be too much for even the most affluentfamily. Parents who must care for such a child
' Anna Freud, The Writings of Anna Freud, Vol. 5,
Research at the Hampstead Child Therapy Clinic and
Other Papers. (New York: International Universities Press,1969). p. 80.
Ibid., p. 81.
24 hours a day, 7 days a week, will be overloadedwith responsibility. It will be a strain for thewhole family, and the child's development willsuffer. Day care can relieve such parents of aportion of their caregiving burden.
Children from families in poverty are the thirdand by far the largest group for whom in-tervention may be important. Not all poorfamilies need day care, but many of their chil-dren lack the healthy and developmentally soundenvironment that day care can provide.
A quality day care program can identify thechildren of a community and assess their needs,can help make services available to them, andcan involve the parents and help to strengthenthe family. But there are limits to what even thebest program can accomplish. Day care can beonly one of many important influences. The childlives in the context of a family and a community,and what happens to him in those spheres will inthe lorig run be more important than whathappens in day care. What day care can ac-complish is to help the child's developmentalprogress and to help him and his family findways to cope with the circumstances of theirlives.
Donors of Day CareAny responsible person involved in day care
must recognize the danger that it may hold forchildren and families. Enthusiasm for the manypotential benefits should be tempered by therealization thlt day care can be a source ofharm, and that a good program requires acommitment to constant thoughtfulness andcareful monitoring.
The most obvious danger is that the child maybe neglected, abused physically or emotionally,or exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions.But there are also more subtle possibilities fordamage. Some unusually sensitive or immaturechildren have difficulty separating from theirparents; some have trouble accommodating togroup activities and noise; and some with de-velopmental difficulties may find it even harderto progress in the relatively hurried, tense at-mosphere of many day care programs. Otherconditions may also put stress on any child:subjection to a routine; exposure to other, moreaggressive children; exposure to different back-grounds and different languages; and perhapsthe most difficult, the breaks in continuity thatoccur more or less frequently when caregiverschange. Children may thus have to deal with aseries of emotional attachments and separations.
3
They may withhold their emotions and becomesuspicious of adults, or they may learn to makeonly superficial attachments.
Day Can SettingsThe setting of a programits size and degree
of organization and formality, as well as thephysical surroundingshas an effect on the typeof care provided. Four different types of settingsare usually distinguished.
In-home day care is care for the children ofone family by someone who is not a familymember, in either the children's home or thecaregiver's home. (The caregiver's children mayalso be included.)Family day care is provided in the caregiver'shome for the children of more than onefamily. The number of children is usuallylimited to six, including those of the caregiver.The home is rarely extensively altered.Family group day care is provided in thecaregiver's home for 7 to 12 children, in-cluding those of the caregiver. More than onecaregiver is involved, and the home usuallyrequires alterations such as additional rooms,bathrooms, exits, etc.Center-based day care is for 13 or morechildren in a building which is usually not ahome. The day care center has a staff of twoor more.
Of the four, day care centers serve approximately10 percent of the children in day care; in-homecare and family care each serve 40 to 50 percent;and family group care serves a relatively smallnumber.
In-Home Day CareIn-home day care is the simplest and most
convenient for the parents. It is also most naturalfor the children, since all the children of onefamily can stay together, often in their accus-tomed surroundings. The caregiver may be arelative or family friend with whom the childrei.are familiar and who may also do housework orcook for the family. All arrangements are cen-tered on the needs of the children of one family.However, in-home care also has disadvantages. Itis difficult or impossible to provide in one homeall the services that could be provided in a
center; the children have less opportunity forsocializing and group interaction; and play space,materials, and equipment may be very limited.Since few trained people are willing to work in asingle home, the caregiver likely sees himself orherself more as household help than as a child
4
care professional. In-home care is not licensed,and it is more difficult to monitor the quality ofcare given in one home than in a larger, moreorganized setting.
Family Day CareFamily day care also has the advantage of
keeping the children of each family together. Thesetting is a private home, which is a more naturalsetting for younger children than a center, yet itis possible to get trained workers to operate afamily care program. The setting is particularlygood for handicapped children who may need avery close relationship with the caregiver, ex-tending over several years, without interruption.Children who are sick (but not seriously ill) canstill be accommodated in a family care program.Hours and other procedural arrangements arenot as flexible as in-home care but can be farmore flexible than those of a day care center. Onthe other hand, family day care requires an ad-equate facility and the homes of those who areprepared to offer care may not meet the re-quirements. It is usually necessary to redecorateand rearrange, and for family group day care it isoften necessary to add more rooms to the house.Even then, play space is likely to be more re-stricted than in a day care center. The quality ofthe care can be monitored more easily than thatof in-home tare, since family day care programscan be licemed more easily, and the arrangementis more professional than that for in-home care.
Family Group Day CareFamily group day care is offered in a homelike
setting and shares many advantages of familycare. While it is less flexible and informal thanfamily day care, it may be more flexible thancentzr-based care.
Center-Based Day CareCenter-based day care is provided in facilities
devoted to, and sometimes designed for, the careof young children. The setting can be plannedentirely for the needs of the program, rather thanhaving to double for family living. In particular, itis easier in a center to plan a schoollike settingfor the educational component of the program. Itis easier to find highly trained personnel to workin centers, easier and more economical to usethe services of specialists such as physicians,psychologists, and social workers. The relativelyformal character of the day care center makes iteasier to involve parents in planning, organiza-tion, and volunteer work of all sells. But center-based day care also has drawbacks. Since it
does not resemble a home environment, tran-sition may be difficult for young children. Thenumber of people involved requires a relativelyhigh degree of organization, and the rules andprocedures usually needed for efficiency canmake center-based care the least flexible type ofday care.
This handbook focuses on family day care andcenter-based care. Relatively little is knownabout in-home carestatistically important as itisor about family group care. For mist prac-tical purposes, a family group setting is closelysimilar to a small day care center and most ofthe same considerations apply, while in-homecare is closely similar to family day care.
When parents can choose among the differenttypes of day care settings, their choice shoulddepend on the developmental levels and needsof the individual child. As a loose generalization,center-based care tends to offer a better-trainedstaff, more interaction among children the sameage, a more structured curriculum, and a biggerand better selection of space and equipment.Family care, on the other hand, usually has theadvantages of more cross-age contact; a warmer,more natural style of caregiving; a closer, lessformal relationship with the child's family; and amore flexible schedule, which can be importantfor young children who spend long hours in daycare. On the whole, family day care might wellbe recommended for younger, less maturechildren, while more advanced children will be
better able to take advantage of the learningopportunities in a day care center.
A Day Care Network or SystemA day care network or system is not a dif-
ferent setting but a systematic combination ofprograms in various settings under a centraladministration. A system makes it possible to
minimize the disadvantages and maximize the
advantages of the different types of settings. In
one system, the intimacy and flexibility of thefamily setting can be combined with the re-sources and capabilities of the large day carecenter, and the center can become a focal poi1ltfrom which services are extended to all the othersettings. Central administration makes it possible
to provide professional consultation and otherresources to the community's day care programs;counseling and consultation to families; expertcurriculum planning; professional training for day
care staff; a pool of substitute workers; a com-munitywide screening system; and the economies
of mass purchasing of supplies, food, andequipment.
Such a system allows families to choose familycare if they wish, without having to sacrifice thebenefits of trained personnel, curriculum, andspecial consultation available at a center. Theyhave the option of starting a child in a smallfamily setting and advancing him to a centerwhen he is ready. Children in an in-home orfamily setting could be taken to another settingfor short periods, perhaps a few times a week, asa gradual introduction to a more formal program.Children and parents alike could use the centerfor such services as consultations and counseling.The system, in short, makes it possible to com-bine the advantages of all types of day care.
Starting Day Can ProgramsWhen a community lacks developmental day
care, those who want to create a program oftentend to think first of a day care center. Most ofthe day care literature focuses on centers, and acenter may seem the most natural form becauseof the models provided by the public schoolsand by programs, such as Head Start, which haveemphasized center-based activities.
However, family day care has important ad-vantages for an organized community effort.Frequently, the greater part of the job can bedone by locating and organizing the family daycare programs that already exist, rather than by amassive campaign to set up a big new program.In addition to the real advantages of a familysetting, the difficulties and delays involved inorganizing, equipping, and staffing a centershould commend family day care as an attractiveway for a community to acquire the elements ofday care service.
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References
GeneralAmerican Joint Distribution Committee. Guide for Day Care
Centers. Geneva, Switzerland: AJDC, 1962.Appalachian Regional Commission. Child Development
Manuals: Vol. I, Federal Programs for Young Children;Vol. II, Programs for Infants and Young Children (Part I,Education and Day Care; Part II, Nutrition Programs; PartIII, Health Programs; Part IV, Equipment and Facilities).Washington, D.C.: Appalachian Regional Commission,1970.
Beer, E.S. Working Mothers and the Day Nursery. Mystic,Conn.: Lawrence Very, 1970.
Boguslawski, D.B. Guide for Establishing and Operating DayCare Centers for Young Children. New York: ChildWelfare League of America, 1968.
Chandler, C.A.; Lourie, R.A.; and Peters, A. Early ChildCare: The New Perspectives. Edited by L. Dittmann. NewYork: Atherton Press, 1968.
Child Welfare League of America. CWLA Standards for DayCare Service. New York: Child Welfare League ofAmerica, 1969.
Day Care and Child Development Council of America.Planning a Day Care Center. Washington, D.C.: Day Careand Child Development Council of America, 1971.
Day Care: A Statement of Principles. Child Development.Office of Child Development. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Publication No. (OCD) 73-2.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
Evans, E.B.; Shub, B.; and Weinstein, M. Day Care: How toPlan, Develop, and Operate a Day Care Center. Boston:Beacon Press, 1971.
Fein, G.G. and Clarke-Stewart, A. Day Care in Context. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1973.
Freud, A. "Nursery School Education: Its Uses and Dan-gers." In The Writings of Anna Freud, Vol. 4. New York:International Universities Press, 1968.
Grotberg, E.H., ed. Day Care: Resources for Decisions.Washington, D.C.: Office of Economic Opportunity, 1971.
Howard, N.K. Day Care: An Annotated Bibliography. Ur-bana, III.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Early Childhood Edu-cation, University of Illinois, 1971.
Howell, Mary C. "Employed Mothers and Their Families.Part I." Pediatrics 52, No. 2 (1973): 252-263.
Howell, Mary C. "Effects of Maternal Employment on theChild. Part II." Pediatrics 52, NJ. 3 (1973): 327-343.
Keyserling, M.D. Windows on Day Care: A Report Based onFindings of the National Council of Jewish Women onDay Care Needs and Services in Their Communities. NewYork: National Council of Jewish Women, 1972.
Murphy, L. Caring for Children Series. A series of bookletson children in day care. Office of Child Development.U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Publication No. (OCD) 73-1026, 1027, 1028, 1029, 1030.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970.
Parker, R., ed. The Preschool in Action: Exploring EarlyChildhood Programs. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972.
Prescott, E.; Millich, C.; and Jones, E. The "Politics" of DayCare. Day Care: Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: National As-sociation for the Education of Young Children, 1972.
Prescott, E.; Jones, E. and Kritchevsky, S. Day Care as aChild-Rearing Environment. Day Care: Vol. 2. Washington,D.C.: National Association for the Education of YoungChildren, 1972.
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Read, K.H. The Nursery School: A.Human RelationshipsLaboratory. 5th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1971.
Ryan Jones Associates. How to Operate Your Day CareProgram. Wyomissing, Pa.: Ryan Jones Associates, 1970.
Some Organizations Which Publish Materials Relevantto Day Care
American Library AssociationChildren's Service Division50 East Huron StreetChicago, III. 60611
Association for Childhood Education International3615 Wisconsin Avenue, NW.Washington D.C. 20016
Bank Street College of Education69 Bank StreetNew York, N.Y. 10014
Black Child Development Institute1028 Connecticut Avenue, NW.Washington, D.C. 20036
Child Study Association of America9 East 89th StreetNew York, N.Y. 10028
Child Welfare league of America67 Irving PlaceNew York, N.Y. 10003
Consortium on Early Childbearing and ChildrearingSuite 6181145 19th Street, NW.Washington, D.C. 20036
Day Care and Child Development Council of AmericaSuite 11001401 K Street, NW.Washington, D.C. 20005
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)Clearinghouse on Early Childhood Education805 West Pennsylvania AvenueUniversity of IllinoisUrbana, III. 61801
ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceThe National Cash Register Co.4931 Fairmont AvenueBethesda, Md. 20014
Family Service Association of America44 East 23d StreetNew York, N.Y. 10010
Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402(Many documents published by various Governmentagencies and departments can be obtained directly fromthe GPO.)
National Association for the Education of Young Children(NAEYC)
1834 Connecticut Avenue, NW.Washington, D.C. 20009
National Federation of Settlements and NeighborhoodCenters232 Madison AvenueNew York, N.Y. 10016
Office of Child DevelopmentU.S. Department of Health, Education, and WelfareBox 1182Washington, D.C. 20013
Journals Related to Child Care
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. Published by theAmerican Orthopsychiatric Association, 1775 Broadway,New York, N.Y. 10019.
Child Development. Published by the Society for Researchin Child Development, University of Chicago Press, 5750Ellis Avenue, Chicago, III. 60637.
Child Welfare. Journal of the Child Welfare League ofAmerica, Inc., 44 East 23d Street, New York, N.Y. 10010.
Childhood Education. Published by the Association forChildhood Education International, 3615 Wisconsin Av-enue, NW., Washington, D.C., 20016
Children Today. Published by the Office of Child Development, U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C. 20402.
Exceptional Children. Published by the Council for Excep-tional Children, 1201 16th Street, NW., Washington, D.C.
Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry.Publication of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry,100 Memorial Drive, Cambridge, Mass. 02142.
Young Children. Published by the National Association forthe Education of Young Children, 1834 Connecticut Av-enue. NW Washington, D.C., 20009.
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Chapter 2Development of the Preschool Child
Most parents provide a child with extraordi-nary opportunities for learning and growth.Through their daily care and concern, they knowhow to respond to their child in most any situ-ation: they know when to step in to provide himor her with encouragement or protection;when to stay at a distance and allow their childto test her capacities and to develop newskill:;; when to shield him from something sad orworrisome and when to give him the chanceto deal with new anxieties.
Most parents know much that would be hardfor them to put into words. From a slight hesi-tancy or sideward glance they know their child isfrightened. From a brightness in her eyes theyknow that she is eager for something. From afaint holding back and lack of pep invisible toanyone else, they suspect that their little boy willsoon have a fever.
A child's parents are his best teachers. Just bytalking with their child, explaining things, anddoing things while he watches, parents can in-struct their child about uncountable objects,duties, and social expectations. By observing hisparents, the child learns a style of speech, a wayof solving problems, and a sense of knowingwhat to do when there's nothing much to do. Ashis parents perform all the routines of dailylivingas they figure out bills, cook, dial thephone, read the paper, write notes, countchange, and handle crisesthe child will watchand will learn to imitate their actions andattitudes.
The kinds of things that go on between mostparents and their 3- to 6-year-old children arenot usually detailed in child psychology books.Scientists generally study in laboratories, nothomes. They know more about how childrendeal with pleasant strangers who test them thanabout how children love, fear, or adore theirparents, brothers, and sisters and how they in-teract with their different family members. Yethow the child acts at home and what he needsfrom home are central to our thinking aboutquality day care. in planning and delivering day
care, we should ask: is the child in this day caresetting receiving the kind of love, care, attention,stimulation, and example that is available in ahealthy home?
The home provides a model of developmentalcare that is not in the least mysterious. Here,development takes place gradually. Most mothersand fathers can tell when their child is doingwell and when he has a problem. In the sameway, anyone who consistently cares for a childcan tell when things are going well for him.There is a natural continuity between what achild requires at home and in day care, andbetween what lets us know things are going wellor badly in either setting. Formal considerationsabout standards necessary for day care shouldnot cloud the fact that quality day care meanscaring for a child.
While it is relatively easy to decide whichkinds of experiences are necessary in day care tobest stimulate development in a child, it is dif-ficult to provide these experiences. What mostparents do by instinct and out of their sense ofresponsibility may not emerge naturally in a daycare situation. A mother caring for her own childcan rely on intuition and learned good judg-ments; a caregiver working with several childrenneeds greater planning and procedures. Day careplanners must always be aware of the child'sneeds, of the caregiver's capacity to meet thoseneeds, and of the kinds of supports, resources,and structures that both the child and the care-giver require.
1he study of day care must begin with thechildren to be served. This chapter will introducethese children, who can change as much in 3years as adults do in 3 decades. Our majorconcern is to portray how children develop"when things go well"a phrase that we useoftenand how day care can support both thechild and his family when there are problems inthe child's development.
We have two basic assumptions. The first is
our belief that in most essential ways, childrenare very much more alike than they are different.
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In thinking about development, important dif-ferences in culture, life style, and communaineeds and wishes must not be obscured; how-ever, we believe it is even more important toremember that there is a natural biological andevolutionary similarity in children's bodies andmindsa similarity in their drives, feelings,wishes, and ideas that cuts across social, ethnic,racial, and sexual distinctions.
Our second underlying assumption is that eachchild is also a unique and precious individual.Each child has a specific endowment, as well ashis own history and experiences, all of whichallow children to differ in their sensitivities andtheir ways of understanding, reacting, and coping.
This chapter outlines the implications of thesetwo assumptions for day care and indicates howday care can respect the needs of all children forcertain kinds of care while being able to meeteach child's individual needs.
Preconditions of DevelopmentNo one can force a child to develop and move
toward maturity. The way we talk about devel-opment indicates this; we say that a certain kindof care facilitates, or supports, or enhances, orencourages development. There are, however,many necessary preconditions for a healthy de-velopment to be possible. Some of these have tobe met even before the child is born. Some dealwith factors that affect the child's physicalgrowth; others relate to his mental and emo-tional well-being. For a child to have the chanceof developing to his fullest potential, thesepreconditions must be met.
Healthy Genetic EndowmentEveryone apprecigies me importance of a
child's natural endowment, which can set limitson what the child can achieve even with the bestopportunities. Though all parents would like toendow their children with the most positiveabilities and characteristics, some families have ahistory of conditions which could pass seriousmental or physical problems onto their children.For such families, the medical science of geneticscan provide counseling and testing duringpregnancy. Through genetic counseling, couplescan be advised about their chances for havinga healthy baby. After a child is conceived, testson samples of the amniotic fluid that surroundsthe fetus can detect any of over 100 problem'conditions present in the unborn child. Theuse of both these relatively recent medical
10
services can help lower the frequency ofgenetic disease.
Prenatal CareEven before a woman conceives, she should
be medically well, adequately nourished,physically mature, and psychologically preparedto have a child. To help insure the healthydevelopment of her unborn child, the mothermust eat properly and should receive medicalattention aimed at preventing anemia, infections,high blood pressure, and excessive weight gain.She should eliminate heavy smoking andexposure to unnecessary medication and X-rays,and she should try to control any other factorsthat could seriously affect the fetus.
One of the major goals of prenatal care is tomaintain pregnancy to full term. Prematurity isone of the main causes of infant mortality duringthe first days of life, yet it is often preventablethrough early medical care. Unfortunately, pre-maturity most often occurs among poverty-levelfamilies who cannot afford the special medicalcare, 2ttention, and nutrition the infant needsduring his first months.
Although pregnancy, labor, and delivery are farless dangerous for both mother and child todaythan several decades ago, medical advancescannot fully benefit a woman who comes forthem late in pregnancy. Nor can obstetric carecompletely remove the potential dangers whicharise when a woman has too many babies tooclosely spaced, when she conceives at too youngor too old an age, when she has been exposed toinfections during her pregnancy, or when shesuffers from excessive strain and tension at thistime. By the time of delivery or even during thelast months of pregnancy, it may be too late toprevent the harm done by the use of over-the-counter or unsafe-during-pregnancy medi-cations, or the lack of adequate genetic coun-seling which led to the conception of a childwith high genetic risk.
Physical Care, Love, and AttentionAnother essential precondition to development
is the physical well-being of each child. Physicalcare includes adequate nutrition, immunizations,regular pediatric checkups in addition to medicalattention for illnesses, and regular dental care. Italso involves preventing exposure to such dan-gers as lead paint and avoiding serious accidents.
In the process of receiving such continuous,attentive are during the first months of life, a
child also receives affection, intellectual stimu-lation, and the opportunity to form secure socialattachmentsall essential for further develop-ment. Children need attention, yet the kind ofattention they receive is most important. Whenadult reactions are active and responsive to thechild's own behavior, the child learns about thevalue of his own actions and about the responseshe can expect from other people. Such experi-ences, repeated with people who love him, helpthe child gain a sense of identity and develop asa social being.
The child must also have the opportunity tolearn about limits and structure: to know whatresponses he can reasonably expect from adults,what standards he is expected to uphold, andwhat consequences he can predict for both hisacceptable and unacceptable behavior. At thesame time, he needs flexibility and diversity tostimulate his curiosity. As the child matures,limits and rules have to change, and new andmore complex expectations have to be intro-duced. An individual balance between the child'sneed for variety and stimulation and his needfor stability and predictability will encouragehealthy intellectual and social development.
ModelsAs children move from infancy into the pre-
school years, they begin to identify with and toimitate the actions and attitudes of adults im-portant to them. These adults, whether they areaware of it or not, serve as models for the child.For a child to develop socially acceptable be-havior, he needs the presence of respected adultswho themselves act in accepted ways and whowill reward the child for behavior that they feelis good and worthwhile.
All these factors are only preconditions fordevelopment. Their fulfillment cannot guaranteeintelligence nor any other quality or ability.When these preconditions are not met, the ef-fects on the child's development are oftenpainfully clear by the age of 3. Unfortunately, bythis age, they may not be completely reversible.
There is no single, critical period of devel-opment. Each day of a child's life is important.For development to proceed normally, thesepreconditions continue to be importantthroughout childhood. When the conditions fordevelopment are met, most children are able tomove to maturity through successive stages ofunderstanding and behavior.
Major Aspects of DevelopmentThere have been many attempts to define
development: some definitions stress the in-creasing complexity of a child's behavior andfeelings as he grows older; others focus on theways children become more realistic about theworld; others emphasize the child's wideninfsocial horizons; still others are concerned witthe acquisition of intellectual abilities such assolving problems, using abstract symbols, andlearning a large vocabulary. While we need notbe overly concerned with theory, it is useful tounderstand the major aspects of a child's de-velopment from ages 3 to 6the changes thattake place in his ability to use language; hissense of identity, competence, and morality; hislearning and cognitive abilities; and his generalsocial and emotional functioning.
Growth in each of these areas tends to pro-ceed together. Functioning in one area cannotreally be understood without considering thefunctioning of each of the others. Thus, poorlanguage development may be linked to a child'sfeeling of incompetence and to his inability tofunction socially; while a healthy social andemotional development will likely be a positiveinfluence on a child's ability to learn.
LanguageThere are dramatic differences in the language
of the 3-year-old, the 4- or 5-year-old, and the6-year-old child. The 3-year-old is like a studentmastering a musical instrumentwhile there maybe moments of musical excellence, more oftenthe instrument, rather than the musician, is incontrol. In a child of this age, such variabilityand continuing experimentation with languagecan be charming. If the child can't remember thewords of a song, any words will do if they soundright. The feeling is the message. "Old Mac-Donald had a farm, Eh, I, I, I, you. And on farm,Ey, I, I, I, oh had a horse. Ho-ho-hocow andhorse."
The 4- or 5-year-old still invents new words,such as "to screwdriver" a screw or "to bow" ashoe. A confusing situation can be "calama-cious"; an unpleasant child can be "fugzy." Fa-vorite words can be great fun to pronounce, andlanguage can be a never-ending game.
By contrast, the 6-year-old is a master speaker.He may search for the correct word or not un-derstand many that he hears, but he no longerplays with words nor invents them so readily.
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Using language is, of course, central to anyform of intellectual growth. Most important inshaping a child's use of language is what hehears, and how he is responded to, in his home.Different families respond differently to chil-dren's comments, In some families, conversationbetween parents and children is spontaneous andnatural, while in others this kind of verbal at-tention to children is more difficult to achieve ors less highly valued.
Yet it is outside the home where a child'slanguage ability is really tested. There has beenmuch discussion about the richness, adequacy,utility, and grammatical structure of the languageof different social classes and ethnic groups.Certainly, nonstandard English should not beconsidered deficient. Child en in Northernghettos, for example, can express the mostcomplicated thoughts and the broadest range offeelings using nonstandard "black" English. Theirvocabulary is well-adapted to their environmentwith words and expressions which capture thetone of their daily experiences. The issue aboutlinguistic inferiority is not raised in relation tochildren whose native language is not English.Rather, there is a general concern felt by parentsand educators about appropriate ways of intro-ducing these children to English while preservingthe child's ability to use and value his first lan-guage.
The major concern in either case should bewhat type at language competence does thechild need to be able to succeed in terms of hisparents' expectations and his own. For thegreat majority of children, this question comesdown to what degree of language competencethey need in order to succeed in schoolswhich require fluent use of standard English.
Day care can offer children the opportunity ofspeaking freely and being spoken to, and offeeling a sense of competence in language.Generally, parents with a non-English or non-standard-English background very much wanttheir children to learn standard English. But thismust be approached gradually, after the childfeels respected for what he is and after he hashad the opportunity of expressing himself in hisown language or language style.
IdentityA child's self-concept has roots in his earliest
exoeriences. The sense of who he is, what hewishes to do, and what is expected of himemerges from daily encounters with parents,
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neighbors, and friends. During the preschoolyears, the child begins to collect these raw ma-terials for the ultimate shaping of his matureidentity.
There are many facets of identity. In the pre-school and early school-age years these partialidentities have not yet developed into a coherentpersonal sense of wholeness. It is only duringadolescence that the individual may begin to askof himself, "These are the various things peoplehave told me about myself; this is what theyhave expected me to be and do; here is the wayI thought I had to act. But who am I really, andwhat do I want to become?"
Physical Identity. Knowledge of how the bodylooks and works is not innate. The child acquiresa sense of physical identity by using his body; helearns how his body looks and works, what hisbody needs, the position and function of dif-ferent parts and their associated feelings.Through bumps, bruises, scratches, and caresses,by grasping, falling, eating, touching, and beingtouchedthrough every type of stimulus theinfant and young child receives, he develops asense of physical individuality.
Parents also help the child learn how his bodyworksby feeding him when he is hungry,keeping him warm and his diapers dry, and thusteaching him to recognize his own needs. Theyhelp to focus the child's attention on his innerbody. Through toilet training, for example, thechild learns how to cope with and control urgesand feelings that occur within himself.
During the preschool years, four importantaspects of physical identity emerge: the sense ofsize, strength, gender, and race or racialawareness.
No child can ignore being smaller than hisparents or being unable to reach a high shelf orsee above a counter. Yet children generally donot feel small. When the child's experiences havebeen goodwhen he hasn't been repeatedlyhospitalized, severely humiliated, or physicallyabusedhe may see himself as a person who isphysically big. His sense of physical stature isreinforced when people pay "big" attention tohim and when he is capable of doing "big"things by himself. Similarly, when things havegone well, the child feels strong--even thoughat times he must ask for help when doingsomething that requires an adult's strength.
In developing a sense of physical identity, thechild brings together his various experiences:being smaller and weaker than adults, being
responded to in different ways by adults andpeers, feeling a sense of accomplishment indifficult tasks. Ask a preschooler who feels goodabout himself to draw a picture of a child andhis father; the child may equal the father's sizeor be only slightly smaller, out of courtesy.
The child's perception of gender is anotherimportant aspect of physical identity. Althoughmany of the stereotyped social roles determinedby sexual identity are in the process of change inour culture, the basic physical differences be-tween males and females are unchanging. By age3, a child clear:y knows that he or she is a boy ora girl. Children at this age can quickly identifythemselves in photos, can point out children thatresemble them, and know that they are more likeeither their mother or father. Once perceived,the child's sense of his or her sexual identitybecomes, with rare exceptions, permanent.
Awareness of social expectations, both implicitand explicit, develops along with the child'ssexual identification. Are boys more active, ag-gressive, and rough because of society's de-mands? Are girls more thoughtful, obedient, andgentle because these qualities are essential totheir assigned social role? This certainly seems, atleast in large part, to be true. It will take years todetermine the impact of changing social condi-tionsparticularly the questioning of sexualstereotypeson children's emerging genderidentities. We still do not really understand thevarious biological and social causes of behaviorpatterns that are typical of one sex or the other.Meanwhile, children will continue to learn fromboth the mirror and the people in their lives thatthey are either boys or girls. This knowledge willhelp set some enduring patterns of expectationsand behavior which affect not only the child'sown self-concept but what he or she expects ofthe opposite sex as well.
Racial identity is somewhat similar to genderidentity. The 4-year-old child knows that his skinis black, brown, white, yellow, or red; that heresembles one group of people more than an-other; and that he looks similar to, or differentfrom, other children. At this age, children arecurious in a healthy, open way about the dif-ferences in appearance between individuals.
Yet, as the sense of racial identity develops, itmay affect the child's values of himself in rela-tion to others. Children's racial attitudes reflectthe attitudes of the people who surround them.A preschool child who has lived only amongpeople of his own race or ethnic group may be
curious and a bit frightened by a person with adifferent color skin. Differences often lead todiscomfort in the 3- or 4-year-old. Depending onthe cues he receives from family and friends, thisdiscomfort either can lead to knowledge andempathy or it can produce prejudice and intol-erance. If given the opportunity, a child willquickly work through his concern and formnatural relationships despite physical differences.
On the basis of daily experiences during hisfirst years, the child of age 4 or 5 has a variety ofways in which he sees himself. His physicalidentity is a collection of characteristics andexpectations concerning size, strength, gender,and race. The child of this age seldom under-stands or sees these aspects of himself as parts ofa whole person. He does not yet have a clearpicture of how these different aspects holdtogether to make him the unique individualthat he is.
Personal Identity. For the young child, there is nosharp separation between the developing senseof physical identity and the developing personalor social identity. Personal identity is an indi-vidual's perception of himself as a person withdesires, wishes, beliefs, ideas, and feelings, andwith a history and a future of his own. For thepreschool child, the past and future are muchless real than for the adolescent and adult, andthe child's developing personal identity is thusvery responsive to current situations.
The personal identity of a 3- to 6-year-oldevolves from two major types of experiences:(1) how the child is treated by the people close tohim, and (2) what he observes about the adultshe admires. If the child is treated with respectand love, he will perceive himself as worthwhileand lovable. If he receives meaningful responses,he will grow to feel that his actions and opinionsare strong and valuable. If he can effect a changein his world through purposeful actionsuch asa protest about his room which leads to a newsleeping arrangementhe will begin to learn thathe can be effective.
In countless social situations, the child learnshow others respond to him, and thus develops asense of himself. "I am the child who gets intotrouble." "I'm the sweet little girl, no brains, allheart." "I am really clever." "I am the kind ofchild you can't resist loving." "I am abig nobody."
The preschool child is extremely sensitive tothe way his mother and father, and other adultswhom he loves, behave toward others and are
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treated by others. Through identification withthese adults, the child's personal identity de-velops. If his parents treat each other with re-spect, the child will imitate them and will belikely to become a kind, understanding person.In the same way, a child can learn alienation andhumiliation after seeing his big, strong fathercower before an employer, or after eating withhis mother in the kitchen while the "nice folks"for whom she works eat at the dining roomtable. And a very young girl can be conditionedto believe that women have an inferior role, ifshe feels that her mother is bored and frustratedby housework while Daddy returns each eveningwith exciting stories about his working day.
The preschooler's personal identity consists ofbits and pieces of social interactions, observa-tions, and fantasies; it is a quiltwork of partialidentifications, imitations, and pretendings. Hecan see himself as one type of person in onesetting and an entirely different person in an-other setting. The devil at home can immediatelybecome an angel at grandmother's, dependingupon what he feels is expected of him.
In adolescence, this sense of changeableidentity can lead to anxiety; in the preschoolchild, it is natural and healthy. It is, in fact, un-healthy when a child's sense of identity is tooearly closed: when a 6-year-old is made to feelthat he is "hyperactive, uncontrollable, unpre-dictable"; that he is "just plain dumb"; or that heis "just another migrant--no use fussing withhim." In an environment which is stressful, apreschool child can identify himself with theunhealthy aspects of some adult or can in-creasingly show the undesirable qualities thatpeople attribute to him. These characteristicsmay become a permanent part of his identity.Such children must be shown, with honesty, thatthey have other more positive potentialitiesthat can be developed.
Preschool children develop pictures ofthemselves and of their different identities indifferent situations on the basis of routine, daily,and unnotable experiences which occasionallymay be heightened by truly powerful momentsof human interaction. When all is going well,these identities are flexible. Indeed, it is theability of children to change their self-perceptions that causes real optimisrn about thepossible benefit, for personality development tobe gained from preschool programs. By schoolage, some of this flexibility and openness may belost.
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Competence"I know I'm a good woodworker," Timmy, age
6, told a grownup friend, as he displayed asmall boat he had made from scrap lumber. "It'sreally kind of easy, once you know how. Butit took me 2 whole years to learn how to usethe big hammer."
"Everybody likes my paintings," Marla, age 5,told an admirer. "That's because I plan. I thinkabout what I do before I do it. * * * Maybe I'llgive one to Uncle Howie for his birthday."
"I do it, I do it. Don't help me. I write myown name," 3-year-old Lisa told her father whowanted to print her name on her scribble-drawing of "a house, a bird, and here's theplayground."
From the many experiences of learning, doing,and achieving, from every "I do it" and "don'thelp me," the child derives'a sense of compe-tencea feeling that he can, indeed, "do it."Preschool children want to do things. Their needto achieve and accomplish is an inborn drive asimportant as their need for affection. Only in themost adverse situations is this motivation stifled.
The concept of competence relates to themotivation to do things well, the actual ability ofthe individual to accomplish both what he wantsand what is expected of him, as well as the senseof personal ability. A child develops real com-petence and feels like a competent person ifcertain conditions are present: specifically,physical and mental health and a supportiveenvironment.
The physically healthy child learns, plays, andacquires skills at a relatively predictable pace.The importance of good health is best under-stood by observing children handicapped witheven minor difficulties: impaired vision, excessiveclumsiness, or mild retardation. In working toovercome their disabilities, these children candevelop important skills, as well as a sense ofcompetence. But, for them, achievement requiresgreater efforts. The handicapped child's struggleto achieve shows both the strength if the naturaldrive for competence and the importance ofgood health in making this an easily reachablegoal.
A supportive environment is as important tothe child as good health. The child's surround-ingsboth human and inanimatehave tostimulate and support an emerging sense ofcompetence. The preschooler needs opportun-ities to work with various materials, to finishwhat he starts, and to be rewarded for success. Achild at this age makes use of a world of inani-
mate objects, of playthings and puzzles anduseful junk, that he can shape to his own endsand for his own, personal reward. "Doing" alsoinvolves children in social situations with adults,where work can be encouraged, praised, andrespected. A child's drawing, an arrangement ofdoll house furniture, a building-block construc-tion, a few nails hammered into a boardallmay be important expressions of a child's orig-inality and competence. But whether he developsand feels a sense of competence depends largelyon how his work is valued by the people heloves and respects.
CognitionCognition refers to mental growth and activity.
It defines most of the processes of thinking andknowing that most children employ daily: fromplanning what to do in the rnorning, to learningthe rules of a game or making up an excuse for amessy room. Cognition includes thinking, remem-bering, problem solving, planning, imagining,judging, and deciding. These processes developalong with the use of language, although theyare not entirely dependent on it. Even infants are"cognitively" very active: when a baby smilesupon hearing his mother's voice or cries as astranger approaches, that baby shows that hismental processes are functioning.
Parents and observers of children are usuallycharmed by youthful "errors" in understanding.When preschoolers try to understand causality innature, for example, they often assume thatthings can think and act as people do. They mayimagine that thunder is made by an angry giantin the sky, that dreams are sent by pillows, thatrain falls because it knows that flowers are dry.
Testing situations have been devised in psy-chology laboratories to increase our under-standing of how children think. In one situation,a child watches an adult pour water from a verythin, tall container, where the water column ishigh, into a very wide container. The child is thenasked, "Which glass has more water?" To theadult, the answer is obvious: the same amount isin each. But to the preschooler, the thin glassholds more water: "Look how high up it comes."Even if the water js poured back and forth be-tween the two glasses, the child will center hisattention on the height of the column. He cannotgeneralize his observations to understand thatthe containers only shape the water column;they do not add to or substract from it.
For the preschooler, the problem of "sameobject, different perspective" may be almost
impossible to solve. Things are different if onesees them differently. For example, a 4-year-oldwalking through a field noticed a full moonslightly above a row of distant buildings. Whenhe later saw the moon high overhead, he becameconfused and asked, "Is this the same moon thatwe saw before?"
The concept of time can be just as perplexingto young children. Adults can generally keep asequence of events and periods of time clearly inmind. The child, however, understands time inrelation to present events. A boring and unevent-ful day will be longer for a 3-year-old than 2exciting days. With similar logic, a 5-year-old,unhappy during his sister's birthday party, says,"She was 3 yesterday and now she's 4. I don'twant her to catch up with me."
While some children can be quite sophisti-cated and know that babies come from insidetheir mothers, it may be difficult for them tothink of themselves as having been babies andparticularly hard to realize a time when theywere not yet born. At best, they were "insideMommy's tummy" a long time ago. "I've justbeen here for 4 years? I can't believe that. Whatwas I doing before that?"
Children's errors in logic and understandingreflect natural stages in the development ofcognition. During the preschool years, childrenslowly develop their ideas of causality, space,velocity, objectivity, and time. They graduallylearn that events and objects have a permanenceand reality of their own, regardless of a viewer'schanging perspective.
While children of different socioeconomicbackgrounds may exhibit great differences in theuse of language, they usually think about thingsin a similar fashion. After reaching a certain stageof maturity, most children know that thequantity of water in the two different-shapedcontainers is the same. Language sophisticationmainly determines the child's ability to describethe perception; it has much less effect upon hisability to use logic for solving problems ormaking correct judgments.
Many preschool programs, especially thosedesigned for children from low-income families,emphasize "cognitive" development: the use oflanguage, basic concepts such as the correct useof "above" and "below" and similar abstractterms, and preacademic skills such as countingand learning the alphabet. It is important todistinguish the acquisition of this type ofknowledge from a child's general intelligence. Aninarticulate child often can think and understand
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as well as a verbally gifted child and may excelin some areas, such as originality and motormaturity.
Of course, programs which stress cognitiveskills may be quite valuable for children withlimited experience in language usage and formallearning. They can prepare a child for classroominstruction and give him a sense of academiccompetence. However, the potential gains from ahighly structured, academically oriented programfor preschoolers must be weighedfor eachindividual child and for groups of childrenagainst the potential harm. A child's natural cu-riosity and desire to learn can be stifled if he ispressured to learn too much too soon. For eachchild, the educator must ask: "Is this child'sown creative, novel way of thinking being dulledby my demands that he learn what I want him tolearn now? Am I inattentive to his strengths andpossible creativity by encouraging only stand-ardized, rote, and stereotyped skills?"
Social and Emotional GrowthBetween ages 3 and 6, the child makes a giant
leap from the small world of the family withlimited outside contacts, to a world of manydifferent friends, teachers, and influences. Parentsare likely to know what their 2-year-old is doingat all times, but they take for granted that their5-year-old has a social world of his own. "Hey,Mom, Jeremy Frank has a football sweat shirt justlike that." "Who is Jeremy Frank?" she asks. "Oh,my best friend at camp."
When the child feels comfortable and securein both his home and his expanding communityand when people important to him think well ofhim, the child develops a sense of value andself-esteem. He appreciates himself. And whenhis attempts at achievement are successful, whenhe experiences accomplishment and reward, thechild feels that he can do new things and makechanges in his world. He thus gain a feeling ofpersonal control.
Much of t'ie child's development, especiallyhis social development and behavior, betweenages 3 and 6 is determined by two factors: hissenses of self-esteem and personal control. If achild thinks he is important and good and ableto control his actions, he will achieve and per-form both for his own satisfaction and for thosearound him and will grow .Jocially, emotionally,and mentally. If, however, a child ha! 'ittle ex-perience with success and reward or is insecure,he may feel that events occur because of other,
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more powerful people. The sense of his ownpotential ability and worth may never fully de-velop.
In a child's social and emotional development,periods of tranquility or stability are normallymixed with periods of emotional upheaval.Children cannot be isolated from worries andanxieties related to the family and community.Nor can a child be kept from having periods ofemotional upset which are related to his ownpsychological development, to new feelings, andto increasing awareness. Trying to completelyprotect a child from worry and anxiety is animpossible as well as an undesirable goal.Emotional stress can provide opportunities foremotional growth in which old routines aredisturbed and new ways of coping app.ar.
If the child is supported through periods ofstress and helped to face uncomfortable situa-tions, he can develop the skills needed to dealwith worries, anxieties, and tensions. Throughsuch experiences, he may acquire a deeper senseof identity and competence. No child, however,should be purposefully stressed or have toomuch expected of him. Children left to faceemotional crises without support may later bevulnerable to developmental disturbance andemotional problems.
For a 3- or 4-year-old child, the introductionto full-time day care can be a challenging ordifficult transition. Mother is lost; new childrenappear; the physical environment is changed;and new routines are introduced. The adjustmentcan lead to either new social and emotional skillsor to a repression of feelings and a sense ofresentment. The outcome depends largely onwhether the child's parents and caregivers re-spond to his worries with supportive concern.
Preschool programs usually focus on fosteringsocial and emotional skills. Both in nurseryschools and in developmental day care programs,the child is helped to deal with feelings inconstructive ways, to find means for expressinghis energy and creativity, and to work with otherchildren in mutually satisfying activities.
For many preschool childrenespecially thosewhose lifelong environments have beeninsecurea day care program that emphasizessocial and emotional development may be thefirst place they receive needed care, attention,and individualized concern. In such a program,the child can acquire a new sense of self andlearn new ways of coping with loneliness, anger,and the need for personal expression. His emerg-ing sense of value will influence his social growth
and his sense of competence. Oftentimes,children's IQ scores increa-e during the time theyare in quality day care programs. These gains arerelated not to changes in innate intelligence butto the child's unfolding motivation to achieveand become involved with people, to his newtrust, and his increased self-esteem.
Personal StylesConfronted with a broken toy car, the child
studied it for several moments, realized theproblem, and fixed it. In the same situation an-other child might have knocked on it and thrownit to the floor, asked his mother to fix it, ignoredit for another toy, or simply cried.
Practically any situation presents the individualwith a variety of alternative responses; there arelots of ways to fix a toy, to cross a street, or toavoid frustration. And all may even lead to thesame end. These different approaches or per-sonal styles are mainly determined by threefactorsendowment, personal experiences, andparental influencesthough nobody knows whyeach child develops his own particular style.
From birth, children differ: some are quiet,others noisy; some calm, others jittery; somerequire little attention, others are terribly de-manding. Each child has his own unique history:illnesses, accidents, separations, human interac-tions, observations, and experiences that differfrom those of every other person. And finally,each child receives distinct parental influences.Each is encouraged towards certain behaviors bya series of rewards and punishments and subtlereactions; furthermore, every child imitates theactions, attitudes, and opinions of his parents.
Three types of personal styles are particularlyevident and important: how a child mentallyperceives situation (cognitive style); how hephysically reacts to a situation (behavioral style);and how he avoids psychological pain (defensivestyle).
A cognitive style is a way of organizing anddealing with the facts at hand. A complicatedbarnyard picture is shown to two children, andthey are asked to describe it: one immediatelynames individual itemsthe animals, trees, tools,the people at workwhile the second begins todescribe the picture as a wholethe farm withthe animals scattered about on a sunny day.
Children with different cognitive styles havedifferent ways of perceiving a situation: somechildren tend to notice details and may ignorethe similarities between different objects andevents; other children tend to concentrate on the
situation as a whole and may not bother withdetails. These perceptual differences reveal as-pects of cognitive sty!P, not intelligence. Twochildren can have different mental approaches toa situation, even though they are equally bright.The distinctionmaker can clearly know that ap-ples and oranges and pears are all fruits; thechild who generalizes can probably tell you, ifasked, the differences between two apples itshape, size, and color.
Just as there are styles of cognition, so thereare uniquely different styles of behavior. Achild's behavioral style is the way he does, ordoes not, get things done. Included are suchaspects of behavior as the child's promptness instarting an activity, his speed in working, thedegree of concentration and interest he shows,and the number of unnecessary actions he uses.Children with different behavioral styles may allproduce a final product. There is no "right" wayto get dressed or to draw a picture; any numberof alternative methods can be used, even thoughsome styles can be more effective than othersin certain situations.
Behavioral extremes range from children whoare impulsive to those who are inhibited. Animpulsive child reacts too quickly, especially inpotentially dangerous situations, where goodjudgment would indicate a slower pace; theinhibited child may react too slowly and fear-fully, especially in situations not generally dan-gerous or frightening. Between these two ex-tremes is a wide range.
The third type of personal style, defensivestyle, relates to feelings and to the avoidance ofemotional pain. There are no children untouchedby some sadness or loss. Every child must learnearly in life to deal with fears, worries, and up-sets, whether it be the first separation from hisparents, watching a scary television program,hearing or seeing his parents argue, or waitingfor a newborn brother to be brought home fromthe hospital.
When things go well for the child and hisfamily, these feelings become an accepted partof life, just like feelings of hunger or pleasure.However, the child usually learns to avoid thosesituations he has found too frightening or anxiet,...producing in the past. Placed in situationsthat do make him afraid, he develops ways toprotect himself against the full impact of anxiety.These acquired ways of coping with or managingstrong, unpleasant feelings constitute the indi-vidual's defensive style.
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All children try to keep their fears, worries,and anxieties to manageable sizethey jokeabout things that worry them, whistle in thedark, play games about murder and death, anddevise little stories that explain the unknown.Each child's defensive style is personal andunique, even though each leads to the same endby reducin0 emotional pain. To avoid beingfrightened by a scary movie, one child may turnhis head or his thoughts from the screen; an-other may try to convince himself that it isn't realbut "just pretend" or "crazy"; another mayimitate the frightening action by pretending toshoot a gun to escape feeling shot at; while stillanother may simply leave the room.
From the never-quite-the-same circumstancesthat determine individual characteristics, childrendevelop the styles of thinking, acting, and feeling(cognition, behavior, and defenses) that consti-tute their own, unique personalities. The hall-mark of quality day care is its ability to recognizeeach child's distinctive personality and to adaptits program to respect each child's right to betreated as a unique person.
MoralsConsider three mothers, each alone at home
with an infant and a 4-year-old son. The first isyoung, unwed, and lonely. The second, a moremature housewife, has several school-age chil-dren, as well as many friends and interests. Thethird has a successful, part-time career and ahusband who cares for the children when she isworking. In each case, the 4-year-old has justspilled his juice for the second time and is nowdisturbing the baby's sleep by noisily playingtrains with the kitchen chairs. Each of thesewomen will react differently to her son; eachwill define his actions differently. Is he naughty,aggressive, or healthily assertive? The way eachreacts will reinforce in the child her definition ofthe behavior and will help shape the way thechild labels his actions as good or bad.
Confronted with the actions of their childrenparents respond in terms of both their ownupbringing and their experiences as adultmembers of the community. They rememberhow as children they were shown, or not shown,love, and how they were disciplined. In everyfamily, parents set limits and rules and showsome form of disapproval. What these are andhow they are expressed depend very much onthe particular child, family, and community.What kind of child do the parents really want to
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have? What kind of a community are they pre-paring the child to live in? What will the com-munity tolerate now from a child?
It is in the give-and-take between parent andchild that children learn empathy and what ismorally acceptable: which impulses they canexpress openly and which they must suppress,where their individual rights begin and wherethey infringe upon others, and how to handledisagreements. The child's moral development isdetermined by his recognition of his own be-havior as good or bad and his desire to conformto accepted standards.
Children pass through stages of moral devel-opment. Though they at first perceive an actionas "bad" because of the punishment connectedwith it, they may later feel it is "bad" because itdisregards the rights of others. In tine process ofmoral growth, children develop new perceptionsof themselves, of their rights, and of theirparents and community.
By age 3, children are expected to behavein a socially acceptable way in many situations:to start responding to the "don'ts"in regard toplaying with food, biting or pinching, takinganother's toy; as well as the "do's"to helpclean up, to say "thank you," and to show in-terest in cooperating with others. At this age,children easily lapse from these moral do's anddon'ts. They do what they're told, but mostlywhen somebody is around to encourage or guidetheir actions.
By age 6, the child has usually adopted andmodifed these rules and expectations as his own.He has a new moral feeling, an inner sense ofwhat is right and wrong, what is fair, and what isacceptable. He may feel guilty if he messes hisroom and anxious if he takes another child's toy.He feels proud when he acts fairly or does hisshare. Yet, even at this age, children often be-have in ways they know to be wrong.
Children, parents, and communities may differin what they consider acceptable behavior,though many of the differences tend to be sur-face ones. By age 6, children know the differencebetween being given an apple by the grocerystore owner, paying for one, and stealing one.Taking an apple is stealing in a rich or a poorcommunity, and the child who does it usuallyfeels a sense of unpleasant concern. However,this doesn't mean that there may not be moreapple stealing in one neighborhood, where thechildren might be more hungry, than in another;it doesn't mean that children won't steal apples
"just for the fun of it"; nor does it mean thatevery time a child takes an apple he will feel hehas stolen. Still, by this age, children in all typesof communities will generally be more contentwhen they behave according to their own innervalues and concept of fairnesswhich they havelearned from their past experiences and obser-vations.
Another place children learn moral definitionsis TV, possibly the most important new educatorof community standards. There are now perhapsonly one or two national television programs forchildren which show adults as always respectfulof children's rights and feelings and whichpresent acceptable role-models to the youngviewer. Too much TV aimed at children showsviolence and disrespect; condones hitting,beating, and murder; and portrays the tough,brutal, and insensitive person as someone to beadmired. Television also teaches children aboutdeception. By age 5, every child knows thatcommercials deceivethat the toys are never asbig or exciting as they look on TV; that no toywill bring scores of new friends to his door; thatno cereal or vitamin can talk or turn him into agiant or a hero. Television's message to childrenis clear: deception is a widely practiced way oftrying to achieve a goal.
Parents and others concerned with a child'swelfare usually try to counteract television'sharmful effects. Competent caregivers can anddo limit a child's exposure to television, as wellas help him understand and evaluate the pro-grams he watches. Caregivers also can becomeadditional models for the child, demonstratingrightness and fairness and ways to deal withsituations related to moral judgments. There isno more sensitive interface between parents andcaregivers than the area of morals and discipline.Caregivers are professionals and must not actcontrary to their principles and beliefs; still, it istheir duty to strengthen the child's respect forparental attitudes and customs. They may often-times be caught between these two obliga-tions, when they feel that what a parent hasdone or told a child, either directly or by ex-ample, is wrong. Such conflicts must be handledon an individual basis and often benefit from theintervention of a professional third party. Theprimary concern of all involved should be thewelfare of the child.
Playing and RealityWhen is a preschool child not playing? He
makes a game out of washing and eating, out oftaking a bath, walking upstairs, going shopping,and falling asleep. He's always playing atsomethingexcept when he's very sad, distracted(by the television, for example), or asleep. Par-ents know their child is becoming ill when hestops playing and that he's recovering when hisplayfulness resumes. Playing is a sign of health.
Play begins with the infant in his mother'slapshe tickles the baby's foot, the baby grabsout to touch, they both smile and laugh. Throughplay, the young child learns to use differentobjectstoys, rattles, puzzles, his own body.
There are no sharp lines in the child's worldbetween play and work, between the world ofdreams and the world of hard reality. Does the3-year-old who is learning the alphabet songconsider this work or play? Does the 4-year-oldwho is busy managing her make-believe storefeel she is playing or working? Does the 5-year -old who is tensely up at bat think he issimply playing a game?
Children at play are able to explore andpractice new roles and skills; they can learnabout new materials, acquire social abilities, andlearn to cope with trying experiences. Throughplay the child learns to identify and distinguishthe different spheres or levels of being: levels ofactivity and inactivity, of winning and losing, ofloving and hating, of being unimaginative andcreative, social and businesslike.
Children at play can become tough generalswho boss "little soldiers." They can becomeparents who firmly put children to sleep. Theycan build bridges, bake cakes, and fly to Mars.They can learn how and when to exercise theirfantasies. In short, their play enables them to beactive in depicting what they feel and thinkabout all parts of their lives. Their play can alsobecome a part of everything they do.
Adults can provide opportunities for rich andworthwhile play in several ways. They can help achild feel secure. They can assure him that hisplay will be respected and not too rigidly su-pervised or arbitrarily disturbed. And they canprovide a few necessary props such as blocks,balls, and creative materials. Such an environ-ment is especially important in day care. Whenadults provide the necessary opportunities, mosthealthy children will quickly demonstrate theircapacity for elaborate and imaginative play. Onlyin the totally engrossing play experience does the
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3- to 6-year-old bring together all his or hersocial, emotional, and intellectual capabilities.
LearningLearning is a many-sided concept. This chapter
has already touched on many of the differentkinds of things that children learnthe contentof their knowledge. And it has described im-portant factors that facilitate learningthe pre-conditions of learning such as good health, highself-esteem, responsive adults, and opportunitiesto explore. A look at some of the theories con-cerning a more technical aspect of learninghow children learn or the process of learningfollows. These various theories assign quitedifferent explanations of how an individuallearns. All have some usefulness but, since eachtheory tends to concentrate on one aspect ofpersonality, no one alone can define the entireprocess.
Reinforcement Theory. When a child behaveswell, it is notural for an adult to show pleasure.And if a child performs an especially com-mendable task, such as cleaning his room orraking leaves, he is often told how well he hasdone and given candy or some other treat. Thecandy and praise are positive reinforcement orrewards for the child's behavior. Similarly, whena child breaks the rules, an adult is likely toscold or show displeasure in some other way.The scolding and displeasure-are negative rein-forcements or punishments.
Children learn to pattern their behavior so thatthey receive approval or rewards and avoidpunishment. Children who have been rewardedwill learn ways to maintain their rewards and,having been punished, they will learn ways toend or avoid that punishment.
Most 4-year-old children do not expect to berewarded for every good action or to be pun-ished each time they do something wrong. Theyknow that punishments and rewards are givenonly once in a while. This way of timing andarranging rewards and punishments is called anintermittent schedule and is a concept basic toreinforcement theory.
A 4-year-old also knows that a specific be-havior may be rewarded or punished in onesituation, yet not in another. Throwing a ball, forexample, may be forbidden inside the house,although very much encouraged on the ballfield.So the child must learn those situations orstimulus conditions in which a particular be-havior is appropriate.
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Reinforcement theory sharpens our concernfor knowing precisely what we want children tolearn and it helps us understand how we shapechildren's behavior through our use of rewardsand punishments, sometimes without beingaware of it. Programs based on this theorycarefully define appropriate and inappropriatebehavior, select types of reinforcement, definethe schedule of reinforcement, and monitorchanges in the child's behavior to determine thesuccess of the program.
Association Theory. Almost everyone is familiarwith Pavlov's dogs. At first, they salivated onlywhen they saw food; later, after receiving foodon many occasions wher a bell was rung, theysalivated at the sound of the bell. On a picnic,people seeing a charcoal fire may have the samereaction: they may have learned to associate thecharcoal burner with hamburgers, just as thedogs associated the bell with food.
According to this theory, a child's mentalgrowth is an ever-increasing collection of asso-ciations, and each child learns to respond to newsituations, or stimuli (such as the food and thebell), with new behavior, or responses (such asthe salivation). While this is a useful explanationof how children learn some things, associationtheory is weak in explaining complex or imagi-native behavior. Advocates of association theoryhave tried to explain this kind of behavior withconcepts such as verbal mediation. As a childacquires the use of language, it becomes amiddle link, or mediator, between a stimulus andthe response. The stimulus, rather than setting offan immediate behavioral response, (riggers aseries of complex associations in language withinthe child's mind, and these associations then leadto the response.
For example, association theory might explainwhy a child crosses the street to avoid amean-looking stranger. When the child sees thestranger, it sets off memories about hearing thata child was once beaten by a stranger and aboutwarnings that his parents have offered. Theseassociations lead to different ideas about what todo"Should I throw a stone?" "Should I runaway?" "Should I carry a big stick?"and thento the final idea, to cross the street. This finalidea leads to the decision to cross.
Association theory is most helpful in explaininghow children learn very simple behaviorslikesmiling at the sound of a voice that has beenassociated with pleasant experiences. This theory,in conjunction with reinforcement theory, may
also help caregivers understand how their actionsand reactions to children can influence or leadto certain behavior in a child. However, incomparison to the reinforcement and cognitivetheories, pure association theory has limitedapplication for caregivers.
Cognitive Theory. Cognitive theory, which ismost widely known because of the work of Pi-aget, is more concerned with the child's mentalability than with his behavior. It emphasizes thatchanges in the way a child thinks determine thechanges in the way he acts. According to cog-nitive theory, a child learns by using his availablemental capacities for understanding as much ashe is able and then developing new conceptsand ideas to help him in new and more complexsituations.
Studies based on this theory concern the wayschildren interpret their observations and expe-riences. How does a child learn a rule? Howdoes he apply a rule to a particular situation?How does he develop an abstract concept? Doesthe way he understands one concept determinethe way he understands others?
The explanations of how a child learns whichare offered by cognitive theory are far morecomplicated than those of reinforcement theory.While reinforcement theory states that a rewardinfluences a change in a child's behavior, cog-nitive theory states that the reward indicates tothe child that his thinking or mental operationsare correct. Another way of looking at the dif-ference in the theories is in relation to how ac-tive the child is considered to be. Reinforcementtheory views the child as very responsive to hisenvironment and particularly affected by therewards and punishments he is given. Cognitivetheory, on the other hand, views the child as avery active organizer of his own experience.
Unlike reinforcement theory which seeslearning as the same process at all ages, cognitivetheory is quite sensitive to the different wayschildren understand and organize their experi-ences at different stages of development. It ex-plains how children's errors in logic and amusingdistortions of their perceptions are related toparticular stages of their mental growthforexample, how children, depending on their in-tellectual maturity, perceive a quantity of wateras determined by the shape of its container.However, while cognitive theory can clearlydetail the development of a child's way ofthinking, it offers little explanation for whatmotivates a child to pass through the various
stages of mental growth (a central concern ofpsychoanalytic theory to be discussed later).
The use of cognitive theory involves specifying(1) what mental processes the child is capable of,(2) what types of experiences are beyond thechild's capacity to understand, and (3) what in-ternal (maturational) and external (social) forcesare operating on the child to enable him to ac-quire more complex and abstract mental abilities.Preschool programs based on cognitive theoryusually begin by assessing a child's currentmental abilities and then helping him either tofully use his ability or to acquire new ways ofperceiving and understanding. For example, achild may be found to have difficulty in fol-lowing directions because he cannot fully use theconcepts of "bigger than" and "smaller than."Instruction is then aimed at helping him withthese concepts. As he learns, his ability to followdirections should improve.
Much learning during the preschool and earlyschool years involves acquiring new conceptsand ways of organizing ideas. Cognitive devel-opment and learning must be distinguished frommere rote learning, which is the acquisition ofbehavior based on reinforcement techniques.
Psychoanalytic Theory. In psychoanalysis, as inthe other learning theories discussed, the child isseen as having motivating drives and the capacityto adapt and learn. More than the other theories,however, psychoanalysis stresses that how andwhat a child learns is related to the impact thatthe adults who care for the child have upon himfrom the time of his birth, and to the impact ofhis current level of human relationships andgeneral personality development as well. Psy-choanalytic theory helps us understand why achild wants to learn and why some children, withnormal intelligence and good health, do notlearn. According to this theory, learning dependson more than rewards or intellectual functions.
Learning how to ride a bike, for example, maymean more to a child than simply being able tocoordinate muscles. It may be a way of pleasinghis parents or himself, of showing his power, orof indicating that he can now go places withoutdepending on his parents. A child ready physi-cally, but not emotionally, to assert himself inthis way may not learn to ride a bike in spite ofrewards. Similarly, for some children, learning toread brings new feelings of mastery, indepen-dence, pride in acting like a grownup, or a de-lightful sense that a new world of secrets cannow be revealed. For others, who may be equally
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intelligent, learning to read may be uninteresting,frightening, or confusing because they are lessprepared to venture into an adult role by readingrather than by being read to.
Psychoanalytic theory focuses attention on themeanings that underlie a child's behavior. Acaregiver may wonder why a 5-year-old con-stantly dresses and acts like Superman. Realizingthat this activity gives the child a way of denyingthat he is frightened, the caregiver can help thechild express his feelings and can try to help himbecome more comfortable in the day care pro-gram.
Probably the most important contribution ofpsychoanalysis as a learning theory useful to daycare is its emphasis on the importance of humanrelations in the lives of children. During the firstyears of life, children form very special rela-tionships with their parents and their caregivers,and these color their attitudes and feelingsthroughout life. Sensitive caregivers becomeaware of how important they are in the lives ofthe children they care for. They recognize thatchildren will learn new things because of themand that a child will feel emotional upset andpain if he is transferred from their care. in termsof a child's potential ability to learn and to takepleasure in learning, it is likely to be morebeneficial for the child to have a single, affec-tionate, and dependable caregiver for severalyears than to have a series of changing caregiverswho may be better trained professionally.
Relations Between Theories. Each of thesetheories has a contribution; each has been usedin some way in designing curricula; and eachfocuses on different features of the learningprocess. Depending on the particular situationand the particular child's needs, one theory maybe more useful, for the moment, than another.For example, a caregiver might react in severaldifferent ways to a child's drawing of a tall boystanding next to a smaller building. If the care-giver knows the child has trouble understandingthe difference between "big" and "small," shemight use the drawing to explain these conceptsof size. If, instead, she knows that the child has apoor self-image, she may see the drawing as anexpression of his improving self-esteem and maycomment about how pleased he must be withthe many new things he has learned. However, ifdrawing a picture is this child's way of avoidingsome activity which he has trouble doing, thecaregiver may politely praise the child for thepicture but may then more strongly reward him
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for attempting the other activity. Of course, nocaregiver will think about what theory of learningshe or he may be using at these different times,but rather will act naturally. The purpose of thelearning theories is to help caregivers understandhow to plan and to know what to do whenacting naturally doesn't seem to work.
There are general features of learning anddevelopment which cut across all of the theories.For example, certain features of the learningprocess clearly relate to the developmental levelof the child. Very young children are likely torepeat a behavior that has been reinforced, whileolder children are more likely to go on toso nething else. Young children tend to learnfaster when they receive a direct, personallymeaningful reward, such as candy. Older chil-dren are more eager to please adults by learning;for them, material rewards may become lesspowerful than social ones. As children develop,they try different approaches to solving problemsand become more independent of the immediatesituation. They also become increasingly able tomake use of language or verbal instructions tothink or to learn a new task.
From 3 to 6 years of age, children showmarked improvements in two spheres, attentionand discrimination. The 6-year-old is far moreable than the 3-year-old to pay attention tocritical features and to distinguish details. He isalso better able to relate what he has learned inthe past to a similar situation in the present.
All of these changes in learning are very muchrelated to a child's sense of personal value, hisexperience with success, and other factors thatwe commonly associate with personality devel-opment. If a child has positive feelings about thepeople around him and has previously beenrewarded for imitating their behavior, he is likelyto us? these people as models for his futurebehvior, to identify with their attitudes andvalues.
A child who has had profitable social andpersonal experiences will become increasinglyable, between the ages of 3 and 6, to learn howto learn. The process of learning involves theability to pay attention to appropriate features ofa situation, to avoid being distracted by irrele-vant details and events, to organize perceptions,to use appropriate mental operations, to monitorone's successespecially in terms of rewards andpunishmentsand to maintain an internal senseof direction.
In quality day care, this normal process of
learning can be strongly supported. Acquiring theskills necessary for learning is far more importantfor the preschooler than acquiring any particularkind of knowledge of numbers, the alphabet, orwhat we usually call "formal" education. In fact,overemphasis on formal, rote learning may in-hibit the child from the kind of involvement andexploration that is essential to learning.
Problems In Development"When things go well for a child" is a phrase
which covers a multitude of conditions, fromgood continuing health and a stable home withloving parents to progressive emotional, intel-lectual, and social development. Even whenthings do go well, however, every child betweenthe ages of 3 and 6 still faces the normal achesand pains and crises of growing up. Both parentsand caregivers must be able to sense suchproblems. They should know when help isneeded and when to let the child work throughthings alone. Both should also know when andwhere to ask for help should a major problemarise.
Every child experiences some difficulties withhis feelings which create concern in those whocare for him. Sometimes these periods can betraced to a specific eventsuch as moving to anew house, entering day care, arguments be-tween parents, or the birth of a siblingbutoften there may be no apparent cause.
During times of emotional upset, childrengenerally show their stress by relatively obviouspersonality changes. Some children react withimmaturity; they may, for example, revert tobed-wetting or demand increased physical at-tention such as sitting on a parent's lap or tag-ging on mother's arm. Other children showchanges in feelings by withdrawing or becomingsad, fearful, or tense. Children can also showmarked changes in conduct, acting aggressivelyand with unusual nastiness. Or they may expe-rience bodily changessuch as loss of appetite,stomachaches, or even vomiting. Since theseconditions are all closely related, one child mayexhibit a combination of changes in personalityand bodily functions during periods of emotionalupset.
Every stage of development has its relatedproblems. To understand a child's problems, onemust view them in the context of (1) the stage ofdevelopment the child has reached, (2) the de-velopmental tasks which the child is facing, and(3) the normal ranges and patterns of behaviorfound in children at that particular stage of de-
velopment. In meeting children's problems, thereare also many ways of discussing them: bysymptoms (such as bed-wetting or destructive-ness); by underlying cause (such as insecurity orfamily upheaval); by the system of functioningwhich has been affected (such as disturbances oflanguage functioning or emotional control); bysyndrome or constellation of symptoms and signs(such as a perfectionistic personality); or by verybroad categories (such as disturbances in thenormal rate or progress of development). Ofcourse, these different approaches to discussingdevelopmental problems do overlap. For con-venience, the following sections move amongthese different ways of describing the develop-mental difficulties most likely to be of concern tocaregivers. These include problems in develop-mental progress, attention problems, languageproblems, social problems, physical problems,and fears and habits.
It should be clear, however, that no aspect ofa child's functioning can be understood in iso-lation. The child's general social, emotional, andintellectual functioning has to be viewed in thecontext of his family life, his community, and hiscurrent child care situation.
It should also be clear that there is no simplecookbook approach to a particular problem indevelopment. There are many different ways inwhich a caregiver may respond to a child's dif-ficulty. At times she may simply continue toprovide affectionate care and allow the child todeal with his anxiety or difficulties by himself.Every experienced parent and caregiver knowsthat by tolerating and helping a child understandthe reasons for bed-wetting during a period ofstress, for example, she helps the child regaincontrol quickly and that an angry, critical reac-tion will only add to the child's problem. Daycare should provide a flexible setting wheremulcr problems and their symptoms can betolerated long enough for the child to helphimself.
In other situations, the caregiver may help thechild turn a passive experience, such as having abad case of the chicken pox, into an active one,by encouraging him to play doctor to dolls whoneed bandages. In still other cases, the caregivermay help the child learn new ways to expressfeelings or find substitutes for difficult behavior.She or he may, for example, help a child whothrows blocks during a temper tantrum learn totalk about his anger or may encourage a game inwhich dolls get angry with each other and then
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settle their argument. The choice betweenwaiting, turning passivity into activity, substi-tuting, verbalizing, and other approaches as re-sponses to a child's problem will depend on thechild, the parents, the caregiver, and the re-sources available to the program.
Disturbances in Developmental ProgressChildren develop at their own sates, and there
are broad ranges of what can be considerednormal or typical behavior for any given age. Inany group, there are children with more maturespeech, personality, and general behavior thanthat of most children their age, and there areothers whose development 'ags behind. Among agroup of 4-year-olds, for example, there willusually be only one or two children who can tietheir shoelaces, but most of these children willbe able to put on their coats or draw a picture ofa person.
The concept of developmental lag, or devel-opmental retardation, covers those situations inwhich a child, for any reason, is significantlylacking what can be expected of typical childrenof the same age. It usually applies to a child whois quite clearly slow in developing intellectualabilities and social and motor skills. Such a childcan be recognized by his need for more assist-ance than other children of the same age, by hisbewilderment or uncooperativeness in situationsthat most children master easily, or because hedoes not engage in the typical activities expectedof children his age. The parents of a develop-mentally lagging child often recognize the child'sslowness or inability to keep up with otherchildren. Yet, perhaps equally often, parents maynot be aware of the child's difficulties, especiallyif they have had little experience in caring forother children.
There are many causes for developmental lagor retardation. Three prime causes are sensory
4 problems, mental retardation, and environmentaldeprivation. Only careful assessment by trainedprofessionals can lead to an accurate diagnosis,and sometimes even professionals will be unsureof the cause without observing the child overmany months. Day care programs can serve avital role for parents and communities by iden-tifying children with developmental difficulties asearly as possible.
Sensory Problems. A child who appears slowmay, upon careful examination by physicians,psychologists, or other professionals, be found tohave specific perceptual, visual, or hearing
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problems. Poor vision or hearing in children isfrequently not discovered until the child reachespreschool or even school age, by which time hemay have major problems with language, generalcognitive skills, and social relations.
Mental Retardation. Although there are hundredsof causes for mental retardation, all are usuallygrouped into two main types: those organic orphysical in nature and those without apparentorganic origins.
Children whose mental retardation is organicin nature caused, for example, by Down'ssyndrome or phenylketonuria (PkU)usuallyhave very severe developmental disabilitieswhich are recognized and usually brought to a
physician's attention during the child's first years.Among the organic causes of mental retardationare abnormal structure of the child's brain,prenatal or birth-related damage to the brain,severe brain infections or injury after birth,metabolic problems that injure or affect thebrain, and diseases and disturbances of thecentral nervous system that negatively affect thechild's ability to develop and to learn. Childrenwith this type of retardation typically have dis-abilities in all spheres of their development.
Of all mentally retarded children, those withorganically caused problems and severe retar-dation are only a very small percentage. They areunlikely to enter a day care program withoutalready having their conditions detected anddiagnosed. But there are children whose milderdisabilities related to organic damage may bedetected and treated only after the child hasentered day care, kindergarten, or elementaryschool.
Those children whose mental retardation isfrom nonorganic causes also have low intelli-gence by standard intelligence testsbut usuallynot as low as in organic retardationand havesignificant difficulties in behaving according tothe norms for their age. The diagnosis of thistype of retardation must be reserved for onlythose children whose performance, under thebest of circumstances, is consistently belownormal. A 4-year-old who scores very poorly onhis first IQ test only because he is frightened orthe tester inexperienced is obviously not re-tarded.
Some mentally retarded children whosedisabilities are not organically caused are saidto have familial cultural retardation because it isfrequently found in entire families who mayhave trouble functioning in society. This type of
retardation is less severe than organic retardationand interferes less with general functioning.Any label such as "familial cultural retardation"must be applied with great caution and onlyafter the child has been carefully evaluated by
competent professionals.A great deal can be done for children whose
retardation is either organic or nonorganic innature, but it is probably those children withfamilial cultural retardation who can be helpedmost dramatically. Intensive intervention pro-grams d fling the preschool years have broughtremarkable advances in the general functioningand the tested intelligence of these children.
Environmental Deprivation. Poor performance in
preschool day care commonly results when achild's family and community environment have
limited his opportunities for growth. Manychildren from stressed, overworked families livingbelow the poverty level arrive in preschoolprograms lacking critical intellectual and socialskills. Upon formal testing, these children mayshow moderate or even severe impairment,particularly in their ability to use language. Withsensitive evaluation, the cause will usually be
found to be neither an organic nor an intellec-tual deficit, but rather the stresses and restric-tions of the child's earlier experiences.
Sometimes the only way to determine whether
a child suffers from the real intellectual deficitsof mild retardation or from the effects of envi-ronmental deprivation is to see how he respondsto a change of environment such as that pro-vided by quality day care. There clearly are chil-dren who, even in the best homes and programs,still show the effects of mild mental retardation.
It is equally clear, however, that there are chil-dren who will be unable to express their real
potential and intelligence until they are given theopportunities and support available in a qualityday care program. With quality care, thesechildren can blossom into assertive and com-petent individuals. Without such care, or withonly inadequate or custodial day care, theirpotential may be further inhibited.
The Role of Day Care. For the benefit of childrenwith developmental retardation, no matter whatthe cause, day care should provide three majorservices. First, the caregiver should assess thegeneral level of functioning of all the children todetect those whose development is significantlybelow normal. Second, the caregiver should
convey his or her impressions to the parents and
assist them in obtaining adequate evaluation forthe child. And, finally, the day care programshould adapt to accommodate, if possible, theneeds of those children whose functioning is notso severely impaired that they require specialprograms.
The evaluation and diagnosis of developmen-tally retarded children often require the servicesof special consultants. No single test is conclu-sive, and information about the child's func-tioning, background, and experiences must all beweighed together with what is found fromexamination and laboratory testing. In theprocess of evaluation, a caregiver's observationsand his or her ability to report them accuratelymay be crucial to a correct diagnosis of thechild's condition. The treatment program for thechild will often involve similar collaborationbetween specialists, the parents, and the care-giver.
Attention ProblemsIn every nursery school, day care center, and
elementary classroom, there is probably at leastone child, usually a boy, who is always physicallyactive and unable to pay attention. Such a childmay be hyperkinetic, which means that he is veryactive and has a short attention span. He can'tconcentrate long enough to listen to a story or towatch a half-hour television program. He mayjump in and out of games and, when upset, maypunch or scratch. At mealtimes, he may moveabout between mouthfuls and fiddle incessantlywith the silverware. While other children arenapping, he may walk about the room and createdisturbances. These characteristics of the hy-perkinetic behavioral disturbancepoor atten-tion, easy distractability, seemingly continualmovement, and difficulties in planning andcarrying out tasks that require concentrationpresent problems and irritation to parents, care-givers, and peers alike.
There are some children who show all thesigns of the hyperkinetic behavioral disturbanceexcept for the continual physical movement.Rather than being constantly in motion, thesechildren may show decreased activity, or hy-poactivity, and often appear to be daydreaming.Though their bodies may be still, their thoughtsare perpetually active. Children with this form ofattention disturbance may not seem as trouble-some as those who are hyperactive, but they cancreate a great deal of tension in a householdwhere they need constant prod-ling to getdressed, finish tasks, or keep up with the rest of
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the family.To control these difficult kinds of behavior,
parents and caregivers often resort to threats orpunishment, but to no avail. Punishment maymake the child even more upset and less able topay attention. Rewards may be somewhat morehelpful, but these too are usually limited in theireffectiveness.
Both hyperactive and hypoactive children havemajor !earring difficulties. Often, their conditionsare not diagnosed until the children are prob-lems in kindergarten or fail in first grade. It isimportant in day cwe to identify children withattention and behavior problems and to help theparents obtain adequate medical evaluation.
No cica;- cause can be found fc the attentiondifficulties of many children. Some children,upon careful professional evaluation, are foundto have signs of minimal cerebral dysfunction ormild brain damage, including: clumsiness,twitching when hands are held straight forward,difficulty in walking a straight line, trouble intapping to rhythm, and other indications ofimpairment of fine motor coordination and ofthe ability to organize behavior.
Sometimes hyperactivity and hypoactivity arerelated to major emotional problems and diffi-culties in the child's family fife. The early historyof children with attention problems often revealsprematurity or some difficulty at birth. Yettroubles in paying attention similar to thosefound in hyperkinetic behavioral disturbance canbe caused by many factors that are immediatelyaffecting the child's performancesuch ashunger, sleep deprivation, family stress, diffi-culties in hearing or seeing, tensions in theschool or day care program, or care which doesnot fulfill the child's individual needs for affec-tion, stimulation, and stable human relations.Before a child can be diagnosed as sufferingfrom hyperkinetic behavioral disturbance, it mustbe certain that his behavior is not the result ofadverse conditions such as these.
For the child found to be hyperkinetic, treat-ment always involves a careful ordering of hisexperiences both at home and in day care. Insuch treatment, the child's individual needs arerecognized and met, and appropriate stimulationand reasonable structure are carefully balanced.A comprehensive treatment program may involvethe use of stimulant medication, which is pre-scribed and carefully monitored by a physician.This medication ni,ly increase the child's abilityto pay attention and to concentrate. Of course,
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the day care program should never coerce afamily into accepting any particular type oftreatment and should neverunder any cir-cumstanceslabel a child. With carefullyplanned care, many children with these problemsshow profound changes in their behavior.
Language ProblemsMany, perhaps most, children between ages
21/2 and 4 experience two kinds of languagedifficultycluttering and speech "immaturity."For some, these difficulties continue throughtheir first few years in school.
Cluttering is shown by many children when theybecome excited. "I want, I want, I want an icecream cone." "Do you know, know, do youknow what I saw?" At certain stages of devel-opment, 25 percent or more of a child's speechmay be cluttered. Even a 6-year-old will clutterhis speech with repetitions when he is excited,tired, or not concentrating on what he is tryingto saywhen, for example, his mother asks whathe's done at school and he wants to run out toplay.
Cluttering is relatively emotionally painless forthe child and usually arouses no anxiety. Clut-tering is not stutteringthe repetition of thesame syllable of a word: "th, th, th, th, thanksfor the help," or, "Read me the st, st, st, storythat I, I, I, I like." When a child stutters, he isobviously uncomfortable about his speech. Hemay try to avoid certain sounds and adopt ritualsto stop the stuttering, such as putting a finger tohis lips when he starts a repetition. Stutteringusually begins shortly before school age, whencluttering is coming to an end.
No one really knows whether children withcluttered speech become stutterers. There maybe some truth to the idea that a child becomes astutterer the day he is labeled as one. The childwhose parents treat cluttering or other earlyspeech difficulties as abnormal is probably morelikely to develop a serious and enduring speechproblem. If a child who clutters is constantlyinterrupted and corrected, he is unlikely to de-velop pleasure or confidence in his speechfluency.
Speech immaturity is the other common child-hood difficulty. A 3-year-old girl has a favoritecandy"wife avers," her way of saying LifeSavers. A 6-year-old who is quite good at chessstill calls her rook a "wook," and another talksabout his trip to the science "zeum," the mu-seum. These forms of speech immaturity aresometimes thought to be cute, and amused
parents may encourage the child to continue tomispronounce "w" for "r," "th" for "s," or"hoe-see" for "horse." But speech immaturitiesusually represent a phase, a passing stage in thechild's acquisition of mature pronunciation.
Cluttering and speech immaturities are prob-lems in talking, not in understanding or usinglanguage for communication or thought. If ig-nored, they correct naturally as the child de-velops.
There are, however, several serious languageproblems that will not correct without treatment.The most worrisome is a child's total inability tolearn to use language. Symptoms range fromtotal absence of speech (muteness) in a 3-year -old, to very garbled or peculiar language.Children with severe speech difficulties requireexpert evaluation since causes can includedeafness, mental retardation, severe develop-mental disturbances (such as childhood autism),aphasia, and other significant disabilities.
It is important to distinguish the child whocannot learn to speak or who uses unusual lan-guage from the quiet, inhibited child who speaksseldom. Many children are quite bashful outsidetheir homes, though talkative with their parents.For some of these children, the term electivemutism has been used. Children from bilingualhomes or from families with limited verbal in-teraction may be silent or soft-spoken when theyfirst enter day care or any other new situation.The child whose limited speech is the result offear and insecurity usually shows that he canunderstand what is said to him and when placedin a secure setting eventually begins to speakreadily and clearly.
Social ProblemsChildren are socialized by their parents and
immediate culture to become certain kinds ofadults. What one family may consider normalpreschool behavior, another family may considerabnormal, and behavior that is adaptive andhealthy in one subgroup may, in another, seemstrange. Before considering a child's actions asnormal or abnormal, one must understand thekinds of experiences, social expectations, andgeneral environment which have shaped thechild's life.
Even when seen in the context of family andcommunity, however, some children clearly havedifficulty relating to adults and peers. In thepreschool years, there are three main types ofsocial disability: over-inhibition, over-excitability,and disorganization.
Overly inhibited children range from thosewho are simply shy to those who are fearful ofstrangers and new situations, uncommunicative,and not playful. In a supportive day care settingwhich allows children to respond at their ownpace, the shy child can gradually begin to relatefirst with his caregiver and then with children ofhis age.
The child who is truly afraid of strangers maypose more serious problems. A 3-year-old en-tering day care for the first time may have majordifficulties leaving his parents and may showsigns of real panic if this separation is handledroughly. Most parents are aware of the way theirchildren react to separations and, by informingthe caregiver of possible problems, can make thesituation easier for both the child and the care-giver.
The fearful child should enter day care slowly.There might be several visits with a parent to theday care setting and then a visit or two in whichthe parent leaves for a short time. When a childrealizes than ills parents trust him there and thatthey will return, his initial fears of separationare usually reduced. It may sometimes be in-.onvenient for either parent to stay with thechild during the first days of day care. However,for the child who has problems in separation,there is no substitute for this gradual introduc-tion and for the kind of support and security thatcomes with the parent being near.
There are situations when a child's anxiety maybe increased by allowing the parent to stay toolong. Some children are really not frightenedabout separation but have a psychological needto be bossy or to control their parents and otheradults. And others quickly reflect the anxiety oftheir mothers when they are near, yet do quitewell alone as soon as they feel a measure ofsecurity and encouragement.
For the child, especially the younger child,who does have trouble with separation and mustbe in day care, a family day care setting mayoffer more security and reassurance than a centersetting. More similar to home, with fewer chil-dren, and with the possibility of closer attach-ment to the caregiver, family day care requires aless strenuous adaptation for a child.
In general, the more sympathetic and warmthe caregiver can be with the frightened, in-hibited child and the more the day care situationresembles the child's home, the less anxiety thechild will experience. If, however, the caregivers stern or angry with the child or his parents andif the setting greatly differs from the child's usual
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surroundings, the transition to day care will bemore difficult.
Some degree of anxiety and fear in the childentering day care is perfectly normal. Thesefeelings indicate that he has a warm, healthyattachment to his parents and that he is freeenough to express his concern when placed in asituation that is new and untested.
There are some children who can enter daycare with a total lack of concern. They seem tohave no trouble at all separating from theirparents or later changing from one caregiver orprogram to another. This lack of anxiety is notiecessarily a sign that the child is independentind secure; on the contrary, it may indicate thatle is holding back the expression of his fears oreven that he is unable to.feel any closeness topeople. Such children have most likely under-gone many difficult separations and stressfulexperiences which have left them too insecure toshow how worried they really are when left in a
strange situation. They can neither form closerelationships nor express their full potential inareas that require liveliness and imagination. Asign of emotional progress for such a child maybe his developing a possessive attachment to a
caregiver, whereby he could begin to feel free toexpress his true feelings about someone forwhom he cares.
The social difficulties of the overly excitablechild are quite different from those of the in-hibited child. Excitable children often exhibitcharacteristics similar to those of hyperkineticbehavioral disturbance. For these children, quietplay may be difficult, and any change or stimu-lation may lead to a stream of wild, joyless ac-tivity. Their excitability may be associated withexcessive and inappropriate responses, such aslaughing too much at a joke or becoming tooangry over a disagreement. It is important todistinguish the excitable child from one who isnormally lively, vigorous, and enthusiastic. Beingwith an overly excitable child is like walking atightrope: even when the child is quiet, he mayat any time explode and release his pent-bpenergy.
The proper choice of a day care setting is asimportant for the excitable child as it is for theinhibited one; in each case, the child's generalwelfare must be the prime concern. For example,in a sedate day care home, an excitable childmight be seen as a troublemaker and impossibleto manage. If the caregiver is uncomfortable withsuch a child, his excitability is likely to increase.The excitable, vigorous, :Jhy si c al I y oriented child
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would find a quiet setting maddening, though hemight really thrive in a day care center withplenty of space, a generous outdoor area, andcaregivers who tolerate and enjoy occasionalrough-and-tumble.
There are impulsive and destructive childrenwhose excitability may present real problems inday care. By age 3, such children may already bea difficulty to both caregivers and themselves; by5, they can be dangerous to other children aswell.
One type of impulsive-destructive child ex-hibits "episodic" or "periodic" aggression; he iseasy to get along with most of the time butwithout warning may viciously attack anotherperson. This usually occurs when the child isangry about not getting his way, or when he isexpected to perform more maturely than he isable. It is also more likely to occur when he isoverly tired or pressured. In periodic aggression,the child is clearly conscious of his actions and isattuned to others' behavior; however, the attackdiffers from the normal anger of a child in itsintensity and the physicalharm it can cause.
A caregiver can try to prevent the child whoexhibits episodic anger from becoming toofrustrated or upset by helping him choose ac-tivities that he can perform successfully. On aday when the child is tired or tense he should behelped into activities that are less difficult thanusual or which do not require that he work up tohis full abilities. For the child whose aggression istriggered by losing in a competitive game orsituation, the caregiver can hirlp find activitiesthat do not involve winners and losers. However,even when a caregiver is thoughtful about achild's needs, some episodes of aggressionprobably will occur. When an episode does takeplace, the caregiver should quickly act to stop thechild before he hurts someone, breaks somethingof value, or does something else that will makehim ashamed and others angry. After the episodeis controlled, by holding the child if necessary,the caregiver should try to explain to the childwhat happened, and what else he could havedone. "You got really angry with Benjamin be-cause he played with the truck you like. Youknow, you could have told him you wanted it.
* I won't let you hit anybody because thenyou'd feel really bad about that too."
Some children show generally aggressive andimpulsive behavior, often as a result of totallyunstructured homes where they have had littleopportunity to learn socially acceptable behavior.With quality care, these children not only can
learn how to deal with other children and adultsbut can also develop a new sense of self-controland pleasure in being with people.
The child whose behavior is disorganized mayexhibit features of both the inhibited and theoverly excitable child. What most characterizesbehaviorally disorganized children is their lack ofsystematic play and pleasant, satisfying socialrelations. Such a child may move quickly fromone activity to another, show little capacity forlong, thematic kinds of playsuch as playingstore or houseand may never form attachmentsto other children or adults. His behavior may be
grossly immature in some ways and odd inothers: for example, he may speak poorly or wethis pants, have unusual mannerisms or gestures,or may continually repeat the same word orphrase.
For these children, day care must be super-vised by professionals capable of providingtherapy as well as education and care. The av-erage caregiver must learn to recognize thedifference between a young child's normal sil-liness and immaturities and those that charac-terize development that has gone awry.
Physical ProblemsEvery child will most likely suffer some
physical problem, whether it be a cold, a case ofmeasles, or a serious physical handicap. Althougha caregiver should be aware of and responsiveto the difficulties of any child, he or she is in aparticularly good positionbecause of long-termproximity to a number of childrento recognizeand help those whose physical troubles are re-lated to problems in development or in theiremotional well-being.
Most children between ages 3 and 6 will havesome problems or "odd" episodes in eating,sleeping, and toileting. Every experienced care-giver knows there is nothing wrong with thechild who will eat only peanut butter and jellysandwiches for lunch, or who has "an accident"and wets himself during sleep or while too busilyinvolved in play, or who is too tired to play yettoo alert to nap. Even though such problems arenormal, the caregiver should be alert to theirnature and to any additional troubles whichcould indicate a more serious problem. For ex-ample, it is fairly typical for a child to bed-wetoccasionally; however, one who suddenly revertsto regular bed-wetting and who exhibits otherunusual behaviors may be undergoing a periodof stress or reacting to some other emotional ordevelopmental problem. If the condition con
tinues, the caregiver should speak to the child'sparents and consider with them a possible pro-fessional evaluation.
The caregiver should also be aware of certainphysical problems which are directly associatedwith the emotions. Some of these conditionsasthma and eczema, for exampleare notactually caused by the child's state of mind;others, such as frequent vomiting, may resultdirectly from the child's inability to cope with hisfeelings and anxiety. Asthma, eczema, chronicdiarrhea, clogged ears, nose stuffiness, migraineheadaches, and recurrent vomiting all have onething in common: when the afflicted child isupset, worried, unhappy, or disturbed, hisphysical condition worsens. Such illnesses areoften part of a stress cycle: the greater the child'supset, the worse the affliction gets; the less theupset, the milder the affliction.
For example, at times of stress, family upset, ordisturbance in his living situation, a child suf-fering with eczema may be covered from head totoe with an itchy, oozing, and crusty rash. Atsuch times, the one and only thing he wants todo is scratch. Appropriate care includes helpingthe child find alternatives to scratchingways tokeep his hands busy and his mind off his body. Italso includes helping him find more useful waysof coping with stress and emotional pressures.With sensitive care, children with eczema canbecome perfectly clear of any rash, and this istrue of any of the stress-accelerated conditions.
The proper functioning of a child's body isrelated to how he feels about himself and tohow he is valued and treated by others. For thechild in day care, the caregiver will be the mostimportant person in his life for many hours aday, so to some children, care and thoughtfulattention can literally make the difference be-
tween sickness and health.
Fears and HabitsCertain fears are not only normal, but also
necessary. Children learn to fear crossing a busystreet, playing with matches, and talking tostrangers alone. When fears become so strongthat they affect regular behavior, especially whenthey have no rational basis, they are calledphobias.
Similarly, part of normal learning during thepreschool years involves the development ofhabits, such as washing, cleaning up, and desiringto eat meals at regularly scheduled intervals.When habits become excessive and constrict theindividual's general activity, they are called either
29
obsessions which are persistent and irrationalthoughts, or compulsions, which are persistentand irrational actions.
Preschool children may go through periodswhen their fears are overly strong and dramati-cally interfere with daily activities. For example,a child may fear being bitten by a dog. Perhapshe fears the dog's wildness, has heard of anotherchild being bitten, or has been nipped at himselfalthough he may have had no particularly badexperience with dogs. But, because of his fears,he may resist going outside alone and may evenbecome upset at the sight of a dog through thewindow.
The reason for such fears is simple and un-derstandable: the preschool child is concernedabout his body and general hea!th. The object ofthe child's fearan elevator or a horse, for ex-amplemay not be an actual danger, yet may beused as a symbol of some profound and seriousthreat. For the child, as for an adult, the symbolcan be more real than reality.
During the preschool years, children's ritualsand habits are related to the normal tasks ofdevelopment. Young children are often veryconcerned with schedule and regulation; theyfeel more secure if they know what is going tohappen and are able to expect it. The pre-schooler may be uncomfortable with changes inroutine"first we go to the grocery store andthen to the bakery." The natural desire for reg-ularity, however, can get out of control. Somechildren develop patterns of thinking and be-havior that may serve no useful purpose but thatcan upset daily family life.
Rituals involving eating, urinating, and washingare quite common and show the close link be-tween childhood phobias and obsessions. Ritualsand habits are often performed so as to avoidfrightening ideas and events. A child who isafraid of the dark may develop a ritual beforebedtime: he may wash his hands, clean his room,wash his hands again, urinate, wash his hands,and on and on. He will perform all sorts ofseemingly meaningless actions to keep busy. Theritual serves to avoid a worrisome thought orevent, but since the idea or impulse eventuallyreturns, the child only becomes more engrossedin his ritual.
The fact that a preschool child can develoi.phobias and obsessions indicates that he hasreached a certain level of intellectual andemotional maturity. These problems indicate thatthe child has formed an early understanding ofcausality, realizes that dangers exist, is concerned
30
about his body, takes responsibility for protectinghimself, and has developed particu'ar cognitive,behavioral, and defensive styles that move himtowards this kind of action.
Even the most habit-prone and fearful childcan benefit from quality day care programs if thestaff is able to appreciate his general needs. In-volved in programs that increase positive socialexperiences and opportunities for developing a
sense of competence, the timid and frightenedchild is often able to outgrow his inhibition andfearfulness.
Understanding Developmental ProblemsProblems in development an be understood
as expressions of the same developmentalprocesses that were discussed in relation to thehealthy growth of children. Each child's behaviorreflects what he is as a whole persona personwith a mind, a body, a family, a culture, a his-tory, and a current iife situation. Awareness ofproblems in a child's development must cutacross labels, so that his specific needs can beidentified and met.
Understanding how a child's social, emotional,intellectual, and physical growth are so closelyrelated allows us to see the importance of daycare programs which deal with the whole child.With the problem child in day care, there is littledistinction between good education, good care,and therapy. All three depend on the caregiver'sown commitment, competence, and concern.Quality day care depends on quality caregiversmore than on anything else.
How Day Care Supports DevelopmentAll children who are born healthy have the
innate capacity br emotional, intellectual, andsocial growth. For this capacity to develop,certain conditions must be met. Day care cansupport development during the preschool yearsby providing a child with the kind of care hereceives from his own parents. When day careaims at continuing the positive support to de-velopment that a child normally experiences athome, it meets four essential conditions.
It promotes the child's physical health byidentifying problems, helping the family toobtain medical help, and working to preventthe occurrence of new disease.It provides the child meaningful social ex-periences with competent and concernedcaregivers and with children of the same age.It creates opportunities for learning bymaking materials and situations available in an
organized, thoughtful manner.It supports the child's family life by involvingnarents in the care of their children, keepingthem informed about their children whenthey are in day care, making parenthood apleasant and rewarding opportunity rather thanan extra burden, and helping parents feelsecure that their children are receiving qualitycare. All parents want their children tobecome certain kinds of adults. Day care mustsupport their values and goals, while helpingparents to find the best ways to reach thegoals they have for their children and forthemselves as parents.
ReferencesBillingsley, A. Black Families in White America. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968.Birch, G. and Gussow, J.D. The Disadvantaged Child.
Health, Nutrition, and School Failure. New York: Grune &
Stratton, 1970.3uxbaum, E. Troubled Children In a Troubled World. New
York: International Universities Press, 1970.Chess, S., et al. Your Child is a Person: A Psychological
Approach to Parenthood Without Guilt. New York: VikingPress, 1972.
Coles, R. Migrants, Sharecroppers, Mountaineers. Boston:Little, Brown & Co., 1972.
Coles, R. The South Goes North. Boston: Little, Brown &Co., 1972.
Comer, J.P. Beyond Black and White. New York: Quad-rangle, 1971.
Deutsch, M. The Disadvantaged Child. New York: BasicBooks, 1967,
Erikson, E.H. Childhood and Society. New York: W.W.Norton & Co., 1950.
Erikson, E.H. "Identity and the Life Cycle." PsychologicalIssues 1, No. 1 (1959), Monograph 1.
Haven, I. the Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget.New York: Van Nostrand, 1965.
Fraiberg, S.H. The Magic Years. New York: Charles Sciib-
ner's Sons, 1959.Freud, A. Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assess-
ments of Development. New York: International Uni-
versities Press, 1966.Freud, A. The Writings of Anna Freud: Indications for Child
Analysis and Other Papers. Vol. 4 (1945-56). New York:International Universities Press, 1968.
Freud, A. The Writings of Anna Freud: Research at theHampstead Child-Therapy Clinic and Other Papers. Vol. 5(1956-65). New York: International Universities Press,1969.
Galambos, J.W. A Guide to Discipline. Washington, D.C.:National Association for the Education of Young Children,1969.
Gardner, G.E. The Emerging Personality: Infancy Through
Adolescence. New York: Delacorte Press, 1970.
Gould, R. Child Studies Through Fantasy. Cognitive-AffectivePatterns in Development. New York: Quadrangle Books,1972.
Grotberg, E., ed. Critical Issues in Research Related toDisadvantaged Children. Princeton, N.J.: EducationalTesting Service, 1969.
Guttentag, M., Issue ed. "The Poor: Impact on Researchand Theory." Full issue of The Journal of Social Issues 26,No. 2 (1970).
Hellmuth, J., ed. Disadvantaged Child. Vol. 1. New York:Brunner/Mazel, 1967.
Hellmuth, J., ed. Disadvantaged Child. Vol. 2: Head Startand Early Intervention. New York: Brunner/Mazet, 1968.
Hellmuth, J., ed. Disadvantaged Child. Vol. 3: CompensatoryEducation: A National Debate. New York: Brunner/Mazel,1970.
Hymes, J.L., Jr. The Child Under Six. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.:Prentice-Hal1,1963.
11g, F.L. and Ames, L.B. Child Behavior. New York: Harper &Row, 1955.
Lewis, M. Clinical Aspects of Child Development. Phila-delphia: Lea & Febiger, 1971.
Lichtenberg, P. and Norton, D. Cognitive and Mental De-velopment in the First Five Years of Life. Public HealthService Publication No. 2057. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1970.
McCandless, B.R. Children: Behavior and Development.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967.
Murphy, L.B., et al. The Widening World of Childhood:Path Toward Mastery. New York: Basic Books, 1962.
Mussen, P.H.; Conger, J.J.; and Kagan, J. Child Developmentand Personality. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Mussen, P.H., ed. Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology.2 Vols. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1970.
Pavenstedt, E., ed. The Drifters: Children of DisorganizedLower Class Families. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1967.
Piaget, J. Play, Dreams, and Imitation in Childhood. NewYork: W.W. Norton & Co., 1962.
Quay, H.C. and Werry, J.S., eds. Psychopathological Disor-ders of Childhood. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972.
Report of the Conference on the Use of Stimulant Drugs inthe Treatment of Behaviorally Disturbed Young SchoolChildren. Sponsored by the Office of Child Developmentand the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health andScientific Affairs, U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare, Washington, D.C., Jan. 11-12,1971.
Senn, M.I.E. and Solnit, A.J. Problems in Child Behavior andDevelopment. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1968.
Stone, L.J. and Church, J. Childhood and Adolescence: APsychology of the Growing Person. 3d ed. New York:Random House, 1973.
Thomas, A.; Chess, S.; and Birch, H. Temperament andBehavior Disorders in Children. New York: New YorkUniversity Press, 1968.
Williams, F., ed. Language and Poverty: Perspectives on aTheme. Chicago: Markham Publishing Co., 1970.
Winnicott, D.W. Playing and Reality. New York: BasicBooks, 1971.
Zigler, E.F. and Child, I.L. Socialization and PersonalityDevelopment. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley PublishingCo., 1973.
31
r\ i. :..
Good administration of a day care programdoes not necessarily follow a rigid set of rules.Administrative practices should fit the program,adapting to its size, special characteristics, andproblems. The structure that is comfortable for aneighborhood's half-day cooperative program,for example, would probably be inadequate for afull-day program that offers compensatory edu-cation for handicapped children. And the set ofbylaws that helps a day care center run smoothlywould be overelaborate for a family care home.
Few, if any, organizations have completefreedom to develop their own administrativestyle. There are regulations governing suchmatters as taxes, accountability for funds, andincorporation, and Federally funded day careprograms must meet certain additional admin-istrative requirements. Yet these restrictions stillallow flexibility in the administrative structureand rules. A creative administrator will under-stand a variety of ways to handle administrationand be able to choose the best way to satisfyparticular organizational needs.
Even the smallest day care program, run by asingle individual, needs administration. In fact,many such programs lose money and thereforeserve fewer children for a given amount ofmoney, because they lack good administration.The important point is that since administrativefunctions have to be performed, it is better tohandle them consciously and systematically. Afamily day care operator need not imitate thepolicymaking apparatus of a center, but she orhe should be aware of administrative problems,make carefully considered decisions, and keep atleast a few vital records.
The handbook, Administration, published bythe Office of Child Development, reviewsstandard administrative practice in day care. Thischapter summarizes some of its information andoffers additional suggestions, alternatives, andother information useful for family day careprograms, day care networks, and day carecenters for preschool children.
Chapter 3Administration
Administration of a Family Day Care HomeFor an individual who operates a family day
care home without the aid of a network orsystem, administration as described in thischapter may appear an unwelcome and unnec-essary burden. Few caregiver's relish the idea ofsitting down to paperwork after spending longhours with a group of children. Obviously, theadministration of a program has to be adapted toboth the needs of and the time available to thecaregiver.
Most of the practices recommended in thischapter can be scaled to the size of any opera-tion and will encourage higher quality care aswell as aid the caregiver in working with parents.Elaborate formal documents are seldom needed.A few simple notes, if they are accurate andunderstandable, will suffice for most adminis-trative functions. The development of each childcan be recorded as brief daily or weekly entrieson a sheet of paper reserved for that child. Thisrecord should contain notes on parent confer-ences, special problems, and recommendationsbut needs neither great detail nor long hours ofwork.
Besides keeping records, the family day careoperator should keep in mind that she or he hasto perform basically the same administrativefunctions as any day care organization. Thenatural tendency for many operators is to receivethe children in the morning, offer them suppliesand equipment for play or learning, deal withsituations as they arise, and deliver the childrensafely to their parents in the evening. Such aprocedure can quickly lead to little more thancustodial day care. To provide quality care, care-givers should at least formulate clear policies,including a definition or philosophy of what eachwould like day care to offer children and theirfamilies; regularly plan the children's day; usewhatever resources are available outside thehome; and maintain good relations with theparents, the community, and any available volun-teers and resource people. These are among the
33
administrative elements of any good day :areprogram. The way a caregiver deals with them willplay a large part in determining the quality ofthe program offered to the children.
Administration of a Family Day Can-Network or System
The administrative responsibilities of a networkmust include selecting and preparing family daycare homes and caregivers, supervising thepractices and progress in each day care home,making special efforts to involve parents in theprogram, and providing a central site for serviceswhich cannot easily be offered at many separatesites. In addition, there is a need for c:oord:natingsupervision, staff development, and recordkeeping among many separate individuals, someof whom may have decided to offer family daycare because they did not like the administrativecomplexities of a large organization.
It should be possible for the network admin-istration to simplify, rather than complicate, thejobs of the separate caregivers by assuming suchresponsibilities as collecting information by tele-phone daily or weekly, maintaining central files,handling the collections of all fees, loaningequipment and materials, and working withparents on matters of policy.
Administration of a Day Caro CenterBecause there are so many different kinds and
sizes of day care cen:.:rs serving so many dif-ferent populations, it is not possible to discussspecific issues concerning their administration.The discussion in this chapter will usually refer tothe administration of a day care center ofmoderate size, serving perhaps 50 to 75 children.This model is chosen for convenience, and allcomments must be adapted to the specialcharacteristics of the particular program.
Administrative Considerations at Start-UpLeadership. In planning a day care program, agroup may have excellent ideas, but it also needssound leadership to get the actual programunder way. Someone has to coordinate funding,site and facilities, licensing, curriculum, andstaffing. The election of temporary officersusually at least a president, vice president, sec-retary, and treasureris the most common wayof obtaining early leadership and, at the sametime, serves to test the qualities of groupmembers and their ability to work together. Suchofficers can serve during the organization andstart-up phases of the program and can be re-
34
placed or re-elected once it is operating.The .director, as the person who will work
most intimately with the program, should have ahand in the planning phase. Funds permitting,the director should be hired as early as possibleso that the planning can benefit from his or heradvice and to insure that he or sheas theperson who must soon carry out policies andenforce procedureswill have a say in whatthose policies will be.Developing a Start-Up Plan. It's a good idea,probably a necessity, to think through all theimportant details that need to be done, decidingwhen they must be completed and who's to dothem, as early as possible. Such a plan needn'tbe elaborate, but it should be written down andagreed upon by both the planners and thosewho must carry it out.
A practical way to develop such a plan is toidentify deadlinessuch as opening day or theday a grant or contract proposal is dueandwork backward from there, listing the tasks thatmust be completed by specific dates. Plannersshould try to estimate the length of each taskand how many people will be needed, and thenuse these estimates to determine (1) whetherthey have enough time and people, or whetherthey should recruit more help and start workingon several things simultaneously; and (2) thedates when certain key tasks must be completedto meet a deadline. The process of developing aplan usually helps identify important tasks inadvance and helps avoid embarrassing crises.
Once the plan is developed, it should be usedfrequently to check whether tasks are onschedule, but those using it should never beafraid to change it as conditions warrant.Chances are, frequent updating will keep boththe tasks and the planners organized andworking productively.
Incorporation and Tax Exemption. Few com-munity groups start day care programs in orderto make a profit. However, there is increasinginterest in the private sector in day care as aprofitmaking operat: n. This chapter deals mainlywith nonprofit day care, since funding, budget-ing, and other administrative concerns are morecomplex in a profitmaking enterprise. Still, manyof the same basic principles apply to both kindsof operations.
Any group operating a day care program needsa clear definition of legal responsibility andadministrative authority. (See ch. 5, "Licensingand Other Forms of Regulation.") In practice, this
usually means that the group should incorporate,for several reasons.
Incorporation protects the children, since itclarifies precisely what institution is legallyresponsible for what happens in the program.Incorporation also protects thot:e sponsoringand running the program by limiting their legalliability.A group that seeks certain types of Federal,State, or local funding must be incorporated asa means of establishing clear accountability forthe use of the funds.Any program supported wholly or in part bypublic moneyincluding programs that havechildren sent by a welfare agencymustusually be incorporated.Finally, a nonprofit corporation may qualifyfor tax-exempt status, which will save moneyin the purchase of many goods and services aswell as encourage donations that are tax de-ductible for the donors.Not all groups have to incorporate. If a pro-
gram is sponsored by an already incorporatedinstitution or organization, the charter mayprovide for a day care program or will only haveto be revised. And although a public agencyrunning a day care program must have legalauthorization, it need not be incorporated.
For a group planning to incorporate, theservices of a lawyer are essential, to help withsuch matters as the State's legal requirements forincorporation and the requirements for tax ex-emption. If the day care planners do not includea lawyer and cannot afford to hire one, there aresome community groups which can offer legaladvice and services at little or no cost.
Single-family caregivers, unaffiliated with anetwork or other organization, rarely incorpo-rate. Unfortunately, an unincorporated programsuffers disadvantages. Contributions to an indi-vidual cannot qualify as tax exemptions for thedonor, so donations of money and materials areless likely. A more serious problem is that theunincorporated caregiver is personally liable andcan easily be sued. Most family day care oper-ators are unaware that they are vulnerable tolawsuit. And, although liability insurance isavailable to private individuals, it may be pro-hibitively expensive for most families. The bestprotection for most family day care operators isto become part of a group or network which caneither incorporate or arrange for some sort ofgroup insurance plan.
Bylaws. A corporate charter defines the externalactivities of a group; bylaws govern its internalaffairs. The bylaws are the ground rules and canbe drawn up in any way the group wishessolong as they do not conflict with legal require-ments for a corporation. Bylaws often containphilosophical statements about the group's goalsor history, though their main function is to bringorder, clarity, and predictability to the internaloperations.
It is usually a mistake to adopt c,;mmercialrules or intricate systems of checks and safe-guards. An organization can become entangled inits own complicated rules, unable to act withouteither ignoring the bylaws or amending them atevery turn. Bylaws should be as clear, direct, andsimple as possible, but at the same time shouldcover those procedures considered most im-portant to the program. They should also be
flexible enough to accommodate changes ingoals and programs without a cumbersomeprocess of amendment. The topics usually in-cluded in bylaws are:
the name and purpose of the groupthe composition of the board of directors, theselection procedure for members, and thelength of their termstitles and functions of the officers, theirterms, and how they are selectedthe powers and limitations of particular of-ficesfor example, who has the power to signcontracts, to buy and sell property, to hire and
dismiss staff, etc.the composition of the membershipanyonewho wants to belong? community groups? onlyparents of children in the program?how vacancies among officers or boardmembers will be filledmeetingsfrequency, purposes, advancenotice, quorumsstanding committeestheir duties andmember selection procedurethe method of changing the bylaws.The OCD handbook, Administration, contains
a sample set of bylaws, on pages 16-18, suitablefor a good-sized organization. So You're Goingto Run a Day Care Service has another sampleset on pages 76-78, which is more simple butstill workable. Both these books are referenced atthe end of this chapter.
Seed Money. Since there will be expenses to bemet before the program begins to receive in-come, a source of "seed money" will be needed.
35
The amount required will depend on such factorsas location, facilities and equipment, and thetalent available within the group. Typical start-upexpenses include telephone and stationery,printing, advertising, publicity, legal and .licensingfees, site development, the advance hiring of adirector, and the costs of how visits by paidstaff members.
The sources of seed money depend on thecommunity. A special allowance for start-up maycome from the program's funding agencyif ithas oneor from local health and welfarecouncils, a community chest, an urban coalition,sponsoring groups, unions, industry, or localsmall businessmen.
Donations of seed money are more likely ifthe day care planners can demonstrate somedegree of financial competence. This can bedone in two ways:
by preparing a pro forma (prospective)budget and cash flow statement to show spe-cific financial needs (ch. 4 "Budgeting andFunding," provides further information aboutsuch preparation); orby gaining commitments, whenever possible,from parents intending to enroll children in theprogram. This would show that there is enoughinterestas well as an assured incometoincrease the program's chances of success.
Administrative StructureBoard of Directors. A board of directors is a
means to establish legal responsibility for theactions of an organization and to insure that thepolicies adopted reflect certain interests andpoints of view7-specifically, those of the boardmembers.
If the group is incorporated, it will have to beadvised of the legal requirements for the boardby an attorney. If the program is operating underthe rules of a Government agency, its board willfollow the guidelines laid down by that agency.And if an individual is the sole owner of anunincorporated business, he or she will of courseneed no boardbut may want some counterpart,such as a parents' advisory group, to make cer-tain that parents' views are heard.
The boards of most day care centers andnetworks have about 10 to 20 members, whoseterms of office are usually more than 1 year andare staggered. Members with past experienceinsure a certain amount of continuity and pro-vide a group memory of the recent history, ex-periences, and problems of the organization.
Board members usually represent severalgroups: parents; representatives of the com-munity; representatives of the funding agency;and specialists in such day-care-related fields as
health, nutrition, and social services. However,the particular composition of a board oftendepends on the type or purpose of the organi-zation or program. Some large organizationswhich operate day care centers have boardscomposed mostly of community representatives,while some day care organizations created byparents to specifically benefit their own childrenhave boards composed entirely of parents.Whatever the membership pattern, the interestsof the children and their families must play acentral role in policymaking.
If some group or point of view is not well-represented on the board, an advisory committeewith certain restricted powers can be formed. Aparent advisory committee, for instance, mayhave the power to meet with the board, adviseon the hiring of staff members, and suggestchanges in the operation of the program. Aprofessional advisory committee sometimes helpsthe board and the staff with certain technicalaspects of the program, as well as with obtainingfunds and community support.
Each organization decides for itself the divisionof duties between the board of directors, theprogram director, and others, as well as the ex-tent of the authority to be delegated to each.Ye% whatever its specific duties, a day care boardot directors almost always assumes certain basicroles and functions.
"..ht: board sets down goals and guidelines forthe program and evaluates performance.It is a link between the day care program andthe community. Parents and other memberskeep the community informed about theprogram, and they draw upon communityresources when needed to help the program.It hires a competent program director,delegates administrative authority to him orher and evaluates the director's performance.
Program Director. The board of directors hires a
professionally qualified administratora directorto run theprogram from day to day. Thedirector's role is essentially threefold: to assumecertain administrative responsibilities for theorganization, either by assisting board membersor by being delegated full authority; to act asliaison between the board, staff, and parents sothat each group understands the goals and needsof the others; and to serve as a professional
1adviser to the board, contributing his or herknowledge of both preschool programs and thedevelopmental needs of preschool children.
The day care director is a key influence on thequality of the program. The type of care thechildren receive will largely depend on thedirector's background and personality. Trans-lating policy into actual care results not so muchfrom resolutions and directives as from hiring theright man or woman to head the program. This
task, therefore, is a pivotaland frequentlypainfulpart of administration. The following aresome of the points to be considered in hiring adi rector.
Are there any staff members who should beconsidered for the job? A career ladder forstaff personnel is a fiction unless there is real
opportunity to move up it.Whatever the candidate's other qualifications,is he or she sympathetic to the kind of pro-gram desired by the board?In addition to personal skills, can the can-didate supervise, train, and help others per-form their jobs well?Does the candidate understand the needs ofthe neighborhood children, and can he or she
plan a program to meet these needs?
Will children and statt be able to respect and
identify with this person as director?Does the candidate have the ability to workcooperatively with board members, other staffmembers, children, parents, and the commu-nity, and to reconcilerather than compro-misetheir diverse viewpoints?
The board of directors must determine the im-portance of these and other considerations.Although no candidate will measure up com-pletely, it is the board's job to find and hire thebest available person to meet the particularneeds of the children and their families.
It is also their job to support the person theychoose: the board hires a director to run the
program, but the director's job is impossiblewithout the support of the board. Members ofthe board should neither intervene in the dailyoperation of the program, except on a policylevel, nor give partisan support to any staffmember except the director. Staff members must
also be willing to support the director on the
job, bring to his or her attention special prob-lems with children or parents, and should settledifferences of opinion in private.
A particularly active board or group of parents
can harass a director unintentionally. no
director and every other staff member needs anddeserves a private life. An occasional eveningmeeting is part of the job, but no staff membershould have to spend long hours of personaltime on the telephone or in conferences after afull day at work.
In turn, the director needs to remember that
he or she was hired to keep the program runningsmoothly, in the manner set forth by the board,and is not free to follow personal preferences infavoring certain board members, staff members,or parents. To avoid confusion, it's usually agood idea for the board and the director toagree in writing on the kind of matters andproblems the board will personally consider and
those which are to be handled specifically by the
di rector.
Administrative ResponsibilitiesWhile the division of responsibilities among
the board, the program director, and others has
to be decided by each organization, the re-sponsibilities themselves do not vary much fromone program to another. Basic administrativeduties required in any day care operation includesetting policy; planning the program; managingfinances; handling information; mobilizing re-sources; supervising operations; recruiting, hir-ing, and training staff; promoting parent in-volvement; handling community relations andpublicity; and evaluating the program on aregular basis.
A large organization may assign these jobs tomany different people and committees, but in asmall organization essentially the same functionshave to be performedon a smaller scale, ofcourseby a few people or a single person. Afamily day care operator handles administrativedutiesperhaps informally and perhaps withouteven realizing it. By refusing to take in morechildren for fear of overcrowding, she is making
a policy decision. When investigating differentkinds of play equipment, she is involved inprogram planning.
Policy Setting. An organization big enough to runa day care center or networkas well as theindividual who operates a family day care homealoneneeds written policy statements. Theseserve mainly to keep the administration of theprogram consistent with its goals.
In the large day care organization, writtenpolicies should be distributed to help parentsand the community better understand the phi-losophy and program and to help caregivers
37
cope with emergencies. Policy statements shouldbe clear and definite, not unnecessarily com-plicated or restrictive. They should be capable ofchanging with changing needs, and in an es-tablished way--for example, by majority vote ofthe board of directors or by a majority vote ofthe parents at a regular meeting. Some of thesubjects that should be covered by writtenpolicies are listed below.
the type of day care service to be offeredthe hours of operation and the conditions, ifany, under which a child will be acceptedearlier or kept later than the other childrenthe number of daily meals and snacks to beservedpersonnel policies. Every staff member shouldbe given a clearly detailed copy of the per-sonnel policyincluding job descriptions, payranges, and benefitsbefore being hired, andshould accept employment only with theunderstanding that he or she accepts theconditions of the policy. If the administrationis dealing with a union, the advice of someoneexperienced in labor relations should besought to advise on the terms of the policy.admissions policies. The grounds on whichchildren will be accepted, or not accepted,into the program should be specified andmade available to all applicants. The criteriashould include:
(1) the child's emotional readiness to sep-arate from his parents for the necessary periodof time, together with the parents' willingnessto let the program share in the care of thechildthis is the most important criterion
(2) the age limits of the children to be ad-mitted, and whether unusual maturity or im-maturity will be considered
(3) health, including requirements forphysical examinations and health records
(4) the admission of exceptional children,including the physically handicapped, and theprovision of special services or facilities forthese children
(5) the maximum number of children in theprogram
(6) fees, schedule of payments, andceptionsif any
(7) special needs which the program eitherwill or will not attempt to servesuch as theneed for a bilingual program. a preacademiceducation program, or emphasis on a partic-ular cultural background
(8) any other factors that may work to givesome children priority over others for admis-
38
sion, such as the desire to have a particularsocioeconomic mix, or to have extra consid-eration given to children of working parents orto those from single-parent families.attendance policies. The importance ofcontinuity in the child's relationship with thecaregivers and the other children should beemphasized, and any adjustments in fees forlong periods of absence should be statedstaff:child ratios. These should be specifiedand related, if necessary, to the ages of thechildren or the type of program offered.insurance coverage
regulations and restrictions concerning per-sonal belongings at the day care sitetransportation arrangementsregulations concerning permission and pro-cedure for activities outside the day care fa-cilityrequirements, if any, for parent participation.To the operator of a family day care home,
such a volume of written policies may seemexcessive. However, even the most importantpoints can usually be covered in brief, informalstatementsfor example, "Food servicelunchand two snacks" and "Payment in advance, firstweekday of each month." These statements inwriting will be of the greatest value when one isdiscussing terms with a prospective client or forresolving disputes over policy without badfeelings.
Other policies, depending on the nature of theprogram, may be needed to specify or emphasizespecial concerns or features of the programforexample, the relationship of the day care serviceto the community, or provisions for specialservices such as health care or adult education,
Program Planning. The board of directors is re-spcIsible for establishing both the immediateand long-term goals of the operation and, to-gether with the director, plans a program tomeet these goals. Program planning requirescareful and realistic appraisal of the resourceshuman, physical, and financialthat will berequired. The director should maintain sufficientfamiliarity with both finances and staff capabil-ities to be able to assess the feasibility of pro-posed changes in the program. The director'sevaluation may bring him or her into conflictwith the desires of the board, but it is far betterto work out any disagreement before the changeis madeparticularly since it is the director'sresponsibility, once a program is adopted, tomake it work.
A written program plan should be preparedonce a year to accompany the budget.
Financial Management. Sound financial man-agement is a prime administrative responsibilityand is discussed at length in both the OCDAdministration handbook and in chapter 4 of thisbook One point especially important in ad-ministration, however, is identifying specific fi-nancial duties and the particular staff membersresponsible for them. These should he detailed inwriting for several reasons: for the benefit ofhoard members, officers, and staff in succeedingyears; as evidence of sound financial manage-ment which can be offered to potential fundingagencies; and to answer requests for informationfrom parents who are concerned about the useof fees.
Records. Properly kept and updated records canhave a pronounced influence on the quality ofthe programparticularly records which dealwith the children's home situations, health,progress, and problems, as well as with essential
information for emergencies. Records can andshould be scaled to the size of the program, butsome degree of record keeping is essential toeven the smallest day care operation. Naturally,all financial transactions have to be recorded.Information on the progress of each child and onpast evaluations of the program are obviously inthe interest of the children and will be invaluablewhen children change to a new program orcaregiver for any reason. Minutes of meetings,committee actions, and records of special ar-rangements about fees or other matters canprevent later conflicts. And such information asattendance records and inspection reports isoften required by funding agencies.
Records, however, can also be misused. Ad-ministrators need to remember that they haveprivileged information about individual childrenand families, and that this information should beavailable only to trained staff members or hoardmembers who have a clear need to know spe-cific facts.Resource Mobilization. The administratiun isresponsible for identifying resources of manykindsfunds, staff, equipment, physical facilities,volunteers, community programs, training op-portunitiesand for finding ways to use them inthe program. Businesses, schools, or parents canoften provide space, equipment, and servicessuch as bookkeeping at little cost to the pro-gram. Encouraging parents and staff to seekcontributions, together with keeping a current
list of goods and services needed, can savesubstantial amounts of money. This kind of effortcan help satisfy the requirement of some pro-grams supported by public funds that they re-ceive a certain amount of private support as well.
Supervision of Operations. The director is re-sponsible for seeing that the program operatessmoothly from day to day in accordance withboth the administrative policies and the needs ofthe children. In a large program especially, thequality of staff supervision at all levels has adirect bearing on the quality of care offered. Thesupervision of the program director by the boardusually takes the form of a periodic evaluation,the criteria for which should, of course, be di-rectly related to the goals of the program andshould he clearly understood by the directorlor i)efore an evaluation is conducted.
Staff Development. To attract and maintain awell-qualified staff, as well as to assure the bestpossible program for the children, the adminis-tration must provide a staff development pro-gram which should contain several specific ele-
ments.recruitment of the best available people whenjob openings occurorientation of new workersregular ore-to-one evaluation of staffperformar.training programs and sessions offered asregularly as possiblepossible arrangements with local collet .s anduniversities for staff rnem:)ers to continue theireducation at little or no costauthentic opportunities for salary increasesand advancement up d well-defined careerladder.
Staff members, particularly those who must workunder the demanding conditions that prevail inmost day care programs, are more likely to bemotivated and satisfied in their work if they feel
their employers are helping them to improvetheir competence and earning potential. Seechapter 13, "Staffing," for more detailed infor-mation on developing a well-qualified staff.
Parent Involvement. Providing for and encour-aging parent participation are critical to thesuccess of the entire day care program. These
aspects of administration are discussed at lengthin chapter 7, "Parent Involvement."
Community Relations and Publicity. The ad-ministration is responsible for interpreting the
program to the community as a means to in-
39
crease community support and understanding, tomake local resources more readily available, andin some cases to help attract funds and otherdonations. When possible, one person should bedesignated the day-to-day spokesman for theprogram, although under some circumstancesboard members should take the responsibility forthis role.
Program Evaluation. Responsible administratorswill evaluate the program periodically to deter-mine whether it is achieving its goals, and par-ticularly whetherand to what degreeit iseffective in stimulating child development and inbenefiting the children's families. Evaluation isdiscussed in detail in chapter 14.
ReferencesBoguslawski, D.B. Guide for Establishing and Operating Day
Care Centers for Young Children. New York: ChildWelfare League of America, 1968.
c"..},
$.
;''!*.
;
Aulgolootommo
O
'!
Grosett, M.D.; Simon, A.C.; and Stewart, N.B. So You'reGoing to Run a Day Care Service: A Handbook for Cit-izens Concerned with Day Care Programs. New York:Day Care Council of New York, 1971.
Host, M.S. and Heller, P.B. Day CareNumber 7: Admin-istration. Office of Child Development. U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare. Publication No. (OCD)73-20. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1971.
Howard, N.K. Day Care: An Annotated Bibliography. Ur-bana, III.: Educational Resources Information Center,Clearinghouse on Early Childhood Education, 1971.
McKee, C.J.L. and Weil, L.B., eds. Can f Love this Place? AStaff Guide to Operating child Care Centers for theDisadvantaged. Washington, D.C.: Educational SystemsCorporation, 1969.
Pizzo, P.D. Operational Difficulties of Group Day Care.Washington, D.C.: Day Care and Child DevelopmentCouncil of America, 1972.
Ryan Jones Associates. How to Operate Your Day CareProgram. Wyomissing, Pa.: Ryan Jones Associates, 1970.
Zamoff, R.B. Guide to the Assessment of Day Care Servicesand Needs at the Community Level. Washington, D.C.:The Urban Institute, 1971. The Urban Institute, 2100M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037.
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a. 4111111111111111t
Quality day care is more expensive than mostpeople realize. Naturally, efficiency and carefulmanagement will help hold costs down, anddonation; ;.f goods and serviceswhile still partof the cost of running the programcan helpreduce the amount of money required. Never-theless, a number of studies made in the lastseveral years have failed to turn up one programwhich was both inexpensive, in cost per child,and good enough to be recommended as anexample of quality day care.
The cost of quality care for one preschoolchild for 1 year has been variously estimated atfrom $1,000 to $3,000. For infants, costs aremuch higher; for school-age children they arelower. These figures represent the cost of qualityday care as contrasted with custodial care, whichis less expensive. Also, there is regional variationin the cost of day care reflecting regional dif-ferences in wages, available facilities and re-sources, food costs, etc. By far, the major cost isfor staff salaries. In comparison with salaries,components or supplementary services such ashealth and parent involvement add little to thecost of the program.
A family of average income might well hesitateto under take the expense of a quality program.And families who most need quality daycarethose who cannot provide adequatesupplemental services themselvesare likelyto be those who can least afford it.
Despite high costs, however, the hope ofquality day care does not have to be abandonedby any community, rich or poor. Of course,those who set out to provide day care servicesfor a community must count on devoting aconsiderable part of their time to financing andfund raising. In most communities, the eco-nomics of day care require both a carefullyplanned budget and the successful pursuit offunds from more than one source.
Budgeting and funding are tied together in anobvious way the total of incoming funds mustat least equal the total of expenditures in thebudget. They are further bound together by thefact that most funding sourcesincluding some
Chapter 4Budgeting and Funding
parentswill want to inspect the budget beforecommitting any money. A wise planner will findout what the prospective contributor wants toknow and choose a budget format that displaysthat information most clearly. For example, if youplan to offer day care as an agent under contractto another organization, your budget will list thecosts of all services provided and will add up tothe total fee for the contract. If you are applyingto the local United Fund for a subsidy, yourbudget will usually be made to show the amountof the deficit to be covered.
Family day care needs budgeting and fundingno less than a large day care center does. But inpractice, most family day care operators havelittle idea of their real costs and are themselvesgrossly underpaid.
Family day care is generally considered inex-pensive, and the price to the customer is likelyto be lower than that of a center. But studiesindicate that the cost of care in a family settingand in a center is about the same if the care isof equal quality and if all costs are considered.Usually they are not. Family caregivers generallycharge something for their time and add on thecost of food and perhaps some playthings. Mostof them omit the cost of indoor space, outdoorspace, wear and tear on furniture and equip-ment, transportation, telephone, and utilities.Most are underinsured. As a result, most familycaregivers charge so little that what remains afterpayment of expenses places themon an hourlybasisamong the lowest paid workers. Typicalfamily caregivers net well under $1 per hour fortheir time, and even this figure is achieved bysubstantially underestimating some costs andignoring others. If all expenses were counted,many caregivers might discover that instead ofmaking money they are losingin effect, sub-sidizing their own customers.
The family caregiver is subject to severalconflicting forces which tend to raise costs andkeep income down. Parents want the bestavailable care for their children, but they alsofeel an economic pressure to shop for the lowestcost consistent with adequate care. Many parents
41
do not pay for days when their children areabsent, even though most costs of the programcontinue. Day care advocatesprofessionals inchild care and other concerned peopleapplypressure to raise the quality of care, despite theconsequent higher cost. And many caregivers arereluctant to ask for more money. They feel thatthey are not really trying to make a profit; thatsome parents would be unwilling or unable topay more; and that their first obligation is tocontinue giving care to the children, withoutwatching the cost too closely.
To many of these caregivers, the pleasures oftheir work might make it all worthwhile, but theydo owe it to themselves to know what their realcosts are. Those who hope to make a reasonablewage for themselves need budgeting as careful asthat for a day care center and need equalknowledge of the several sources of fundingpotentially open to them. In this respect, anetwork of family day care facilities might beable to budget more accurately than individualproviders, would have the necessary organizationfor negotiating fees with parents, and would bebetter able to handle fund-raising activities.
This handbook cannot make specific recom-mendations. Both costs and the availability offunds change with time. New sources of fundingor new methods of financing day care may be-come available within the next few years throughchanges in work incentive programs, the welfaresystem, or other programs. The intent of thischapter, then, is not to give detailed instructionsfor budgeting and funding, but to presentenough of the basic considerations to helpplanners make sound decisions according to theirown circumstances.
Budgeting
PurposeThe element of cost enters into almost every
aspect of the planning of a program. Costs willaffect the answers to any number of questions.How many children can we serve? How manychildren must we enroll in order to break even?Will we need more space, arm can we afford it?How many caregivers can we employ? If we planfield trips, what will have to be cut from theprogram to compensate for the added costs oftransportation, fees, and extra insurance? Howcan we provide a choice of foods at mealtime tosatisfy individual preferences? Would it be betterto pay a salary to a volunteer staff member whomight otherwise leave or to use that money for
42
a larger facility to accommodate more childrenand receive more income? Such questions shouldnot be decided in dollar terms alone, but thecosts of the various alternatives must be con-sidered.
A budget is a tool which can help in theweighing of alternatives. It shows where theprogram's money comes from and where it goes.It tells how much each part of the program costs,how money spent in one part of the programmust be taken away from another, whether therewill be enough or more than enough money tooperate for the rest of the year, and how heavilythe program depends on donations of goods andservices. In addition, a good budget is theobjective basis needed for setting fees, discussingfees and services with parents, and applying forfunds and donations.
Whether the program is in a family home, acenter, or is part of a network, the preparationand use of the budget are essentially the same.The budget for a small program may be simplerthan that for a large one, but the same elementsof cost need to be considered and the same careshould be used in preparing it.
Overview: Making a BudgetA budget shows what a proposed program will
cost. The first step in preparing a budget, then, isto work out a detailed description of the pro-gram.
Consider every major component of the daycare operationspace needs, health care, mealsand snacks, classroom activities, play, consultants,family services, administration, and so on. Decidehow each component is to be providedin theprogram setting or elsewhere; by using the staffor outside help; by hiring specialists or consul-tants on an hourly basis, on a long-term contract,or on a per-job basis; by renting or purchasingequipment; by leasing, buying, or building thefacilities. Then determine the cost of each itemand calculate totals, with the imputed value of allcontributed goods or services included.
Next, compare these figures to those of otherbudgets for comparable programs to see if yourestimates are seriously out of line and, if so, why.Comparisons are usually made on the basis ofcost per child. Don't feel that your budget has tobe a close imitation of any otherthere arecountless reasons why it might be different. Butwhere your figures depart widely from the ex-perience of others, you should recheck yourthinking and your cost estimates and get a clear
understanding of the reasons for the difference.Until now, the amount of money available
should not have entered the process. It is self-defeating to start with an estimate of funds andthen plan a program within that limitation. Theprogram comes first, and the question of raisingfunds second. A later realistic appraisal offunding may force you to review and changesome decisions, but the choice of what to leaveout should be made with the aid of the budgetnot before it exists. Only when you havedetermined the costs of the various programcomponents can you rationally decide whatcompromises should be made in the program tomeet the available funds. If compromises aremade before the budget is completed, changesmay be made which really save little money butwhich do significantly affect the quality of theprogram.
Most budgets group all cost items into anumber of cost categories corresponding to themajor components or services of the programsuch as health care, classroom activities, andplay. For a program in the planning stage, thiskind of budget is most useful because it em-phasizes the cost of what is proposed and makesit easier to weigh the alternatives. However,other formats are both possible and useful. Manybudgets, for example, group all items of the samekind, such as salaries, maintenance, equipment,and supplies. Grouping by program componentsis consistent with modern practice in large or-ganizations in which the person responsible foreach component or operation helps to determinehis budget and then operates within that budget.In later budgets prepared for other purposes, theitems to be included and their order may vary.
Fiscal YearThe fiscal year is a 12-month periodbegin-
ning at any chosen timeused for accountingand tax purposes. The fiscal year may simply bethe calendar year, January 1 through. December 31Many seasonal businesses, however, havetheir fiscal year coincide with a natural stopping-place in their operations, to help clarify theaccounting and make planning easier. A thirdcommon practice is to use the same fiscal year asthe funding agency.
The Federal Government's fiscal year starts onJuly 1 and is named for the calendar year withwhich it ends. Thus, the 12-month period startingJuly 1, 1973, and ending June 30, 1974, is calledfiscal year 1974or FY 74, for short.
Cost ItemsIn preparing any budget, .vo major types of
costs must be considered: annual costs andcapitalized costs.
Annual costs are actual costs brought abouteach year during the operation and maintenanceof the program, such as staff salaries and fringebenefits, consumable supplies, insurance costs,and interest on borrowed funds.
Capitalized costs enter the budget mainlythrough the depreciation of the costs of assetswhich last a long time, such as buildings,equipment, and furniture. Depreciation is thedistribution of the asset's cost over its estimateduseful life by periodic charges to expensesthatis, depreciation allows you to charge a certainportion of the asset's cost as a periodic cost inyour budget. Usually, depreciation costs arecharged yearly, at the end of the fiscal year.
The depreciation ratethe portion of the as-set's total cost which you can charge to eachyear's budgetis established by tax authoritiesand varies with the type of asset. For example,buildings are depreciated over a longer periodthan typewriters because a building is expectedto last longer than a typewriter. Because de-preciation rates vary widely and because han-dling depreciation costs is so complex, a quali-fied accountant should help in setting up thispart of the budget and especially in completingtax returns if the program is subject to taxes.
The following items are those found in mostfamily day care, center, and network budgets.The first 10 items are usually considered as an-nual costs,' and the last two as capitalized costs.In a budget organized by prOgram components,each item may appear under each 011e of thecomponents. For example, staff salaries might beincluded under each service, especially in a largecenter. Depending on the particular program,some of the items may be omitted or some maybe lumped together, but during the planningstage each one should be considered. For smallprograms with only one or two caregivers, it maynot be necessary to divide each person's time bycomponents. No matter how small the program,however, there should be a clear delineation ofhow materials and new equipment are allocated.
Staff salaries and fringe benefits. Staff salariesand fringe benefits commonly account for 75
I A simplified annual budget for two age groups ofpreschool children is given in table 4-1. These figures, onlyrough estimates, indicate the relative costs of differentareas.
43
to 80 percent of the total budget.2Everyone on the payroll should be included.
When one person contributes to severalcomponents of the program, estimate thefraction of his or her time devoted to eachcomponent. However, staff members such asoffice workers or housekeeping help whocontribute to the overall program, rather thanto distinct components, should be listed undera distinct category. A day care network orsystem, for instance, could include most of itspersonnel under "Administration" if it listedclerical and office workers under that headinginstead of dividing up their time.
Fringe benefits are usually estimated at 10percent of the total for staff services. Benefitsinclude social security, workmen's compen-sation, health and accident insurance, retire-ment program costs, unemployment insurance,costs of inservice training, conference at-tendance, and others that may be granted.Expendable and consumable supplies. List allsupplies used by each component, includingpaper and other office materials, paper cupsand napkins, art supplies, and cleaning sup-plies.Space costs. This item includes the cost ofrenting or using space. Residential rental costsare usually lower than commercial costs. Rentor mortgage and interest payments, utilities,and routine repair and renovation are in-cluded, but not start-up, construction, addi-tions, or major renovations. For a family set-ting, the cost of the residencemortgage,taxes, utilities, maintenanceshould be di-vided proportionately (prorated) according tohow much of the space is used for day careand how much is used as a private home.Insurance and bonding. Insurance carriers willprovide rates for property insurance, liabilityinsurance, and accident insurance, as well asfor the cost of bonding personnel who handlefunds in large programs or networks. Insuranceis usually a relatively minor costsay, 1 to 2percent of the total budget. However, in someareas of relatively high risk, the cost of in-surance can become a major problemonewhich must be resolved before start-up. Thoseoffering family day care should prorate theirproperty, accident, and liability insurancebetween day care and personal family expense,
2 Because of this, changing the ratio of children served bya caregiver dramatically affects the cost of a program. Aratio of one caregiver for seven children (1:7) may cost 20or 30 percent more per child than a ratio of 1:10.
44
Table 4-1.Annual Costs per Preschool Child'
Age (in months)
36-53 54-71
Teachers and aides $ 985 $ 689
Administrator and secretary 355 355
Rental costs:Residential 81 81Commercial 203 203
Food 184 184
Consumable equipment 42 42
Depreciation 6 6
Maintenance 61 61
Utilities 14 14
Consultants 20 20
Other:Residential 60 79Commercial 53 70
TotalResidential 1,808 1,531Commercial 1,923 1,644
Assumes average center capacity of 36 children.Source: Inner City Fund.
and should include the extra costs of addi-tional automobile insurance if the caregiversupplies transportation.Communication. List the costs of installingand maintaining telephone service as well asthe cost of postage required for the program.Family operators should determine whatportioli of the costs of their household servicesare attributable to the program.rood. Show the costs for all meals andsnacks. Include the number of meals andsnacks to be served and the average cost forchildren's meals and adult's meals. This itemshould be broken down into personnel costsand nonpersonnel costs.Transportation. Show the cost of transportingchildren to and from day care and on fieldtrips if the program provides transportation asa service. Staff travel expenses should beshown if the program pays for them and ifthey are not included in fringe benefits. A daycare network usually pays for the transporta-tion of consultants and resource personnelwho visit different settings and may pay fortransportation of caregivers who attendtraining sessions.
Training costs. A day care center or a networkmay require and pay for further training ofstaff members and caregivers, and networksusually have a babysitting allowance for chil-dren of family day care mothers who attendtraining sessions. The amount of the cost willdepend on the training which is available andrequired. One estimate places training costs at10 percent of salary cost.Consultant services. Consultants are notregular employees. They may include thedoctor on call, a visiting nurse, teachers forstaff training courses, social workers, psy-chologists, and others. In a day care network,the central organization sometimes suppliesconsultant services for a fee. A fraction of thefee may be listed as a cost under each com-ponent of the program, or the total fee to theday care network may be carried as a separatecomponent under a heading such as "Servicesfrom the Central Network." However, the costof consultants should not be lumped in withother miscellaneous costs and fees, since theamounts spent for staff services and consul-tants are important information to anyoneattempting to evaluate the programOther costs. Licensing fees, publicity andpublic relations, annual audit, and miscella-neous purchased services will be included inmost budgets. In a day care network, many ofthese costs may be assumed by the centralorganization.Construction, alteration, and renovation. Anew day care organization may have to con-struct or modify a building for daycare, and theindividual home used for family day care mayneed renovation, additions, or alterationsadditional exits, bathroom facilities, fencingto meet licensing requirements. Such ex-penses can usually be shown as assets andtheir depreciation listed in the budget as yearlycosts. This item may also include other ex-penses such as building permits and architects'fees. Some day care networks provide a ren-ovation allowance for individual homes whichmust be altered; the alteration, however,should he listed as a cost and the allowanceshould be shown elsewhere as income.Equipment and furniture. Typewriters, desks,chairs, rugs, drapesalmost any long-lastingpiece of equipment or furniture needed forthe dm/ care operationcan be listed as anasset Jepreciated, with the depreciationhandk.0 as an annual cost. An accountant
should help determine exact depreciationcharges for each asset.
In-Kind Donations in the BudgetOne way to reduce the amount of money
required for a program is to substitutepayment-in-kindgoods or services in place ofmoney payments. Volunteer workers and do-nated materials and equipment can make itpossible for a thinly funded program to beginoperating. So long as quality standards aremaintained, payment-in-kind can be valuable,both as a substitute for money and as a way topromote parent and community involvement.
The value of goods and services received freeis an important part of the budget picture. Do-nations must be given a financial value equal towhat they would cost if purchased; carried in thebudget under the appropriate program compo-nents, but distinguishable from actual moneyexpenses; and explained in a footnote or else-where, since anyone examining the budgetwould otherwise get a distorted picture of theprogram. If an in-kind donation becomes unavail-able in the future, or if the program is to beexpanded or duplicated elsewhere, the directoror operator will need accurate estimates of thecash value of donated inputs.
Budget JustificationMany people are skilled at "reading" a budget
in terms of the implied goals of the organizationand the quality of service it plans to offer. Inquality day care programs, for example, three-quarters to four-fifths of the total budget usuallygoes to wages and salaries, and a wide departurefrom this range may require a reasonable justi-fication.
Justification is the explanation of all items inthe budget which may raise questions in themind of a reviewer or which need additionalcomment for some other reason. Justificationswould cover any unusual items which appear inthe budget, any dollar amounts that seem un-usually large or small, notes about the financialvalue give...) to a donation, and methods used toarrive at certain figures. These explanations arenecessary for a careful analysis of the budget andare evidence of the care that has been exercisedin developing the budget. Funding sources, inparticular, will want to know the details andassumptions behind your figures in order toevaluate your program, its benefits, and theamount of funds required.
45
Cost per ChildCalculation of the program's cost per child will
be useful in comparing costs with other pro-grams and is required by many funding agencies.However, comparisons of cost per child can bemisleading, since there are many different waysto calculate the figure. It might seem straight-forward to divide the total budget by the numberof children served to reach cost per child, butthat method overlooks several problems.
How is the number of children determined?You may count either the number of childrenenrolled or those who actually attend. Thechoice of method may make a difference of 10to 20 percent in the final result. What abouthalf-day children? If one child attends the pro-gram in the morning and another takes his placein the afternoon, you must decide whether tocount one or two children. This choice can makea difference of as much as 50 percent in the finalresult.
How do you calculate the total cost of theprogram? In quality day care programs, donatedgoods and services usually make up aboutone-fourth of the total resources, and the deci-sion to include or exclude them will make aconsiderable difference in the cost-per-childfigure. Will you include supplements to theregular programfield trips, social occasions,parents' classes, consultants? These supplementsoften add 5 to 10 percent to the total cost. Doyou adjust for price differentials between yourarea and other parts of the country and for thedifference between urban and rural prices? Aprogram in a large northeastern city, for instance,may cost twice as much as a comparable pro-gram in the rural South.
Cost per child may be figured on the basis of ayear, a month, a week, a day, or an hour. Thecost per day is usually calculated by dividing thetotal costs by the number of child-days of en-rollmentnot child-days of attendance, sincecosts continue whether the child attends or not.
Some public funding sources encourage daycare operators to over-enroll in order to com-pensate for the predictable absence rateat least10 percent in most programs. Based on this as-sumption, even if a program over-enrolls, theaverage daily attendance figure will still fallwithin guidelines and regulations. Some agenciescontract with day care providers on the basis ofaverage daily attendance, and mostincludingwelfare agenciespurchase a certain number ofday care slots or positions from a day care
46
provider and pay the provider regardless ofwhether the slots are filled.
When you apply to an agency for funds, thecost per child of your program should be re-calculated, if possible, according to the methodfavored by that agency. Different public agencieshave different guidelines. Whatever the methodchosen, it should be spelled out in detail topermit accurate comparison with other cost-per-child estimates.
FundingSince quality day care is expensive, most
programs have to rely on more than one sourceof funds. While the most obvious contributorsare the parents of the children in the program,few parents can afford to pay their child's shareof the total cost of a quality program, and somecan afford nothing at all.
In setting its fee schedule and decidingwhether those parents who are financially ableshould pay more than their proportionate fee,each program effectively determines what mix ofchildren it will accept. As the fee charged toparents increases, the number of children whowill be priced out of the program also increases.This is especially true of children of the middleclass and the working poor who cannot affordexpensive private programs yet are not eligiblefor publicly funded day care. The objective ofmost programs, then, will be to minimize theparents' fee by getting as much funding aspossible from other sources.
Public FundsMost public funds are available to families
whose incomes fall below or near the officiallydefined poverty levels. Some of these funds alsogive priority to certain familiesfor example,those involved in work-training programs.Guidelines and information about public sourcesof funding change frequently, so it is importantfor day care programs to know about currentresources and, where possible, to anticipatechanges.
Information about public sources of day carefunds is available from such agencies as Stateoffices of welfare, education, labor, and childdevelopment, and from the Federal Departmentof Labor and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Community Fund-Raising CampaignsPrivate philanthropic agencies, such as the
United Fund or Community Chest, join in anannual appeal for money. To receive any of thesefunds, a day care program is usually required tomeet a community need and to operate on anonprofit basis. It may also be required to beincorporated and to meet other standards. Fundsare usually granted only as a means to relieve thedeficit between annual operating expenses andincome from all other sources, and they cannotbe used for building programs or other one-timeneeds. The funds are usually calculated on thebasis of days of attendance at the program,rather than on operating expenses of the pro-gram.
Individual Fund-Raking CampaignsSome day care organizations undertake their
own campaigns to raise money. They maysponsor bake sales, car washes, book :ales,dramatic performances, or social occasions; orthey may charge membership dues or issue let-ters of appeal. These efforts usually have limitedsuccess. Unless run by a group with considerableexperience, the project may actually produceexpenses higher than the income.
Endowments and Other PropertyVery few day care programs are lucky enough
to have endowments or income-producingproperty. For those few, sound investments willprovide funds which can help the program butcan seldom support it entirely, especially sinceLosts continue to rise.
GrantsMany foundations and organizations make
grants to education and child welfare programsthat provide a unique service, such as day carefor children of adolescent unwed mothers or ofmigrant workers, or day care for the physicallyhandicapped. Applying for such a grant is fre-quently a long, complicated process and usuallyinvolves submitting a detailed proposal and abudget. Details differ widely and should beobtained from each organization or foundationseparately.
In.Kind DonationsGifts of goods or services are frequently
available in the community, especially if a daycare organization uses good advertising andpublic relations techniques to inform the com-
munity about its program, and is willing to makepublic recognition of donations. Local merchantsmay donate furniture, toys, books, kitchenequipment, or art supplies; eating establishmcitsmay give cups or napkins; furniture stores maydonate carpet remnants. Collection boxes inpublic areas, if well-publicized, may bring inmany kinds of equipment and supplies. A cor-poration, church, or university may be willing todonate rent-free space. University students willfrequently contribute their labor, especially whenthe experience helps to meet their requirementsfor such courses as children's literature, design ofplay equipment, or teaching. Many professionalsin the community may donate their services asresource people to help train day care staff or towork with families. Finally, family members maybe able to make significant donations of work bymaking or maintaining equipment, serving asteacher aides, helping with meals, or providingtransportation.
Fees from ParentsSetting the fee which parents are to be
charged is usually touchy. The fees must be sethigh enough to make up the difference betweentotal expenses and the funds available from allother sourceswhich puts pressure on the daycare organization to use all sources of funds tothe utmost. An organization serving the com-munity must try to keep its fees as low as pos-sible, since those who need day care most areoften those who can least afford it.
Some forms of day care solve the problemsimply. In proprietary centers or family carehomes run for profit, parents' fees are set tocover all expenses. Only those who can affordthe cost receive the service. Some cooperativeprograms are run and staffed by parents whodonate their labor in return for care of theirchildren, and parent fees meet the actual cashexpenses, which are minimal.
However, in most high quality nonproprietaryprograms, the setting of fees is controversial.Because of the very high cost of quality day care,available public funds are far from sufficient toprovide care to all those who need it. Obviously,parents must pay part of the cost. Most peopleagree that the fees paid by parents should be insome relation to their ability to pay without realhardship. But the process of setting the fee to bepaid by each family can cause misunderstandingand resentment.
In some cases, a welfare worker and the par-ents may study the family's total budget in detail
47
before setting the fee. While such a budget studymay help the family, it may also seem an inva-sion of privacy. Another disadvantage to thismethod is that the day care program cannot planin advance how much income it will receivefrom parents.
More frequently, parent fees are set by someform of sliding scale. Fees range between aminimumsometimes set at zeroand a max-imum, which may be set at the actual cost of thecare. Between these extremes, the fee for eachfamily is set on the basis of family income. Anumber of other factors may be considered atthe option of the organization. Sometimes netincome is the basis rather than gross income.Sometimes the number of children and otherdependents can be applied to offset income, orcosts of training and education may be deducted.Most programs continue to charge the fee whenthe child is absent, either in full or at a reducedlevel, reserving the child's place in the program,but sometimes the fee may be waived.
A sliding scale, or any similar device, alwayscarries the possibility of resentment and con-troversy by families who feel their fees are toohigh or by those who feel that the process at-tacks their dignity or their privacy. These nega-tive feelings may become a critical problem,particularly in communities with a wide range ofincome. A high level of parent involvement inthe program will help to improve understandingand maintain balance.
The caregiver who operates a family day careprogram is in a poor position to consult andbargain with parents about fees. Moreover, theuse of a sliding scale of fees is probably notfeasible in a program with only two or threeclients. But if the family care program is part of a
48
network, the central organization can deal withthe families, use a sliding scale, collect fees, andreimburse the individual caregivers.
The director of a center or network, as well asall those engaged in recruiting families, shouldmake sure that all staff members and all parentshave a clear explanation, in writing, of thefee-setting procedurepreferably with tableswhich will permit each family to verify the fee itpays and foresee changes. All parents, from theirfirst contact with the organization, should bemade aware of the fee structure.
ReferencesDay Care and Child Development Council of America.
Costs of Day Care. Washington, D.C.: Day Care andChild Development Council of America, n.d.
Federal Funds for Day Care Projects. Women's Bureau, U.S.Department of Labor. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1967.
Inner City Fund, Inc. Potential Cost and Economic Benefitsof Industrial Day Care. U.S. Department of Labor. Wash-ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.
Internal Revenue Service. Child Care. Washington, D.C.:Internal Revenue :42rvice, 1972.
Lourie, N.V. "Funding Child Care Programs Under TitleIVA." Children Today 1, No. 4 (1972): 23-25.
The Problem of Fee Schedules. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1970.
Sale, 1.S., et al. Open the Door . . . See the People. ADescriptive Report of the Second Year of the CommunityFamily Day Care Project. Pasadena: Pacific Oaks College,1972.
Southeastern Day Care Project. A Cost Analysis System forDay Care Programs. Southeastern Day Care Bulletin No. 3.Washington, D.C.: Day Care and Child Develop-ment Council of America, 1972.
Thompson, L.C., Coordinator. A Study in Child Care1970-71. Volume Cost and Quality Issues for Oper-ators. Cambridge, Mass.: ABT Associates, 1971.
Chapter 5Licensing and Other Forms of Regulation
People entering the day care field are oftensurprised to learn that every State exercises somecontrol over day care through licensing andother forms of regulation. The person whosimply wants to provide care for neighborhoodchildren without a lot of redtape may regardsuch control as an unnecessary burden.Complying with State and local regulations exactsa considerable toll in time, energy, and some-times money; and, in some States, the processseems far more complex and time-consumingthan necessary. Despite the problems, regulationof child care is a good and necessary precautionwhich works in the interest of children, parents,caregivers, and the community.
Regulation is basically an act of public inter-vention to protect people against identifiablerisks. In principle, regulation is justified when therisks are real, when the protection is effective,and when the regulations safeguard withoutimposing unnecessary hardships on those whoare regulated.
This chapter briefly discusses the developmentand present state of licensing and other forms ofregulation, and offers some practical informationthat may help caregivers get through the licensingprocess more easily.
The Development of Day Care RegulationRegulation in the child care field, as in many
others, began as a response to serious abuses. Inthe late 19th and early 20th centuries, thenumber of public and private institutions andhomes for children increased in response togrowing urbanization. These institutions gavelittle attention to the qualifications of their care-givers and were characterized by poor sanita-tion, poor nutrition, poor housing, and inade-quate medical care. Early regulation was mainlyconcerned with the basic physical safety of thechildren in these homes and was directed at thegross shortcomings of the facilities.
Not until the early 1960's did States begin toregulate day care through actual licensing. Priorto this, a maze of safety and sanitation laws
served as regulation. Like these old-time laws,most regulation today appears to be orientedmore toward physical facilities and safety thantoward the professional qualifications of thecaregiver. However, the licensing laws arebroader than most in their coverage and includestaff qualifications end program.
While all States now regulate day care to somedegree, few present practices are wholly satis-factory. There are many gaps in the coverage,such as the lack of regulation for certain types orsizes of institutionsfor facilities operated foronly a few hours a day or for facilities at recre-ational or shopping centers. In some cases, thebuilding safety regulations were written for otherinstitutions and later extended to day care, thusoften forcing day care facilities to meet unnec-essarily rigid requirements.
Wide differences among the various require-ments, statutes, and recommendations in dif-ferent States are an added source of confusion.There are generally three kinds of standardswhich can be applied to day care.
One set of standardsthe licensing re-quirementsrepresents the basic floor ofprotection for all children in day care, a levelof quality a day care program should meet inorder to be permitted to operate.Standards required for public funding rep-resent another, higher level of quality which apublic agency sets as a condition for subsidy.Standards for voluntary accreditation repre-sent a third level of quality, a set of modelstandards which are the ceiling of quality, tobe continually raised over time.
Each of the different forms of regulation dis-cussed below will fit loosely into one of thesecategories.
49
Present Forms of Day Care Regulation
LicensingLicensing is a form of regulation in most States
by which the State or a local agency sets andenforces certain minimum standards which daycare programs must fulfill before being allowedto operate. Day care licensing has two majorgoals:
to prevent foreseeable dangers and eliminateor reduce hazardsto encourage and support a nurturing envi-ronment.
ZoningMunicipalities set zoning regulations which
restrict the uses to which land may be put. Sincelarge-scale day care, a relatively recent develop-ment, does not comfortably fit into most zoningcodes, day care facilities may be zoned out ofneighborhoods where they are needed or may beforced to meet unrealistic standards. In a fewmunicipalities, family day care is treated for landuse purposes as a residential home, and centerday care is considered similar in land use to asmall school. However, in most communities,zoning has proved one of the most serious fac-tors inhibiting the growth of day care.
Building SafetyBoth State and local laws regulate matters of
building safety, including sanitation, fire, andoccupancy. These regulations apply to bothpublic and private day care facilities.
IncorporationEvery State has laws governing corporations.
Many States require day care organizations to .
incorporate before they can be licensed, aridmost advise any group planning a day care op-eration to incorporate for their own good. In-corporation ensures that someone is responsibleand accountable for the acts of the organizationand, at the same time, protects individualmembers by limiting their personal liability.
Administrative Procedures ActsAll States have administrative procedures acts
or other similar provisions, which protect thosewho are regulated against improper proceduresor abuse of authority by the regulating agent.Every licensee, every applicant for a license, andevery operator subject to day care regulationshould be familiar with these provisions in his orher own State.
50
Federal Requirements Tied to Federal FundsAll day care facilities which receive Federal
funds are required to be licensed or to be ap-proved as meeting the licensing standards ofState and lo-al agencies. In addition, a set ofFederal day care requirements has been devel-oped for all agencies receiving Federal funds.These requirements state, among other condi-tions, that the facility must also meet State andlocal regulatory requirements.
Regulation Through Purchase of CareMany public agencies provide day care by
contracting individual day care operations. Insuch arrangements, the agency prescribes thestandards to be met.
Proposals and Accounting SystemsOfficials of both public and private agencies
sometimes try to discourage incompetent orunscrupulous operators by requiring highly de-tailed, professionally prepared funding proposalsor complex accounting systems. Many smallgroups may plan high quality services but maylack the expertise needed to qualify for funds.Most day care programs need several sources offunds, and most funding agencies require thattheir funds be kept separate from others. Thisresults riot only in an accounting system socomplex that it becomes an obstacle to providingday care, but sometimes in the segregation ofchildren by category and a fragmented programas well.
Administrative SupervisionAgencies of the State government exercise this
form of control over local governments. Forexample, a State welfare agency which providesday care services may control local welfare op-erations by setting program objectives andstandards, reviewing performance, and requiringlocal agencies to discontinue operations whichfail to measure up.
Approval of Facilities by Parent OrganizationsMany day care facilities, both family homes
and centers, are operated as parts of a largerpublic or private agency. Rather than licenseeach facility in such a system separately, someState licensing authorities permit the parentagency to become licensed and to inspect andbe responsible for its own facilities. The State, ofcourse, can still check records and visit any daycare facility.
Voluntary Agency AccreditationAccreditation means that a day care program
has received some sort of "seal of approval"from an organization known both for settinghigh standards and for helping programs to meetthem. A day care operator may voluntarily seekthe accreditation of a national agency such as theChild Welfare League of America or of an ac-creditation system developed at the local, State,or national level. The operator is committed tomeeting the high standards of the accreditingorganization and, in return, receives publicrecognition for operating a model program.
Staff Credentialing1.116 method is more an attractive possibility
than a current form of regulation. Although thestaff is the most important element in quality daycare, there are presently few requirements foreducation or experience to be met by caregivers,other than those each program sets for its ownstaff. Obviously, any standardized credentialingsystem based on academic performance alonewould be senseless. Such a system would excludemany, if not most, present caregivers who arecompetent but without formal academic degrees.A method which is both effective and realistic isneeded to regulate staff quality. The Child De-velopment Associate program. which is discussedin chapter 13, offers one possible approach.
Regulation of Family Day CareMost family day care is intorno' and unor-
ganized, with arrangements and payments han-dled directly between parents and caregivers.Many family care homes operate for severalyears, but others operate for only brief periods.These factors make it extremely difficult to en-force licensing and other regulatory require-ments, or even to inform all caregivers that theserequirements exist.
Moreover, since many of the present safetystandards have been written for large institutionalfacilities, they would almost automatically ruleout most potential day care homes if they wererigorously applied. For example, many fire codesinsist on two exits from every room occupied bychildren. Since few private homes meet thiscondition, strict enforcement of the code wouldmake expensive renovation necessary in order toprovide day care in the home. Beyond thesedifficulties, most licensing agencies now carrywork loads so heavy that they could neitherhandle the additional burden of licensing everyfamily day care home nor stand behind any
guarantee of minimum basic protection.It has been estimated that only about 10
percent of all children in day care are in centers,while approximately 90 percent are in some typeof family home careeither in-home care, familycare, or group family care. Probably 90 to 95percent of the centers are licensed, but onlyabout 5 to 10 percent of family care homes arelicensed or approved as meeting licensingstandards. The obvious conclusion is that, by far,the greater number of children in day care arenot effectively safeguarded by the law. Presentcodes and procedures will have to be modified iflicensing is to be an effective means of regulatingfamily care homes. Currently, there is muchdiscussion among those concerned with day careabout how to best regulate family care homes.
Appropriate Goals for RegulationTo be effective, standards must be realistic.
Licensing standards should set a basic, but fea-sible, floor of protection; funding standardsshould designate a level of quality appropriate,yet worthy, of public funding; and modelstandards should set goals which can be con-tinually raised and to which all programs canaspire. Since poor communities, working-classcommunities, and wealthy communities all needchild care, the real challenge is to providestandards which insurewithin the limits ofavailable resourcesboth adequate basic pro-tection and incentive for an always higher qualityof care.
In most States, the process for formulating daycare standards ii open to the views of licensees,parents, professionals, and concerned citizens;and in some States, advisory committees havebeen established as a channel for-such views. Inpractice, however, most groups and individualsignore these opportunities. Those concernedabout quality day care should not only know thecurrent standards, but should also understandand use the mechanisms available for their re-view and revision. The providers and users of daycare, especially if organized, can significantlyinfluence regulatory standards and can helpmake them more specific, reasonable, and re-sponsive to community needs.
Ideally, regulation has three basic tasks:to set a minimum standard for safety, bothphysical and psychological, to protect childrenand their parents from inadequate programsto develop fair and specific measures forjudging the quality of child careto facilitate the expansion of quality child
51
care services to meet the growing demand.Licensing agents should help day care opera-tors to secure licenses by helping them meetlicensing requirementswhich are seldom verystringentas well as the many other regulatorylaws, particularly zoning, building safety, fireprevention, and sanitation.Much of the current regulation tends to
restrict, rather than facilitate, the development ofday care as an institution. For example, there aremany day care programs forced to secure bitsand pieces of funding from many differentsources, each having different requirements;there are zoning codes which treat day care as aspecial problem to be carefully controlled, ratherthan as a resource needed by an ever-increasingnumber of families, and which ignore theedesirability of day care near the homes of thosefamilies it serves; there are safety standardsdesigned essentially for schools, hospitals, andauditoriums which are far more strict than thoseimposed on the children's own homes; and thereis redtape beyond the ability of most nonpro-fessionals to untangle.
A model for regulation is needed which willboth encourage the development of day care andupgrade its quality within the limits of availableresources. Such model regulation might include:
the uniform placement of safety standardsunder either the public safety laws or thelicensing authority, or some means of helpingthe licensing worker and the building inspectorwork together effectivelysome way for public and private groups tohelp develop licensing standards and to helprevise them periodicallya system of staff credentialing and support forappropriate training within funding require-mentsseveral forms of public or private accredita-tion, each with a consulting service and eachwith high standards which could regularly beraisedprovision for adequate staffs for licensingofficesenforcement of funding requirements forpublicly funded programs.
Facts of Current Day Care LicensingIn qualifying for a day care license, an oper-
ator should (1) get to know in detail all theapplicable State and local regulations beforetaking any action, and (2) start early, since thetime required to complete the regulatory processmay be long.
52
The steps involved in obtaining a license varytrom State to State, and in most States proce-dures differ for licensing day care centers, familyday care homes, and often for group day carehomes as well. Many of these proceduresespecially for licensing a family day carehomeare currently being reexamined andchanged. To learn the procedure neededto qualify for a license in your particular com-munity, contact the licensing agencyusually theState or local office of the department ofwelfare, sometimes the department of health,or a new office of child development.
A general outline of the licensing procedure islisted below. While no general statement willapply to every situation, these steps are typical ofa large number of States and may give some ideaof the time and effort needed to obtain a license.
Locate your licensing office. Here, find outabout the licensing requirements and otherrequirements which have to be met.Get an informal appraisal to learn if yourbuilding can meet building safety and firecodes.Submit floor and building plans to city hallfor zoning approval. Is the location zoned topermit day care? If not, a public hearing maybe needed to obtain a special permit.Submit floor and building plans to the cityhall building inspector, sometimes to the firedepartment as well. The inspector will visit thefacility and may issue a building permit if it isnew or remodeled.If the building meets both State and local fireand safety codes, the inspector will issue abuilding safety certificate.Contact the local health department to learnif the building meets State and local sanitationrequirements. When these requirements aremet, you can apply for a license.Contact the licensing office once more. Astaff member will visit your facility to checkrequirements and make recommendations. Ifall requirements are met, you will receive alicense.The licensing staff will visit regularly to makesure that standards are being maintained. Atthis point helpful consultation can be given ifthe operator asks for such advice.In estimating the time that may be required to
become licensed, remember that the above listshows only those steps performed by theapplicant; tasks performed by the State and localagencies may cause additional delays. Typically,the most serious delays are caused by the lack of
coordination among different agencies actingunder different statutes. The problems involve alack of understanding among the various Stateand local agencies about the exact interpretationof existing standards. Other delays are caused bythe applicant's lack of financesparticularly ofcapital needed for renovations to meet fire andhealth codesor of needed information. Andfinally, as was mentioned before, most licensingagencies do not have enough staff to keep upwith the increasing volume of applications or tohelp applicants through this quite complicatedsystem.
While the procedure can be long andinvolved, many State licensing agencies offer kitsof information and other kinds of help toapplicants. Other help may also be gotten fromcaregivers who are already licensed. But the stateof regulation in general is far from ideal. Forthose entering the day care field, four pointsdeserve speciai emphasis.
First, if you are planning to start a day careprogram, do not underestimate the time andeffort needed to obtain a license.Second, remember that some form of regu-lation is indispensable to the welfare of chil-dren and their families and, at present,licensing is the most important form of regu-lation.Third, licensing laws and standards can be
improved through the active participation ofcaregivers, both individuals and organizations,who can offer practical advice to thoseresponsible for reviewing and revising State
and local regulations.Fourth, the public must persuade the States to
give priority to day care, to employ more andbetter-trained staff in licensing agencies, and
to help operators through the maze of regu-
latory laws and requirements.
ReferencesAbstracts of State Day Care Licensing Requirements. Part 1:
Family Day Care Homes and Group Day Care Homes.Office of Child Development. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Publication No. (OCD) 73-21.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.
Abstracts of State Day Care Licensing Requirements. Part 2:Day Care Centers. Office of Child Development. U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Publica-tion No. (OCD) 73-22. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1971.
Class, N.E. Licensing of Child Care Facilities by State Wel-fare Departments: A Conceptual Statement. Children'sBureau Publication No. 462. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1968.
Costin, L.B. "New Directions in the Licensing of Child CareFacilities." Child Welfare 49, No. 2 (1970): 64-71.
Day Care Licensing Study, Summary Report on Phase 1:State and Local Day Care Licensing Requirements. Socialand Administrative Services and Systems Association withConsulting Services Corporation, 1971.
Granato, S.). and lynch, E.D. "Day Care Licensing." Chil-dren Today 1, No. 1 (1972): 23-24.
Hughes, E.; Ferguson, D.; and Gum, M. Licensing . . . ADynamic for Change. New York: Child Welfare League ofAmerica, 1962.
Guides for Day Care Licensing. Office of Child Develop-ment. U' . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Publication No. (OCD) 73-1053. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1973.
Morgan, G.G. Regulation of Early Childhood Programs.Washington, D.C.: Day Care and Child DevelopmentCouncil of America, 1972.
A Survey of State Day Care Licensing Requirements. ChildCare Bulletin No. 4. Washington, D.C.: Day Care andChild Development Council of America, 1971.
53
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The physical setting of a day care program isthe product of compromises and adjustments. Iti5 doubtful that any existing program has an idealfacilitynot only because of cost limitations, butalso because there is no completely satisfactoryway to reconcile program goals with a setting'sphysical limitations. For example, the best-equipped building may not be in the best loca-tion; or an otherwise excellent facility may beuncomfortably small for the number of childrenenrolled; inadequate transportation may meanrelocating to a noisy, congested area near maintraffic routes; while the home of a warm andexperienced family caregiver may lack completelysatisfactory outdoor play space.
The philosophy of the day care program canplace further limitations on the facility. A pro-gram slanted toward exploratory free play, forexample, may require isolated areas for indi-vidual activity at the expense of equally neededspace for more structured group activities. Or aprogram with the goal of grouping children ofdifferent ages may need an inconvenientarrangement of rooms to permit younger chil-dren to nap while older ones play or may havetrouble selecting equipment which will be nei-ther stifling to older children nor too advancedfor younger ones.
Obviously, suggestions for day care facilitieswhich might be perfectly appropriate for oneprogram might be totally useless for another.One requirement, however, must be met byevery day care facility: it must be a safe andhealthy environment for children.
Every child care ogram should have a facilitysuited, as closely as pos ble, to its personalcharacteristicsto the number of childrenenrolled, to the unique qualities of both thesechildren and their caregivers, and to the specificphilosophy followed. The purpose of this chapteris to outline the many factors and considerationswhich enter into facility decisions, such as thelocation and type of building for a center,environmental criteria for the setting, and theplanning and use of both indoor and outdoor
Chapter 6Facilities
spaces. Considerations in preparing a privatehome for day care are dealt with separately, eventhough many of the same factors apply.
Center Facilities
LocationThe ideal location for day carewhether a
center or a family homeis in the neighborhoodof the children served. Location can make orbreak a day care program for several reasons.
Many families cannot or will not transporttheir children long distances each day.Transportation provided by the program willbe expensive.Public transportation is frequently unde-pendable or inadequate.Transportation is more difficult in the winterwhen attendance may drop off sharply ifchildren have far to travel.Day care programs at the parents' place of
work demonstrate the importance of goodlocation. Since such programs are located inindustrial areas, often far from the homes ofworking families, they almost always involvetraveling long distances. Even where employershave attempted to establish free child care at thework site, parents often choose day care closerto home to avoid exposing their children to rush
hour traffic and long daily rides.Most children spend long hours in day care,
and time spent traveling to and from the siteadds to their fatigue. Walking distances shouldbe short enough not to tire children who havealready spent an active day away from home,and transportation by bus or car should be nolonger than about 15 to 20 minutes.
Yet, for certain localities and for programsserving specific populations, neighborhood day
care is impossible. Rural programs and programsfor exceptional childreneven those in largecitiesserve families who are scattered over awide area. For these children. time spent travel-ing to and from day care is necessarily long.
When long distances cannot be avoided,transportation in private cars is best. If this is
55
impossible, transportation should be furnished bythe program. Everything possible should be doneto make the ride pleasant and relaxing and tominimize the traveling time for each child byusing several small vehicles instead of one largeone. Public transportation, the third alteinative,can be inconvenient and may require anothercompromise on location: the facility would havetu be near transportation routes, even though itshould be as isolated as possible from the noiseand potential danger of major streets.
In urban areas, an ideal location would beremoved from the noise, congestion, and dirt oflarge populations and industry. No location willbe perfect. For parents living in a city, somecompromise is necessary between the desire forday care close to home and, at the same time,removed from safety and health problems.Choose a location where traffic hazards can becontrolled, and where noise and dirt can beminimized in both indoor and outdoor areas.
Many communities have a master plan fordevelopment. Information from this plan can beused to map present and future concentrations ofchildren and the locations of children's servicessuch as schools and medical programs. Themap can help indicate the areas where day carecenters are most needed. While information onexisting family day care programs will probablybe sketchy, the master plan can help show wherefamily programs may be needed in the future.
Type of BuildingThe type of building will affect the day care
program, encouraging some kinds of activitiesand limiting others. Ideally, the building shouldbe chosen or designed specifically for the pro-gram, though few programs have the funds orthe range of choices necessary for an idealfacility. The choice usually requires balancing thegoals of the program against the availablealternatives.
The type of program planned will determinethe building's size, layout, and equipment. Forexample, the requirements for a program offeringonly daytime care differ from those of one thatalso offers nighttime services. A program thatemphasizes freely chosen activities should have abuilding which permits maximum freedom to thechildren, a minimum need for adult surveillance,and ease of cleanup and maintenance. And aprogram that serves handicapped children willprobably need more space for equipment, forsmaller groups of children, and for more staff
56
members per child, as well as such special fea-tures as ramps for wheelchairs.
Climate is also an important factor: if theweather is cold or wet for much of the year, thechildren will need more indoor space andequipment than if it is usually warm and sunny.
Although day care in new facilities is ideal,most programs are housed in renovated build-ings. Since the cost of renovation can vary fromminor to prohibitive, at least two or three esti-mates should be obtained from architects orcontractors before deciding on a building. Somegranting agencies will not reimburse day careoperators unless they can demonstrate that theyhave paid the cheapest price.
In general, the building chosen should bestructurally sound, big enough for the program,with rooms of usable size and shape, and withwiring, plumbing, and heating in good condition.In such a building, repair and renovation arelikely to be minor.
Major renovation can use up large amounts ofmoney that may be needed more urgently forother aspects of the program. It is rarely wise tochoose a building, no matter how attractive inother ways, that has faulty plumbing, electrical,heating, or air-conditioning systems' or that needsmajor relocation of walls. Any serious structuraldeficiency should rule out the building auto-matically. Don't worry about nonstructuralproblemssuch as peeling paint (unless it islead-based, which must be completely removed),cracked linoleum, or broken windowssincenew wall and floor coverings, guards on win-dows and doors, crash bars on doors for quickexit, and minor changes in partitions are rela-tively simple and inexpensive.
If costly renovation is required only to meetbuilding codes and does not affect the health orsafety of childrer, a waiver by the licensingagency may be possible ktui should be explored.
Different types of buildings which may beavailable for renovation have characteristic ad-vantages and problems.
Old houses are frequently available in goodlocations, are usually subdivided into usefulspaces, may have duplicate kitchen and toiletfacilities and ample plumbing, often have goodoutdoor play space, and provide a homelikeatmosphere. However, unless it is very sound, anold house can be expensive to renovate.
Multipurpose buildingssuch as apartmentbuildings, churches, settlement houses, andcommunity centersusually offer savings in
utilities and renovation and are often located inthe children's neighborhood. Space on theground floor should be used, if possible. The daycare program should have separate entries andexits and, if possible, should have sole use of thespace to avoid distractions and time wasted inmoving furniture and equipment. Possible dis-advantages include noise from other occupants,the inconvenience of being too near to otheractivities, and the difficulty and expense ofmaking major changes in the space.
Schools are sometimes able to spare a fewclassrooms and other space which will probablybe arranged efficiently; plumbing anti etherequipment is likely to be adequate and designedfor children; and cross-age contact is readilyavailable. Disadvantages include noise, the dis-traction of nearby activities, possible complica-tions about scheduling to use shared areas suchas a playing field, and the institutional setting.
Store-front or shopping center locations placechildren at the hub of activities, usually in theirown neighborhoods. Disadvantages are noise andother distractions, traffic hazards, and usually alack of outdoor play space.
Industrial, university, and hospital locations areoften near a parent's place of work and mayallow for shared lunches and visits. Potentialdisadvantages include long travel time and thepossibility of hazardous or unpleasant industrialenvironments.
Environmental CriteriaEnvironmental criteria indicate how space is
usedthat is, the qualities of the facility as asetting for children. (These are different from thephysical qualitiesthe amounts and arrange-ments of spacewhich are discussed in thefollowing sections.) Differences between a daycare home and day care center are obvious andimportant. Both have advantages, and there is noreason to try to make a home look or functionlike an institution or to pretend that a center isreally a home.
A day care center can be designed to becomfortable, safe, and stimulating for children,and to serve as a catalyst in enhancing contactbetween children and staff. It can also providean environment in which the doors, floors, walls,and furnishings themselves provide opportunitiesfor learning. Complicated or subtle design incenters is desirable but not essential, and isusually not practical. The cost of such designmust be weighed against its benefits. What
counts most is safe, economical, and easilymaintained space, a skilled staff, and a soundprogram. Given this basis, day care can functionwell, and the staff can gradually improve thesetting as resources permit.Lighting. Each room needs adequate glare-freelighting. While daylight should be used as muchas possible, artificial lighting should be sufficientto do the job alone. In new construction ormajor renovation, provide as many windows aspossible which should be low enough to let thechildren see out. In nap areas, windows willneed shades or curtains.
Climate Control. Rooms used by children shouldhave either windows that open to provide freshair or adequate ventilating systems. Heatingsystems should be able to maintain room tem-peratures of 68° or 70° F at the level wherechildren's activities take placethat is, at or justabove floor level. No rooms occupied by chil-dren should be overheated, and all drafts shouldbe eliminated. In hot climates, air conditioning isdesirable.
Sound Control. A low level of background noisecan be pleasant; a constant high level is dis-tracting and fatiguing. Noise from outside thefacility can be reduced with sound-absorbingmaterial on ceilings, walls, and floors; carpetingand draperies, for example, absorb sound fromboth outside and inside. The distraction of in-door noise can be minimized by separating noisyactivities from quiet areas and by using dividers.
Walls and Floors. Wall and floor coverings canadd variety in color and texture to the environ-ment. Painted surfaces should be light in colorand nonglossy (though paint must not containlead), or walls can be covered with heavy-dutywashable wallpapers which are colorful andeasily maintained. Bulletin boards placed atchildren's eye level are good for displaying artwork.
Since many children's activities take place onthe floor, floor coverings should be pleasant totouch, easy to maintain, resilient, water resistant,and quiet. Rugs or carpeting should be used inquiet areas, and different floor coverings canprovide boundaries for different activity areas.Both bare wood floors that have a tendency tosplinter, and hard, cold, and noisy floors such asconcrete and terrazzo should be covered in-doors.
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Doors. As required by most States and localities,doors should open outward from rooms occu-pied by children. Door knobs used by childrenshould be placed within their reach and crashbars installed when required by fire codes. Locksshould be childproofyet designed so that anadult can free any child locked in a room. Ifconstructing or renovating, make doors wideenough to pass cribs and other wide objects.Omitting door jambs will make moving suchequipment easier.
Storage. Storage space, whin is different fromdisplay space, should have doorsand locks andkeys when there is any reason to keep childrenout. Supplies and equipment should be stored asclose as possible to their point of use. Portableshelves or bins on casters are convenient forshifting activity areas and for dividing one areafrom another, although built-in storage is usuallymore sturdy and economical.
Safety. While complying with licensing and coderegulations will help eliminate most hazards,some safety points deserve mention here.
Ground-floor facilities are much safer andusually more pleasant than basement or upperfloor space.A telephone should be available to the staff.For each room occupied by children, try toprovide at least two doors which open out-ward.Furnace and heating equipment should beisolated from the children and screened orinsulated to prevent burns and the possibilityof fires.Water temperature should be controlled by athermostat and permitted to go no higherthan 120° F.Use only flame-resistant or flame-retardantdrapes, furnishings, and decorations.All glass should be safety glass or clear, un-breakable plasticespecially when used indoors or large windows.Windows should have adequate protectionsuch as sturdy screens or safety latchestoprevent children from falling out.Eliminate splinters and all sharp corners, andrepair all breaks immediately.All paint must be free of lead.Storage space for cleaning supplies, medicine,and other potentially dangerous products andequipment should be securely locked andout of reach of children.
58
Outdoor play space should be fenced andshould have a gate that can close and latch.Driveway and parking areas should be iso-lated from children except when they areunder direct adult supervision.in play areas, elevated platforms and equip-ment should have railings; permanent equip-ment should be sunk in concrete to a depth of18 inches underground; swings should haveplenty of room around them; boundariesshould separate areas used for running andjumping from those used for quiet play; andballs should always be kicked or batted awayfrom other groups or individuals.
Indoor Space: PlayroomSize. Rooms need to be large enough for activeplay and a feeling of openness, but not so largethat children feel lost or threatened. A playroomneeds at least 35 square feet of usable space perchild (not including storage areas). Fifty squarefeet per child is preferable. In larger programs, itis usually useful to have a room that is bigenough for 15 to 20 children, but the size of thegroup should not be increased just because a bigroom is available. Smaller rooms are useful forspecialized activities and when children requiremore quiet, individualized, or structured activi-ties.
In a center, it is important to have spaceswhich are comfortable for different size groups.The size of a group should vary with the activi-ties and the children's developmental level. Thereare times when the desirable size is onea childprivately occupied; at other times, the desirablesize may be five childrenwatching, for exam-ple, as the caregiver demonstrates how to weave;or sometimes, 15 or 20 children can be quitecomfortable, as when they are listening to a storyor watching TV. What is important is flexibility ingrouping, appropriate to different activities,needs, and times of day.
Spaces can be adapted and arranged quiteeasily. With low dividerssuch as equipment,storage shelves, or erected partitionsa large,airy room can also include spaces for smallgroups and private activity. In a small room,elevated platforms will increase the usable squarefootage and can function as stages or interestareas, while space beneath can be used forstorage, games, or private hiding places.
Shape. The shape of a room can affect the ac-tivities in it. For example, a long, narrow roomencourages children to run and slide. Its tunnel-
like appearanceif it is undesirablecan be
minimized by placing interest areas at each end,
by arranging equipment to break up straightpathways, and by conducting activities in thecenter of the room.
Interest Areas. Clearly defined areas should be
arranged to encourage particular activities such
as block building, art work, housekeeping, tablegames, sand and water play, dress-up play, andrest. The equipment in each area should be ar-ranged to invite exploration and to help the childmake choices. Quiet activities should be groupedin one part of a room, noisy ones in another, and
messy indoor activities where floors and wallsare easy to clean.
Equipment and Supplies. In general, simple and
versatile equipmentbldcks, boards, boxeswillstimulate a child's imagination more than com-plicated, single-purpose pieces. All equipmentand furniture should be durable, safe, and ofsize and weight suitable for children. Tables and
chairs of two different heights will usually be
needed to make all the children comfortable.When sitting, a child's feet should touch thefloor, and he or she should not have to reach upto use the table top.
Equipment and supplies should be accessibleand attractive, and ample storage and display
space should eliminate clutter. Stocks of paper,paint, clay, and other supplies should be kept onhand so that children will not have to stop anactivity because of materials running out. How-
ever, it is better to reduce the variety of thingsavailable and rotate them periodically, since toomuch equipment on display at one time is dis-tracting and creates confusion.
Indoor Space: KitchenKitchen size and equipment will depend on
the number of children served, the type ofprogram, and the type of food service. If theprogram does not require meals, a "snackkitchen" with a refrigerator-freezer, storagespace, utensils, and a hot plate will providesnacks as well as some educational cooking ex-periences for the children. If meals are preparedin an outside source, the day care site may need
only a "satellite kitchen" with warming ovens,refrigeration, serving equipment, and dish-washing facilities. But if full meals and snacks are
to be prepared at the site, a full range ofequipment should be installedrefrigerator,freezer, stove and oven, dishwashing equipment,
cabinets, and storage areas. Whatever the type orextent of the food service, kitchen equipmentmust comply with local health and sanitationregulations, and the kitchen should be separatefrom the dining area, though close enough forconvenient serving and cleanup.
Indoor Space: Toilet and Handwashing FacilitiesIdeally, all equipment should be child-sized
and available to children at a!I times, and bothindoor and outdoor toilets should be provided.Very few programs are able to provide outdoortoilets, however, and preschool .hildren usually
do quite well in standard adult facilities whichthey use at home.
Preschool programs should have at least onetoilet and sink for every 8 to 10 children. Whileseparate facilities for boys and girls ave not
necessary, adults' toilet facilities should be sep-arate from children's. Toilets for preschoolers areideally 11 inches high. If adult-sized fixtures areused, platforms or small benches on which thechildren can stand should be added. A bathtub is
a special convenience for daytime programs butmay be more necessary for nighttime care. Tubs,toilets, and washbasins need traps to permit easyremoval of clogging objects such as sand, toys,and paper towels.
The facilities should have easy-to-clean walls,
floors, and fixturesbare concrete and unfin-ished walls should be avoided. Mirrors, papertowel holders, and hooks should be within easyreach of children, and paper towel dispensersshould be located away from toilets. Brightcolors, varied textures, and good lighting and
ventilation will make the area more pleasant.
Indoor Space: Other AreasEntry Area. It is useful to have an area wherechildren can make a transition from the outside,where they can say goodby to their parents and
can see what is going on inside before plunginginto program activities. Here, each child shouldhave a hook or cubbyhole for outdoor clothing,and them should he separate space for adults'coats. This area should be pleasantperhapsdecorated with children's art work or flowers. Ifspace permits, it may contain comfortable chairsand tables where parents as id staff can talk in-
formally over coffee.
Nap Area. Every preschool program of a half dayor longer needs nap facilities. If space andmoney permit, a separate room where cots can
remain set up is most convenient; if not, stack-
59
able cots can be distributed in the classroom orplayroom. In either case, lighting and noiseshould be controlled. Before buying or rentingcots, bedding, or storage racks, be sure to checkState and local health requirements for beddingand rest facilities.Adult Areas. The amount of space needed foradults depends on the type of program and onthe degree of parent involvement and othercommunity functions which take place at theprogram site. Even a small program with a smallstaff needs a place for staff members' personalbelongings, an office with desk and file space, anadult rest room, and at least one room availablefor parent conferences and small meetings. Inaddition, adults who work closely with childrenfor long hours need a place for privacy and re-laxation. Depending on the size and scope of theprogram, additional space may be needed formore offices, a conference room, a staff lounge,an observation room, or community areas.
Many programs have a small room for parentsnear the entry area which they can use whenthey bring or pick up their children or when theyvisit. This room helps make parents feel morewelcome, especially if coffee is available and ifthey can talk with staff members here.
Health Care Area. A room for isolating sickchildren should be separate from activity areasbut not so far away that the sick child will feellonely or that supervision will be difficult. Thisroom should be pleasant and bright and shouldhave a cot or bunk and access to toilet facilities.First aid equipment and medicine can be storedhere under lock and key, and the room can beused for examinations, immunizations, and othermedical activities.
Utility Room. A place is needed to store cleaningand maintenance equipment, heating and airconditioning units, and perhaps a washer anddryer. This room must be separate from thekitchen and should have a door with a child-proof lock.
Outdoor Play AreasOutdoor play space should stimulate imagi-
native play and allow children to exercise largemuscles and to play together in groups or indi-vidually. Weather permitting, many indoor ac-tivities can be moved outside: large-scalepainting makes little mess outdoors; house-keeping and dramatic play can benefit from asetting of bushes and trees; while outdoor music,
60
dancing, marching, or storytellingor even a napunder a shady treecan be a new and rewardingexperience for many children.
Space. Though the group may take an occasionalfield trip to a nearby park or farm, play space foreveryday use must be attached to the building. Aplay area of at least 75 square feet per childtherequired minimum space in many Statesshouldbe located next to or around the day carebuilding. Many caregivers, however, consider 200square feet per child the minimum for reallyactive play.
The area should be surrounded by a fence atleast 4 feet high to prevent children fromstraying into the street and encourage them touse the entire area. Trees or awnings should beused to provide ample shade and encourageoutdoor activity on damp days. The area shouldbe well drained, and surface material should beappropriate for the activities in the area: sand,bark, or soft mats under climbing equipment;grass in a large game area, but not in a smallone; and pavement where tricycles and ridingtoys are intended. Indoor-outdoor carpets pro-vide a soft and durable surface, but may take along time to dry out when wet. Differen. areascan be bounded by different surface materials orby railings, bushes, or high curbsbut never lowcurbings which can make running childrenstumble. An outdoor water fountain and toiletfacilities are nice conveniences.
Outdoor Equipment. In equipping outdoor playspace, emphasize simple, multipurpose equip-ment which will allow children's imaginationsfree play. Thus, a mound with a tunnel can be atoll booth one day, an igloo the next day, and agrizzly bear's cave the third. A structure largeenough for several children to climb at one timecan be a mountain, a boat, or a jungle; with theaddition of planks, it can become a building withmany levels. Single-use equipment and apparatusthat requires children to take turns becomefrustrating and monotonous.
Dirt, sand, and water are natural outdoorplaythings which strongly appeal to children.Shovels, buckets, and wagons add to the fun.Outdoor landscaping may function as equipmentof a sortbushes can be arranged to formraceways or hiding places; hills with large pipesrunning under them provide crawling space; andlarge tree trunks and rocks encourage climbing.A collection of boards, barrels, hollow cartons,tires, and other materials will permit children to
build huts or houses which can be used for play,
then dismantled and rebuilt.When buying equipment, it is important to
remember that there is no public or private form
of regulation which assures real safety. Some
equipment for children is actually dangerousthere are swings that can swing off, slides that
have sharp edges, climbing equipment that sunsturdy, metal pieces that rust, and so on. Make
sure that equipment is safe and sturdy. Don't fallfor things that are "modern" and "educational"without learning whether the equipment has
been found satisfactory in other programs and
whether it has been adequately tested.
Storage. Whenever possible, outdoor equipmentshould be stored outside to reduce the timerequired for carrying and setting up. Forequipment that must be protected againstweather, theft, and unsupervised use, garages orsheds with wide doorsand a childproof lockcan be built or purchased prefabricated. Thechildren will be able to help return equipmentthemselves if they are given adequate supervision
and are taught where things go.
Family Day Care FacilitiesIn general, family day care operators are not
reimbursed for the expenses of preparing a home
for day care. They usually use what they have,
rarely with more than a minor rearrangement offurniture.
The realistic course for the family caregiver is
to adapt and improvise, within the family'savailable means, to provide a setting conducive
to the care of children for many hours a day.
Part of the value of a family day care home isprecisely the fact that it is a home, and a care-giver should not lose that advantage by trying to
copy a center. A family day care home is notmerely a small-scale, imitation day care center. It
is a different kind of facility with its own char-
acteristic advantages, which should be empha-
sized and used to the fullest extent.
Indoor SpaceIn planning a day care program for a private
home, it is important to remember that the
program must conform to the rooms and spacesavailable. The home must be comfortable both as
the residence for the caregiver and her or his
family and as the alternate residence for thechildren in day care. The major considerationsare usually few, such as: designating the roomsto be used for day care and those to be off-limits
to the children; deciding what restrictions, if any,
to place on the children regarding the facilities;providing filing space for records; and perhapsbuying such things as a chest for toys, a few newtoys and pieces of equipment, some plasticdishes and glasses, and individual towels orpaper towels.
However, many homes will have to beadaptedeither remodeled, renovated, or justrearrangedto be convenient, to meet licensingand code regulations, and to comply with safetypoints such as those mentioned earlier in this
chapter. When more than six children are cared
for in one home, some extra features may beneeded, such as extra toilet and handwashingfacilities, extra cots or cribs, and extra storagespace.
In most homes, such additional features aren'tneeded. The rooms already available can doublefor many of the functions which in a center re-quire extra space, such as parent conferencerooms or isolation rooms. And children can shareequipment and facilitiesthe bathroom, forexamplejust as they do at home.
A day care home, like a center, can and shouldprovide adequate space, light, and climate and
sound control; a piece for small group activitiesand a place for privacy: a place to isolate a sick
child; and a place for really vigorous and messy
activities. With its different kinds of spaceskitchen, porch, living room, bedroomthe home
can be at least as stimulating as a center and aneven more natural learning environment.
Outdoor SpaceChildren in a family day care program need
essentially the same outdoor space and playopportunities as children in a center. Outdoorareas should be fenced and should have a gatethat can close and latch. The yard should be freeof glass and cans, and garbage should be kept inclosed containers away from play areas.
In a small family program, the cost of equip-ment per child can be very high, and the care-giver needs to improvise to provide play op-portunities at reasonable expense. Multiuseequipment should be emphasizeda climbingstructure, a playhouse, a large sandbox. Childrenshould also be encouraged to improvise andcreate. A big carton or crate makes a fine house
or hideout. Walkways and rocks can be deco-rated with waterbase paints. Children can waterand tend a small vegetable garden, and can later
cook and eat vegetables they have grown
61
themselves. For a change, snacks or meals can beeaten outdoors. A family day care program,though lacking the equipment and specializedfacilities of a large center, is better able to usematerials found around the home and can pro-vide the children a better continuity of experi-ence between day care and their own homes.
Facilities are Important, But . . .Whether day care is provided in a family's
home or in a center, the quality of the facilityshould be the best possible within financial andother limitations. But while the physical settingcan be a strong influence on the program forbetter or worse, there is a tendency to over-emphasize facilities. As long as health and safetystandards have been met, there are usually morepressing financial obligations than physical im-provements. When a caregiver has to decidebetween improving his or her own abilities andskills with children or improving the day carehome, it is usually more worthwhile to spend themoney on advanced schooling. When a choicehas to be made between spending money toupgrade the staff of a center or to improve itsbuilding and grounds, it is usually better toconcentrate on the staff. A quality caregiver oran excellent staff can conduct an outstandingprogram in a mediocre facility, but the finest
buildings and equipment will be wasted if thepeople involved don't measure up.
ReferencesCampbell, E., ed. A Small World of Play and Learning.
Durham, N.C.: ZINC Press, 1970.Environmental Criteria: MR Preschool Day Care Facilities.
Social and Rehabilitation Service, U.S. Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, n.d.
Gross, R. and Murphy. 1. Educational Change and Archi-tectural Consequences: A Report on Facilities for Indi-vidualized Instruction. New York: Educational FacilitiesLaboratories, 1969.
Kritchevsky, S. and Prescott, E., with L. Walling. Plan lingEnvironments for Young Children: Physical Space.1A'ashington, D.C.: National Association for the Educationof Young Children, 1969.
Osman, F.L. Patterns for Designing Children's Centers. NewYork: Educational Facilities Laboratories, 1971.
Project Head StartNumber 9: Equipment and Supplies.Guidelines for Administrators and Teachers in ChildDevelopment Centers Office of Child Development, U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Wash-ington. D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967.
Sale, I.S. Programs for Infants and Young Children, Part IV:Facilities and Equipment. Washington, D.C.: AppalachianRegional Commission, 1970.
Sunderlin. S., ed. Housing for Early Childhood Education:Centers for Growing and Learning. Washington, D.C.:A .sociation for Childhood Education International, 1968.
Utzinger, R.C. Early Childhood FacilitiesNumber 2: SomeEuropean Nursery Schools and Playgrounds. Ann Arbor:Architectural Research Laboratory of the University ofMichigan, 1970.
Parent involvement is as much a component ofquality day care as curriculum, staff, or facilities.And like the other components, parent in-volvement should be integrated with the entireprogram.
Parents are and will remain the principal in-fluence on the development of their children. Adevelopmental program which ignores this factis, in effect, forcing the child either to develop intwo different ways at once or to reject a part ofhis own experience. As described in chapter 1,quality day care is concerned with the wholechildincluding his intellectual, emotional, so-cial, and physical developmentand with beingof maximal use to the child's parents as a sup-plement to their own parenting.
To many of those approaching day care for thefirst time, "supporting and strengthening thefamily" may seem an empty abstraction, wellbeyond the reach of a day care program. But daycare can give real support to the family rela-tionship in several ways. Day care can allowparents to work without constantly worrying orfeeling guilty about their children's care. Throughattitudes and selection of activities, the staff canhelp maintain the child's sense of the primacy ofhis parents. In interactions with parents, the staffcan learn what the parents expect from day careand can assure them that parents maintain theessential responsibility for the care of theirchildren. The program can provide an environ-ment which is consistent with the child's back-ground and with the values of his parents, ratherthan one which forces the child to change hisways during day care. It can help parents findgreater pleasure and satisfaction in their childrenby relieving some of the burden of child rearingin a small nuclear family, substituting, in somemeasure, for the extended family now lost tomost people. It can direct families to services,integrate services, or offer new opportunitiesboth educational and recreationaland canhelp reduce the isolation felt by many familiesand single parents.
These possibilities need emphasis because, as
Chapter 7Parent Involvement
many parents and educators are well aware, achild's entrance into day care opens up threats aswell as promises. How will the child's new ex-perience in day care relate to his home experi-ence? There are profound differences in parentalstyles among cultures and equally importantdifferences among families of one culture. Mostfamilies attempt to raise children to meet theexpectations of their culture as well as theparents' own preferences. Within a single culture,some families will emphasize courtesy, properspeech, hard work, or differences between tra-ditional masculine and feminine behavior, whileothers may place greater value on spontaneity,independence, expression of emotions, or free-dom from conventional restrictions on behavior.If the background or child-rearing style of theprogram staff diverges widely from that of thefamily, both parents and children may be con-fused or alarmed.
Will the values of the p,ogram turn the childagainst his family's values? Will his contact withother children and other environments lead himto reject his own home and background? Will helearn behavior in day care that is unacceptable athome? There are no easy answers. In mostcommunities a day care program can adapt tothe general cultural and economic backgroundand provide the same general kind of care thechild receives at home. But it cannot hope andshould not attempt to duplicate the home en-vironment exactly. Some differences will have tobe accommodated by parents, staff, and children.Day care can become a place where children
learn to deal with differencesprovided theparents are sufficiently involved to understandthe situation, know what the child is experi-encing, and help him deal with it to the best oftheir ability. Parental involvement, then, is notjust an extra attraction for the parents. It is abasic part of the philosophy that good day caresupplements, never supplants, a child's ownfamily. Parental involvement is necessary for thesocial and emotional development of the child.
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Interest In Parent InvolvementThe last decade has brought a tremendous
increase of interest in parent involvement inpreschool programs. Two reasons for this interestare research and an increasing recognition of theneed to reinforce the child's cultural background.
Research on Head Start and other preschoolprograms has shown that parent involvement iscritical to their success. Studies of educationprograms and other programs which attempt tofacilitate developmental progress have shownthat gains made by the children are quickly lostafter the program ends unless the children's gainsare reinforced in the home. When parents un-derstand a program and support it, the childrencan retain and consolidate their gains.
A second reason for the rising ;nterest inparent involvement is the increasing emphasis onrespect for different cultures, traditions, andbackgrounds. just as ethnic groups, civil rightsorganizations, women's caucuses, and welfarerights groups are demanding recognition of theirpoints of view, more and more parents are in-sisting on day care programs responsive to theirown backgrounds and values. Where suchpressures represent the real feelings of the par-ents, a successful program must take thesefeelings into account. Ethnic groups in particularwant programs which recognize the uniquecharacteristics of their culture, including in manycases the use of a language other than standardEnglish. They want their children to grow upwith an appreciation for their own culturalbackgrounds and, ideally, with understandingand respect for the diversity of other cultures.
Forms of InvolvementParent involvement can take many forms de-
pending on the nature of the program, the cir-cumstances and capabilities of the parents, andthe personal preferences of all involved. Thoseprograms which seem most effective have triedto determine the parents' interests and to re-spond to them.
A day care center offers the widest range ofopportunities for formal activities, while familyday care settings tend to encourage close, in-formal, familiar interaction between the parents,caregivers, and children. Day care programswhich receive some forms of public funds arespecifically required to have an advisory councilor board of directors with strong parent mem-bership. All centers would benefit from havingsuch a representative group of parents involved
64
in setting policy and overseeing the administra-tion of the program, as described in chapter 3.Even in centers run for profit, where the in-volvement of parents in decisionmaking raisesspecial problems, parents should participate tothe greatest extent possible. The child's experi-ences in day care have to blend with his expe-riences at home.
Goals of Parent Involvement
Consistency Between Home and Day CareSevere conflict in standards and rules between
home and the day care program will createconfusion and uncertainty for a child. Naturally,there will always be some differences. What isappropriate in one setting may often be inap-propriate in the other. But the two ways of be-having must be reasonably consistent if thechildren are to have any confidence that theyknow what adults expect of them. In a com-munity with more than one cultural group, itmay be impossible to avoid discrepancies instandards between the day care program andsome of the homes. When there are seriousdifferences, caregivers and parents should c.:ealwith them in a calm and matter-of-fact way andshould cooperate in helping the children learn toaccept differences between people. When thenumber of families is small, as in family day care,the differences between home and the programmay be recognized and discussed by the entiregroup.
Parent Understanding of the Day Care Program;Staff Understanding of the Parents and Com-munity
Understanding is necessary on both sides forparents and staff to work together and haveconfidence in each other. This understandingrequires more than formal or perfunctory con-tact, especially where there are cultural differ-ences. If a child repr -aches his mother by saying,"they never spank us in day care," the resultcould be confusion in the family and distrust ofday care by the parents. Parents should haveample opportunity to observe the day careprogram in operation. A caregiver may stop achild who has just hit another child, hold himfirmly by the shoulders, and say, "I will not letyou hit. That hurts." Such a demonstration mayshow the parents that the day care staff does notallow the child to get away with everything butthat they do use different methods of discipline.
Families have good reason to want day careprograms to be relevant to their own values andsituations. "Relevant" need not mean that those
values and none others are presented. The im-portant point is that experiences that seem real
and important to the child must come to him in
terms that he can understand. A good programwill attempt to reflect the prevailing values of thecommunity but will also explicitly recognize thedifferent customs and values of minorities in thecommunity. "Relevance" must be interpreted toinclude both incorporating the values of thechild's background into the program and de-veloping his respect for other backgrounds.
This kind of relevance clearly requires the fullparticipation of the parents in developing andmonitoring the program. Staff members have acorresponding need to involve themselves in thelife of the community, since only in this way canthey understand the families they serve.
Parents' SkillsWhen parents work as teacher aides, as vol-
unteers, or as observers, they can assimilate manyof the techniques and attitudes of professionalcaregivers. Home visits by the caregivers providea chance for parents to discuss what they haveseen.
Many parents need opportunities to developself-sufficiency and self-respect. Participation inplanning and operating the day care program candevelop leadership skill and competence in ad-
ministration.
Parents' Influence on the CommunityMany parentsperhaps most, regardless of
economic status or cultural backgroundcanassume an active role in their children's formaleducation for the first time in a day care pro-gram. it may come as a surprise that they cantake a constructive part in making decisions
about staff competence, curriculum, and conduct
of the program.One of the main effects of programs such as
Head Start is that many parents learn for the firsttime that they can assume an effective role incommunity affairs. Where in the past they mighthave accepted the staff, procedures, and prac-tices of public schools or hospitals as funda-mentals which cannot be changed, mostly be-
cause they had not seen any alternatives, they
begin to expect a different kind of relationshipwith such caregiving institutions. With experience
in planning and conducting a day care program,
parents can become wiFa critics of the schoolsand stronger supporters of what is best in publiceducation. Their new confidence in exercisingauthority and making decisions may lead them tomake new choices in their own way of living andperhaps to change the life of the community aswell.
Children are quick to sense their parents'attitudes, including those toward education. The
parent who helps his or her child developpositive feelings about day care will both im-prove the success of the day care program andat the same time plant the seeds for goodattitudes toward later education.
Strategies for Parent InvolvementWhen the day care program has been started
by parents on their own as a cooperative ven-ture, they are already the policymakers and ad-ministrators. But even in such a situation somefamilies will require encouragement to take amore active part. When day care is being pro-vided by another agency, whether proprietary or
not, it is decidedly a staff function to secure theinvolvement of parents to the greatest extentconsistent with their time and abilities and withthe type of program being offered. The particularstrategies pursued to encourage parent in-volvement must be chosen according to thejudgment and experience of the staff. In general,
five methods of involvement have been foundparticularly useful: membership on decision-making boards, contacts between parents and
staff, direct participation in paid or unpaid po-sitions, adult education, adapting to special
needs.
Membership on Decisionmaking BoardsOne of the requirements for preschool day
care programs which receive some form ofpublic funding is the formation of a policy ad-
visory committee with parent participation. Thisrequirement may serve as a guide for otherprograms. As noted in chapter 3, the policyadvisory committee may also include, in addition
to parents, representatives from other relatedprograms in the community: professionals inmedicine, law, and child development and
representatives of local government. When thecommunity contains a mixture of ethnic or cul-tural groups, all should be fairly represented.
Parent members of an advisory committee areusually among the most active in the program.They maintain contact with other parents,function as lines of communication between
65
parents and staff, plan parent programs con-sistent with the interests and needs of otherparents, make home visits, recruit children forthe following year, and find ways to involveother parents in the program.
A governing group dominated by parentsshould be responsive to the needs of the familiesin the program, but there is some danger that thegroup can become isolated from the concerns ofother members, particularly the new familieswho enter the program each year. The officersshould use such strategies as appointing com-mittees and calling parent meetings, even at thepossible expense of some administrative effi-ciency, as a way to keep other parents involved.
Contacts Between Parents and StaffDirect contact between parents and staff
members or caregivers is essential to under-standing and confidence. These contacts, whichare more personal and less formal than com-mittee meetings, may be the main line of com-munication between most parents and those whorun the program. It is the job of the staff to planfor frequent contacts and to see that they areused to good purpose.
To some families, a preschool day care pro-gram may well be an unfamiliar and perhaps anunsettling innovation in the community. Theprogram and staff may appear distant and maynot be trusted at firstespecially if the programis run by an outside agency or if many staffmembers come from outside the community.Some families may expect too much of theprogram or may fail to take responsibility forhelping the program succeed. Some parents donot realize the problems of a child moving froma home environment to a day care setting withdifferent adults in authority, different rules, andan unfamiliar environment. Repeated personalcontact between parents and staff is the mosteffective way to smooth out these difficulties anddevelop understanding and confidence.
Caregivers, in turn, need direct contact withparents to understand each child's behavior,feelings, and expectations about adults. Specialneeds of some families unusual working hours,transportation problems, eating habits, medicalconditionscan be better handled after informaldiscussion and exploration of alternatives.
Parent-staff contacts are essential, especiallyduring the start-up phase of the program. Whenthe program is well under way, contacts mayoccur more naturally, but staff planning is stillneeded to make the most of them.
66
During start-up of a large center-based pro-gram, the community should be canvassed todetermine the extent of its day care needs and toinform families about the new program. News-paper publicity, posters, and appearances atmeetings of ;ocal organizations will help informpeople about the program, but the greater partof the job should be carried out throughhouse-to-house visits, preferably using localvolunteers. Canvassers should explain the pur-pose and extent of the program, the services tobe offered, and the costs and sh.:uld determinethe present or foreseeable needs of the familiesthey visit. Further visits to the home or fair ilyvisits to the day care facility should be arranged.
Another early contact occurs during the intakeprocedure when the staff collects routine in-formation about the child and his family. It isalso the time to permit the parents to askquestions and to make sure that there is clearagreement about the services to be performedand the responsibilities of the family. After theprogram is under way, staff members shouldmake systematic arrangements to ensure thatpersonal contacts continue.
Home visits by staff members are probably themost effective way to maintain contact. Meetingall members of the child's family in theireveryday surroundings will give insights aboutthe child which can help staff members make histransition from home to day care easier. Re-peated visits will help to establish the family'sconfidence and to create a favorable atmospherefor discussion.
The visitor may take along some of the pro-gram's learning material, toys, or books so thatthe parents can examine them and the child canuse them in his own home. Formal home visitingprograms are described in chapter 10.
Many families may resist home visits. Someparents fear an invasion of their privacy. Some,because of past experience, assume that a homevisit must concern misbehavior by their child.Others may recall unpleasant experiences withmandatory visits from welfare workers and sus-pect that the visitor's real motive is to inspectand criticize. Whatever the reason, the family'sfeelings must be respected. A f'rced visit willaccomplish nothing.
Daily informal contacts occur when the par-ents bring their children in the morning andcome for them at night. Informal conversationsat such times can be useful for working out smallproblems and for bringing up questions withoutwaiting for a special interview. The staff can
facilitate communication by taking turns asgreeters and by setting aside a quiet place forconversation and coffee.
Telephone contacts and written notes areuseful when circumstances do not permit dailycontactfor example, when children comeconsiderable distances by bus or car pool. Staff
members should call parents frequently to re-assure them about progress and to invite ques-tions, and parents should know how and whenthey can call those caregivers most familiar withtheir children. Written messages can be senthome with the child with information about theprogram or special events. A note may also invitea parent to call or attend an interview, but itshould not be used to announce that a child ishaving a problem or to discuss personal matters.
Conferences should be scheduled several timesa year for serious private discussion of the pro-gram and of each child's progress and needs. Theconference can be a good time to tackle such
problems as the transition between home andday care, differences in standards and expecta-tions, questions about the value of the program,or family difficulties which affect the child. Eventhe busiest parents, and particularly the fathers,
should be urged to attend a conference, and ifnecessary the day care center should arrange tooffer babysitting service or transportation.
Meetings of all parents and staff members
should be held at least once a year. Staff mem-
bers or guest speakers can discuss the program
and any changes or alternatives which may be ofinterest. Parents should be invited to ask ques-
tions. Parents who may enroll their children inthe near future can be invited and introduced tothe facilities, the staff, and the other parents. It
may be important to offer such inducements asrefreshments, babysitting, and transportation.
Parents' nights and social activities can help to
maintain a feeling of involvement in the pro-
gram. Most day care centers set aside eveningswhen parents can come to see or even take part
in activities provided for the children. Parents
may use some of the equipment, clay, paint, orlearning games with staff members present to
explain the value of the activities.Other social events, such as picnics, holiday
parties, or field trips to zoos and amusement
parks, can help bring different families togetherfor relaxed, informal good timesa good way ofencouraging families of different backgrounds to
become better acquainted. Children should be
included on at least some of these occasions.
Direct ParticipationParents can fill a variety of positions, both paid
and unpaid, at a day care center. They may work
at maintenancerepair equipment and maintainthe building; serve as car pool or bus drivers forregular transportation or special field trips;' actas babysitters to help other parents participate inthe program; and work as office workers, asoutreach workers to contact other families and
organizations in the community, or as leaders ofadult activities. Parents who have the requiredtraining and experience can be valuable inprofessional or paraprofessional capacities- -teachers and teacher aides; volunteers to presentcertain programs, such as crafts or outdoor na-ture studies; or social workers or homemakeraides offering services to parents in the home.
Adult EducationIn some communities, many parents feel the
need for further education. The experience ofparticipating in the day care program may be a
stimulus to seek further training or to undertake
a new career. The day care program is a naturalsite for offering classes on subjects such as
homemaking skills, consumer education, childdevelopment, and health and nutrition. The
program staff may be able to obtain the help ofexperts in various tields as well as available audio-
visual materials.
Adapting to Special NeedsSome parents have unusual work hours that
require flexibility in scheduling. Some children
may occasionally miss breakfast and need a meal.Children may have colds or other minor illnesses
and the parents may be unable to get a baby-
sitter. For a family day care program, It is rela-
tively easy to make special arrangements, but in
a large center-based program adaptability is moredifficult. Within reason, the staff should be readyto accept such unexpected or emergency de-
mands as part of its job. Their concern will mostlikely increase the parents' feeling of involvementin the program. Parent volunteers can be par-ticularly useful in watching or reading to a sick
child, preparing a meal, furnishing emergencytransportation, or performing other jobs in re-sponse to the special needs of ether parents.
I Anyone engaged in transporting children must have the
proper driver's license and should be covered by adequate
accident and liability insurance.
67
Problems of Parent InvolvementSeveral problems of parent involvement in day
care must be recognized and dealt with.One of the most difficult problems is that
parents, particularly the fathers, of children inday care are often the very people who can leastspare time for extra activities. Employed menmay have even more difficulty than women intaking time to engage in outside activities. Andsome fathers who might otherwise find time forextra involvement are embarrassed to participatein programs about children.
On the other hand, strong parent involvementbrings its own problems. During the start-upphase, parents will have to resolve some difficultquestions. Whose influence will predominate onpolicy decisions? Will one or more parentleaders emerge and will they compete? In mixedcommunities, how will minority desires be ac-commodated? Can parents limit their owninterference in day-to-day dPtailc 'If running theprogram?
The first few months of operation may be adifficult period as parents and staff try to workout a relationship of trust and confidence. Par-ents and caregivers may have preconceptionsabout each other which interfere with involve-ment. The caregiver may feel unwelcome in thehome, or the parent may feel unwelcome at theday care facility. Each may underestimate theother's interest in the child's progress. Either sidecan take advantage of the other, and both groupswill need an abundance of patience and goodsense.
Differences in values or practices may have tobe resolved. Parents and staff may differ in theirphilosophies or styles of caregiving. There maybe a conflict of goalsthe parents might feelthat childrei. should have more preacademicwork while the staff might place more emphasison imaginative play.
Parents can also differ sharply among them-selves. A group of parents may insist on a strongcultural or ethnic emphasis which is not repre-sentative of the majority of the community.Many parents from minority groups may have astrong but vaguely defined suspicion concerningday carea feeling that all such programs have ahidden intention to downgrade minorities stillfurther.
In any day care center, hiring the staff is likelyto be still another point of stress. Parents andprofessionals in the program may have differentideas about the requirements for staff positions
68
and the competence of those hired. There maybe a clash about professional credentials versuspersonality or cultural background.
In day care programs run for profit, the role ofparents will be more restricted. A private busi-nessman cannot afford to let his customers makepolicy de:isions for him. However, parents stillneed to have a voice in any program that relatesto the care of their children. Two roles, at least,should be available to these parents. First, theyshould form an advisory group to represent theirinterests to the owner and act as liaison be-tween parents, owner, and the funding agency ifany. This liaison function is especially importantwhen it is time to renew a contract between anagency and day care provider. Second, a parentgroup should monitor the quality of the program.This group Should make sure that the terms ofthe contract are followed, consider possibleimprovements, and coordinate with the advisorygroup in discussions with the owner.
There are recurrent occasions for stress be-tween parents and staff in any program. Someparents may feel that caregivers are competingfor the affection of their children. A very demon-strative child may make his parents jealousintentionally or otherwiseby displaying aclose relationship with a caregiver. A competentstaff member who easily controls difficult situa-tions might make parents feel inferior. Whileadvice to parents on problems of child care maybe needed and accepted, at the same time it maybe resented.
Problems can be aggravated when the parentsand caregivers come from ditterent backgrounds.Mothers and fathers may feel that their way oflife is being attacked when their child comeshome from day care with new habits or values.Professional ideas of discipline may seem tothreaten the family unity of parents who havebeen raised with a different style of discipline.
Stresses are part of the process of establishingday care as a community resource. They need tobe discussed and resolved openly, with each siderecognizing that the parents' influence has bothadvantages and disadvantages. The advantagesinclude creating a better sense of continuitybetween home and program for the children;helping the parents understand their own chil-dren's aptitudes and limitations; helping themlearn about their community and its variousgroups; and allowing parents to experience asense of participation. The disadvantages include,for example, the loss in program efficiency
because nonprofessionals take a long time tolearn the complexities of administration; thepossibility that, through force of personality,parent leaders may emerge who fail to under-stand the details of the program; and the danger
that one group of parents may gain control and
use the program for their own purposes.Although stresses arise naturally and no day
care program can avoid them completely, somemeasures will help. Selecting staff members froma background similar to that of she communityand using local residents as paid or volunteerworkers is one way. Since most parent-staffconflicts arise from distrust and misunderstand-ing, the long-term solution must be to developmutual confidence through continued parentinvolvement in the program and staff involve-
ment in the community.
ReferencesAdair. T. and Eckstein, E. Parents and the Day Care Center.
New York: Federation of Protestant Welfare Agencies,
1969.Black Child Development Institute. From a Black Perspec-
tive: Optimum Conditions for Minority Involvement inQuality Child Development Programming. Washington,D.C.: Black Child Development Institute, 1971.
Chilman, C. and Kraft, I. "Helping Low Income Parents:1. Through Parent Education Groups." Children 10, No. 4
(1963): 127-132.The Consortium on Early Childbearing and Childrearing.
Model Components of Comprehensive Programs forSchool-Age Girls. Suite 618, 1145 19th Street, NW.,Washington, D.C. 20036.
Gordon, I.I. "The Florida Parent Education Program."Mimeographed. University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.32601, 1971.
Hess, R.D.; Block, M.; Costello, I.; Knowles, R.T.; andLargay, D. "Parent Involvement in Early Education." InDay Care: Resources for Decisions, edited F. Grotberg,
PP. 265-298. Washington, D.C.: Office of EconomicOpportunity, 1971.
Hill, M.E. "Helping Low-Income Parents: 2. ThroughHomemaking Consultants," Children 10, No 4 (1963):132-136.
Hoffman, D.; lordan, I.; and McCormick, F. Parent Partici-pation in Preschool Day Care. Monograph No. 1 Atlanta,Ga.: Southeastern Educational Laboratory, 1971.
Kirschner Associates. A National Survey of the Impacts ofHead Start Centers on Community Institutions. ProjectHead Start, Office of Child Development. U.S. Depart-ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1970.
MIDCO Educational Associate', Inc. Appendices to the FinalTechnical Report: Investigation of the Effects on ParentParticipation in Head Start. Project Head Start, Office ofChild Development. U.S Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare. Denver, Colo. MIDCO EducationalAssociates, 1972.
Project Head StartNumber 6: Parents are Needed: Sug-gestions on Parent Participation in Child DevelopmentCenters. Office of Child Development, U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1969.
Project Head StartNumber 10A: Parent Involvement: AWorkbook of Training Tips for Head Start Staff. Office ofChild Development, U.S. Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1969.
Rood, L.A. Parents and Teachers Together: A TrainingManual for Parent Involvement in Head Start Centers.Washington, D.C.: Gryphon House, 1972.
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To those with little day care experience,planning a curriculum may seem a complicatedand bewildering task better left to experts. Withthe large number of curricula that have beendesigned by specialists in the field, can a com-munity group hope to do better? And if spe-cialists can't agree which curriculum is best,how can an amateur hope to choose?
The bewilderment often comes from confusionabout the importance and function of a curric-ulum. No one curriculum is best, just as there
is no single best philosophy of education. A cur-riculum should be designed for both the par-ticular needs of the families who will use it and
the values of their community. Portions of sev-eral standard curricula, taken more or less intact,
may meet local needs very nicely, but no onecurriculum selected off the shelf is likely to be
ideal."Curriculum" has two different uses in day
care. The word conventionally means a carefullyplanned set of lessons to be taught and learned
or a set of learning opportunit!es to be presented
in a certain way. A curriculum in this sense is
usually spelled out in detail, with clear goals,
concrete and measurable objectives, a set ofrequirements for teacher training, a rationalizededucational philosophy, and a method for
evaluation.In a broader sense, "curriculum" in day care
means all the developmental experiences that areplanned for the whole program. In this sense, the
word includes the entire day's activities; thecaregiving style; the degree of freedom or con-
trol for both children and caregivers; the relative
emphasis on cognitive, emotional, or social
values; and even the choice of whether to accept
and use unplanned events as developmental
experiences.To avoid confusion, in this manual curriculum
will be used in its more narrow and conventional
sense, and the phrase day plan will. refer to the
whole body of experiences in the program. The
day plan, of course, includes the curriculum as
well as meals, play, naps, conversation, relations
Chapter 8Curriculum
between children and adults, and other plannedexperiences.
In a quality day care program, both the cur-riculum and the day plan are thoughtfullyworked out. While the day plan may permitmore informality and spontaneity than the cur-riculum, it is equally important and requiresequal care in planning. The two will usually havesimilar characteristics. However, there is noreason why a loose, informal day plan cannotcontain elements of highly structured learning
nor why a tightly controlled day plan cannotcontain elements of free exploration.
The task of the designer or designers of aday care program is to work out a day plan and a
curriculum which fit the needs of the childrenand parents, the capabilities of the staff, and thevalues and resources of the community.
The Curriculum
Types of CurriculaCurricula are differentiated by goals, methods,
andperhaps more than anything elseby thetheories on which they are based. While theo-retical distinctions are important to specialists, in
actual practice most curricula are much less
diverse than the theories which support them.
For practical planning purposes, curricula can be
divided into three types which reflect theexperiences of the children in the programs, thephilosophies of the parents, and the orientationsof trained staff members.
Teacher-controlled curricula are the mostauthoritarian and most fully programed of thethree types. The teacher directs the child'sactivities following clearly defined directionswhich tell him or her what materials to use, what
to teach, when to teach it, and how to respondto the child's success or failure. In this way, theteacher's activities are as programed ordirected as the child's. An example of a teacher-controlled curriculum is the academicallyoriented model.'
' Described in ch. 9.
71
Child-centered or child-controlled curriculaleave most of the initiative to the child. Theteacher's job is to respond sensitively and intu-itively with learning experiences which meet thechild's interest and which are based on theteacher's understanding of children's develop-mental needs and strengths. The Bank Streetcurriculum is a child-controlled curriculum.
Teacher and child mutually controlled curric-ula combine both approaches, permitting thechild to exercise his initiative and the teacher torespond within a relatively controlled and clearlydefined structure. The Weikart cognitivelyoriented curriculum is an example of this type.
Which type is best? The question has beenargued and studied extensively, and many studieshave led to some common-sense points ofagreement.
Don't expect too much from a curriculum.Different curricula do not usually producedramatically different results.Don't hold a child's preschool curriculumresponsible for his future success. What thechild does this year depends on his curriculumthis year; what happens next year depends onnext year's curriculum.The more clearly curriculum goals are spelledout, the more likely they are to be reached. Ifone goal is to learn the alphabet, and thecaregiver tries to teach the alphabet, the childwill probably learn it. If the child is allowed toexplore what interests him, he may not learnthe alphabet, but he will learn many otherthings such as problem solving and takingresponsibility for his own actions.Gains in formal learning (of the type usuallymeasured by standardized tests) dependheavily on how well the teachers understand,like, and apply the curriculum. Teachers whobelieve in a certain approach get far betterresults than teachers who use it withoutconfidence. Teachers who thoroughly under-stand the goals and objectives of a curriculumare more successful than those who attemptto follow the method without understandingor commitment.These points of agreement tend to support
several practical conclusions.A highly programmed, teacher-controlled
curriculum often has two advantages. Since thegoals are clearly spelled out, teachers can see thevalue of the curriculum and can readily acquire asense of commitment and involvement. Since theteacher is taught exactly what to do, step by
72
step,with the children, she or he may learn to beeffective and confident in a matter of months.The child, however, tends to lose the benefits ofspontaneity and self-directed exploration. Thiscurriculum may be academically effective inthe short run but may constrict the child's devel-opment in social and emotional areas and maynegatively affect his self-reliance and initiative.
On the other hand, a child-centered or child-controlled curriculum at its best can introducethe child to the joy of learning and can helphim acquire the discipline of self-directedwork. But there are problems for both childrenand teachers. Many preschool children have notlearned to handle such a high degree of freedom. And even a sensitive adult may requireyears to learn how to respond constructively tothe initiatives of children. A teacher trained formore programed curricula, operating in achild-centered program, may worry about losingcontrol and may spend too much time andenergy enforcing discipline. The same teachermight actually achieve a more open andresponsive environment with a more strictlyprogramed curriculum.
The teacher and child mutually controlledcurriculum offers advantages of both extremesand minimizes their disadvantages. Much morethan a compromise, the mutually controlledcurriculum has outstanding advantages of its ownand may well be the best choice in most da,care situations.
On intellectual grounds alone, not much dif-ference has been found in the effectiveness ofthe various curricula. The greatest differences areapparent between programs with good curriculaand those with no curricula at all. In order ofimporln--, the factors which determine theeffectiveness of the curriculum are:
tie thoroughness of the teacher's educationand preparation to use the curriculumthe planning of activities to achieve particulargoals. Experience shows that for a day careprogram to maintain a high level of quality itmust have clearly defined goals and objectivesthe quality of supervision. A program withseveral caregivers needs supervisors who havea clear understanding of both preschooldevelopment and the chosen curriculum andwho can provide guidance, cnsultotion, andevaluation of the caregivers' oprornionce.The larger the program, the r:!oN. 'mportant
are these formal administrative rer.juirements and,fortunately, the more accessible they become.
Planning and supervision are much more criticalin a program with 50 or 100 children and manystaff members than in a smaller, more intimatefamily setting. At the same time, a more thor-oughly programed curriculum is easier tosupervise. As a program increases in size, it be-comes more difficult for teachers simply to dowhat comes naturally and more important to havea well-planned and detailed curriculum.
In a center with 50 or more children, goodcare requires very explicit scheduling, planningfor, and supervising of both the curriculum andday plan. In a small family program, staff train-.ing, expert supervision, and detailed planningmay he less urgently required, but they are noless desirable. Without careful planning andsupervision, any program can degenerate intocustodial day careor simple feeding andsupervision.
Curricula and Public SchoolsThe relation of preschool day care to public
schooling needs to be considered in the planningof a curriculum. Ideally, a curriculum should be
designed to meet the developmental needs ofeach child at the time he is in day care, withlittle concern about later schooling. But thequality of the local public school system maydemand some painful compromises.
In an authoritarian, teacher-controlled firstgrade, certain elements of learned behavior have
a real survival value. When the child is clearlyheaded for such an experience, it is important toask, "What does he need to know in order tocope with the expectations of his first gradeteacher?" The child entering such a school willbe far better off if he has certain academic skillsand if he know, how to deal with authority. Formost children, the academic skills are easyenough to acquirethe alphabet, a few words,skills in working with different materials. Dealingwith authority is more difficult. The ch, 'd willneed to know how to keep quiet until called on,how to be polite to the teacher, how to raise his
hand for attention, and how to contain hisexcitement in the interest of group order.
Some families may want and e<pect theirchildren to learn exactly these skills in preschoolday care. Many other families may consider it atragic waste for the child to spend much timeduring his preschool years simply learning to sitstill and be quiet. Nevertheless, if the child isheaded for an environment where he will needthose skills to succeed, it is hard to justify notteaching them. The decision about how much to
emphasize this type of learned behavior must bebased on the individual values of the parents, thecommunity's values, and a realistic appraisal ofthe institlitions the children are about to enter.
These considerations poi." again to the ad-vantage of a day care network of many differentfacilities. Younger children can benefit from thewarmth and support of a small family program,while older children can, if necessary, be grad-ually prepared for the more formal, teacher-controlled environment of first grade. Hopefully,the directors and staffs of preschool programsand the parents of children who have attendedquality day caremay be able to teach ele-mentary school teachers and principals a gooddeal about child development and newapproaches to education that respect theindividuality and feelings of children.
"Compensatory" EducationChildren can learn through their experiences.
Throughout life, the process of education goeson just as experience goes on, with or withouta curriculum. The purpose of a curriculum is toorganize experiences according to the needs ofthe learner and the demands made on him by hisenvironment. All curricula, whether college orpreschool level, have this purpose. Educationin general, including that which bears the label"compensatory," is a process of giving the childthe experiences he needs and can absorb at thattime.
Most of what we call compensatory educationmay be nothing more than applying thoughtfulattention to the needs of children whose liveshave previously lacked enough organizedexperience. Its aim is to give the child experienceshe needs and can use at his current stage ofdevelopment. Compensatory education can thushe'p the child's development in the present,but clearly cannot guarantee the quality of hisexperiences or his education in the future.
Some compensatory education is largelytraining in certain styles of behavior, such ashelping the child cope with the social demandsof the first grade situation. The compensationin this case is more for the deficiencies of theschool system than for those of the child.
Compensatory education, then, is not astandard set of lessons designed to elevate everychild to some universal norm of preparedness,nor is it a way to inoculate children againstfuture troubles, Like all education, it is a way ofmeeting the child's present needs.
73
Children are individuals, and their needs differ.The needs of individual children must beassessed, and experiences must be carefully pro-vided which they can presently absorb and whichwill help them meet the future demands of theirenvironment. A curriculum which accomplishesthis much is a good one, and it makes littledifference whether we decide to call it "com-pensatory" or not.
The Day PlanBy far the greatest influence on the child in
day care, at least in terms of time, comes fromthe day plan. The curriculum covers a relativelysmall part of the child's day; the day planincludes the plans, goals, and objectives for thechild's whole day, including that covered by thecurriculum.
All of the time the child spends in day careshould be planned with clearly understoodobjectives. However, these do not need to be asspecific as curricular objectives nor does everymoment of the day have to be tied to a par-ticular goal.
The choices made in designing the day planparallel those made by each family in developingits own child-rearing style. Day care planners,like parents, may have to choose whether toemphasize SE f-control or spontaneity, emotionalexpressiveness or the disciplines of good socialbehavior. While these objectives are not nec-essarily mutually exclusive, both parents andcaregivers will have a tendency to emphasize oneover the other.
The child-rearing style of the caregivers mustbe the most important element in the entire dayplan. The staff's background, training, and per-sonal preferences all bear on the child's expe-riences in day care. A staff member trained inone type of curriculum is likely to extend thatapproach to his or her caregiving for the wholeday. Therefore, it is impossible to separate cur-riculum planning and staff selection from de-signing the day plan.
The rest of this chapter is devoted to designingthe day plan, including the curriculum. Staffing,which is central to any day plan, is discussedin chapter 13.
Designing the Day PlanThe problem facing those who set out to de-
sign a day plan is not that of creating newmaterials and programs from scratch, but ratherof selecting from available elements, including
74
published curricula, to assemble a program thatis relevant, coherent, and viable.
A good beginning is to consider the commoncharacteristics of and the differences betweenmost designs. A fundamental concern of mostday plans for early childhood programs is topresent a variety of comfortable learning expe-riences in a climate of warmth and acceptance.Most designs provide for some sort of rewards tothe children as incentives for learning and asan aid in evaluating the program's effectiveness.Most plans also have a certain amount of flexi-bility to permit taking advantage of unforeseenexperiences.
The significant differences between designsresult from differences in the size of programs,ranging from solo family day :are to a largecenter with 100 or more children; the extentof parent involvement; the facilities; ano the edu-cational philosophy of the parents and staff.This last factor will help determine the role ofplay within the program, the emphasis on straightacademic accomplishment, and the degree offreedom or restriction in the children's activities.
Who actually does the work of designing a dayplan and a curriculum? Who evaluates and rec-onciles the diverse elements? The simple answeris: all those concerned. In practice, the mainparticipants are the parents and the staff mem-bers, particularly the director if the program hasone or the curriculum committee if the programis large enough. (If the program receives fundsfrom an outside agency, an agency representativemay want to be included.)
Whether handled by a single family caregiveror a large committee, the design of a day planfollows essentially the same process: consideringneeds and resources, formulating philosophy,and studying the available material. For a largeprogram, the planners will probably also need tocollect facts on the community, the special needsof the children, and perhaps the characteristicsof the public school system as well. For a single-family home the c..tegiver should, when prac-tical, consult extensively with parents about theneeds and values of the family.
A day care network can be an invaluablesource of information, advice, and experiencefor a family caregiver or a small center. Theproblems of designing the day plan are one morepowerfui inducement to join a retwork whenone exists or to consider working towardcreating one if necessary.
Curriculum design is inevitably an involved
process. For discussion, the process can con-veniently be separated into four steps: determineimmediate and long-range goals; choose learningexperiences that contribute toward these goals;arrange learning experiences in a logical,coherent sequence, plan for evaluation ofprogress toward the goals.
Determining GoalsA preschool child does have certain devel-
opmental tasks which involve learning, and thegoals of most day plans will include the child'smastering these tasks. There is a natural rela-tionship between the major areas of develop-ment (as discussed in ch. 2) and the ways inwhich educators classify learning experiences.
Intellectual Skiils. This area includes the skills,knowledge, and basic concepts that come fromthe child's experiences and from the supportgiven to his normal development. His ideas allowhim to make sense of the worldto think aboutthings, plan, make predictions, and decide. Goalsin this area involve increasing a child's under-standing of such basic concepts as size, space,and time; improving his ability to use languagewith accuracy a "d flexibility; enlarging hisknowledge of certain places and events; andpromoting his sense of control and under-standing of his own body.
Sense of Self or Identity. From his experiences 2child gathers impressions which help him definehimself: These impressions affect his personalidentity; his perceptions of his place in thehome, family, school, and other groups; and hisperceptions of his "body,image" or his physicalidentity. He learns to recognize and respond to arange of feelings in himselffrom happy to sad,from angry to contented, from frightened toconfident; to know what situations give himthese feelings; to define them more sharply; andto communicate them to c thers in acceptableways.
Relating to Other Coildren. A child's experienceincludes working with, playing with, and relatingto other children in many ways. He learns torecognize and respect the individualities, feel-ings, interests, and abilities of others.
Relating to Adults. From birth, a child relates tothe adults in his own family. Later, as he gainsexperience with other adults who guide andsupport him, he learns to recognize them asindividuals with their own interests and desires.
Relating to a Group. Experiences as part of agroup help a child to recognize his own placeamong others and to recognize and stay withinaccepted patterns of group behavior withoutsubmerging his own personality.
These are five areas in which children learn.They may help day plan designers determine thevarious goals to be adopted for day care. Thefollowing list gives examples of some of the goalsthat have been included in day plan designs. Thelist is not intended as an ideal or comprehensiveset of goals, but rather as a sample to illustratethe process.
Intellectual skills(1) learn to recognize similarities and to groupobjects that are alike in some waysize,number, shape, use, etc.(2) learn to place events in timebefore,after, yesterday, tomorrow(3) develop a longer attention span and theability to extend projects over more than onework session(4) learn to make choices among alternatives(5) learn to know what to do in a defined playarea(6) strengthen vocabulary and sentencecomplexity in English and in one's own nativetongue if it is not English(7) learn to solve problems oneself and learnwhen to ask for help(8) develop fine motor control and eye-handcoordination in manipulating small tools andsmall objects(9) increase the ability to control crayons,pencils, paint brushes, and other art materials(10) increase sensitivity to surfaces, textures,smells, sight , and soundsSense of self or identity(1) learn to feed, dress, undress, wash, andtoilet oneself(2) learn to take care of one's own belongings(3) learn to actively choose among differentactivities(4) learn about one's own special backgroundand learn to respect differences betweenchildren(5) learn to take pleasure in one's own workand play(6) develop the freedom and ability to engagein sociodramatic play(7) letrn to understand and describe, in words,pictures, and gestures, one's own body imagein climbing, jumping, running, standing, etc.(8) learn to recognize and express one's ownfeelings
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Relating to other children(1) make the gradual change from solitary tocooperative play(2) develop the ability to defend one's rights(3) learn to deal with confrontations, conflicts,success, failure(4) learn to share ideas and materials withothers(5) learn to establish and maintain friendshipsRelating to adults(1) learn to view adults as resources for one'semotional, physical, and intellectual needswithin the day care program and in the family(2) learn to know when to ask adults for helpin solving problems and when an adult's helpis not needed(3) learn to see adults as individuals withinterests, feelings, problems, and needsRelating to a group(1) learn to take turns with tools and materials(2) learn to live comfortably with the rulesestablished for the group, without losing one'sown individuality(3) learn to be a contributing member of thegroup, offering one's ideas, talents, assistance,*conversation, and attention.In this sample classificaticl, as in most day
plan designs, learning areas and goals overlapbecause most experiences relate to more than
.one area of learning. In both the curriculum andthe day plan, goals should be stated as clearlyand specifically as possible. For example, "learnto take turns with tools and materials" is morespecific and thus better than "learn to get alongin groups." Because the curriculum is generallymore detailed than the day plan, curricularobjectives can usually be more precise. "Learn tocount from one to five" is an objective whichcould very well be found in a curriculum butwhich is unlikely to be included in a day plan.
Selecting Learning ExperiencesSelect or design experiences which will help
the child toward each goal. In certain cases, it isbest to select a particular experience to achieve aparticular goal, such as working in a well-supplied art center to help the child learn tomanipulate pencils, crayons, and paints. In othercases, it is better to design the natural experi-ences of the day to contribute toward specificgoals. For example, the children's arrival at theday care setting can be designed to serve severalgoals. Taking attendance by having children findtheir own name tags and place them in a box
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will help the children learn about words (intel-lectual skills) and about group rules (relating tothe group). As the children put away their owncoats and hats, they will learn about taking careof themselves and their belongings (sense of self)and about solving problems (intellectual skills).This activity could easily be designed to requirecooperation, to emphasize taking turns, toreward fine motor control, or to give practice inrecognizing similarities and in grouping likeobjects.
The playground offers more opportunities thanjust the use of large muscles. The layout,equipment, and group activities can be designedto provide experiences of cooperation, takingturns, handling social conflicts, contributing to agroup, using a defined play area, using language,solving problems, learning to use tools, takingcare of belongings, differentiating surfaces andtextures, and so on. For example, when severalchildren learn to use a confined play space, suchas a sandbox, they learn to share and, often, howto respect each other's property and settleconflicts. Putting things away teaches responsi-bility; asking for objects and describing activitiesteaches language.
Arranging Experiences in a Logical SequenceNormal learning proceeds along clear, defin-
able lines of development. Children learn newskills by building on older, well-assimilated skills.In the feeding process, for example, a child atfirst has to be fed everything; then he learns tohold a bottle; then to eat small pieces of food;then to regulate the amount he eats and to feedhimself an entire meal; then to prepare food;and finally to sensibly plan and regulate theamount and type of food he eats based on whathe has learned about nutrition and his ownappetite. The assimilation of skills and conceptsproceeds along with the growth of mental andphysical capacities.
In a quality day care program, the day planmust take each child's developmental level intoaccount. Activities in each area of learning mustcoincide with a child's developmental maturityand his ability to perform different actions andtasks so that each child can be presented withnew learning opportunities when he is readyfor them. Such a plan requires individualappraisal of the child's progress along develop-mental lines to decide when he is ready for eachnew advance.
For example, one element in the day plan may
be learning to put on outdoor clothes. Alogical sequence might be, first, for the child tolearn to cooperate with the caregiver while beingdressed; then, to put on clothes by himself andto learn the separate skills of buttoning buttonsand zipping zippers; next, to combine these skillsby completely dressing himself with no help; andfinally, to learn to recognize when coats areneeded and when they are not. If children areto learn to prepare snacks, it might be logical toprovide first the experience of learning to pour;next, of learning to pour a measured amount;then, of learning to carry without spilling; andfinally, of learning to count children and mate-rials and to provide the correct number of cups.
Someone trained in child development orespecially sensitive to children's levels of com-petence should help to design this phase of the
plan to make sure the different learning expe-riences are clearly described for caregivers andcorrectly arranged.
With learning sequences clearly set forth, thestaff can chart the progress of each child alongdevelopmental lines. Children of the same agemay develop different capacities at widely dif-fering rates. One may learn to speak clearly veryearly, while another may be advanced in dealingwith a group of peers. The educational needs ofa child depend, of course, on the skills he hasalready mastered rather than on his age only.Charting each child's progress will make itpossible to create aspects of the day plan whichare suited to each individual child.
Planning to Evaluate the ProgramStaff members and parents need to evaluate
the program regularly to know if it is as effectiveas plannedin other words, to know whetherthe children are actually receiving the highquality of developmental care which wasintended. Different kinds and methods of evalu-ation are discussed in chapter 14. The points tohe emphasized here are that the design of theday plan, from the earliest stage, should providefor evaluation and that the goals and learningexperiences should he spelled out clearly and
concretely.In addition to the more or less formal types of
evaluation described in chapter 14, day-to-dayobservations by staff members and parents canprovide a running evaluation of each child'sprogress and can indicate what individualattention may he required. This daily evaluationneed not he formal or complex, but it should be
a part of the routine. It may be a good idea totake notes on each child's activities unobtrusivelyor at the end of the day. If time permits, thenotes may be used as the basis for charts andprogress reports. The points to observe may be
organized as a standard checklist, but a sensitiveparent or teacher will also observe the uniquechanges in each child's behavior which occur asthe child copes with his special difficulties anddemonstrates his own abilities.
The points to be observed will depend on thenature of the program and the experiencesprovided for in the day plan. The following listillustrates the kinds of observations that might bemade.
Can the child use scissors to cut, and, if so,can he cut out shapes?What does he do if he makes a mistake?Does he try again? Ask an adult for help?Is he able to express feelings in an age-appropriate way?Can he name colors?Does he share materials and toys?How does he act when another child makes a
mistake or becomes upset?Might he have vision or hearing deficiencies?Does he insist on being the boss in allactivities?What does he like to talk about?Is he proud of what he does?This kind of day-to-day evaluation, particularly
if it is recorded and filed, will provide importantinformation for formal program evaluations andwill be a basis for productive conferences withparents.
Final NoteThe process of designing a day plan can be
difficult, not only because it requires carefulstudy and thought, but because it requires re-solving differences of values and philosophy. Butworking on such a design has special benefits forthose who do it. The process clarifies their ownideas about children and about the goals of theprogram; informs them about child develop-ment; and awakens a new sensitivity to the ca-pabilities of the preschool child and to theimportant influence of adults in shaping a child'sdevelopment.
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ReferencesGeneralBaker, K.R. and lane, X.F. Teacher's Guide for Under-
standing and Guiding Young Children 2d ed. EnglewoodCliffs, N.I.: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Baker, K.R. and Fane, X.F. Understanding and GuidingYoung Children, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.I.:Prentice-Hall, 1971
Bernbaum, M. Curru ilium Guides at the Kindergarten andPreschool Levels: An Abstract Bibliography. Urbana, Ill.:ERIC Clearinghouse on Early Childhood Education, 1971.
Bernbaum, M. Early Childhood Programs for Non-English-_Speaking Children. OCD Topical Paper. Urbana, Ill.: ERICClearinghouse on Early Childhood Education, 1971.
Bever. E.M. Teaching Young Chiklren. New York: Pegasus,1968.
Black Child Development Institute. Program Models forBlack Children Focusing on Black Identity and Self-Esteem. Washington. D.C.: Black Child DevelopmentInstitute, n.d.
Caldwell, B. "What is the Optimal Learning Environment forthe Young Child?" American journal of Orthopsychiatry37 (19671: 8-21.
Child Development Staff. Progran. for Infants and YoungChiklren. Part 1: Education and Day Care. Washington,Or.: Appalachian Regional Commission, 1970.
Dittmann, L., ed. Curriculum is tl'hat Happens: Planning isthe Key Washington. D.C.: National Association for theEducation of Young Children, 1970.
Gordon, 1.1., ed. Early Childhood Education. The 71styearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu-cation. Part II. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1972.
Gray, S. and Klaus, R. "The Early Training Project and itsGeneral Rationale." In Early Education, edited by D. Bearand R. Hess. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1968.
Herron, R.E. and Sutton-Smith, B. Child's Play. New York:john Wiley & Sons, 1971.
Hess. R.D. and Croft, D.I. Teachers of Young Children.Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1972.
Hymes, I.L., Ir. Teaching the Child Under Six. Chicago:Merrill, 1%9.
Iohn, V. and Horney, V. Early Chiklhood Bilingual Educa-tion New York: X1odern Language Assoc iation, 1971.
X1incey, E.B. Early Childhood Education. A General Bibli-ography Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse on EarlyChildhood Education, 1971.
Parker, R.K. The Preschool in Action Ruston: Allyn &Bacon, 1972.
Project Head Start-Number 4: Daily Program I Office ofChild Development, U S. Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Ottic e. 1969.
7 DA. Program II office, of
Child Development, U.S. Department of Health, Educa-tum, and Welfare Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1969.
Project Head start Nceither I I Daily Program Ill Officeof Child Development, U S. Department of Health, Edu-c alum, and %Vella re. Washington, D.C. : GovernmentPrinting Oiti«., 1%7.
Read, K.H. The Nursery cc hoot: A Human RelationshipsLaboratory. 5th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1971.
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Smilansky, S. The Effects of Sociodramatic Play on Disad-vantaged Preschool Children. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1968.
Stanley, I.C., ed. Preschool Programs for the Disadvantaged:Five Experimental Approaches to Early Childhood Edu-cation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1972.
Stone, I. and lank, M. Project Head Start Daily Program 1:An Overview. U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,n.d.
Weikart, D.P.; Rogers, L.; Adcock, C.; and McClelland, D.The Cognitively Oriented Curriculum: A Framework forPreschool Teachers. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1971,
Art Education
Di Leo. I.H. Young Children and Their Drawings. New York:Brunner:Maze', 1970.
Erdt, M.H. Art Teaching in the Elementary School. NewYork: Holt, Rinehart. and Winston, 1962.
Gaitskell, C.D. Children and Their Art. New York: Harcourt,Brace, and World, 1958.
Gaitskell, C.D. and Gaitskell, M. Art Education in the Kin-dergarten. Toronto, Canada: Ryerson Press, 1952.
Games and Activities
Abt, C. Serious Games. New York: The Viking Press, 1969.Raker, K.R. let's Play Outdoors. Washington, D.C.: National
Association for the Education of Young Children, 1966.Boston Children's Medical Center Staff and Elizabeth
McC,regg. What to Do When "There's Nothing to Do": AMother's Handhook-601 Tested Play Ideas for YoungChildren. New York: Delacorte Press, 1968.
Carlson, E. learning Through Games. Washington, D.C.:Public Affairs Press, 1968.
Cratty, R.I. Social Dimensions of Physical Activities. Engle-wood Cliffs, N.I.: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
Croft, D.I. and Hess, R.D. An Activities Handbook forTeachers of Young Children. Boston: Houghton MifflinCo., 1972.
cleN1ille, R. Put Your Mother on the Ceiling: Children'sImaginative Games. New York: Walker, 1967.
Edgran, H.Drand Gruber, 1.1. Teacher's Handbook forIndoor and Outdoor Carne. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:PrenticeHall, 1961.
Hartley, R.E., et al. The Complete Book of Children's Play.New York: Columbia University Press, 1960.
Wagner, G.; Hosier, M.: Blackman, M.; and Cilloley, L.Educational Games and Activities: A Sourcebook forParents and Teachers. Darien, Conn.: Teacher's PublishingCo., 1966.
Movement and Dance
Canner, N. with Harriet Klebanoff). And a Time to Dance.Boston: Beacon Press. 1968,
Lahan, R. Afodern Educational Dance. London: Macdonaldand Evans, 1966,
N1avnard, 0. Children send Nfusic and Dance. New York:Charles Scribner and Sons, 1968.
Preston, B. A Ilandhook for Modern Earcational Dance.I ()Mon: Macdonald and Evans, 1968.
Rowen, 13. learning Through ,11ovement New York:Ti e( hers College Press, 1961
Russel, I. Creative Dance in the Primary School. New York:Fred A. Praeger. 1968.
Sheehy, E. Children Discover Music and Dance. New York:Teachers college Press, 1968.
Children's LiteraturePublications Containing Annotated Bibliographies of Out-standing Books For Yfning Children
Association for Childhood Education International (ACEDCood and Inexpensive Books for Children. Washington,D.C.: .ACEI, 1972.
Arbuthnot, M.H. Children and Books. Chicago: Scott,Forestnan, 1964.
Frank, J. Your Child's Reading Today. New York: Double-day, 1969.
Georgiou, C. Children and Their literature. EnglewoodCliffs, N.I.: Prentice-Hall, 1%9.
Johnson, E., et al. Anthology of Children's Literature.Bostn: Houghton Mifflin, 1970.
Lanes, S.G. Down the Rabbit Hole: Adventures and Alis-adventures in the Realm of Children's Literature. NewYork: Atheneum, 1971.
Larrick, N. A Parent's Guide to Children's Reading. NewYork: Doubleday, 1964.
Reid, V., ed. Reading ladders for Human Relations. Sth ed.Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1972.
Professional Journals Which Review Children's Literature
Bulletin of the Center for Children's Rooks. Publishedmonthly by University of Chicago, Graduate librarySchool, Chicago. (Includes monthly reviews of picturebooks.
Elementary English Published by National Council ofTeachers of English, Urbana, Ill.
ar
School Library Journal. Published monthly, September-Mayby R.R. Bowker Co., 1180 Avenue of the Americas, NewYork, N.Y. 10036 (Includes a section of reviews for pre-school and primary grades.)
The Booklist and Subscription Books Bulletin. Publishedsemimonthly by American library Association, Chicago,III. (Reviews both adult and juvenile books, some beforepublication. Reviews are graded according to age levelsand grades. This is the library profession's own reviewingmedium and is, accordingly, a highly recognized authorityin the field.)
The Horr, Book Magazine. Published bimonthly by HornBook, Inc., Boston, Mass. (Contains reviews and news ofchildren's books, authors, and illustrators.)
Annual Reviews of Children's Literattire
Best Books for Children. R.R. Bowker Co., New York, N.Y.(An annually revised and annotated list of over 4,000children's books including a section for preschool andprimary grade children. Includes recommendations fromthe monthly publication, School Library Journal.)
Crowing Up With Books. Published yearly, edited by R.R.Bowker Co., New York, N.1'. (Contains descriptions of"250 books every child should have a chance to enjoy."Includes a section for ages 3-4 and one for ages 5-7.)
Notable Children's Books of 19. Published yearly, editedby the American Library Association Committee onNotable Children's Books, American library Association,Chicago, Ill. (Each year, an American library AssociationCommittee selects books from the preceding year that itconsiders to be most distinctive.)
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e
The preceding chapter discussed the impor-tance of a curriculum in day care, the differencesbetween the curriculum (a structure for orga-nizing explicit and planned learning experiencesduring a small part of the day) and the day plan(broad plans for oganizing informal experiencesthroughout the day), and some general principlesof designing a day plan for a preschool program.This chapter summarizes 12 different curriculawhich can serve as examples or as sources ofideas for constructing both a curriculum and aday plan to meet the educational objectives of aday care program.
The 12 curricula included here, and a largenumber of others, are available in publishedform. Some are described in considerable detail,with accounts of their underlying rationale,staffing and training requirements, etc. Mostwere developed for part-day programs, and whilesome are broader than others, many were spe-cifically designed as compensatory education tomeet the needs of disadvantaged children.
It is possible to select a published curriculumand use it almost unchanged. But in practice, it isusually preferable to modify a standard curric-ulum to suit the viewpoint and needs of theprogram being planned. When combining partsof different curriculum models, the plannersmust be sure that these parts are compatible, thatthey are not repetitious, and that the finishedprogram sets up a rational sequence of learningexperiences for the child.
The program planners should check themodels they plan to use on at least the followingpoints.
How do the goals of the model curriculumcompare with the goals of the program? Whatwould have to be added to or deleted fromthe model to meet program goals? For ex-ample, does the curriculum allow for childrenfrom different socioeconomic groups or ofdifferent ages, if these are goals of the pro-gram?What resources does the model curriculumrequire in terms of staff and parent time,
Chapter 9Model Curricula
consultation, and equipment? What resourcesare available to the program?What staff training does the model curricu-lum require? Does the new program have theresources for that training? How do the care-givers feel about the training required toimplement the program?What ethnic elementslanguage, customs,identityare present in or can be introducedinto the model curriculum? Are they com-patible with the ethnic emphasis of the newprogram:What is the role of parents in the model? Is itacceptable to the parents being served by theprogram?What is the role of children in the model? Isit compatible with the viewpoints of the care-givers and the parents and with the needsof the children?Has the model curriculum been replicated byday care programs in other communities? Ifnot, do the day care planners wish to experi-ment with an untried curriculum?Has the model been adequately evaluated? Dothe planners want to adopt a curriculum whichseems promising on paper but which may beproven ineffective or unacceptable?In addition to these eight specific questions,
several general considerations are worth re-membering while reviewing the extensive liter-ature about preschool curricula.First, it should be recognized that differences
in the descriptions of curriculaparticularly oftheir rationalesmay be much more pronouncedthan differences in the actual preschool programswhich follow the different models. Written de-scriptions may not fully convey what reallyhappens in a quality program when mature,thoughtful, and concerned caregivers respond toindividual children.
Second, it should be clear that a curriculum isnot an impersonal "thing" that shapes a child'sordered experiences in day care, but it is a wayof acting for the caregiver. Curriculum is a dis-cipline, an interpersonal style, an organized way
81
of looking at children's behavior and feelingswhich guides the caregiver in his or her relationswith children. The curriculum conveys a con-ception of the caregiver's appropriate role inrelation to children and parents. It increases thecaregiver's awareness and focuses his or her at-tention on different aspects of the children, theirparents, and the community.
Training programs for caregivers need carefulthought. Training in the use of a formal curric-ulum .nay alter the caregiver's general way ofdealing with children in all the varied events ofday care. The methods of the particular curric-ulum may influence noncurricular activities suchas ways of greeting the children in the morning,helping them with meals, dealing with accidents,expressing personal satisfaction or displeasure, ortalking with children during play. A caregiver'straining may thus make him or her more re-sponsive to children as people with a broadrange of feelings and ideas, or it may tend todull his or her sensitivities to certain aspects ofchildren's lives. It may help the caregiver per-ceive the educational opportunities that occurthroughout a child's day, or it may lead to lessconcern about the parts of the day that are not"educational."
The 12 curricula summarized on the followingpages cover a wide range of philosophy, goals,staff training, and required facilities and mate-rials. Two of the models are not curricular in anyusual sense: the enabler model is an approach toconsulting for ongoing programs to clarify goalsand improve curricula; and the Florida parent-educator model offers a way to bridge the gapbetween the preschool program and home.
These 12 examples serve as an introduction tothe variety of curricula that has been developed.Their appearance here should not be taken tomean that they are the best available or that theyare equally valuable. Other excellent curriculaare available, and several described here areclearly less completely thought out or not as welltested as others.
These 12 are relatively well Known throughtheir use in the Head Start planned variationproject, an experimental program aimed atevaluating the impact of different curricularapproaches to preschool education. They indi-cate the range of differences, as well as thesimilarities, in preschool curricula today. Dataabout the effectiveness of most are availablefrom their developers, and comparative data arebecoming available from a national evaluationand from several comparative studies.
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The descriptions of the model curricula do notfollow a rigid format but generally cover thefollowing points.
General orientationthe broad philosophicalbackground or psychological theory behind theway the model deals with children's educa-tional and developmental needs. In somemodels, this cdentation is a theory about theway children learn. In others, it is a viewpointabout the conditions for development ofgeneral competence or a view of what chil-dren will have to know in order to cope withelementary school.General objectiveswhat the curriculum aimsto achieve. For example, some objectives areto teach coping skills necessary for enteringand succeeding in elementary school, to im-part straight academic knowledge, and tosupport general social and emotional devel-opment.Staff and materialsinc!Jcling requiredteacher training, the need for specialists,classroom materials, and special facilities.Curriculum structure and contentincludingthe role of the teacher, the role of the child,the role of play, the role of reward, and spe-cial approaches to language development.One way of classifying curricula, discussed in
the preceding chapter, is by the degree to whichthe actions of the caregiver are spelled out in thecurriculum. At one end of the spectrum arecurricula which are relatively open and child-centered, such as the Bank Street model. Inthese, the teacher is trained to be sensitive toeach child's individual activities and needs andto follow the leads initiated by the child. At theopposite end are curricula which are much more
rogramed, such as the academically orientedmodel. In these curricula, the teacher's performance is prescribed by the curriculum. Inturn, the teacher directs the children through aplanned sequence of formal learning exercisesaimed at imparting a specified body of knowl-edge. Between these two extremes are modelssuch as the cognitively oriented curriculum, inwhich the teacher structures some activities butis also sensitive to each child's capacities andfollows up the leads initiated by the child.
The following descriptions are roughlygrouped along this spectrum, from the mostchild-centered, open-ended curricula to thosemost teacher-directed and programed.
Despite their various theoretical bases and theobvious differences between the extremes, thedifferent curricula overlap in many ways. All
attempt to guide or shape the behavior and in-tellectual development of preschool children,and the children's abilities and needs obviouslylimit what any curriculum can expect. All thecurricula tend to make use of common materialsthat are available and acceptable, such as paper,crayons, and books. All but one or two clearlymake use of the range of teacher-child interac-tions that are recognized as helpful for devel-opmentpraising, guiding, setting limits, pro-viding a model, offering opportunities forexploration, providing experiences of success,responding to children's actions. And each cur-riculum has to take into account the social,emotional, and cognitive developmental levels ofthe children and the capacities of the staffwhich in most ways are more similar than theyare different. Since in many aspects, the teachers,the methods, and the materials are not funda-mentally different, it is not surprising that allcurricula have many elements in common. Still,in some important ways, different curricula leadto very different types of both teachers andpreschool experiences for the children. This isespecially apparent when comparing curricula atthe opposite ends of the spectrum.
The 12 exemplary curricula included in thischapter are described in the order shown below.The names in parentheses are the individuals ororganizations most closely associated with thedesign or implementation of each. Mailing ad-dresses are listed at the end of this chapter.
Bank Street model (Ms. Elizabeth Gilkeson)Open education model (Educational Devel-opment Center)Institute for Developmental Studies model(Dr. Edward Ponder)Responsive model (Dr. Glen Nimnicht)Tucson early education model (Dr. RonaldHenderson)Cognitively oriented model (Dr. David Wei-kart)Primary education project model (Dr. WarrenShepler)Responsive Environments Corporation model(Responsive Environments Corp.)Academically oriented preschool model("Bereiter-Engelmann" or "Becker-Engelmann."Drs. Wesley Becker and Siegfried Engelmann)Behavior analysis model (Dr. Don Bushell)Florida parent-educator model (Dr. Ira Gor-don)Enabler model (Dr. Jenny Klein)
The Bank Street College ModelThe primary objective of the Bank Street
College curriculum is to enable each child tobecome deeply involved and self-directed in hislearning. !t was designed as an individualized,child-controlled curriculum for black, white, andPuerto Rican children, 3 to 5 years of age, fromurban, low-income families.
The method aims at the development of thewhole child, including his ability to direct him-self. It attempts to make the most of learningpotential and to help the child build a positiveself-image as a learner. It promotes physical andsocial well-being, increases the family's un-derstanding of children's development,, andbrings the support of community agencies andresources to children and their families. Themodel relies on the intrinsic rewards of learningand achievement, supplemented by reinforce-ment and praise from the teacher.
The teacher's role is to provide a model ofmature social relations and to design learningexperiences which give the child opportunities tothink for himself and which introduce him to thepleasure of learning. Each child makes choicesand determines the sequence of his activities.The teacher becomes familiar with each childand develops an individual curriculum accordingto the capabilities and interests of each. The orhe respects the child, accepts his work, and givesencouragement and reinforcement.
Some of the more specific objectives of theBank Street model are to help the child acquireand use some of the formal language skills to-gether with concepts such as color, size, andshape; to stimulate the child to -`come morefamiliar with his environment; to build trust andrespect for adults through their close involve-ment with his experiences; and to help himunderstand and control his own emotions.
Sensitive teacher training, including supervi-sion, is indispensable. Teachers must understandchild development and must be prepared torespond with learning opportunities appropriateto both the child's development and his interests.The teacher must also be able to respond withunderstanding and warmth to the child'seffortsto his attempts as well as to his accom-plishments.
Teacher training requirements are spelled outin Bank Street publications, together with dis-cussions of staffing, descriptions of projects,room organization, and other details. Bank Streetoffers a number of materials for the training of
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teachers and aides, including slide presentations,video tapes on teacher behavior, audio tapesdealing with how to handle various problems,and illustrated booklets.
The classroom is the child's workroom wherehe is free to investigate objects and explorematerials. The model emphasizes learning ma-terials which permit the child to initiate their use.These include blocks, equipment for sand andwater play, a housekeeping corner, equipmentfor large motor play, math and science materials,art materials, books and pictures, and a widevariety of manipulative materials. Teachers areencouraged to create new materials relevant tothe child's own experience.
Play is seen as an important means throughwhich the child integrates knowledge, skills, andfeelings. Through play, the child is encouraged tointeract with people and with the objects of hisenvironment and to develop the capacity tosatisfy his emotional needs in mature, acceptableways.
Conversation and questioning from bothchildren and adults is characteristic of a BankStreet classroom. Children are encouraged to talkin their own way, but adults provide a goodlanguage model. Teachers record and display thespontaneous language of the children. Childrendictate and illustrate their own stories. Teachersread to the children and encourage them to takeroles and tell their own stories. Each child has anopportunity to talk and work with an adult or asmall group daily.
Parents participate in overall planning andrunning of the program and as paid or unpaidaides. The model provides training for employ-rnent in the program, as well as career devel-opment programs for parents. Parents participateon a curriculum committee, in conferences withteachers, in prenatal and perinatal instruction,and in staff presentations and lectures. Theprogram's deep family involvement includesafter-school programs for older siblings andeducation about health, nutrition, and socialservices.
The Open Education ModelThis action-oriented model has a strong ide-
ological viewpoint but a less well-developedmethodology. It is both child-controlled andteacher-controlled; class activities arise from theneeds and interests of the entire groupchildrenand teachersrather than from a prescribedcurriculum. The open education model haibtwomain goals: (1) to create a classroom envirlfir
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ment responsive to the individual needs ofchildren, as well as to the talents and styles ofteachers; and (2) to help schools make drasticchanges in the educational environment theyoffer young children.
The open education model has been used inelementary schools in the Head Start follow-through project. It is based on the idea thatAmerican schools generallynot only in povertyareasfail to provide a broad humanistic edu-cation. The intent is to increase the energy andvision of people in the school system throughtheir association with the open education pro-gram and to depend on these people to makelong-term changes in the whole system.
Specifically, the model attempts to develop theconcept of advisory teams made up of supervi-sors, teachers, and others to help teachers. Ateacher operating in an open frameworkwithfreedom to structure the program for the needsof the participants and with children taking partin planning their own educationneeds strongand continuing support. The advisory teamconducts orientation courses for teachers andadministrators; works with teacherb in theclassroom; provides appropriate books andmaterials; develops new equipment; conductsparent programs; and helps school administratorswith problems of classroom change.
The teacher's main role is that of resourceperson and experimenter. Teachers becomeclosely involved with the children and learn tosense their interests and abilities. For example,when a child appears ready to read, the teacherexperiments with different methods of instructionto find the one best suited to the individualchild.
The model does not sharply distinguish be-tween work and play. Children enjoy their workand work at playing. Play is seen as a situation inwhich insights can emerge, words can belearned, relationships discovered, and mathe-matical principles mastered.
The model advises dividing the classroom intofive or six areas for interests such as math, lan-guage arts, science, art, music, and blocks, to-gether with a larger open space for group ac-tivities. Materials are purchased, made orinvented as the need arises. The methoddiscourages the use of purchased kits andprescribed work materials.
The underlying philosophy of this model canbe used by caregivers in family day 'rare, but thematerials and methods, which are relativelyvague, have less direct applicability.
Institute for Developmental Studies ModelOriginally designed as an enrichment program
for children aged 4 to 9 from poor, urban blackfamilies, this model emphasizes both cognitiveand emotional development. Its major goals areto help the child experience a degree of successwith academic skills and a sense of independ-ence and competence as a learner. Areas ofemphasis are concept formation, perception,language, self-image, and social-emotionalgrowth.
The program assumes that an orderly se-quential presentation of stimuli is important tothe child's development. It is also assumed thatthe child's potential intelligence is not fixed atbirth, but that his development depends on thequality of his interaction with the world aroundhim. Changes in his environment can producesignificant changes in his willingness and abilityto learn. Mastery of language and other symbolicsystems is considered especially important to
intellectual development.This curriculum is largely child-controlled but
is guided by teachers according to the child'sindividual needs. Parent involvement is consid-ered necessary for full development of the skillsand concepts which the child will need in publicschool. Teachers work with parents as partners in
order to have a continuity between the preschoolprogram and home.
Since the curriculum is highly individualized,the teacher has to continuously evaluate each
child's level of competence and tailor activitiesand materials to the developmental level of each.
The teachers themselves are supervised and
supported by inservice training. Learning ma-terials have been designed by the Institute forDevelopmental Studies, but teachers are helped
to make new materials and to modify existing
materials.Children are encouraged to use language to
label persons, places, and objects; to use wordsin extended and increasingly complex sentences;to participate in prolonged verbal exchanges;and to use language in the solution of problems.The development of language, concepts, andperceptual or sensory skills is integrated so that
all three lead toward the ability to relate, classify,
and generalize about ideas and objects.This model sees directed play as a means to
intellectual and emotional development. Thechildren can choose freely from a range of ac-
tivities during specific periods each day, and they
are encouraged to become actively involved inwhatever they are doing.
The Responsive ModelThe responsive model focuses on helping
children develop intellectual abilities and apositive self-image. It emphasizes the child'ssensory and perceptual abilities, language de-velopment, concept formation, problem solving,and abstract thinking. The child is encouraged toexplore and find answers from responsive people,materials, and equipment.
The program is based on an autotelic discoveryapproach. An autotelic activity is one whichhelps the learner acquire a skill, learn a concept,or develop a useful attitude. It is self-rewardingand independent of external rewards or pun-ishments. In many games, for example, the re-ward is winning or successfully completing thegame. However, if the child does not win, he canstop playing or play with someone else; if hedoes not complete the task, he can leave it andperhaps resume it at another time. There are nopunishments inherent in the activities and noneimposed by adults anxious for the child to per-form in a particular way.
The model emphasizes responsiveness to thechild, rather than the child's responsiveness tothe situation or the teacher. The program musttherefore be tailored to the individual childrenwho participate. It has been used with low-income black, Mexican-American, Spanish-speaking, American Indian, and Chinese-Americanchildren, as well as with middle-class whitechildren. In each case, the child is encouraged toexplore and find answers from people, materials,and equipment that respond in his own terms.
The teacher determines the skills and conceptsthat the children are to learn. The teacher mustbe an acute classroom observer who can inter-vene without being overly intrusive, can partic-ipate with children, and can guide spontaneousactivities. The teacher also uses "learning epi-sodes" which are planned and structuredgame-like activities (described in detail in a seriesof six booklets, The New Nursery School) thatbring the children into situations where theteacher can exercise guidance.
In teaching the precise use of language, theprogram emphasizes (1) modeling, which usesthe consistent language patterns of the teachersas models to expand the children's use of lan-guage; and (2) teaching or guiding, which startswith the child's own speech, idiomatic expres-sions, dialect, and accent and slowly helps thechild acquire competence in standard English.The program has been used successfully withchildren whose primary language is not English.
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There is no formal distinction between playand work in this model. Toys and games arechosen which are responsive to children andwhich help them to learn. Parents are encour-aged to participate as paid assistants or volun-teers and to attend meetings.
This model can be adapted for family day careif the caregiver is adequately trained and sup-ported by consultation.
The Tucson Early Education ModelThis curriculum was originally designed for
children in grades one to three, from low-incomeMexican-American families. It is now used bymore than 7,000 children, ages 3 to 9.
The model is based on the assumption thatparticipation in the technical, social, and eco-nomic life of contemporary America requires thatthe individual learn particular skills. The majorobjectives are development of:
language competenceintellectual basethe skills assumed to benecessary for learning, such as ordering eventsby size, color, and forms; sequencing ac-cording to time; paying attention; organizingone's behavior; evaluating alternatives andmaking choices; and detecting and imitatingsignificant behavior in othersmotivational basethe collection of attitudesand behaviors related to productive socialinvolvement, such as willingness to persist,expectation of success, and willingness tochangesocial skills, including fluent speech in socialsituations, cooperation, and ability to partici-pate in democratic processes.The curriculum is carefully structured, but
flexible enough to allow choices in activity andbehavior and to permit children to develop attheir own rate. The teacher acts as a model forbehavior and also directs the child's attentiontoward significant behavior in others. The formatprovides .frequent opportunities for small groupand one-to-one interaction between adults andchildren. Teachers can use carefully planned,well-structured lessons with three to six childrenat a time. However, there is a strong emphasis onbuilding on the ideas and ingenuity of teachersand staff to provide learning material.
A crucial ingredient of the program is theprogram assistant, whose function is to introduceand maintain ;nnovative practices. The programassistant requires special initial training and actsas a "change agent," visiting the classroom eachweek, presenting new techniques and ideas to
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the teacher, and helping the teacher coordinateactivities. The desired ratio of program assistantsto teachers is about one to five.
The classroom is organized into interest cen-ters equipped to provide open-ended experi-ences, so that children at different levels ofdevelopment can learn by interacting with thematerials. Most materials and equipment arethose found in well-equipped preschool class-rooms. Since play is considered the method bywhich children reconstruct the realities of lifeand master significant ideas, learning centers areused for both work and play.
Language development is one of the fourmajor goals of the model. The curriculum in-cludes acquaintance with linguistic labels, con-cepts, and language forms and an awareness ofthe function of language. Reading is not taughtas a separate skill, but a "reading environment"is created and maintained within the classroom:and, often, reading gradually emerges.
The emphasis on work with small groups anduse of the teacher's ideas makes this modeladaptable to family day care if the caregiver isperceptive and ingenious. However, initialtraining and continuing consultation from aprogram assistant are valuable.
The Cognitively OrientedCurriculum Model
This model is basically derived from thetheories of Piaget but brings together the ideasand practices of a broad range of preschoolapproaches. Originally designed to promote thecognitive development of disadvantaged chil-dren, aged 3 and 4, it has two major programcomponents: the classroom program, developedthrough active participation of the teaching staff;and the home program, in which the teacherworks with the parent to promote the cognitivegrowth of the child.
The curriculum is both child-controlled andteacher-controlled, since children may choosefreely from among several structured situations intheir day's experience and since teachers developindividual daily lesson plans for each child.Learning objectives are stated in terms of specificBehavior desired as a result of the learning ac-tivity. Learning opportunities are presented se-quentially in four levels:
the object levelexperiences with real ob-jects and placesthe index levelopportunities to recall anobject when presented with an aspect or a
part of itthe symbol levelthe use of pictures, mod-els, and dramatic play in place of real objectsthe sign levelthe meaningful use of wordsand numerals.Teachers using the cognitively oriented model
need intensive training, which is offered by theHigh/Scope Foundation. The teacher, with thehelp of a curriculum assistant, must be able towrite daily lesson plans and individual sequentialplans for each child. The strong emphasis onobservation of each child requires intuition andsensitivity as well as training. Teachers also makemonthly visits to each child's home. Workingwith the parents, they develop and teach specifichome activities to help the children becomebetter thinkers. The emphasis placed on conti-nuity of learning involves the parents in the daycare experience and helps to support the activ-ities of the progra,
The model recommends that learning materialsbe divided into four interest centers in theclassroom: a block area, a house area, an artarea, and a quiet area. Equipment is stored in thearea where it is used, and cabinets and shelvesare labeled with pictures of the objects stored.
Language is not taught as a.separate subjectbut is made a part of all the learning experi-ences. Teachers encourage children to speak andhelp them to u...a language more precisely todescribe concepts and feelings, as well as toconvey information.
Play is considered one way children learn.There is no sharp division between work andplay, but all learning activities are labeled"work." The largest block of time in the day is"work time," when the children select their ownareas of interest and activities.
The materials required for this curriculum arewithin the reach of a family day care program,and it can be adapted to a small family setting,as discussed in the next chapter.
The Primary Education Project ModelThe primary education project model was
developed for children from preschool agethrough the primary grades. In this model, eachchild has an individual progress plan which al-lows him to work through finely graded steps ofcurriculum at his own speed and in a mannersuited to his own needs. The teacher designstasks for the child which will challenge him butwhich he can achieve. He is never reproached,only encouraged toward further independentachievement.
The curriculum emphasizes the basic skills andconcepts a child needs to master school subjectsand depends partly on the ability of parents,after training, to teach their own children insupport of the curriculum.
Language development is encouraged throughnormal daily activities. In Inversation withchildren, teachers encourage precise use oflanguage and ask questions which requirethought and analysis. The program provides forextensive use of signs and for a wide variety ofbooks that are read to the children and areavailable for their own use. There are a numberof materials and activities to encourage verbalexpression, such as recording machines, puppets,flannel boards, and several forms of dramatiza-tion.
The Responsive EnvironmentsCorporation Model
The rationale for the REC preschool model isthat a child's development is related to thequality of the environment; that the environmentincludes physical space, materials, people, andinteractions; that environments can be ciesignedto optimize growth and development, meetingthe individual needs of different children; thatactive involvement and interaction with theenvironment produce greater growth thanpassive acceptance; and that activities which areintrinsically motivating are more likely to developlong-term patterns than activities performed forexternal rewards.
The primary objectives of the model are todevelop:
reading readiness skills and, for those chil-dren who appear ready, actual reading. skillsthe creative use and comprehension ofspoken language, including improved vocab-ulary and language patternsbasic mathematics conceptsthe child's self-image as a successful learnerand a worthwhile personappropriate learning attitudes and habits.REC attempts to provide environments which
will be responsive to the child's needsthat is,which invite active involvement at his own stageof development and which show him the resultsof his actions. Learning materials are designed tobe self-corrective, to make it immediately ob-vious to the child whether his action is correct orincorrect.
The REC classroom is designed to contain aninterrelated series of support systems A supportsystem may be a group of materials, technical
87
hardware and software, or the physical design ofthe room. These systems support classroom ac-tivities and enable the teacher to spend thegreatest part of her time working with childrenindividually or in small groups. A striking tech-nical innovation is the "Talking Page," a child-operated device which permits exploration of themeanings on a printed page with the aid of arecorded voice. It permits the child to advance athis own speed and to go back over specificdetails as often as required. Teachers must betrained to use the special materials and also needfrequent onsite consultation.
The REC model is both child-controlled andteacher-controlled. The model calls for a balancebetween structured and unstructured activities,between direction from the teacher and freeexploration by the child, and between individualand small group activities (large group activitiesare minimized). Play, like all other activities, isregarded as a learning opportunity.
The teacher's role emphasizes work with thechildren individually and in small groups andminimizes activities with the entire class duringwhich many children must remain passive. Ateacher may structure some small group activitytoward a particular objective, or she or he mayjoin an unstructured grc.Jp to help the childrendiscover and solve problems for themselves.
Home learning materials are provided to en-rich the home environment and develop teachingskills in parents. "Home learning units" includemanipulative materials and suggested activities.Teachers visit homes to show parents how to usethe materials, and parents are also encouraged tovolunteer for work in the classroom.
The emphasis on carefully designed materials,and particularly the technically sophisticateddevices, makes the REC model expensive. Thetechnical devices have been used in relativelyfew programs.
The Academically OrientedPreschool Model
This model is based on the belief that everychild can achieve uniform academic goals if hereceives adequate instruction and if there is apayoff for learning. Using programed materials,the approach emphasizes teaching the childrather than exposing him to "enrichment" ex-periences, which are thought to be irrelevantpreparing for success in school.
The main program objective is to speed thedevelopment of skills in language, reading, and
8P,
math. Originally, the program was designed fordisadvantaged preschoolers to third grade chil-drEn with poor verbal skills. Children are placedwithin the program according to their need formastering language, reading, and math skills,rather than according to their grade in school.
Language development is at the heart of theprogram. Instruction in all subjects is verbal.Language lessons are logically sequenced ac-cording to level of difficulty and complexity.Reading is taught by a decoding approach:children learn to correspond letters or symbolswith sounds then to pronounce sounds in thesame sequence as the symbols occur. Spelling istaught by sound.
Language objectives include teaching childrenbasic concepts, the vocabulary they will need inschool, and logical reasoning. Science, art, andmusic receive secondary emphasis. The instruc-tional materials used in the curriculum includeDistar reading, arithmetic, and language pro-grams and the IMA art and music programs.
Teachers are trained in the use of the Distal.programs, published by the Science ResearchInstitute. They are also taught appropriate sets ofteacher behavior which will, in turn, control thebehavior of the children in a learning situation.The teacher is responsible for immediate feed-back to the child and particularly for rewardinggood performance. Rewards include tangiblethings such as raisins and sugared cereal, tokensexchangeable for trinkets, and warm praise.
Teachers receive extensive preservice andinservice training in the form of video tapes,workshops, and manuals. The model suggeststhat one teacher and two aides are appropriatefor a group of 25 to 30 children and that oneteacher and one aide are appropriate for smallergroups.
Play occupies only a small part of the totalprogram time. According to the model, play isnot related to academic instruction but is acompletely separate activity.
The Behavior Analysis ModelThe principal goal of the behavior analysis
model is to teach children skills in reading,writing, and math through systematic rein-forcement procedures. The teacher analyzesbehavior patterns, focuses on those that are to
to be encouraged, and modifies the child's behaviorthrough reinforcement by offering tokens orpraise. The teacher gives close individual su-pervision to each child's work and assigns each
child learning tasks consistent with his achieve-ments.
Parents are hired and trained to work in theclassroom. They quickly become proficient in thetwo main types of instruction characteristic of abehavior analysis program: tutoringthat is,working with one child at a time to prompt thedesired behavior and then reinforce it; and smallgroup instructioneither play groups or formallearning groups in which cooperation and otherdesirable kinds of behavior are detected andreinforced.
The model makes extensive use of individualinstruction through programed material, such asthe Sullivan reading program (McGraw-Hill) andthe Suppes mathematics programs (RandomHouse). Language development is not treated asa separate aspect. The curriculum materials inteading and writing teach language skills whichthe children will need in elementary school.Teachers may also introduce a variety of en-riching activities during the less structured partsof the day.
Play is involved in the reinforcement system.The children earn tokens during the wort, periodand spend them during the play period to "buy"the opportunity to use play equipment or ma-terials, or to participate in specific activities. Playopportunities include the usual wide range ofactivities that most young children enjoy.
The Florida Parent-Educator ModelThe parent-educator model is not so much a
specific curriculum as a model for coordinateddevelopment in classroom and home. The par-ent-educator is the link between the two. Aparent-educator is a paraprofessional from thelocal communityusually a motherwho workswith parents in their homes each week and also
assists teachers in the classroom. The central aimof the model is to maximize the effectiveness ofparents as educators in implementing a curric-ulum chosen by the community in response to itsown needs.
In this model, teachers have the role of pro-fessionals who assume responsibility for decisionsabout philosophy, teaching techniques, classroommanagement, and the use of materials, equip-ment, and physical setting. They work withparent-educators as team members in planningand developing learning tasks to be presented toparents in their homes.
The parent-educator is the key element of theprogram. She works directly with parents in
presenting individualized learning tasks to eachchild to help the children develop cognitiveskills. She reviews progress on previous tasks andencourages parents to develop new tasks. The
parent-educator is a critical link in evaluating thechild's progress at home and helping the teacherto take appropriate action in the classroom.
While there is no specific language develop-ment curriculum within the model, its goals doinclude improved listening and speaking skills forthe parents, together with increased ability of theparents to reinforce the child's progress towardlanguage goals.
Spontaneous play serves as an indicator of thelevel of concepts and skills the child has at-tained. By observing a child's play behavior,teachers, parent educators, and parents can moreeasily determine the nature of the home task.Learning in the home is not considered remedialwork but is seen as an important part of thechild's learning opportunity.
Materials and equipment are chosen by thelocal program and depend on the curriculumused. However, the materials involved in thehome aspect of the program are likely to bethose things already available within a homesetting or those which can be acquired cheaply.
The Enabler ModelDesigned by the Office of Child Development,
this is a model of technical assistance and con-sultation rather than of a specific curriculum.Although it was developed to facilitate localHead Start programs, it can be applied to anyday care operation.
The enabler L; a consultant trained in earlychildhood education and child development,whose function is to help the community setgoals, define ways to reach these goals, andconstruct its own curriculum. He or she works ina single community, visiting a program approx-imately 4 days a mon'h during the school year.The central idea of the model is that localcommunity members and staff decide what theywant to happen as long-range goals for thechildren in the specific school year, and theenabler provides regular and consistent support,guidance, and technical assistance.
In this model, the teacher is seen as a profes-sional staff member who participates in the de-sign of the program and encourages both parentinvolvement and parent education about childdevelopm .nt. The roles of language developmentand play depend on the concerns of local par-
89
ents, citizens, and staff. The teacher is expectedto inform the others about the soundest ap-proaches to preschool education; the enablerhelps to define the particular problems andeducational philosophies which underlie deci-sions about language development and play inthe curriculum.
ReimanDescriptions of model curricula found in chapter 9 are
based on published and unpublished materials. Only themore readily available materials are cited specifically in thissection. Many curriculum developers have mimeographedand other materials about their curricula.
Becker. W.C.; Thomas, D.R.; and Camine, D. ReducingBehavior Problems. An Operant Conditioning Guide forTeachers. Ueoana: ERIC Clearinghouse on Early ChildhoodEducation, University of Illinois, 1969.
Becker, W.C. Teaching Children: A Child ManagementProgram for Parents. Champagne, Ill.: Engelmann-BeckerCorp., 1969.
Bereiter, C. and Engelmann, S. Teaching DisadvantagedChikiren in the Preschool. Englewood Cliffs, N.1.: Prentice-Hall, 1966.
Biber, B.; Shapiro, E.; Wickens, D.; and Gilkeson, E. Pro-moting Cognitive Growth from a Developmental.Interaction Point of View. 1970. Bank Street CollIge ofEducation, 610 W. 112th Street, New York, N.Y. 10025.
Biber, B.; Shapiro, E.; and Wickens, D. Promoting CognitiveGrowth. Washington, D.C.: National Associaiion for theEducation of Young Children, 1971.
Bissell, 1.S. Implementation of Planned Variation in HeadStart. I. Review and Summary of the Stanford ResearchInstitute Interim Report: First Year of Evaluation. Officeof Child Development, U.S nanarmmt n` Health, Edu-cation, and Welfare Publi-ation No. (OCD) 72-44, 1971.
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Gordon, I.J. Early Child Stimulation Through Parent Edu-cation: A Final Report to the Children's Bureau. U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Institutefor Development of Human Resources, College of Edu-cation, University of Florida, June 1969.
Head Start Planned Variation Study. Office of Child Devel-opment, Project Head Start, U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Publication No. (OCD) 72-45.November 1971.
Institute for Child Study, College of Education, University ofMaryland. Study of Selected Children in head StartPlanned Variation, 1969-70. Prepared for the Office ofChild Development, U.S. Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare, Washington, D.C.
Karnes, M.B. A New Role for Teachers: Involving the EntireFamily in the Education of Preschool DisadvantagedChildren. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1969.
Klein, J. and Datta, L. "Study of Selected Children in HeadStart Planned Variation, 1969-70." Implementation ofPlanned Variation in Head Start. U.S. Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare, 1971.
Klein, J.W. "Educational Component of Day Care."Children Today 1, No. 1 (1972): 2-5.
Klein, 1.W. "Planned Variation in Head Start Programs."Children 18, No. 1 (1971): 8-12.
Klein, 1.W. Planned Variation in Head Start Programs.U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.
Maccoby, E. and Zellner, M. Experiments In Primary Edu-cation: Aspects of Project Follow-Through. New York:Harcourt Brace lovanovich, 1970.
Nimnicht, G., et al. The New Nursery School. New York:General Learning Corp., 1968.
Nimnicht, G. Overview of a Responsive Program for YoungChildren. Mimeographed. Berkeley, Calif.: Far WestLaboratory for Educational Research and Development, 1971.
Office of Child Development, U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Implementation of Head StartPlanned Variation Testing and Data Collection Effort.Menlo Park, Calif.: Stanford Research Institute ProjectURU-8071, Sept. 29, 1972.
Silverman, C. and Weikart, D. "Open Framework: Evolutionof a Concept in Preschool Education." The NationalElementary Principal April 1972, pp. 1-4; or Ypsilanti,Mich.: high /Scope Educational Research Foundation,1972.
Walker, D.R.; Bane, M.I.: and Bryk, T. The Quality of theHead Start Planned Variation Data. Huron Institute,Cambridge, Mass. Sept. 1, 1972. (This document wasprepared for Grant *H 1926 from the Office of ChildDevelopment, U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare.)
Weikart, D., Rogers, L.; Adcock, C.; McClelland, D. TheCognitively Oriented Curriculum. Urbana: ERIC-NAEYCPublication in Early Childhood Education, University ofIllinois Press. 1971.
Weikart, D.P. Early Childhood Special Education for Intel-lectually Subnormal and/or Culturally Different Children.Washington, D.C.: National Leadership Institution in EarlyChildhood Development, 1971.
For further information about model curricula, write to:
Academically Oriented Preschool ModelDr. Wesley BeckerUniversity of OregonDepartment of Special EducationEugene, Oreg. 97405
Bank Street ModelMs. Elizabeth GilkesonBank Street College of Education610 West 112th StreetNew York, N.Y. 10025
Behavior Analysis ModelDr. Donald Bushell, Ir.Department of Human DevelopmentUniversity of KansasHaworth HallLawrence, Kans. 66044
Cognitively Oriented Curriculum ModelDr. David Weikart, PresidentHigh/Scope Educational Research Foundation126 North Huron StreetYpsilanti, Mich. 48197
Enabler ModelJenny Klein, Ph. D., Educational SpecialistProject Head StartOffice of Child DevelopmentBox 1182Washington, D.C.
Florida Parent-Educator ModelDr. Ira GordonInstitute for Development of Human ResourcesCollege of r Jucation513 Weil HallUniversity of FloridaGainesville., Fla. 32601
Institute for Developmental Studies ModelDr. Edward PonderInstitute for Developmental StudiesNew York UniversitySchool of Education239 Green StreetNew York N.Y. 10003
Open Education ModelEducational Development Center55 A Chapel StreetNewton, Mass. 02158
Primary Education Project ModelDr. Warren SheplerLearning Research and Development CenterFollow-Through OfficeUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, Pa. 15260
Responsive Environments Corp. ModelResponsive Environments Corp.210 Sylvan AvenueEnglewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632
Responsive ModelDr. Glen Nimnicht, Program DirectorFar West Laboratory for Educational Research and
Development1855 Folsom StreetSan Francisco, Calif. 94103
Tucson Early Education ModelDr. Ronald HendersonResearch and Development CenterEarly Childhood Education LaboratoryCollege of EducationUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Ariz. 85721
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C apter 10Curricula for Family Day Care
Even though most children in day care receivein-home or family day care, most publicationsabout education in day care are intended forcenters. Some valuable material has been de-veloped for networks, and several programs havebeen developed for parents and children in theirown homes. But there is now no tried andproven approach to curriculum in family daycare which can be recommended for general use.The sob caregiver, without the support of anetwork or a professionally staffed program,must use common sense and improvise andadapt elements from the available curricular oreducational resources.
Yet a family caregiver should not try to imitatethe program or the atmosphere of a day carecenter. Some of the most valuable qualities ofhome-based care would be lost in the attempt.In fact, centers and schools would do well toaspire to the intimacy, human concern, and rich,interpersonal textures of high-quality family care.
This chapter reviews the trend toward day careoutside of centers, citing some programs whichoffer possibilities for adaptation and pointing outsome options available for family day care pro-grams. For the unaffiliated family caregiver whowants to use a curriculum, the best recommen-dations are to read some of the excellent literatureavailable on child development, such as thosereferences suggested at the end of chapter 2;develop a set of goals; take advantage of thefew educational television programs; and con-centrate on providin:. 'le kind of care onewould give one's own children. Above all, thefamily caregiver should recognize that consistent,affectionate, responsive, and individualized careis in itself the most important element of thekind of program which is close to ideal for mostchildren.
Care Outside of CentersMost preschool programs today recognize the
importance of influences outside a day carecenter, especially the influence of the parents.Centers have distinct limitations, and experience
with center-based programs has made it clearthat work with parents and children in their ownhomes can increase the immediate and thelong-term benefits of any day care program.
Many published preschool curricula, such asthe cognitively oriented curriculum discussed inthe previous chapter, have components specifi-cally designed for parent use in the home. Sev-eral demonstration programs have been devisedfor early intervention in the home through directwork with both the child and parent, and thistype of home-based program can be adaptablefor a family care situation.
While involvement of parents is not the sameas family day care, programs that emphasize therole of the family are worth reviewing becausethey have important implications for family daycare. One such program is the Home Startdemonstration program; a variation on HeadStart, it is a network of 16 programs funded andadministered by the Office of Child Develop-ment. Where Head Start cares for children in acenter and attempts to involve families forreinforcement, Home Start uses the family in thehome as the central agent of change.
Home Start operates through trained homevisitors (volunteers, parents, or paraprofessionals)who serve as teachers, models, and friends to thefamily. They help the parents develop variouschild-rearing techniques and inform them ofcommunity resources. In the home, the visitordiscusses problems and achievements with theparents, offering encouragement and suggestions;introduces educational toys; provides activitiesfor all the children together; and gives the par-ents reading material to use with the child.
Among the reasons for working directly in thehome are: (1) evidence indicates that such anapproach is both beneficial and economical;(2) a home-based program can benefit siblingswho, for age or other reasons, do not attend acenter; (3) many families, perhaps a majority, haveno center to go to; and (4) since parents are theprimary educators of their children, improvingtheir educational capabilities produces significantresults with their children.
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All these reasons are potential strengths cfamily day care. In a program similar to HomeStart but designed for a network of family daycare homes, the visitor could work with thecaregiver as well as the parents, or the caregivercould function as a home visitor.
Many local agencies have developed programssimilar to Home Start. Most have several ele-ments in common: recognizing parents as theprimary educators of their children; psycholog-ically supporting parents, including helpingmothers to overcome social isolation; informallyeducating parents about child development;providing other services, directly or indirectly;and using paraprofessionals and others withspecial competence to act as agents of inter-vention.
These programs show the growing emphasis inrecent years on home-based developmental ac-tivities, guided and assisted by an organization oftrained personnel. Similar advantages are possiblethrough family day care which is supported by a
central organization. Trained personnel couldwork with both caregivers and parents to raisethe quality of day care, strengthen the family,and provide greater consistency for the child ashe moves between home and a day care pro-gram.
Programs With Possibilities for AdaptationSeveral curricula offer promise for successful
adaptation to family day care. Four examplesincluded here show the range of possible ap-proaches: the Ypsilanti home teaching project;the DARCEE training plan for family day careworkers; the family day care variation of themother-child home program; and the Clinch-Powell Home Start project. In addition, an ex-emplary family day care network is described inchapter 16.
Ypsilanti Home Teaching ProjectThis curriculum applies the principles of the
cognitively oriented curriculum (described in thepreceding chapter) to a program of teaching inthe home. It has been tested in a pilot projectwhere teachers were sent into homes to provide(1) a tutoring program for the children and (2) a
training program for the parents, without anyaccompanying classroom or center-based pro-gram.
Once a week, for one and a half hours, theteacher visits each family. The object is to de-velop the foundations for intellectual functioning
94
in the children and to develop the parents' skillsin language, teaching, and child management.Parents are also involved in periodic small groupmeetings and are encouraged to use communityresources to enrich the experiences of theirchildren.
Home visiting permits a highly individualizedprogram for each parent-child pair. The programis developed by the teacher (with the help of a
curriculum development supervisor) as themeetings progress. While programing is flexible,however, all programs stay within the frameworkof a highly structured curriculumstructuredparticularly in terms of predetermined cognitivegoals and providing step-by-step opportunitiesfor each child to proceed at his own rate. Such aprogram places heavy demands on the teacher'sability to id..Intify the concepts and skills nec-essary for each child's growth and to determine asequence of steps that will provide a base forfuture learning.
The curriculum emphasizes five areas. The firstis manipulative activities, where the child activelyexplores or experiments with objects, art mate-rials, and motor coordination tasks. The second isdramatic play, which progresses from simple tocomplex demands on the child'n ability to un-derstand visual and auditory ideas and clues,translate them into physical activities, andmaintain a correct sequence of events. Physicalprops are used extensively at first but graduallyare eliminated. The third area is perceptualdiscrimination, with emphasis on body image,form and color recognition, size relationships,and spatial arrangement. Fourth is classification,in which the child is given increasingly complextasks of organizing objects by the physical at-tributes of color, shape, size, and use. Fifth islanguage, taught by the "verbal bombardment"approach. This includes exposing the child to avariety of language patterns supplied by theteacher; directing his attention to recalling eventsin sequence and objects in thei placement inspace; giving immediate feed ack for the child'sresponses; and encouraging the child by givinghim positive responses, pursuing answers until heis satisfied, and using chance events which attracthis interest as occasions for verbal exploration.
A parent is required to be present during theweekly visits to observe the work of the teacherand the child. The teacher also sets aside time towork with the parent directly, giving educationalmaterials and ideas to use with the child duringthe week.
The pilot for the Ypsilanti home teachingproject has produced several findings relevant tofamily day care. It shows that teachers acceptand enjoy home teaching and that the hometeaching program, unaccompanied by a center-based program, can significantly influence thegeneral intellectual growth of the child. Theproject also shows that cognitive growth isstrongly influenced by the warmth and verbalcommunication given to the child. When theparent is not initially able to provide enough ofthese ingredients, a structured curriculum inwhich the parent participates can provide posi-tive results.
The method could be adapted readily in anetwork of family day care. By visiting the familyday care home, trained teachers could providean excellent structured curriculum, individualizedfor each child. The caregiver, even if previouslyuntrained, would receive invaluable help inlearning to work with children and might be ableto improve her or his own effectiveness rapidly.Naturally, parents should participate as much aspossible, and the program might be modified toinclude visits both to the day care home and tothe child's own home.
DARCEE Training Plan for Family Day CareWorkers
The Demonstration and Research Center forEarly Education (DARCEE) at George PeabodyCollege, Nashville, Tenn. works to increase theeducational potential of children from low-income homes. One of its programs, theDARCEE home visitor program, emphasizes thehome as an educational setting and the parentsas agents for educational change. Its training planfor family day care workers, an adaptation whichconcentrates on children and their caregivers,puts less emphasis on the parents.
A home visitor visits the family day care home
once a week while the children are present,makes suggestions to the caregiver, and provides
a model for caregiving attitudes and skills. TheDARCEE plan emphasizes that there is nostandard "lesson plan" for a visit; since allpeople are different, every visit will be different.The plan doe., have explicit overall ubjectivesfrom which the visitor selects specific detailedobjectives for each visit. The visitor plans howshe or he will attempt to reach the objectivesand selects materials to take on the visit. Afterthe visit, she or he evaluates progress against theobjectives and makes or changes the plans for
subseq'ient visits. Overall plan objectives in-clude:
General. Teach and show the caregiver theeffects of physical environment and the valueof orderly patterns of activity. Teach anddemonstrate interaction patterns betweencaregiver and child, positive reinforcement,caregiver's use of language, and encourage-ment for social communication. Developperception of the differences between chil-dren.Developing caregivers' specific skills. Teachand demonstrate such caregiving skills as howto gain attention; how to read and tell stories;how to structure new situations or activities;how to develop materials; how to use un-planned situations for teaching; how to usecommon objects, like household implements,or common activities, like grocery shopping,for teaching; and how to encourage positiveattitudes in the child toward himself, others,and the day care program. Show that childrendevelop sensory skills through interaction withothers in any situation at any time. Improveabilities to plan, implement, and evaluate anactivity.Motivating caregivers. Increase the care-giver's realization that her or his attitudes and
standards have a decisive effect on children.Show that children need affection, guidance,and discipline.The evaluation of the DARCEE program in-
cludes procedures by which the results of eachvisit are compared with the objectives for each
visit; techniques for later visits are modified, and,
when necessary, the training program for homevisitors is modified. DARCEE is also attempting todevelop family day care research.
The DARCEE program could be used by a day
care network with little or no change. But tworequirements would have to be met: first, acentral staff would have to coordinate andsupport the activities of the home visitors; and
second, the home visitors would have to besupervised by professionals trained in child de-velopment. Given a reasonably stable group ofcaregivers, the DARCEE program should result inrapid upgrading of the quality of child care inthe whole community.
Family Day Care Variation of the Mother-ChildHome Program
This experimental approach to a day carecurriculum is an extension of the mother-child
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home program (MCHP) of the Family ServiceAssociation of Nassau County, N.Y. The MCHP isdesigned to improve the cognitive experiences ofdisadvantaged preschool children. With primaryemphasis on stimulating verbal interaction, theimmediate goal is to raise the child's measuredIQ. The variation program is designed for familyday care situations with the intention of keepingboth the caregiver and the mother fully involvedin a child's development.
MCHP has four major components: (1) directwork with mother child pairs; (2) trained "toydemonstrators" to work with the mother andchild in their home; (3) carefully selected verbalinteraction stimulus materials (VISM)toys andbooksas the basis for activities of mother,child, and demonstrator; (4) supervision, in-cluding selection of VISM, development ofpresentation methods, and monitoring of thework of toy demonstrators with each mother-child pair.
Toy demonstrators (TD) visit the mother-childpair twice a week. On the first visit, the TD in-troduces a VISM book or toy to the pair, dem-onstrating verbal interaction techniques with thechild and encouraging the mother to follow thisexample. The second visit is a review of themother-child interaction. IQ gains, measured bypretesting and posttesting, have been statisticallyand educationally significant, both when pro-fessional social workers served as TD's and later,when trained nonprofessionals were used. Andthe program has been replicated without losingeffectiveness.
MCHP is a relatively low cost program. Onemodel budget for 80 children, using both paidand unpaid TD's, shows an annual cost per childof $367.
The family day care variation of MCHP in-volves the TD, caregiver, mother, and child inverbal interaction. Subjects of the experimentalprogram are 2- to 3-year-olds who are in thefamily care home every day. As in the regularMCHP, the mother has an initial interview andthe child is tested. Before working with thecaregiver, the TD establishes a ,elationship withthe mother and child, and they work out timeswhen they can converse on the telephone andmeet on holidays or weekends.
The TD takes the VISM books and toys to thechild at the day care home and demonstrates theverbal stimulation techniques to the caregiver,who in turn demonstrates them to the mother.The mother takes the VISM home for further use.
96
In addition to their regular contact, the TD isencouraged to contact the n. ;her (with thecaregiver's knowledge) and tell her about par-ticularly good demonstrations and progress.There are also regular evaluation interviews withthe parents and caregiver.
Potential difficulties exist and should be rec-ognized: the arrangement can bring competitionbetween the caregiver and the mother; it mayreinforce a caregiver's tendency to assume au-thority; the caregiver may not believe the mothercapable of working with the VISM and may re-tain that role for himself or herself; and themother may respond by permitting the caregiv-er to assume the entire task, thus abdicating herrole. All of these problems can be avoided withplanning and with open communication amongparents, caregivers, and the TD. The programoffers the possibility of improving family day careefficiently and economically. Perhaps the greatestsignificance of the family day care variation isnot the particular curriculum chosen, but the factthat a way has been found to combine a de-veloped curriculum, professional teaching, andparent involvement in a family setting instead ofa center.
Clinch-Powell Home Start ProjectThe Clinch-Powell Educational Cooperative
operates a Home Start project with featureswhich might readily be adapted to family daycare.
The project was designed to meet the prob-lems of one of the poorest sections of Appa-lachian Tennessee: a population with low me-dian educationmore than 50 percent have notcompleted school; the geographical isolationtypical of a predominantly rural area; a low ex-penditure per pupil for public education; a highpercentage of nondegree teachers; plus unem-ployment and poverty. It has received widerecognition and includes educational televisionprograms, classroom activities in a mobileclassroom staffed by a trained teacher and aide,and regular home visits by trained paraprofes-sionals.
One aspect of special significance to familyday care is the use of the "Captain Kangaroo"television program. The project has worked out aspecial arrangement to receive "Captain Kan-garoo" scripts a few weeks ahead of time. TheHome Start staff then works out curricular ma-terials. each week preparing a parents' guidewith a message for parents, the subjects of the"Captain Kangaroo" show for each day, sug-
gested activities in the home related to the tel-evision program, and a list of supplies needed.The staff also prepares a weekly teacher, aide,
and home visitor's guide with objectives andactivities for the weekmany related to thetelevision programand games, songs, or othermaterials for parents and visitors to use. Parentsare encouraged to watch "Captain Kangaroo"with their children whenever possible and todiscuss what happens on the show.
In a network of family day care facilities, thecentral staff might well work out similar materialsfor caregivers to use with a number of educa-tional TV programs, such as "Mister Rogers'Neighborhood" and "Sesame Street." Even ifscripts of the programs are unobtainable, somefamily caregivers can follow up leads andsuggestions from the programs. The SesameStreet Magazine is available on newsstands, andother "Sesame Street" materials can be used toplan activities to supplement the program. Sev-eral phonograph records of stories and songsfrom "Mister Rogers' Neighborhood" can help toreinforce the mature social and emotional thrustof the program.
A major effort to bring together the resourcesof several acceptable TV programs would be ofthe greatest benefit to day care planners andcaregivers. Guides and other materials would beinvaluable for the many caregivers who have nocontact with a network or center, as well as forparents caring for their own children at home.
Until such help is available, caregivers whooperate without staff support can still watchappropriate programs with the children, discuss
program content, and work out related activities.Even this improvised use of educational TV
programs for an hour or two a day can drawcaregivers and children together and exposechildren to a wide range of knowledge, experi-ence, ideas, and recreational possibilities.
ReferencesBarbrack, C. and Horton, D.M. Educational Intervention in
the Home and Paraprofessional Career Development: A
Second Generation Mother Study with an Emphasis onCosts and Benefits. DARCEE Papers and Reports 4, No. 4
(1970). Nashville, Tenn.: Demonstration and Research
Center for Early Education, George Peabody College for
Teachers.Bridgman, I.; Goodroe, P.; Horton, D.; Scanlan, 1.; and
Strain, B. A Handbook for Family Day Care Workers.Nashville, Tenn.: Demonstration and Research Center for
Early Education, George Peabody College, 1971.Cole, K.I. Caring for Children in Your Home: A Manual for
Home Child Care Parents. Office of Child Development,U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. East
Lansing: Michigan State University, Institute of Family and
Child Study, 1972.Collins, A.H. "Some Efforts to Improve Private Family Day
Care." Children 13, No. 4 (1966): 135-140.Collins, A.H. and Watson, E.L. "Exploring the Neighborhood
Family Day Care System." Social Casework 50, No. 9(1969): 527-533.
Collins, A.H. and Watson, E.L. The Day Care NeighborService: A Handbook for the Organization and Operation
of a New Approach to Family Day Care. Portland, Oreg.:
Tri-County Community Council, 1969.Community Family Day Care Project. Family Day Care
West: A Working Conference. Pasadena, Calif.: TheCommunity Family Day Care Project, Pacific Oaks Col-lege, 1972.
Forrester, B.1.; Hardge, B.M.; Outlaw, D.M.; Brooks, G.P.;and Boismier, 1.D. Home Visiting with Mothers andInfants. Nashville, Tenn.: Demonstration and ResearchCenter for Early Education, George Peabody College,
1971.Giesy, R., ed. A Guide for Home Visitors. Nashville, Tenn.:
Demonstration and Research Center for Early Education,George Peabody College, 1970.
Hainstock, E. Teaching Montessori in the Home: The Pre-school Years. Westminster, Md.: Random House, 1968.
Klaus, R.A. and Gray, S.W. "The Educational Training Pro-gram for Disadvantaged Children. A Report After Five
Years." Monographs of the Society for Research in Child
Development 33, No. 4 (1965).Levenstein, P. "Cognitive Growth in Preschoolers Through
Verbal Interaction with Mothers." American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry 40, No. 3 (1970): 426-432.
Levenstein, P. "Learning Through and From Mothers."Childhood Education, 1971, pp. 130-134.
Levenstein, P. and Levenstein, S. "Fostering LearningPotential in Preschoolers." Social Casework 52 (1971):74-78.
Levenstein, P. and Sunley, R. "Stimulation of Verbal Inter-action Between Disadvantaged Mothers and Children."American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 38 (1968): 116-121.
Model Programs: Compensatory Education Mother-ChildHome Program. Freeport, New York. U.S. Department ofHealth, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1972.
O'Keefe, R.A. The Home Start Demonstration Program: AnOverview. Office of Child Development. Washington,D.C. February 1973.
O'Keefe, R.A. Bibliography: Hone -based Child DevelopmentProgram Resources. Office of Child Development.Washington, D.C. Marc! 1973.
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Sale, 1.5. et al. Open the Door . . . See the People. ADescriptive Report of the Second Year of the CommunityFamily Day Care Project. Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific OaksCollege, 1972
Sale, J.S. 'Family Day Care: One Alternative in the Deliveryof Dewlopmental Services in Early Childhood." AmericanJournal of Orthopsychiatry 43, No. 1 (1973): 37-45.
Weikart, D.P. and Lambie, D.L. "Preschool InterventionThrough a Home Teaching Program." In The Disadvantaged Child, edited by J. Hellmuth, pp. 435-500. Vol. 2.New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1968.
Willner, M. "Family Day Care: An Escape From Poverty."Social Work 16, No. 2 (1971): 30-35.
For further information about family day care curriculadescribed in Chapter 10, write to:Clinch-Powell Home Start Project
Mr. William LockeClinch-Powell Educational CooperativeHarrogate, Tenn. 37752
DARCEE Training Plan for Family Day Care WorkersDr. Susan Gray
IWO4 4
.11
'11
DARCEE
JFK Center for Research In Education and HumanDevelopment
George Peabody College for TeachersPost Office Box 30Nashville, Tenn. 37203
Home Start ProgramDr. Ann O'Keefe, DirectorHome Start ProgramOffice of Child DevelopmentPost Office Box 1182Washington, D.C. 20013
Mother-C} ild Home ProgramDr. Phyllis Levenstein30 Albany AvenueFreeport, N.Y.
Ypsilanti Home Teaching ProjectDr. David WeikartHigh/Scope Educational Research Foundation126 North HuronYpsilanti, Mich. 48197
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Chapter 11Health, Psychosocial Services, and Consultation
Quality day care is concerned with the wholechild. A child is not a mind in the morning, astomach at noon, a set of muscles in the after-noon, and a collection of feelings at odd mo-ments in between. He is a person in his ownright, a whole child all the time. He cannotfunction well in a learning situation if he ishungry, sleepy, or ill. He cannot respond freely toa stimulating day care setting if he is afraid hisown home life may disintegrate.
Services to promote physical, psychological,and social development are needed by eachchild and family and must be integrated to befully effective. When they are separate and un-coordinated, inefficiency and even conflict mayresult.
Services can be integrated when they are ei-ther provided by, or coordinated by, a singleinstitution. But in our society, a gap exists in theprovision of these resources for children betweenthe years of infancy and the school years. In mostcommunities, health and psychosocial servicesare offered by different agencies, and fewcommunities have a single agency to coordinateservices for the preschool child. Even in lateryears, most schools are unable to take the wholeresponsibility. Unless the parents have theknowledge, initiative, and means to procureservices for their own families, their children may
go without resources they need.Day care can fill the preschool gap and, in
fact, can fill it more readily and more fully thanmost other institutions. The day care programneed not provide all services directly; few pro-grams could afford to keep all the necessaryspecialists on their staffs. But virtually any pro-gram, with the help of consultants, can arrange
for and coordinate services already available inthe community. The use of consultants, detailedlater in this chapter, is often the key to providingservices, particularly health and psychological
services,
The Role of Day Care in Coordinating andProviding Services
Day care is in a strategic position to supply,facilitate, and coordinate services to children andtheir families. Next to a child's parents, his care-givers are usually the persons most closelyacquainted with his progress and problems, aswell as with special opportunities to provideservices.
Although the size of the program should notbe a barrier to the provision of services, coor-dinating and providing services is more difficultfor a small, unaffiliated program than for a largerprogram. When family or in-home day care issupported by a network or an agency, the or-ganization can help assure that services areavailable. Butwhether the program is large orsmall, affiliated or notthe needs of the childrenare basically the same, and a caregiver whounderstands these needs will do everythingpossible to see that necessary services aresomehow provided.
Every program should have someone respon-sible for coordinating health and psychosocialservices. Professional training would be helpful,but is not a necessity; the ability to work withthe families in the program and with communityorganizations is more important. The agenciesthat provide services are governed by differentlaws, regulations, and formal or informal pro-cedures in different localities. The person co-ordinating health and psychosocial services mustbe familiar with the local situation and able towork well with those who cotrol services in thecommunity. In addition to coordinating services,the coordinator may also directly provide theservices described in the following paragraphs,from initially assessing each family through in-tegrating all available services.
The initial assessment of the family takes placeat the intake interview. The interviewer explainsthe day care program and attempts to assess the
99
strengths and needs of the family. This assess-ment includes determining which services thefamily presently receives, which service.; theythink they need, and the services they may notrealize they need. On this basis, the interviewerand the family members can discuss new servicesand can plan to eliminate duplication and con-flict by coordinating those now provided. Forexample, a family may be dealing with threedifferent social workersone from a familyagency, one from a juvenile court, and the thirdfrom a hospital. The coordinator may be able toarrange for one to take the lead.
The assessment process requires no specializedtechniques other than careful interviewing,perhaps with the help of a standard question-naire. Assessment does not end with the initialinterview but continues as the family strengthensits relationship with the program.
In addition to assessing the needs of thefamily, the interviewer should also assess thephysical progress and further needs of eachchild. The screening should cover the child'sgeneral physical health, including problems andcurrent treatment; his medical history and cur-rent medication; and further treatment that maybe desirable or necessary. The physical screeningshould follow the guidelines in the OCD hand-book, Health Services; its extensiveness dependson the previous care that the child has receivedand a general evaluation of his current condition.
An appraisal of the whole child, of his overallsituation and progress, should be made at thetime of entry. A staff member, preferably aprofessional or a paraprofessional supported by aconsultant, should be responsible for the initialappraisal and for periodic evaluations while thechild remains in the program. In large programs,the progress of each child should be discussedperiodically so that each staff member will haveall the available information about the child andhis family.
There are no quick and easy measurements ofthe whole personno scientific test of his abilityto form relationships, to engage in imaginativeplay, or to find pleasure in learning. The bestmethod is sensitive observation by people whocare about and are trained in child development.A caregiver who has had many hours with thechild is most clearly aware of his situation andprogress. (A short book about systematic ob-servi-tion of children is Observing and Recordingthe behavior of Young Children, by Dorothy H.Cohan and Virginia Stern. See "References,"ch. '14.)
100 .
Testing raises difficult issues which have be-come emotionally charged in many communities.Some programs find it useful to conduct formaltests of the competencies of each entering child.If testing is to be required, it should be doneonly with the approval of the parents, after theyhave been thoroughly informed about the reasonsand the methods for the test and the use to bemade of the results.
Formal testing of young children, especiallythose from a background which is not averagemiddle-American, can be more misleading thanuseful. Tests are usually standardized for white,middle-class children, and are inherently un-suitable for nonwhite and non-middle-classchildren, whose backgrounds and experiencesmay vary widely. Test results are also stronglyinfluenced by the child's anxiety, his motivationto do well, his previous experience with testing,and the situation in which the test is conducted.Standardized IQ tests such as the Stanford-Binetor the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children,require specially trained testers.
There are a few simple screening procedures,however, which may be useful as gross estimatesof general functioning, if they are used togetherwith observation of the children in the program.These few include the Denver developmentalscreening and the preschool behavior inventory,both of which can be used by paraprofessionalswith limited training.
Records of staff observations of each child'sbehavior should be kept. These can be a usefulway of sharing information among staff membersor, in a family program, between the familycaregiver and the parents. A simple checklist isuseful for noting the child's behavior duringcertain routines, such as: separating from andreunion with parents; eating, washing, napping,and story time; certain types of play, includingfavorite activities, interaction with other children,responses to messy activities as well as tostructured situations; and selected learning situ-ations.
These records from the day care prugram canbecome the basis for integrating and coordi-nating preschool services, for deciding to refer achild to specialists, and for using particularconsultants. In most communities, no other in-stitution will have comparable information or thesame opportunity for acting on it.
ConfidentialityIn any day care program, caregivers may have
access to personal information about the family,and parents have every right to expect this in-formation to remain confidential. A breach ofconfidence may severely damage the relationshipof the program with the family and the com-munity. Confidentiality is a hallmark of profes-sional communication. The staff at all levels mustrespect private information about the people
they serve.Special problems arise when the program
employs people who live in the same neigh-borhood as the families in the program. Usingneighborhood residents as employees or vol-unteers is a valuable link between the programand the community and gives the children asense of continuity in their experience. But whenstaff members know the children's parents bothin day care and in a social or business context, itis difficult to maintain confidentiality. It may be
even more difficult to maintain the trust offamilies who know that private informationabout themselves is in the hands of some of theirneighbors.
The program director must take whateverprecautions are necessary both to maintainconfidentiality and to be able to assure familiesthat personal or potentially embarrassing infor-mation will never be released. One approach is
to make files accessible only to staff members. Insome cases, it may be best to withhold personalinformation from all except those staff memberswho have a direct need for it. Some kinds ofinformation may require special precautionsforexample, who is living in a child's home orwhatunusual stresses the child may meet in his family.
There are times when a family may wantpersonal information released to another agency,professional, or school. When a child goes tokindergarten or first grade, the caregivers whohave known him in day care can usually providehis new teacher with a rich understanding of thechild and his experiences. Or the child's pedia-trician or clinic may wish to know about his
cognitive skills or personality. When parents give
their explicit consent, it is perfectly appropriatefor a day care program to release personal in-formation about the child and the family. Toreduce misunderstanding, it is wise to have the
parents sign a "release of information" formwhich states the name of the child and to whomthe information may be given (the professional,
clinic, hospital, or school).
Provision of ServicesA day care program provides health and psy-
chosocial services in two ways: through staff-performed services and through referrals toprofessional services in the community. Whenconsultants are used, they may work with staffmembers to find better ways for the staff toprovide services themselves; the consultants maywork directly with families; or they may do both.
When staff members provide a service them-selves, they are responsible for all the relatedactions and results. For example, a consultant-psychologist may help st ?ff members learn torecognize emotional crises in the lives of chil-dren and to respond constructively. It is then thestaff's responsibility to act on this knowledge.
When the consultant provides the service di-rectly, he or she is responsible for results, andthe staff's function is to coordinate contact be-tween children, parents, and the consultant.Thus, a physician may offer a program of phys-ical examinations and immunizations and beresponsible for results. The staff's role is to ex-plain the program to parents and children and tohelp them take advantage of it.
Physical Health ServicesaA preschool day care program is essentially
responsible for seeing that each child and familyreceives adequate health services from somesource. More specifically, this means:
each child must receive regular health eval-
uation and supervision serviceseach child must be assisted, as necessary, inobtaining medical and dental treatmentthe day care program must have an adequateplan for providing these services, including aregular source of health consultation and a
written statement for all staff members on such
matters as emergency care and the use ofmedicatbn.No child should be excluded from the day
care program because of difficulty in providingadequate health services. The program shoulduse health services that already exist in thecommunity to the greatest extent possible. Thefull use of these community resources helps to
The handbook, Health ServicesA Guide for ProjectDirectors and Health Personnel, by A. Frederick North, Jr.,
M.D., describes services which help promote the physical
health of children in day care. Written for program direc-
tors, physicians, and others concerned with children'shealth, the handbook covers administration and technicalconsiderations in the delivery of health services. Its contentswill not be repeated here.
101
assure both the child's access to health servicesafter he leaves day care and the introduction othese services to his family.
There are differences of opinion about thevalue of health screening and routine examina-tions for children in day care. Obviously, if a
child has had the advantage of a physician's careand is in good health, routine examinations andscreening are not likely to reveal any problems.However, if children coming into the programhave received only sporadic or inadequate healthcare, examination and screening may be quiteproductive. Health services have to be adaptedto the children and community being served. Thepsychosocial service coordinator, staff, andparents should feel comfortable.suggesting orobtaining more detailed evaluation when itseems appropriate. Routine tests should include ahemoglobin or hematocrit test, urinalysis, and TBtest. Other tests may be indicated by the child'ssituationfor example, lead screening for chil-dren who are known to eat things from theground or who live in old residences. Results ofall tests and examinations should be communi-cated to the parents. The child should havewhatever immunizations are necessary; provisionshould be made for any special or preventivecare needed and for a dental evaluation. Whenspecial treatment for health or dental problems isrequired but the parents are unable to obtainadequate care, the day care program should offeras much assistance as possible.
The extent of reexamination and routinetesting at yearly intervals or longer depends onthe results of a child's initial evaluation, thequality of his continuing health program, and thesuspicion of any medical difficulties.
Routine evaluations and screening have littlepurpose if they are not systematically followedup. This followup is possible in day care, but itcan be very time-consuming. If each child is toreceive individualized health attention, it isprobably wise to schedule the examinations overa period of weeks or months rather than overseveral hectic days.
Psychosocial Health CareThe time from age 3 to 6 is particularly
important for the child to acquire many socialand intellectual skills and capacities which arethe basis of his psychological well-being. Care-givers should recognize that the criteria forpsychological well-being vary individually as wellas from one culture to another. A child from an
102
oriental background may be completely social-ized within his own culturepolite, respectful,and concerned about his eldersbut may seeminhibited in an urban American day care center.And a well-socialized child from an uppermiddle-class family may become anxious andunable to cope with the busy activity of an inner-city program.
For most young children, the necessities forsocialization are supplied by a normally devotedfamily and the community. Any child may,however, encounter crisis situations where hisnormal coping mechanisms fail. External events,such as the transition from home care to daycare or a divorce or death in the family can bevery upsetting. In addition, crises arise in thelives of most children related to certain stages intheir development. A child who appears un-happy, aloof, unusually aggressive, or otherwisedistressed may be trying to cope with changesgoing on within himself. Around age 5, for ex-ample, a child may begin to feel more stronglydrawn toward the parent of the opposite sex andmay feel increasing rivalry, still mixed with love,toward the other parent. If all goes well, he willwork through his feelings of love and aggressionand come to a more realistic understanding ofhis own role in the family.
Whether a crisis is developmental or caused byexternal events, it may be followed by importantgrowth if the child acquires new coping skillsand new competence. During a crisis, anyonechild or adultlooks to other people for helpand is more susceptible to influence by others.His response to the crisis is largely influenced bythe material and psychological assistance hereceives from others. Crisis situations, then,provide both the danger of negative reactionsleading to possible mental disorder and theopportunity for improved mental health throughlearning better coping mechanisms. The day carestaff does not usually need psychiatric expertisebut simply needs to offer warm, sensitive, andinformed support to the child in crisis.
Psychosocial health services provided by a daycare program have two broad goals:
to promote the optimal psychological func-tioning of all children and their families and toprovide adequate experiences and reinforce-ment for each child's healthy development(primary prevention)to be available for assistance when the childfails to progress, as indicated by signs of crisisor difficulties in functioning (secondary pre-vention).
While these services are not usually separatefrom the rest of the program activities, consul-tantspsychiatrists, psychologists, and/or socialworkerscan play an important role.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, theconsultant may act directly or indirectly. Directaction means that he or she personally interveneswith individual children or groups of children incrisis situations. Preventive intervention is directaction by a consultant who knows enough aboutcoping patterns to be able to identify childrenwho are not coping adequately and influencethem to adopt more effective mechanisms. Thisintervention is partly educational and partlytherapeutic. Anticipatory guidance consists offocusing on children who are facing a predict-able crisis and preparing themthrough dis-cussion, counseling, role playing, or other de-vicesto deal with the crisis constructively.
Indirect action means that the consultant helpsothers in the program deal with the crises ofchildren. The consultant educates caregiversabout the normal developmental difficulties mostchildren will encounter and about appropriateresponses to them. He helps caregivers under-stand how these normal difficulties can beprolonged and intensified by mishandling or canbe relieved and turned to constructive ends.
Among mental health workers, a strong currenttrend is away from the conventional child ther-apy session at a doctor's office. Dealing with theyoung child's moderate emotional difficultiesthrough his daily contactshis parents, othermembers of his family, and his caregiversisincreasingly emphasized. A child in crisis may beevaluated by a psychiatrist, but his treatment isoften carried out by the adults in his life with theadvice and help of mental health specialists. Thecaregiver thus becomes part of a therapeuticteam.
Indirect action also includes a more generalkind of consultation and collaboration, in whichthe consultant helps the caregivers develop theirinsights and skills in dealing with children. Hemay lead group discussions about the children inthe program, may sponsor review meetings atwhich staff members pool information aboutindividual children, or may help staff memberssee that different treatment by the adults in hislife can confuse a child. Indirect action also in-cludes research. Although a day care programonly rarely has funds to support a formal re-search project, important contributions can bemade by less formal studies and observations.
Consultants and Developmental Day CareWhile this chapter has frequently touched on
the use of consultants, the consultant's functionis so important yet so widely misunderstood thatit deserves separate discussion. Basically, aconsultant is a person with special knowledgeand experience who works with the day carestaff to improve the quality of its care.
Consultants and ConsulteesWhile much literature for consultants exists
on how to function in different situations, verylittle has been written for consulteesthe con-sumers of the consultant's serviceson what aconsultant is and how his services can be used.This lack of information often leads to friction, toa feeling that the consultant has failed, or evento new problems for the program.
The problems can be compounded when morethan one consultant is at work. Every consultanthas his or her own style, methods, personality,and range of interests. Differences can lead toconfusion and conflict unless the consultee iscareful to establish a clear understanding witheach consultant of the definition of the problem,the scope of the consultant's work, and the re-lations between the various persons and groupsinvolved.
A further problem is that many consultants,although outstanding in their special fields, mayunderstand little about the process of consulting.There are no licenses or credentials for consul-tants, no universally recognized course oftraining or body of theory. It is often up to theprogram director or staff to determine exactlywhat they want from the consultant and to helpthe consultant deliver the benefits of hisknowledge and experience.
The staff, the parents, and the communityneed a clear understanding of the kinds ofproblems that call for consultation; the types ofconsultants; how they can be found; and thekind of working relationship that should becultivated with the consultant.
The Need for ConsultationAt many different times, the planning com-
mittee, parents, program director, or staff mayfeel the need for consultation about the programas a whole or about some particular aspect.During the program's start-up phase, criticalpoints often arise on which consultation isneeded, such as a decision about child :staffratio, decisions about professional competenciesof the staff, problems of funding, community
103
relations, or a worrisome family or child. Evenafter the program is operating, the staff may feela need for consultation for many other reasons,such as feeling that the program is not func-tioning smoothly, feeling that there are hiddenpersonal or institutional difficulties, a generallowering of group self-esteem, or a clear conflictbetween individuals or groups. One or moreof these needs frequently comes to the surfaceduring times of particular stress: during the initialplanning phase, during evaluation, when theprogram is being expanded or changed, or attimes of stress for children and families.
Types of ConsultantsIn general, three types of knowledge and ex-
perience may make a consultant valuable:a special area of knowledge, such as health,nutrition, or mental healthbroad knowledge and experience of day careand day care programsknowledge of how to reach other consultantsand bring their services into the program.
The consultee must understand and determinethe problem clearly enough to choose the righttype of consultant or choose to do withoutconsulting help. A beginning day care program,in particular, may be beset with start-up prob-lemssuch as unclear objectives, untrained staff,or rapid turnoverwhich are outside the scopeof consultation as many professionals define it.Many professionals prefer to remain within theirspecial fields railer than engage in this kind ofbroad collaboration'.
Locating a ConsultantFinding a good consultant may be difficult,
since consulting is not generally regarded as aprofession and many consultants do not adver-tise. One way to locate a consultant is throughrecommendation. Otherwise, consultants can besought in the places where their expertise iscultivateduniversities, medical schools, or otherprograms for families such as Head Start or aParent and Child Center. One of the most usefulconsultants for a new program is the director ofa similar program which has been successful.Staff members of family programs may be willingto consult or to recommend someone who will.Community or State agencies may also be able torecommend a consultant. And in a few fields,there are private firms which advertise theirservices.
104
One source of confusion is that many Statelicensing agencies will provide a consultant for anew day care program whose function is usuallylimited to helping the program measure up tominimal legal requirements, primarily safety andsanitation. He may be extremely useful duringthe start-up phase but will not take the place ofconsultants who are brought in to raise theprogram above minimum requirements.
Before hiring a consultant, a program staffshould find out not only the type of consultinghe does, but also his professional credentialstraining, professional standing, affiliations,and past work with other programs. Once again,it is up to consultees to know what they !red.
The Consultant's View of ConsultingConsulting has no hard and fast rules, but
most consultants recognize several principles intheir work.
Consultation is a purely voluntary relation-ship. The person who needs help must ask forit. Consultants do not urge their services uponanyone.Consulting is essentially a temporary rela-tionship. The best consulting relationships maybe long-term ones, but either party is free tobreak off the relationship at any time.The consultant's first task is to clarify theproblem for which help is being asked. Theperson asking for help may have specificobjectives in mind or may be asking whichobjectives to aim at.When the problem is clear, the consultant'stask is to help find and evaluate several al-ternate solutions. He does not write a singleprescription but, instead, finds multiplecourses of action and describes their impli-cations.The day care operator has the right to acceptor reject any proposed solution. The consul-tant cannot and should not enforce a recom-mendation.
These principles help to define the consultant'srole as he sees it. In filling this role, most con-sultants operate according to a general patterndecidedly different from that of an employer-employee relationship.
The first step is establishing a "consultantcontract" which defines the scope of the con-sultant's work. The contract need not be inwriting, but it should be worked out and dis-cussed in detail. The operator and the consultanttogether decide what is wanted and what will be
providedfor example, suggesting specific im-provement; working with certain staff memberson their problems; or providing an evaluation ora report. A clear definition of the work to bedone is essential right from the start. Manyconsultants confine themselves to certain kindsof work and may be unwilling to do what theconsultee expects. For example, a consultant inmental health may not be willing to help write aproposal for funding, while a consultant in ad-ministration might regard the proposal as anormal part of his work. The contract is estab-lished at the beginning, but it should be re-viewed, more or less formally, many times duringthe course of the consultant's work.
Next, the consultant and the operator mustbegin to establish a working relationship. Eachwill need to become familiar and comfortablewith the working style of the other. The operatorneeds to gain confidence and acquire a sense oftrust in the knowledge and competence of theconsultant. A consultant regards this step as adefinite part of the job, and if a satisfactory re-lationship does not develop he will expect theoperator to discuss the problem and possiblyterminate the contract.
In the beginning phase of consultation, theconsultant and operator work together foranalysis and better definition of the real prob-lem. The results are frequently unexpected. Forexample, the operator may ask for help in settingup a training program. Careful investigation mayreveal that the real problem is high employeeturnover due to personal or professional tensionsrather than a lack of training.
Depending on the nature of the problem, theconsultant may then begin to work with staffmembers, with volunteers. with a parent advisorycommittee, or with the operator to develop andevaluate solutions. As the work progresses, theconsultant may decide that the real problem isoutside his preferred scope, or the operator mayfeel that the consultant is preoccupied withconcerns which are not central to the problem.This divergence of interests is entirely legitimate,and the consultant will expect to discuss it freely.
The Consultee's View of ConsultingThe consumers of a consulting service should
realize that they have a right to expect certainthings from any consultant. Naturally, the con-sultant should have the expertise for which hewas hired, should know how to apply it topractical problems and come up with a number
of alternate recommendations, and should workin a professional way. But from the consumer'sviewpoint, the consultant needs to be more than
professionally competent. Specifically:Consultants should listen carefully to whatthe consultee has to say and keep listeninguntil it is understood.They should be aware of the consultees'feelings and of their own and take thesefeelings into account.They should work with staff members to getat the causes behind problems.They should define objectives clearly, so thateach party to the consultation will know whatkind of solution is being attempted.They should be able to state things simplyand sensibly.They should build on the strengths of thosewith whom they consult, leaving them withfeelings of greater adequacy and worth.They should claim only knowledge that theyreally have, understanding and avoiding thetemptation to act as an authority on all sub-jects.Whatever the immediate problem, theyshould keep their attention focused on the realgoal of helping people give the children in theprogram the hest possible care.They should understand that they will beevaluated by staff and parents and that thesepeople have the right to terminate the contractwhenever they find it unsatisfactory.
The Mental Health ConsultantConsultation about mental health is the most
complex form of consultation in day care andperhaps the most frequently used. While theprevious discussion applies to all kinds of con-sultants, some special aspects of mental healthconsultation should be described in more detail.
For those not well acquainted with the field ofmental health, it may be helpful to emphasizethat the use of a mental health consultant doesnot imply a condition of mental disorder, anymore than the use of a nutritionist implies acondition of starvation. In both cases the pur-pose is to effect an improvement, not a rescue.Mental health consultation is intended to raisethe level at which the program or the stafffunctions and, by that means, improve the caregiven to the children.
The role of the mental health consultant ishard to define precisely, since mental healthenters into all aspects of day care. The day care
105
staff, recognizing that day care is concerned withthe whole child, his family, and his community,may unfortunately expect the consultant to dealwith the whole world at once. Inexperiencedconsultants may dilute their efforts by under-taking too much and moving beyond their areaof greatest competence. The important point isfor the consultee and consultant together toagree on a well-defined scope of work and toaim at practicable solutions.
Types of Mental Health ConsultationMental health consultation is generally divided
into four types. A given problem might seem toinvite more than one approach, but thought anddiscussion usually reveal that one type of con-sultation is most suitable.
The major distinction is between case con-sultation and administrative consultation. In caseconsultat:',', the focus is on particular problemsrather than the whole program.
Clientcentered case consultation deals withproblems of individual children and familiesand recommends how to deal with eachparticular case.
Staff-centered case consultation deals withhew the staff is handling a particular case andrecommends better methods and procedures.
In administrative consultation, the focus is on thewhole program, its policies, and its administra-tion.
Program-centered administrative consultationattempts to improve the present program or todevelop a new one. The consultant shares hisknowledge of administration and social sys-tems as well as his expertise in mental health.Staff-centered administrative consultationfocuses on the problems of staff members inorganizing and developing the program.The reason for defining the four types is not to
suggest that every problem can be fitted neatlyinto a pigeonhole, but to emphasize the variousways a problem can be approached and to re-emphasize the need for clear understanding ofwhat the consultant is attempting.
Practice of Mental Health ConsultationLike all consultation, mental health consulta-
tion has no strict rules, though a few principlesare .videly recognized. In addition to the generalguidelines mentioned, these points should beemphasized.
106
Mental health consultation between profes-sionalsconsultant and day care director orstaffis a cooperative effort to deal with casesor programs. Neither party is superior in therelationship; neither has authority over theother.Consultation has two goals: to help theconsultee with a current problem and to makethe consultee better able to meet futureproblems.Consultation with day care staff membersfocuses on job problems, not personal prob-lems.Consultation usually takes place in a series ofsessions. The process may continue indefi-nitely, but it may be terminated at any time byeither party.When mental health consultation is successful,
the process is a developmental one for the staff.Staff members learn to use their abilities betterand become more effective in their work. Foradults, as for children, such a relationship re-quires trust, respect, and time.
ReferencesApley, I. and Mackeith, R. The Child and His Symptoms.
Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1968.Caplan, G., ed. Prevention of Mental Disorders in Children.
New York: Basic Books, 1961.Caplan, G. The Theory and Practice of Mental Health
Consultation. New York: Basic Books, 1970.Child Development Staff. Programs for Infants and Young
Children. Part Health. Washington, D.C.: The Appa-lachian Regional Commission, 1970.
Day Care: Serving Children with Special Needs. Child De-velopment. Office of Cifd Development. U.S. Depart-ment of Health, Education, and Welfare PublicationNo. (OCD) 72-42. Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 1972.
)ittmann, 1.. Children in Day Care with Focus on Health.Children's Bureau Publication No. 444. U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1967.
Glasscote, R.M.: Fishman, M.E.; and Sonis, M. Children andMental Health CentersPrograms, Problems, Prospects.Washington, D.C.: Joint Information Service of theAmerican Psychiatric Association and the National Asso-ciation for Mental Health, 1972.
Green, M. and Haggerty, R., eds. Ambulatory Pediatrics.Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1968.
Heinicke, C.M.; Freedman, D.; Prescott, E.; Puncel, C.; andSale, J.S. "The Organization of Day Care: ConsiderationsRelating to the rental Health of Child and Family."American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 43, No. 1 (1973):8-22.
Crisis in Child Mental Health: Challenge for the 1970's.Report of the Joint Commission on Mental Healthof Children. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
Kahn, Al.;. Kamerman, S.8.; and McGowan, B.G. ChildAdvocacy: Report of a National Baseline Study. NewYork: Child Advocacy Research Project, Columbia Uni-versity School of Social Work, 1972.
Kiester, D.I. Consultation in Day Care. Chapel Hill: Instituteof Government, University of North Carolina, 1969.
Mattick, I. "Adaptation of Nursery School Techniques toDeprived Children. Some Notes on the Experience ofTeaching Children of Multi-Problem Families in a Ther-apeutically Oriented Nursery School." Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child Psychiatry 4 (1965): 670-700.
North, A.F. Day Care: Health ServicesA Guide for ProjectDirectors and Health Personnel. Child Development.Office of Child Development. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare Publication No. (OCD) 73-12.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.
North A.F., ed. Research Issues in Child Health: A HeadStart Research Seminar. "I. Introduction and Overview,"by A.F. North. "II. Some Medical and Economic Issues,"by R. I. Haggerty. "III. Some Socioanthropologic andOrganizational Issues," by M.G. Wagner. "IV. SomePhilosophic and Methodologic Issues," by N.G. Birch."V. An Afterview," by A.F. North. Pediatrics 45 (1970):690-712, 868-885.
Peters, A.D. "Health Support in Day Care." In Day Care:Resources for Decisions, edited, by E.H. Grotberg,pp. 315-334. Washington, D.C.: Office of EconomicOpportunity, 1971.
Project Head StartNumber 2: Health ServicesA Guidefor Project Directors and Health Personnel. U.S. Depart-ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington,D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967.
Project Head StartNumber 12: Psychologist for a ChildDevelopment Center. U.S. Department of Heald', Edu-cation, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, n.d.
Richmond, J.B. "Gaps in the Nation's Services for Children."Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 41,No. 12 (1965): 1237-1247.
Stewart, G.J. "Day Care: An Under-Used Resource in ChildWelfare." Child Welfare 7 (1968): 207-211.
107
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Wherever and whenever day care is provided,nutrition and feeding are important elements.Adequate nutrition is essential for sound physicaldevelopment and is a major factor in intellectualand behavioral growth as well.
Ilse act of feeding itself can also be used tohelp the child establish warm human relation-ships. It is an important experience in deter-mining the nature of the parent-child relationshipand is part of learning to share and relate toothers. As the child learns to feed himself, helearns to regulate his activities in order to satisfyhis bodily needs. As different foods are intro-duced, he learns more about different sources ofpleasure and about how to select and accept thekinds of foods needed for a well-balanced diet.
Early childhood is a strategic time for pre-venting nutritional practices which can lead tosuch problems as obesity, dental cavities, andanemia. Eating habits and attitudes about foodacquired in early childhood may last a lifetime.
Objectives of Nutritional ServicesThe objectives of nutritional services in a day
care program include:providing food which will help meet thechild's total nutritional needs and promotesound physical, emotional, and social growth,while recognizing individual and cultural fooddifferences and practicesinvolving parents and community agencies sothat the nutritional care provided in the daycare program both complements and sup-plements that provided in the home andcommunitydeveloping an environment for nutritionalservices which is safe, clean, and pleasant andwhich will support the use of mealtime as alearning opportunitydemonstrating the relation of nutrition toother aspects of the day care program and itscontribution to overall child developmentgoalshelping the staff, the child, and his familyunderstand the relationship of nutrition tohealth and development, the various kinds and
Chapter 12Nutritional Services
amounts of food needed for good nutrition,and how to develop healthful food habits andpractices.
Essential Elements of Nutritional ServicesTo meet these objectives, a day care program
must do far more than provide food. The pro-gram should contain at least these five elementsrelated to nutrition:
Assessment of Nutritional Status and Needs.Information from the following sources shouldbe useful in planning for nutrition services: froma health evaluation of each child at intake andperiodically thereafter; from communityagencies on prevalent nutritional needs andproblems; and from each family on specificdietary preferences, habits, and problems. Suchinformation can help food service meetindividual nutritional needs.
Acceptable Nutritional Standards. The foodservice must, of course, meet State and localhealth regulations. Further, it should help eachchild develop sound food practices, shouldserve as a socializing experience, andasfar as practical and consistent with other re-quirementsshould reflect the cultural andethnic patterns and food practices of the child'sfamily.Nutrition Education. Children, parents, daycare staff, and others working with childrenshould be given opportunities to learn aboutthe importance of proper nutrition to growthand development; the factors which affectnutrition; ways to meet dietary needs and todevelop healthful food practices; and the rolesof children, parents, caregivers, and othersin achieving good nutrition.
Program Direction from Competent Staff. Thefood service staff should be trained in menuplanning, food purchasing, food preparationand storage, sanitation and personal hygiene,and should consult regularly with a qualifiednutritionist.
109
Outreach. An outreach program should providefor parent and community involvement inplanning and implementing nutritionalservices; assist families in obtaining food whennecessary; and encourage continuity ofnutritional care in the home, day care, andhe community.
Nutrition and Feeding of thePreschool Child
While each period in the life of the child hasits special needs and problems, certain principleshold through all ages. At every age, the diet mustprovide the essential nutrientsprotein, vitamins,minerals, fat, carbohydrates, and waterif thebody is to grow and function properly. Andgeneral nutrition is affected not only by what iseaten, but by general physical and mental health,rest, work, and recreation as well.
The weekly menu should include a variety ofdishes which broaden the children's food ex-perience, while considering cultural and ethnicpreferences. A trained nutrition consultant canhelp obtain information about the nutritionalvalue of specific ethnic dishes and can suggesthow to use them in planning a well-balanced diet.
Table 12-1 shows one sample weekly mealpattern for preschool children which will supplyall the nutrients most children require. Vitamins,minerals, or other supplements will usually notbe necessary unless prescribed by a physician tomeet a special need.
The number and kinds of meals and snack-served in the day care program will depend onthe number of hours the children attend and thequantity and quality of the meals they eat athome. Children in a half-day program shouldreceive at least one meal and one between-mealsnack, and these :should provide at least one-third of their daily nutritional needs. Childrenpresent for longer periods should have a greaterproportionusually from one-half to two- thirdsof their daily dietary needs met in the day careprogram.
Mealtimes should be flexible enough to meetchildren's needs: those coming to the programearly in the morning (before 8 a.m.) may needbreakfast soon after arrival, while those re-maining until late evening may need a lightsupper in addition to the noon meal and after-noon snack.
Developing Good Food HabitsThe nutritional service in day care should help
children develop good habits and attitudes to-
110
ward nutrition by allowing them to experiencefood and feeding in a pleasant, relaxed atmos-phere. Mealtime should be a happy occasionwhen children and adults can enjoy each other'scompany. The environment can affect the wholeexperience. A bright, safe, clean, and well-ventilated dining area adds to the enjoyment offond; if possible, it should be large enough topermit children to sit in groups. Allowing chil-dren ample time to eat, serving family-stylemeals to adults and children together, and pro-viding interesting table conversation will alsohelp make each meal a pleasant experience.
Mealtime furniture should be suited to the sizeand developmental level of the children andshould be safe, durable, and easy to clean. Asetting that includes both adult- and child-sizedfurniture may be most comfortable. Children'sdishes and utensils should be selected with re-spect to their suitability for the children's sizeand maturity and to such factors as safety, san-itation, storage space, cost, available personnel,and dishwashing equipment. Chairs, tables, andeating utensils suited to the children's size anddevelopmental level wi!I help them masterfeeding skills and will allow them to participatein serving food to others. Since most childrenhave a hard time using disposable dishes andutensils, these should be used only if they aresturdy enough not to collapse, break, or spill.
Food which is well prepared, attractivelyserved, and suitably portioned for children canalso enhance the mealtime experience. Smallchildren usually have small appetites; yet dif-ferent children eat different amounts, and onechild may eat more some days than others. Foodshould be served in small-sized portions and thechildren permitted to have more if they wish.Milk and juice, for instance, should be served insmall glasses, meat and vegetables cut in cmallpieces, and braid given in half-slices.
As preschool children begin to take interest indoing things for themselves, they develop no-ticeable food preferences. Appetites may varyand food "jags" are common. A self-chosen dailydiet of peanut butter sandwiches, for example, isquite natural for a 4- or 5-year-old. If such var-iations and peculiarities in appetite receive nospecial adult attention, if children are encour-agednot forcedto eat needed kinds andamounts of food, and if food is never used as apunishment or a reward, feeding problems willseldom occur and good nutritional habits willeventually develop.
PATTERN FIRST DAY
Table 12-1
SUGGESTED MENUS FOR YOUNG CHILDREN '
Based on Meal Requirements for Children 3 up to 6 years
2ND DAY 3RD DAY 4TH DAY 5TH DAY
BREAKFASTJuice or FruitCereal or BreadMilkOther foods
Orange Juice-1/2 cupToast-12 sliceBaked Scrambled Egg
2 Tbsp.Grape JellyMilk% cup
Sliced Banana-1/2 cupCornflakes-1., cupWk.% cup
Apricot Halves t /2cup
Buttered Toast-1/2 sliceCccoa % cup
Fruit Cup-1/2 cupHard Cooked Egg HalfToast-3/2 sliceMilk% cup
Grapefruit Sections1/2 cup
Rolled Oats-33 cupMilk% Jp
A.M. SUPPLEMENTMilk or JuiceBread or Cereal
Milk-1/2 cupCinnamon Toast-1/2
slice
Tomato Juice-1/2 cupCheese Toast-1/2 slice
Milk-1/2 cuoRice Krispies-13 cup
Pineapple Juice - -I /2cup
Toasted Raisin Bread"I/2 slice
Grape Juice-1/2 cupCinnamon Toast-1/2
slice
LUNCH OR SUPPERMeat or AlternateVegetables and/or
FruitsBreadEh ler/MargarineMilkOther foods
MeatloafI 1/2 ouncesGreen Beans-1/4 cupPineapple Cubes-1/4
cupBread-1/2 sliceButterI/2 tsp.Milk% cup
Baked Chicken (11/2ounces meat)
Mashed Potatoes-1/4cup
Peas-1/4 cupCarrot StickRoll smallButter-1/2 tsp.Milk
Chicken VegetableSoupI/2 cup (Iounce meat)
Peanut Better andJelly Sandwich (1Tbsp. peanut butter)
Green Pepper StickCanned Peaches-1/4
cupMilk% cup
Beef Patty -11/2 OZ.Carrots% cupApple Wedge-1/4 cupWhole Wheat Bread
1/2 sliceButter-1/2 tsp.Milk% cupChocolate Pudding
2 Tbsp,
Fish Sticks (11/2ounces)
Spinach-3/4 cupCanned Pears-1/4 cupCorn Bread-1 squareButter-1/2 tsp.Milk% cup
-3h cup
P.M. SUPPLEMENTMilk or JuiceBread or Cereal
Mixed Fruit Juice- -1/2 cup
Peanut Butter So!' .iwith I /4
Milk-1/2 cupOatmeal CookiesI
Apple Juice-1/2 cupCheese Toast-1/2 slice
Milk-1/2 cupPeanut Butter Cookie"
---ITurnip Stick
MilkI/2 cupRolled Wheat
CookieICauliflowerets
Made with fluid whole milkMade with enriched flour
' A Guido for Planning Food Services in Child Care Centers. Food and Nutrition Service. U S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, i) C., 1971.
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Many children eat only small quantities offood at one time, so between-meal snacks maysatisfy both hunger and nutritional needs. Ofcourse, snacks should not be served close tomealtime, since they may interfere with thechild's appetite for regular meals. Since fruit,milk, bread and butter, cheese, or raw vegetablesprovide far more of the nutrients needed forgrowth, they are better snack food than car-bonated beverages, candy, and other sweets.
RecordsAdequate records are needed for planning and
monitoring a day care nutritional service. Thefollowing should be recorded:
a written policy statement, available to staffand parents, on the feeding of children ac-cording to their nutritional and developmentalneedsstandardized recipes for food preparationphysician'-- written recommendations for anyvitamin or mineral supplements or diet mod-ifications prescribed for a specific childwritten reports of inspections by State andlocal health authoritiesmenus and food-purchasing recordsfood service budget.
Staffing and Resources forNutritional Services
Staff members who feed children will need tobe patient, cheerful, flexible, and able to toleratemessiness; in addition, they should be healthyand have good nutritional habits themselves. Thecookone of tile most important members ofthe day care staffshould not only maintain highstandards of personal hygiene and be able toprepare food well but should also be interestedin preparing nutritious and attractive meals. Onoccasion, she or he should be willing to allowchildren in the kitchen as part of their nutritioneducation activities at the center.
One person should have the overall respon-sibility for the food service. In a family day careprogram, this person will probably be the care-giver. In a small center, it could be the director,the cook, or a food service worker; in a largecenter, there may well be a dietitian, dietarytechnician, or food service supervisor.
Whatever the size or type of day care and thequalifications of the person in charge of the foodservice, some provision should be made forregular consultation with a trained nutritionist,well-qualified in food service management andknowledgeable about child growth and devel-
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opment. That individual should meet thestandards of the American Dietetic Associationfor a registered dietitian or be a graduate of anaccredited college program in nutrition, dietetics,or food service management. He or she shouldhave at least 2 years related professional expe-rience. The consultant might be a member ofthe day care staff or perhaps might be the die-titian or nutritionist in the local health depart-ment, hospital, school lunch program, or othercommunity agency.
EducationIndividuals concerned with children's growth
should have a knowledge of the factors whichinfluence nutrition and food practices; how toselect and prepare the kinds and amounts offood which meet nutritional needs; and how tomake economical yet nutritionally sound choicesin the food market. Those responsible for se-lecting and preparing food for children need infor-mation and skills in menu planning, in preparingand storing food in a safe and sanitary manner,and in creating a physical and emotional envi-ronment which will support both enjoyablemealtime experiences and sound food habits.Educational programs are therefore important forchildren, parents, and day care staff, eitherthrough the day care program itself or throughcooperation with local and State agencies andinstitutions.
Education for StaffAll staff members in a day care centerfrom
the cook to administrative personneland everyoperator of a family day care home should havea basic knowledge of the principles of nutritionand sanitation and of their importance to childhealth and development. Day care personnelshould b2 given both preservice and inserviceopportunities for such instruction.
Training can include workshops and seminarson aspects of nutrition which might be offeredby State and local health, welfare, or educationalagencies; correspondence courses in nutritionoffered by professional organizations such as theAmerican Dietetic Association; and nutritioncourses offered by local colleges and universities.A good source of specific information aboutopportunities in nutrition training is the chiefnutritionist in the State health department.
Education for ParentsSince parents are the child's first teachers, it is
vital that they have a good basic knowledge of
nutrition and child development.As one aspect of parent involvement, a day
care program may include a formal educationalprogram for parents or may assist parents inusing other community resourcessuch asschools and health agencieswhich provideadult education classes in nutrition, homemaking,and consumer education.
Informal approaches can also be valuable.Caregivers can hold individual conferenceswhere professionals help parents with questionsand problems; can encourage parents to vol-unteer in preparing and serving foods for theprogram; and can have children take homemenus, recipes, and other dietary information.Parents can also serve as a source of informationthemselves. They can, for example, help the daycare staff learn more about the foods popularwith a particular family or ethnic group, thusadding variety and a homelike touch to thechildren's menus.
Because the operator of a family day carehome deals with only a small number of chil-dren, she or he is likely to have quite personalcontacts with their parents and can offer evenmore specialized, informal help. Parents andcaregiver can personally share menus and recipesand suggestions and can mutually decide uponspecific approaches if a child should have somefeeding difficulties. The family caregiver is alsolikely to know the particular needs of eachfamily and can thus inform them of the availablecommunity resources best suited to their situa-tion.
Regardless how informal the approach, daycare programs are in a position to help parentsbetter understand the principles of nutrition,home management, and consumer education.
Education for ChildrenAny day care program can offer a wide variety
of experiences which help children learn aboutnutrition. As children select, prepare, and eatdifferent foods, they learn not only about foodand nutrition, but about such things as words,colors, textures, tastes and smells, measures,numbers, sharing, and courtesy.
Such learning need not be restricted tomealtimes or to formal instruction. Preschoolchildren learn best by doing and should be al-lowed to actively participate in planning meals,in marketing, and in preparing and serving food.They gain more than information; they also gainthe satisfaction of sharing in grownup and im-portant activities.
Safe Food ServiceIf food is to be safe for young children to eat,
certain principles of sanitation must be followedin both day care centers and family day carehomes. These include clean and wholesomefood, proper storage, clean and suitable equip-ment, healthy food workers, and proper foodhandling. Well-trained personnel are the key.
Local and State health regulations regardingboth the storage, preparation, and serving offood and the health and cleanliness of foodhandlers should be closely followed. And if foodand beverages are obtained from vendors outsidethe day care facility, such vendors should be incompliance with local, State, and Federal san-itary codes.New Technology in Food Service
Advances in nutrition science and new tech-nology in food preparation equipment, market-ing, and delivery are creating more options infood service management. Advances includeformulated or engineered foods such as texturedprotein, fortified and enriched foods such as fruitdrinks with vitamin C or macaroni with protein,and combination or convenience foods such ascup-can meals and frozen dinners, to mentionbut a few. Meals can be prepared within the daycare facility, contracted from a food servicemanagement company, or delivered from acentral food production unit in bulk or inready-to-serve or ready-to-heat portions.
Many choices of foods and delivery systemsexist, and each has its advantages and disad-vantages. Selection will be determined by suchfactors as availability of food, availability of spaceand equipment for storage and preparation,capability of the available personnel, size of thefood budget, and the objectives of the nutritionprogram.
Several general principles, however, should bekept in mind. If food is delivered, the deliverysystem should be flexible enough to accommo-date individual needs and group preferences. Iffood vendors are used, food specifications andstandards for safety and sanitation must be fol-lowed and the vendors' performance monitored.Those responsible for the food service in the daycare program must retain the right to control thequality and quantity of the food, as well as itscost.
And finally, the key point to remember is thatthe goal of a nutrition program is not merely todeliver food to children, but to enhance the totalwell-being of the children and their familiesthrough the various ways this chapter has discussed.
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ReferencesBirch, H.G. and Cus%ow, J.D. Disadvantaged Children:
Health, Nutrition, and School Failure. New York: HarcourtBrace lovanovich, and Grune & Stratton, 1970.
Carter, 1.; Gilmer, B.: Vanderwaag, R.; and Massey, K.Health and Nutrition in Disadvantaged Children and TheirRelationship with intellectual Development A collabo-rative report with Vanderbilt School of Medicine. DARCEEPapers and Reports, 4, No. 7 (1970). Nashville, Tenn.:Demonstration and Research Center for Early Education,George Peabody College for Teachers.
Child Development Staff. Programs for Infants and YoungChildren. Part II: Nutrition. Appalachian Regional Com-mission, 1666 Connecticut Avenue, NW., Washington,D C. 20235, October 1970.
Food for Children: In Preschool Centers: In Summer Pro-grams. Consumer and Marketing Service, U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOftice, 1969.
Handbook of Food Preparation. 6th ed. Washington, D.C.:American Home Economics Association, 1971.
McEney, E.T. and Suydam, M.I. Feeding Little Folks. Chi-cago. National Dairy Council, 1964.
Project Plead StartNumber 3: Nutrition: Better Eating for aHead start. U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1969.
Project Head Start ..umber 3A. Food Buying Guide andRecipes. U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1971.
_
Project Head StartNumber 3B Nutrition Instructor's Guidefor Training Leaders: Parent Education in Nutrition andFood U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969.
Project Head StartNumber 3C: Leader's Handbook for aNutrition and Food Course: Parent Education in Nutritionand Food: A Series of Ten Lessons for Parents. U.S. De-partment of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington,D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969.
Project Head StartNumber 3D: Nutrition: Staff TrainingPrograms. U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1969.
Project Head StartNumber 3E: Nutrition Film "Jenny is aGood Thing" leader's Discussion Guide. U.S. Depart-ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington,D.C. ! Government Printing Office, 1969.
Proyecto Head StartNumber 3E: Pelicula Sobre Nutrition"Jenny is a Good Thing" Cuia de Discusion para Lid-eres. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-fare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970.
Protect Head StartNumber 3F: Nutrition Education forYoung Children. Adventures in Learning: A Guide forTeachers and Aides. U.S. Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1969.
Screening Children for Nutritional Status: Suggestions forChild Health Programs. Public Health Service PublicationNo. 2158, U.S. Department of Health, Friucation, andWelfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1971.
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The staff is the most important element in aday care program. Teachers and other caregiversinfluence the development of children more thanany specific curriculum or educational method-ology. And staffing expenses account for anappropriate share of the buc'get -75 to 80 per-cent in a typical quality preschool program.
Obviously, problems of sty ffing deservethoughtful attention. the tour main issues dis-cussed in this chapter are: (1) the competenciesdesired in staff members; (2) the number of staffmembers required for a quality program (thestaff:child ratio); (3) continuity of care; and (4)recognition of competency and performance.'
The term "staffing" probably brings to mind alarge program with many members and possiblyan extensive administrative structure. Basicstaffing considerations, however, apply to bothlarge and small centers, to networks of familyday care homes, and even to single, unaffiliatedcaregivers.
Competencies and RequirementsThe range of competencies required for the
staff of a large day care center is, of course,greater than for that of a smaller center or afamily day care home, simply because a largeprogram has more staff members, more spe-cialists, and probably a more complex relation tothe community.
The director of a large day care program mustfirst of all have a basic knowledge of child de-velopment and care. He or she must also be ableto administer the program; know how to meetrequirements for safety and health, nutrition, andmental health service; be able to recruit andguide the staff as well as to hire and dismiss;oversee the physical plant; work with parentsand maintain their involvement; collaborate withother community agencies; and secure fundingfor the program. The job obviously requires a
1 Two OCD manuals, Staff Training and Administration,discuss in detail such aspects of staffing as selection andhiring, training, sample job descriptions, supervision, andpersonnel administration. These discussions will not berepeated here.
Chapter 13Staffing
person of ability and experience, and one whoseprofessional training probably includes an aca-demic degree in a field such as early childhoodeducation or child development, or whose ex-periences and competencies are equivalent tosuch formal training.
Primary caregivers are those responsible forimmediate, face. to-face care of the children.They are the principal staffing concern, since theeffectiveness of the program depends on thequality of their interaction with the children.
There are several basic requirements for care-givers in a quality program.
Each caregiver should be at least 18 years oldand able to read and write. (Younger peoplemay help as aides or assistants brt should notbe considered as primary caregivers.)Each caregiver should be healthy enough toperform all duties safely and should have nodisease that could be communicated to thechildren.Each caregiver must be willing and able tocarry out the activities required by the cur-riculum.Each caregiver must be able to work withchildren without using physical or psycho-logical punishment; be able to praise andencourage children; be able to provide themwith learning and social experiences appro-priate to their ages; be able to recognizephysical hazards and either eliminate them ortake precautions against them; and be willingand able to increase his or her skills andcompetence through experience, training, andsupervision.
In a program with about 30 or more children,it is advisable for at least one caregiver who ispresent half the time or more to meet any oneof the following qualifications: to have acollege degree with course work in childdevelopment, child psychology, child health,education, or other directly related fields; orhave a high school diploma or its equivalent,plus substantial experience in an educational,early childhood, or day care program; or be
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certified as a child development associate 2 orhave similar status because of obvious corn-netence.
In a program where some of the families donot speak English, there should be at least onecaregiver who can communicate with parentsand children in their native language.Although competence and knowledge are very
important, caregiving requires considerablymore patience with children, pleasure in caringfor them, and a desire and commitment to workas a caregiver. Children need caregivers who likethem and believe they are important. They seesethese feelings or the lack of them, whatever thecaregiver's outward style. The best intentions andtraining cannot take the place of a real desire tocare for children.
On the other hand, lack of training shouldnot keep anyone with the desire and the capa-bility from becoming a caregiver. Ideally, thesepeople could work directly in a day care pro-gram as apprentice caregivers and be providedwith supervision and consultation. If they receiveadequate inservice training and supervision,caregivers need not be required to have formalclassroom training first.
Most caregivers are women. Since few childrenhave an opportunity to be with their fathers andother men during the day, and even fewer everget to see their fathers at work, the presence ofmen in day care should be encouraged. Moremen may be attracted to child care careers asthese jobs receive more public status andbecome part of a more definite career ladder.
Volunteers can contribute to almost everyaspect of a day care program. Teen-agers, whoare often available as volunteersparticularlywhen a local high school offers courses such aseducation for parenthoodget an invaluablechance to learn about small children through daycare. All volunteers increase the range of con-tactstacts open to the children, and a program usuallybenefits from their energy and enthusiasm.Naturally, volunteers should not he counted asprimary caregivers, except in a cooperativeprogram run by parents for their own children.
2 The child development associate is a new, middle-levelprofessional credential awarded to caregivers who dem-onstrate competence in areas similar to those listed above.The credential will be granted by a broad-based consortiumof national organizations under the sponsorship of theOffice of Child Development. In addition to credentialing,this consortium will promote various training programs focaregivers and work to provide child caregivers with aclearly defined and valued public status.
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Staff: Child RatiosThe ratio of staff members to children is one
indicator of the amount of individual attentionavailable to each child. Since the quality of adevelopmental program heavily depends on theamount of adult-child interaction, the staff:childratio is wider, accepted as an important index ofthe program's potential value.
The amount of individual attention needed byeach child varies but is related to developmentallevel. In general, children entering day care forthe first time, those whose development is lag-ging, who are very active and distractable, orwho are unusually inhibited require more intenseindividual attention than children who are moremature and who have more highly developedsocial and emotional skills.
For convenience, the preschool years cangenerally be subdivided into two phases basedon developmental differences: children 3 to 41/2years old and those 4'/2 to 6. Even within thesephases, of course, there are major differencesbetween children. Yet, compared to 3-year-olds,children over 41/2 are significantly more self-sufficient in terms of eating and toilet habits, areable to play in groups for longer periods of time,and are less dependent on adults. Older pre-schoolers also tend to be more interested inpre-academic subjects, such as reading readinessand science. These developmental levels shouldbe reflected in the staff:child ratio.
Obviously, no ratio can be a magic numberthat guarantees good care for every child. Rec-ommended ratios represent estimates and intu-ition and, in the past, were sometimes unfortu-nately taken to be fixed and firm requirementsfor good care. Suggestions about staff ratio mustbe understood as just that: indications of whatranges of staffing are generally reasonable. Thesesuggestions will be interpreted differently in eachprogram depending on the competencies of thecaregivers; the personalities and developmentallevels of the children; the goals of the program;the supportive staff available to the caregivers;requirements of the funding agencies; the qualityof the facilities; and all the other factors thatcontribute to a child's experience in day care.
In calculating staff:child ratios, one shouldcount only the staff time devoted to primarycaregiving. Some programs include, as part of thestaff:child ratio, the hours spent by cooks, sec-retaries, and drivers, as well as by volunteers orparent helpers. It is better to base the staff:childratio on primary caregiving time only, even if thefinal figure may seem less desirable. Otherwise,
the figure may look admirable but actually bemeaningless.
A staff:child ratio that works well in a centermay be inadequate for a family day care home.The day care home is usually run by one adult,the primary caregiver, who with little or nooutside help must also cook meals, plan theprogram, clean up and maintain the facilities andequipment, talk to parents, and keep records.She or he usually works with children the entireday without a break and is likely to deal withchildren of a wider age range than those in thecare of one caregiver in a center. Clearly, thestaff:child ratio should he higher or bigger for afamily day care home than for a center; that is,the family caregiver should normally not care foras many children as a caregiver in a center.
The following are about the recommendedminimum staff:child ratios. In most cases, fewerchildren for each caregiver would be better.
The recommendation for family day carehomes is that one primary caregiver should carefor the following number of children, includingher own:
no more than five or six children, of whomone may be an infant (birth to 18 months) or atoddler (18 months to 3 years)if two children are in the infant/toddler ageranges, no more than two or three olderchildren or a total of four or fiveif three children are in the infant/toddler ageranges, it would he wise to care for no otherchildren or, at the most, one older child, for atotal of fournever more than two infants.Since family caregivers usually have direct
contact with families, each is in a good positionto decide the number, the age range, and thedevelopmental levels of the children to he in hisor her are and then to select the childrenindividually. While the maximum number ofchildren under age 14including those of thecaregiveris usually limited by licensing to six,
most family caregivers take care of only two orthree children. Caring for more than four pre-school children all day in day care would eitherrequire a very special, high-energy caregiver orcould quickly lead to low-quality care.
The staff:child ratio in a day care center canusually be smaller or lowerfewer staff caringfor more childrenthan that in a family day carehome for several reasons: in a center, caregiversseldom have to help prepare meals or clean;they can usually take breaks during the day andbe covered by someone else; they have lesspaperwork because of secretarial help; they havefewer distractions such as personal telephonecalls or the demands of caring for their ownhomes while they are caring for children; andthe facilities are usually better suited for childcare, especially if there are outdoor play areas,large spaces for active play, and areas especiallydesigned for messy activities.
In a center, a ratio of 1:7 is usually reasonablefor children from 3 to 41/2 years; and a ratio of1:10 from 41/2 to 6. Younger children requiresignificantly more individual attention: a ratio orabout 1:3 is recommended for children frombirth to 18 months; a ratio of 1:4 for those 18months to 3 years. Older children require (ewercaregivers: a ratio of at 1:10 is recommendedfor children from 6 to 8 years old; 1:16 for those9 to 11 years old; and perhaps 1:20 for childrenabove this age.
To plan the number of caregivers needed,estimate the number of children who will attendeach day and the number of hours each willattend, then calculate the number of caregiverhours required. A new day care program whichhas no past attendance records should estimateconservatively, counting the total enrollment asthe number of chi:dren who will attend, until atleast 2 months of attendance records are avail-able for estimating more accurately.
The following table shows a hypotheticalcomputation for a preschool day care center:
Day Care CenterComputation of Daily Caregiver Hours
Age range Suggested(years) ratio
Child hours per Caregiver hoursday in program needed per day
3 to 41/2 1:741/2 to 6 1:10
70 10120 12
Total minimum caregiver hours per day 22
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These figures are probably the minimum forquality care. However, they do not mean that thesame ratio must be maintained at all times. Seven4-year-olds do not need the undivided attentionof a caregiver every moment. Interactionbetween adults and children is naturally low atmany timeswhen children are listening to astory, eating, watching TV, or nappingwhen 1adult might easily care for 10 to 15 children. Atother times, a caregiver might want to work witha single child, at a ratio of 1:1. Often, children ofdifferent ages may be in the same group, and thenumber of caregivers required will have to bedetermined by judgment and experience with theindividual children.
ContinuityRapid turnover of personnel is one of the
major problems of day care. A family caregivermay be influenced by many personal factors todiscontinue a program, but the problem may beeven more serious in day care centers wherecaregivers frequently stay only 1 year or less.
Continuity of care from the same adult or thesame few adults is important to children. Theytend to form deep attachments relatively quicklyin day care and are often quite upset by breakingthese emotional ties. If the experience is re-peated, they may eventually unconsciously holdback from making any significant commitments.To sustain such continuity of care, the programmust give caregivers encouragement and in-centive to remain at least several years. In acenter, they need comfortable working condi-tions, competitive salaries, and personal recog-nition. Caregivers also need personal support aswell as supervision, especially if the facilities areless than optimal or if the children are relativelydifficult. Family caregivers often feel very isolatedfrom adult conversation and stimulation. One ofthe major assets of a family day care network isits potential for bringing family caregivers to-gether to share experiences, support each other,learn from each other, and be with adults.
In nursery and elementary schools, a teacher isusually in charge of one age group or class andhas a different group of children each year. Thisshifting is sometimes justified as continuallyproviding each child with new opportunities forlearning to cope with different adults. Yet daycare programs should attempt to follow theopposite practice; if possible, the caregivershould remain with the same group of childrenfrom the time they enter the program. In thisway, caregivers can really function as the par-
118
ental surrogates they must be. The general modelof caregiving continuity should be similar towhat a child receives in his own home: conti-nuity of care by one or several individuals overthe course of years rather than months.
RecognitionOne way to encourage caregivers to stay in the
program is 11 make sure they have adequaterecognition for their work and their increasingcompetency.
In a large organikation, a career ladder shouldbe developed and clearly explained to everyemployee. At whatever level a staff memberent'rs a program, he or she should know thepaths for advancement. In a large program, forexample, a person may begin as a teacher's aide,may later become a primary caregiver, and mayeventually learn to direct the program.
However, most present day care programscannot realistically offer that kind of long-termprospect. When there is little opportunity foradvancement, some other form of recognition ofnew skills and competencies must be provided inaddition to salary increases. Personal recognitionin itself is important, but staff members alsoneed tangible evidence of their abilities andaccomplishments so that they can move to otherprograms on at least the same level. In a daycare center or network, staff members should beencouraged to enroll in programs of continuingeducation that lead not only to course creditsbut also to some academic degree or certifica-tion.
MennenDay CareNumber 5: Staff Training. U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: Gov-ernment Printing Office, 1971.
Dokecki, P.; Bridgman, J.; Goodroe, P.; and Horton, D. The
Training of Family Day Care Workers: A Feasibility Study
and Initial Pilot Efforts. DARCEE Papers and Reports 5,No. 1 (1971). Nashville, Tenn.: Demonstration and
Research Center for early Education, George PeabodyCollege for Teachers.
Guide Specifications for Positions in Day Care Centers.Children's Bureau, U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Of-
fice, reprinted, 1966.Hess, R.D. and Croft, DJ. Teachers of Young Children. New
York: Houghton Mifflin, 1972.Parker. R.K. and Dittmann, LI., eds. Day Care: Staff Training.
Child Development. Office of Child Development. U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. PublicationNo. (OCD) 72-23. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1971.Project Head StartIC: Career Planning and Progression for
a Child Development Center. U.S. Department of Health,
Educat'on, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1969.
Project Head StartNumber 5: Volunteers in the ChildDevelopment Center Program. U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1969.
Spodek, B. "Staff Requirements in Early Childhood Educa-tion." In Early Childhood Education, edited by I.J. Gordon,pp. 339-365. The 71st yearbook of the National Societyfor the Study of Education. Part II. Chicago, Ill.; TheUniversity of Chicago Press, 1972.
For information about assessing and credentialing childdevelopment associates (CDA):Child Development Associate (CDA) Consortium
7315 Wisconsin Avenue, Suite 601 EWashington, D.C. 20014
For all other information about the Child DevelopmentAssociate (CDA) program:Office of Child Development (OCD)
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and WelfarePost Office Box 1182Washington, D.C. 20013
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Any person or agency operating a day careprogram will want to have periodic measurementsof its success; anyone that gives n oney to aprogram will want to know how the funds arebeing used; day care staff members want toknow if their efforts and methods are effective;and parents want to know if their children arebeing given quality care. In short, evaluation is alegitimate concern of every adult involved in daycare.
Formal evaluation is an organized way offinding something out. Its methods, however, areoften misunderstood, and its motives aresometimes suspected. Many people distrustevaluation because they feel its purpose is todisclose weaknesses and to place blame. Al-though some evaluations have been used forsuch purposes, the legitimate purpose of eval-uation is to satisfy a need to know something."What" you want to know and "why" you wantto know it will determine how the evaluation isconducted, what information is collected, andhow the results are used.
In general, there are three good and necessaryreasons for evaluating a day care program: first,as a basis for planning and revising the program;second, as an aid in administering the program;and third, as a way to justify the program'sworth.
In planning and revising a program, feedbackis needed to determine whether the presentprogram components are effective and helpingthe children move toward established goals.Evaluation can help planners decide whether tostrengthen some parts of the program, add newparts, or eliminate some of the corr.,: onents.
In administering a program, it is important toknow if the program is being delivered to thechildren as planned. Specifically. an administratorneeds to know if all the planned services areactually available; if the staff members are de-livering all available services to the children; ifthe services are adequate or if some change isneeded; and if the services are staying withintheir planned costs.
Chapter 14Evaluation
And finally, in justifying a program, informa-tion is needed about the net effects of theprogram on the children and their families. Anevaluation will show whether the program in anyway harms the children and their families;whether the children have improved in theirdevelopment because of the program; andwhether the program is effective in strengtheningthe family's role.
Since each of these reasons usually points todifferent methods of evaluation, a clear under-standing of why the evaluation is needed willgenerally help avoid pitfalls and improve results.
One pitfall is that it is possible to measure thewrong thing and to get an irrelevant result. Somepeople object that an evaluation cannot measurewhat is really happening in a program but canonly measure a few narrow effects. IQ tests, forexample, are not appropriate as a comprehensivemeasure of the effects of the program. At best,they reflect only the level of a child's functioningin a particular situation at a particular phase ofhis development. Moreover, test results areaffected by many variables other than nativeintelligence, such as the child's motivation, hisvocabulary, and his comfort in the testing situa-tion. Such tests are not generally reliable withpreschoolers unless carefully administered underthe best circumstances and interpretedby experts.
Another problem is that many evaluationprocedures require an extensive knowledge ofstatistics, access to a wide variety of test devices,and large blocks of time for individual testingand analysis. To many of those entering the daycare field, evaluation techniques may seemtoo subtle and complicated for the untrainedperson to use. Yet many techniques, includingsome of the most valuable, can be usedsuccessfully by anyone who cares to devotethoughtful attention to the problem at hand.
A clear and detailed grasp of both the pro-gram's goals and the reasons for conducting theevaluation will help in choosing the least com-plicated evaluation techniques to produce the
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needed information. Probably the best prepa-ration for conducting an evaluation is to reviewpublished accounts of several actual evaluations,which include descriptions of the methods andprocedures used, the types of results obtained,and the interpretation of the results. (Severalexamples are mentioned at the end of thischapter.) Evaluation is not limited to standard-ized tests designed by professionals; anyone withimagination can design procedures which willgive them the information they want.
Types of EvaluationThere are two general types of evaluation, the
summative evaluation and the formative evalu-ation; each has different purposes and methods.
Summative evaluat,on is used to determine (orsum up) the effects of a large-scale program overa considerable period of time. Evaluation of thistype is usuaNy used by a large agency to deter-mine the worth of a particular day care policy. Itusually is conducted by specialists, includes manydifferent day care operations in various locations,and uses standardized tests and measures.
The staff of a day care program that has beenincluded in a summative evaluation may feel thatsuch evaluation is irrelevant and disturbing. Theevaluators are usually strangers to the localprogram and may not understand the commu-nity's needs and characteristics. Since they maybe measuring progress toward goals which are ofonly secondary interest to the staff, the evalua-tors may seem insensitive to accomplishmentsthat the local people are rightly proud of. Forexample, a summative evaluation to assess thelanguage development of children in variousprograms may include one program which em-phasizes social development more than languagedevelopment. Though this program mightmeasure highly in terms of its own goal, it willprobably measure poorly in the summativeevaluation.
Another problem lies in the standardized testsoften used in such evaluation. Test scores arevery strongly influenced by the child's motivationand his feelings of security and self-esteem at thetime of testing. Thus, evaluators have to besensitive to the difference between a child'sactual capacity and his performance on a par-ticular test. A child tested with a standard IQ testwhen he enters and again when he leaves theprogram may at first score low and later scoremuch higher on the same test. The difference inscores does not necessarily prove that the child's
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IQ has increased because of the program, butindicates only that he did not perform up to hispotential during the first testing.
While summative evaluation may seem unfairbecause of these problems, two points should beemphasized. First, the evaluation report rarely, ifever, contains information about each localoperation and, therefore, will not reflect on anyparticular program. Second, a summative eval-uation is often conducted on behalf of thefunding agency (for example, an office of thelocal, State, or Federal government). Since afunding agency makes funds available for certainpurposes, it will want to know whether thosepurposes are being adequately served. Localdifferences in program emphasis may be entirelyvalid, but an agency that tutids many differentday care programs has a right to know whetherits whole program is working.
The second type of evaluation, formativeevaluation, measures the progress of an indi-vidual day care program in meeting its owngoals. Unlike a summative evaluation, a formativeevaluation can be conducted by anyone, pro-vided he or she is familiar with the communitysituation, the program's goals, and the evaluationtechniques. Since this type of evaluation isgenerally used as a basis for revising the pro-gram, it can be used at any time and is oftenapplied regularly. The devices used to measureprogress are chosen to fit the needs of thatprogram alone.
The problems of formative evaluation are oftenthe opposite of those of summative evaluation.Evaluators are frequently so committed to thelocal program that they unwittingly overlook itsshortcomings. While an outsider can probably bemore objective, he or she will have to be sen-sitive to the values and goals of the program and,even so, may have trouble convincing those in-volved that the program does have its failings.Another problem is that the goals of someprograms are not stated in enough specific detailto permit objective measurement. It is importantthat goals be restated, not only to facilitateevaluation but also to increase the program'sgeneral effectiveness.
Making a Formative Evaluation'There are five steps in preparing for a form-
ative evaluation: securing the understanding and
Since summative evaluations are usually conducted bytrained specialists, the following discussion will be limitedto formative evaluation.
cooperation of all concerned; stating the goals ofthe prngram as clearly and specifically as pos-sible; stating the particular objectives intended tolead to the goals; specifying how each objectivewill be evaluated; and planning what to do withthe finished evaluation.
Secure Understanding and CooperationProblems are more likely to be avoided if
there is an atmosphere of open communicationin which everyone feels free to admit errors andfailings. The administration, can alleviate someproblems even before the. evaluation begins bycandidly explaining t!-.e reasons for the study tothe parents and staff, emphasizing that theevaluation is not intended to uncover weaknessesbut rather to help them improve their ownprogram. The parents should be encouraged tohelp in the planning if possible.
State the GoalsGoals and objectives are differentiated in this
discussion: goals are seen as end results desiredfor their own sake, while objectives are theparticular actions taken to achieve the goals.Ideally, satisfying all the objectives would meanreaching all the goals.
The goals of the program should have beendecided during the start-up phase, but they maynow need a more careful restatement. The firstgoal is usually to provide a safe and healthyenvironment for children whose parents must beabsent. Most groups will agree on several othergoals, concerning both the children and othermembers of the organization. For example:
Goals related to the children. The programshould supply adequate nutrition to each child.It should safeguard children's health andshould provide medical treatment when nec-essary. It should provide each child with ad-equate stimulation for physical, social, emo-tional, and cognitive growth.Goals related to the parents. The programshould supplement the family's role. It shouldalso provide opportunities for parents to ac-tively participate in the program if they wish.Goals re/at..1 to the staff. The staff shouldhave adequate training, including opportunitiesto advance their skills and knowledge. Thestaff should be involved in all aspects of theprogram.Goals related to the community. The day careprogram should assist the community's otherchild care services in any way possible. The
day care program should take full advantage oflocal services and resources.
State the ObjectivesObjectives should be concrete and, for the
purpose of evaluation, should be measurable orobservable. Otherwise, the evaluation will rest onfeelings and hunches. For example, with the goalof actively involving parents in the program,three possible objectives might be: (1) to en-courage parents to visit and observe whenever itis convenient for them; (2) to improve com-munication between parents and staff by holdingregular meetings; and (3) to increase parents'feelings of participation and belonging in theprogram. The first objective in the example isconcrete and measurable: one can tell if and
when it is achieved for each parent. The secondobjective is only partly measurable: one cancount the number of meetings each parent at-tends but would hm.te trouble measuring "im-proved communication." The third obje,:tivewould be almost impossible to measure: "feel-ings of participation and belonging" can only beassessed subjectively.
Speciiy the Method of EvaluationThe next step in preparing for the evaluation is
deciding what information will show whether theobjective has been reached or not, and whenand how to collect that information. Decidingwhen to collect information is important becauseany changes produced by day care will occurover a period of time, and measurement at dif-ferent times will show different results. If chil-dren in the program are to be compared withchildren not in day care, the program should begiven time to take effect before initial meas-urement or between periodic measurements.Deciding how to collect information is importantbecause different methods of evaluation willproduce different information.
The evaluation design and the type of measureto be used should then be selected, and bothshould be appropriate to the program objectives.
Three designs commonly used in day careevaluations are the pre/post test, the controlgroup design, and the within-program controldesign. A pre/post test or "before and after" testcan be used to determine the amount of changein a given child or group of children over aperiod of time. However, since all childrenchange as they grow whether they are in daycare or not, the pre/post test design will not
123
show how much of the change is due to the daycare program.
The control group design comports twogroups of peopleone from the program beingevaluated and the other (the control group)being as similar as possible but from outside theprogram. Change in the program group com-pared with change in the control group is ameasure of the effectiveness of the program. Intheory, this design is appropriate to measureprogress due to the program rather than to otherinfluences; in practice, however, such evaluationcan present formidable problems. Locatingsuitable participants for the control group isdifficult. A sizable group of people has tobe selected with characteristics and backgroundsclosely similar to those of the program group.Once located, these people must then be per-suaded to submit themselves and their childrento repeated observation or testing which is notlikely to benefit them and which may wellthreaten their self-esteem. One way, common inmedicine and psychology, of constructing acontrol group is to separate all the programapplicants into two groups, one of which is se-lected for the program while the other is not.However, few families would be willing toforego day care in the interests of evaluation,and few investigators who believe in the value ofdevelopmental day care would be willing toarbitrarily reject half the families who apply.
A within-program control design compares twogroups within the same program in order toevaluate the amount of change due to a partic-ular variable. The control group participates inthe current program while the other groupparticipates in either the same program withsome component changed or in a whole newprogram. When used carefully, this design canaccurately evaluate the effect of change within aprogram, but it does not permit comparisonbetween children in a program and those notreceiving day care or those in another program.As in the control group design, the two groupsshould ideally be similar in all characteristicsexcept the one variable to be evaluated. Not onlyshould the children and parents in each group beas alike as possible, but the skills and attitudes ofthe staff members in each group should beidentical. Adequate similarity is probably im-possible to achieve.
In a family day care home run by one person,the possibilities for evaluation are severely re-stricted. Lacking a network of family care ho.
124
which is in a far better position to conductevaluation, most family caregivers are restrictedto pre/post testing and comparing the results toinformation about other children. Though thisprocedure has definite limitations, it can at leastbe used to determine if the program is having anegative effect upon the children. (Open theDoor . . . See the People, by June Solnit Sale,contains examples of this kind of evaluation.)
In addition to design, the type of measure tobe used must be selected. Most measures fallinto one of four groups: the descriptive measure,the frequency count, the normative comparison,or the standardized test. Any of these types ofmeasurement can be used by a programwhether it be a center, a family day care home,or a network.
Descriptive measures are simple and ofteneffective. They consist of describing fully what isbeing done to achieve a particular objective andthen deciding if the effort is adequate. For ex-ample, by fully describing the regular routine ofstaff members, the evaluators could decide ifcaregivers were giving adequate personal at-tention to each child.
A frequency count of the number of timessomething happens within a given period is away of measuring progress toward a goal. Oneway to assess a child's social development, forexample, is to count the number of verbalcontacts he makes with other children in a day.
A normative comparison is a comparison of anindividual with the norm. Children's physicaldevelopment can be measured in part by com-paring their weight and height with nationalnorms for children their age.
A standardized test is one that includes normswhich have been determined by administeringthe test to a large sample of people. The mostfamiliar is the (revised) Stanford-Binet, probablythe most widely used IQ test which requiresintensive training to administer and interpret.Other standardized tests designed for pre-schoolers include: the preschool inventory whichmeasures achievement in areas regarded asnecessary for success in school; the Illinois testof psycholi.iguistic abilities which measures thechild's ability to verbally respond to varioussituations; the Peabody picture vocabulary testwhich measures the ability to relate spokenwords to pictures; and the metropolitan readingreadiness test which measures the child's readi-ness for first grade in terms of his ability to usewords, to listen, to match, and to use the al-
phahet and numbers. Some standardized meas-uies must he administered by trained specialists,and most require consultation. All standardizedtests should be administered at the day care siteduring regular activity hours by someone versedin their use and interpretation.
Certain precautions should be observed inusing any technique.
Make sure that the techniques selected arethe most appropriate for obtaining the infor-mation that is needed. It is usually a mistake tochoose one because it is available or con-venient or because some specialist likes it.Measure activities at the time and place theynaturally occur, so that the program's routineis not unnecessarily disturbed.Make sure the measures are applied bypeople with backgrounds similar to that of thechildren to avoid distortion of the results dueto cultural differences. Also, give the childrenplenty of time to become accustomed to theevaluator and to the setting in which they willbe tested.Be sure the evaluator is sensitive to the dif-ference between a child's actual capability andhis performance on a particular test. With allthe variables of motivation, confidence, anddistraction which can affect each child's per-formance, similar scores do not always meansimilar levels of advancement, just as differentscores may he caused by some differencewhich the test is not designed to measure.Never withhold information from the parents.Naturally, some information must be keptconfidential during the evaluation period inorder to avoid distorting the results. However,parents should completely understand what isbeing evaluated, the reason for the evaluation,as well as the reasons for temporarily with-holding any data or results. When the evalu-ation is over, each family should be given allresults which apply to its own members and tothe group as a whole, but in no case shouldthey he given any information that appliesspecifically to other families or individuals.In a day care program of any size, good rec-
ords are an important part of evaluation. Forexample, to assess the acceptance of the programby parents and the community, it would bevaluable to review the number of days each childis absent, the turnover rate, the reasons given byparents for dropping out of the program, thenumber of ( hildren on the waiting list, and thefamily background of the children in the pro-
gram as compared to the general community.To obtain other kinds of information, a
standardized questionnaire is extremely useful. Aquestionnaire can either be constructed for theparticular program or be adapted from otherquestionnaires. The two samples in figure 14-1illustrate the types of items that can producevaluable information. The first example, thechildhood personality scale, is used to give ageneral picture of the child's personality; whilethe second, the behavior problems questionnaire,asks about particular difficulties in eating,sleeping, aggressiveness, and so on. If parentscomplete such questionnaires when their childenters the day care program and regularlythereafter, changes in behavior can be seen moreeasily which might either require further atten-tion or indicate the program's effectiveness.Either way, it is important to remember that achange in a child's behavior is not necessarilycaused by the day care program, since childrenhave so many other influences in their livesincluding the natural process of development.
Plan What To Do With the EvaluationFormative evaluation should be used as a
positive feedback system. The information col-lected may be satisfying in itself, but it will notbe fully useful unless it is fed back into theprogram planning process as the basis forrevising the program.
To be really effective, formative evaluationshould be continuous. As the program is revised,plan when and how to make the next evaluation,leaving the program flexible for future changes.With experience, the evaluation process shouldlead to more clearly stated goals and moreconcrete objectives so that the next evaluationwill be easier and even more productive.
Sequencing EvaluationsA day care program goes through several
phases from start-up to stable, consistent opera-tion. Evaluations should be geared to the de-velopmental phase of the program and designedto produce information relevant to each phase.
During the start-up phase, for example, whenthe staff is learning to work together, recruitmentprocedures are being refined, and the program isdeveloping its relation to the community, itwould be senseless to attempt a sophisticatedevaluation of the children's social and emotionaldevelopment or the staff's attitudes, It would befar more appropriate to evaluate the progress ofthe program as an institution at this timefor
125
Figure 14-1.
STANDARDIZED QUESTIONNAIRE SAMPLES(a) Childhood Personality Scale (CPS)
INSTRUCTIONS: The purpose of this questionnaire is to get a picture of each child's personality as he or shetypically has been for the last two months. Some of the sentences may describe this childvery well. Other sentences will not be at all like this child. There are seven columns aftereach sentence. For each sentence, check the column that is most true of this child'spersonality and the way he acts.
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE TYPE OF QUESTION,AND HOW TO ANSWER IT:
Happy to sing when there are guests in the house
NEVER ALMOSTNEVER
SELDOMHALFTHE
TIME
FRE.QUENTLY
ALMOSTALWAYS ALWAYS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
If this child always sings when there are guests, you should check column "6." If he neversings for company check column "0." If he sings sometimes but not always, check thebox between "0" and "6" that best describes him.
NEVERALMOSTNEVER SELDOM
HALFTHE
TIME
FRE.QUENTLY
ALMOSTAP.WAYS ALWAYS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6Will talk or babble to you about his toys, clothes, andwhat he is doing
Tends to be fussy and complains. Generally is notsatisfied
Plays for a long time in the same way with one toy orthing. Repeats over and over
Smiles to a friendly person
Turns his head away or looks down in an uncomfortableway when people pay attention to him
(b) Behavior Problems (BP)
INSTRUCTIONS: This questionnaire is about problems that many children have et different times.Read each item and decide how much each child has had this problem during the pad two months.
Put an "X" in the box that fits how serious the problem has been for the child during that pasttwo months.
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE
Has tics
NOT ATALL
JUST ALITTLE
PETTYMRUCH
VERYMUCH
0 1 2 3
X
THE FOLLOWING ITEMS SHOULD BE ANSWERED FOR ALL CHILDREN
PROBLEM NOT ATALL
JUST ALITTLE
PRETTYMUCH
VERYMUCH
0 1 2 3
Is a picky and finicky eater
Will not eat enough
Is overweight
Is restless during sleep
Is afraid of new situations
Is afraid of strangers
Is afraid of being alone. .. ,
126
example, which types of people inquire aboutday care, which families follow through, whatsort of people are hired as caregivers, and howlong they remain with the program. Later, moresophisticated questions can be asked.
If evaluations are conducted in an unrealisticsequence, the very process of evaluation cancreate serious disruptions. An attempt to obtaindetailed psychometric information about thechildren during the start-up phase is not onlyuseless but will probably be regarded as intrusiveas well. These measures will succeed only after adegree of confidence and understanding hasbeen established with the families. Or an eval-uation involving the use of a control groupwithin the program will probably be resisted bythe staff if it is conducted too early and theyhave not yet established a coherent, well-structured way of giving care.
During the early stages, only formative eval-uations are appropriate, regardless of the size ofthe program. Only after a program is reasonablystable and operating in a consistent and repli-cable way is a summative evaluation possible.As a general rule, summative evaluation shouldbe put off for at least 2 or 3 years after thestart of a program.
Additional InformationFurther information on measures, designs, and
evaluation in general is abundantly available. Thefollowing sources deserve special mention.
Educational Resources Information Center(ERIC) is a computerized library service for ac-cess to many documents prepared under gov-ernment contracts or grantsmany unavailablethrough any other source. It is often the fastestway to obtain information on any subject relatedto childhood education. Many libraries, partic-ularly those connected with research institutions,contain ERIC files.
The Educational Testing Service includes twoservices: the Test Collection Bulletin, a quarterlypublication listing new tests and measures; andthe Head Start Test Collection Reports, occa-sional reports about measures and tests appro-priate for young children.
An Experiment to Facilitate National Day CarePolicy Decisions, by Todd R. Risley and PatriciaKrantz, describes one approach to summativeevaluation of different programs as a basis forformulating national policy.
Report on Preliminary Impact Data from aNational Survey of the Parent-Child Center
Program, prepared for the Office of Child De-velopment, describes an example of formativeevaluation of a national program.
The Devil Has Slippery Shoes: A Biased Bi-ography of the Child Development Group ofMississippi, by Polly Greenberg, is a lively ac-count of a formative evaluation done by an ac-tive participant in the program.
Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Researchin the Social Sciences, by Webb, Cambell,Schwartz, and Sechrest, shows ways in whichbehavior can be evaluated without ectual in-tervention in the behavior. For example, to de-termine whether children are using a particularpiece of equipment, the equipment should beexamined for signs of usea far less obtrusivemeasurement than counting the number of timeschildren use the equipment or asking teaciiers toestimate its use.
A Summary of Head Start Evaluation, byLois-ellen Datta, reviews different types ofevaluation projects. Most of the references in thepaper are available through the ERIC Clearing
House.The several books by Elizabeth Prescott listed
at the end of this chapter describe how toevaluate the setting of the day care program, aswell as the behavior of the children.
A National Survey of the Impacts of Head StartCenters on Community Institutions, prepared byKirschner Associates, gives an example of sum-mative evaluation which does not use stand-ardized tests.
The article, "Psychological Testing of Chil-dren," by Murray Levine, is a fine introduction tothe methods and problems of psychologicaltesting in general.
127
ReferencesBerger, B. An Annotated Bibliography of Measurement for
Young Children. New York: Center for Urban Education,1969.
Bloom, B.S.; Hastings, I.T.; and Madaus, G.F. Handhook onFormative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Buros, O.K., ed. The Seventh Mental Measurements Year-book. Highland Park, N.I.: Gryphon Press, 1972.
Cazden, C.B. "Evaluation of Learning in Preschool Educa-tion: Early Language Development." In Handbook onFormative and Summative Evaluation of Student Learning,edited by B.S. Bloom, et al., pp. 354-398. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Cohen, D. and Stern, V. Observing and Recording the Be-havior of Young Children. New York: Teachers CollegePress, 1958.
Costello, I. "Research in a Black Community: Four Years inReview." School Review, 1973, in press.
Datta, L. A Report on Evaluation Studies of Project HeadStart. Paper presented at the 1969 American PsychologicalAssociation Convention. Project Head Start. Office ofChild Development. U.S. Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare.
Educational Testing -Service. Preschool Inventory Handbook.Revised. Princeton, N.I.: Educational Testing Service, 1970.
Educational Testing Service. Test Collection Bulletin andHead Start Test Collection Reports. Princeton, Edu-cational Testing Service, a series of reports available fromETS.
Greenberg, P. The Devil Has Slippery Shoes: A BiasedBiography of the Child Development Group ofMississippi. New York: Macmillan, 1969.
Hess, R.D.; Shipman, V.C.; Brophy, I.E.; and Bear, R.M. TheCognitive Environments of Urban Preschool Children.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968.
Holmes, D.; Carrier, B.; and Holmes, M. Report on Pre-liminary Impact Data From a National Survey of theParent-Child Center Program. Office of Child Develop-ment. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972.
How to Use Educational Resources Information Center. Apublication of the U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. Office of EducationtNational Center forEducation Communication, Tune 1970.
Johnson, O.G. and Bommarito, I.W. Tests and Measure-ments in Child Development: A Handbook. San Fran-cisco: lossey-Boss, 1971
Kamii, C.K. "Evaluation of Learning in Preschool Education:Socio-emotional, Perceptual-motor, and Cognitive De-velopment." In Handbook on Formative and SummativeEvaluation of Student learning, edited by B.S. Bloom, etal., pp. 281-344. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
128
Reiman, H.C. "The Rights of the Subject in Social Research:An Analysis in Terms of Relative Power and Legitimacy."American Psychologist 27, No. 11 (1972): 989-1016.
Kirschner Associates. A National Survey of the Impacts ofHead Start Centers on Community Institutions. Office ofChild Development. U.S. Department of Health, Educa-tion, and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1970.
Levine, M. "Psychological Testing of Children." In Reviewof Child Development Research, edited by L.W. Hoffman,et al. Vol. 2. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1966.
Messick, S. and Barrows, T.S. "Strategies for Research andEvaluation in Early Childhood Education." In EarlyChildhood Education, edited by I.I. Gordon, pp. 261-290.The 71st yearbook of the National Society for the Studyof Education. Part II. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1972.
Prescott, E., et al. Group Day Care as a Child-Rearing Envi-ronment: An Observational Study df Day Care Programs.Pasadena, Calif.: ERIC Research in Edu ation, Pacific OaksCollege, 1%7.
Prescott, E.; Jones, E.; and Kritchevsky, S. Day Care as aChild-Rearing Environment. Day Care: Vol. 2. Washington,D.C.: National Association for the Education of YoungChildren, 1972.
Prescott, E.; Kritchevsky, S.; and Jones, E. The Day CareEnvironmental Inventory, Part 1 of final report Assessmentof Child-Rearing Environments: An Ecological Approach.Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific Oaks College, 1972.
Prescott, E.; Milich, C.; and Jones, E. The "Politics" of DayCare. Day Care: Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: National As-sociation for the Education of Young Children, 1972.
Project Head Start-18: Evaluating Performance and Prog-ress. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969.
Risley, T.R. and Krantz, P. An Experiment to Facilitate Na-tional Day Care Policy Decisions. Office of EconomicOpportunity, Division of Planning, Research, and Evalu-ation. Washington, D.C.: LI S. Government Printing Office,1972.
Southeastern Day Care Project. Evaluating Children'sProgress: A Rating Scale for Children in Day Care. March,1973. Available from Day Care and Child DevelopmentCouncil of America, Suite 1100,1401 K Street, NW.,Washington, D.C. 20005.
Webb, E.J., et al. Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Re-search in the Social Sciences. Chicago: Rand-McNally,1966.
Exemplary Centers, Networksor Systems
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The previous chapters have described variousaspects of preschool day carethe developmentof preschool children, general program organi-zation and management, and some of the manycomponents of quality care. In this and thefollowing chapter, nine exemplary day careprograms are describedfour day care centersand five day care networks.
These programs illustrate how quality day carecan, and in fact should, adapt to various settingsand to the needs of the families or communitybeing served. They indicate the diversity inquality day carediversity in funding, adminis-trative structure, curriculum, staffing patterns,and general program emphasis. These descrip-tions also reveal the characteristic similaritiesamong quality programssimilarity in such areasas thoughtful planning of objectives, social andcultural relevance, maximum use of communityresources, and close involvement between day
care and the parents and community served.Each of the four day care centers described in
this chapter is unique. Each provides a qualityprogram of developmental day care to thechildren of a specific populationblue-collarworkers in Chicago, lob Corps trainees inGeorgia, Ute Indian families in Utah, and Mexican-Americans newly settled in Colorado. At thesame time, none of these programs limits itsservices to children. All are marked by extensiveparent and community involvement; all showconcern for the welfare of the child's whole'family and have become integral parts of theircommunities.
The Amalgamated Child Day Care and HealthCenter is operated by the Chicago AmalgamatedClothing Workers of America as one of manyfree services to union members. The union,which supplies practically unlimited funds as wellas health and other social services, views thiscenter as a model for day care programs bothwithin the union and for other labor arm; cor-porate organizations.
The solo parent program, our second example,serves trainees at the Atlanta Residential Man-
Chapter 15Exemplary Centers
power Center, a' site for lob Corps training. The
program provides residence for mothers andtheir children; developmental day care; andsupportive, health, and social services. More thanany other model in the chapter, this programconcerns itself with the well-being of both par-ents and children. Reliable child care freesmothers to continue their education and trainingand thus helps better their chances for em-ploymentwhile counseling helps them improvetheir ability and skills as parents.
The Ute Indian Tribe Full Day Head StartCenter is an example of the important role daycare can play in a largely homogeneous com-munity or subculture. It provides much-neededsocial and health services, extensive parent andcommunity involvement, and tribal control of thechildren's education. The center's bilingualcurriculum focuses on language developmentand places maximum emphasis on the children'sIndian heritage. Day care helps these childrenbridge between their homes and the rest of so-ciety, while encouraging them to take pride inthemselves and their culture.
Of these four programs, the Greeley Parent-Child Center is the only one lacking organizedsupport from well-funded sources. Having sur-vived several major financial crises, the center isnow owned and operated by the parents andstrongly supported by the community. Thoughstill faced with an unstable income, Greeleyoffers a quality program unique for its bilingual,bicultural curriculum which is a model for pro-grams with similar populations.
The addresses of these programs and of thosediscussed in the next chapter are listed at theend of each chapter.
Chicago Amalgamated Child Day Care andHealth Center
The Amalgamated Child Day Care and HealthCenter offers an excellent free day care programfor 60 children of members of the Chicago JointBoard Amalgamated Clothing Workers ofAmerica (ACWA). Established in March 1970, the
131
center has a dual function: to meet the imme-diate needs for reliable, quality day care forworkers' 3- to 6-year-old children, and to serveas a model to encourage union and corporatesponsorship of day care programs elsewhere. Asa model program operated by a union fullydedicated to day care, the Chicago Amalga-mated center is characterized by practicallyunlimited funds, sound management, and effi-ciency.
FacilitiesThe center occupies a new single-purpose
building next to the ACWA headquarters, west ofdowntown Chicago. The area is a reemergingindustrial district on the edge of a ghetto. Thishardly seems an ideal location for day care, butsince families using the center live throughoutChicago and its suburbs, a site near employmentcenters was preferred. The center is open from6:30 a.m. to 6 p.m., Monday through Friday, 50weeks a year.
As in many urban day care centers, space hereis valuable and limited. A long, narrow indoorarea is designed for openness and flexibility,using Plexiglas doors and windows and movablewalls. In this space are four classroom areasconstructed of easily rearranged walls, a direc-tor's office, a kitchen, an isolation room, andrestrooms. A total indoor space of 68 square feetper child is available. While outdoor play spaceis also limited-49 square feet per childtherooftop and ground-level play areas together canadequately hold all the children at one time.
Often as many as 20 names are on the waitinglist for the 60 available spaces. Plans to expandservices include a new center for 30 children inHarper Square, a moderate- and middle-incomehousing cooperative for ACWA members onChicago's South Side. The goal is to make free,quality day care available to all Chicago-areaACWA members within a few years.
The Children and Their FamiliesNone of the children live within walking dis-
tance of the center, and about one-third arrivevia public transportation. Nearly all the childrenhave working mothers (80 percent of unionmembers are women), and most come fromtwo-parent blue-collar families with incomes of$4,000 to $12,000 per year. Not only can thesefamilies not afford the cost of private daycare$17 to $25 per week in the Chicago areabut it would not occur to most of them to seek
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child care from strangers in an unfamiliar groupsetting.
Family backgrounds are ethnically and raciallyvariedChicanos, Puerto Ricans, blacks, first-and second-generation European immigrants. Inthe past, the accepted child care arrangementsfor these people have been with friends andrelatives, not in day care centers. Most are proudof their traditions and suspicious of anythingresembling charity or welfare.
To "sell" the day care service, the center staffhas developed a program with the needs andbackgrounds of this specific population in mind.The respect and concern of staff members for thechildren and their families has gradually beencommunicated. No information is requestedbeyond the facts of the child's early develop-ment, and families do not have to divulge theirificome levels. Yet, staff members are available todiscuss personal problems or a child's progresswhenever desired.
Notable Elements
Organization. Center policy decisions are madeby the trustees of the Amalgamated SocialBenefits Association, the trust fund for theACWA's health and welfare program. This trustwas established through collective bargaining,with employers' contributions based on a per-centage of the payroll. Planning for the day careprogram is presently divided among the ACWAJoint Board manager, the assistant manager, andthe center director, though the latter is the ac-cepted authority on all decisions influencing theprovision of a quality day care program. Thepresent division of planning duties is expected tochange as more centers are added and as parentadvisory committees develop in strength andpurpose.
Budgeting. During the start-up phase of centeroperations, the director was able to spend asmuch as was needed to provide an excellentmodel program. In 1970, the center spent $2,925per child or $1.42 per child/hour; by 1972, up-wards of $3,000 was being spent per child. Thisis a much larger sum than many centers are ableto afford, and parents pay nothing. The State ofIllinois also provides a monthly allotment ofsurplus food commodities and, under the specialfood service program for children, reimburses thecenter 650 per child/day for food costs.Staff. The director's primary function is to de-velop and continually evaluate a model day careprogram which more than adequately meets the
educational, emotional, recreational, social,nutritional, and health needs .-.)f union members'children. Much of the director's time is devotedto working with staff members--including re-cruiting, hiring, training, and evaluatingandwith children, filling in as needed in the class-room.
A teacher/assistant director has recently beenadded to the staff. A teacher for one of fourgroups of children, she also works closely witheach team of teachers in developing and eval-uating each group's program and curriculum.
The teaching teams include a head teacher andan assistant teacher for each of the four groups,with each team planning a specific curriculumfor the children in their group. All eight of theseteachers are well-paid full-time employees, andtheir hours are staggered to cover the neat./12-hour center day. Teams are sometimes sup-plemented by a part-time teacher, studentteachers, and volunteers. Other staff membersinclude a secretary-bookkeeper, a cook and apart-time assistant, and a custodian.
Staff meetings take place weekly to reviewmmters affecting the center as a whole. Atsmaller meetings, staff members discuss andevaluate children's problems, the curriculum, andprogram plans and approaches. Teachers keepnotes on the daily activities of individual childrenand prepare detailed reports twice a year.
In recruiting and selecting staff members, thedirector tries to maintain a balance of males andfemale. and ethnic backgrounds that will com-plement the center's child population. Paperqualifications are given far less considerationthan are an obvious sensitivity and appreciationof childrenof their backgrounds, their prob-lems, their joys, and their needs. By maintainingthe adult:child ratio of 1:4.5, the center en-courages daily individual attention for each child.
Staff members have exceptional fringe benefits,including free union support of further trainingin early childhood education. The staff devel-opment plan is a series of bimonthly eveninglectures designed to acquaint or refresh staffmembers with a broad range of subjects: edu-cational psychology, music, programing, arts andcrafts, children's literature, and cognitive de-velopment. Emphasis is on racial and ethnicawarenes- .ind on undeanding working-classfamilies.Social and Health Services. The center is part of anetwork of social services available to unionmembers and their families. Free day care joins
free medical and dental care, free pharmaceuticalservice, scholarships for children of unionmembers, cooperative housing projects, a pro-fessional social worker, a prepaid legal program,and a host of other free or reduced-cost unionservices. Tne day care center can draw on re-sources both inside and outside the union toprovide a program of. maximum benefit to thechildren and their families. Although mostmembers are fully aware of the benefits availablethrough the ACWA, the center staff can helprefer families to appropriate resources. Throughtheir training and their work with the children,they can often spot difficulties and problemsearly. In extreme cases, they can make outsidereferrals at union expense.
Each child upon enrolling in the center isgiven a thorough initial examination and nec-essary inoculations. A medical record is begun.A pediatrician visits twice a week, and a pedo-dontist examines the children's teeth and per-forms all follow-up work at no cost to the par-ents. A psychiatric social worker spends 2 days aweek at the center, working closely with staffand parents to handle the emotional problems ofindividual children. Medicine, eyeglasses, braces,orthopedic shoes, and other necessities areprovided without charge.Education. Access to a nearly endless supply ofresources and materials allows the center's ed-ucational program to be specifically tailored tothe children at the center. As a group, thesechildren lack the range of experiences middle-class families take for granted. Intellectualstimulation from their environment has beenlimited. Every effort made to develop both aphysical facility and an educational programwhich will overcome any developmental diffi-culties.
The primary goal of the center is to preparechildren for later successful school experiencesby providing them with a broad range of activ-itiesto make them aware of the world aroundthem, to let them experience the joy of learningand the excitement of exploration and creativity,and to facilitate language development. Thecurriculum is quite flexible, designed to en-courage each child to develop a healthy self-image through positive experiences and praise.
Each child is encouraged to trust and to learnto both take directions and accept limits. Cor-poral punishment is never used, and competitivesituation- are avoided. A child is given everyopportunity to express his feelings in socially
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acceptable, nondestructive ways, to work andplay cooperatively with other children and withstaff members, and to develop a strong sense ofself-reliance. For example, they are encouragedto dress themselves, to select their own food atsnack time, prepare it, and clean up afterward.
Children spend most of the day in one of fourgroups, divided according to chronological ageand developmental levels. Their typical day in-cludes periods of structured and free activities,indoor and outdoor play, music, storytelliing, artsand crafts, shape and concept learning, andlanguage development, in addition to a hotbreakfast and lunch, morning and afternoonsnacks, and nap time. Several times d week theymay walk to a nearby park, and about once amonth each group goes a field trip.
Individual atteniion is highly valued. Teachersare encouraged to speak individually to eachchild in their group during the daythis alsofacilitates language usageand to offer physicalcontact and caresses. Each child receives a cakefor his birthday and is honored with a partybefore leaving for elementary school.Parent Involvement. Since the center's beginning,effective and realistic means of parental partic-ipation have been sought. Overcoming theparents' natural suspicions and hesitance to en-trust their children to strangers was the first step.Only when the families saw the center as theirown was the staff able to consider the questionof actual parental involvement in the centeroperation.
Several factors inhibit their active participation:the families are geugraphically scattered; theirwork schedules are often unpredictable; theirworktime is valuable, with paychecks based onhourly earnings; and most parents have littletime or energy for meetings and other day careactivities after working a full day plus managing ahousehold.
The center staff uses various means to counterthese obstacles.
Parents who drop in to pick up their childrenat lunchtime are cordially invited to remainand eat.They are invited, but not pressured, to visitthe center on free days.A parent advisory board directly influencestrustees of the Social Benefits Association onday care policy decisions. Before the existenceof this advisory group, parental opinions anddesires had to be transmitted by the centerstaff and the director to the administrativeassistant to the trustees.
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Parent-teacher conferences are scheduledthroughout the year.Sunday afternoon meetings for parents areheld on an average of once every 2 months.These small discussion groups concentrate onspecific topics proposed in advance by parents,such as why brothers and sisters quarrel.Several staff members usually provide thematerial and make presentations, while othersare available to babycit or translate.Buffet dinners are held on weeknights.4", parents' newsletter, written in English andSpanish, deals with practical itemsfor ex-ample, suggestions for making creative playmaterials and for family outings in the Chicagoarea during the annual summer factory shut-down.Efforts to further parent participation will
continue at the Amalgamated center, but alwayswith an understanding of the limitations ofgeography, working conditions, time, and money.Staff members see this as a particularly importantaccomplishment and a high-priority goal.
Child Development Center: AtlantaResidential Manpower Center
The Child Development Center of the AtlantaResidential Manpower Center (ARMC) providescare, love, and supportive services for 50 chil-dren whose mothers are Job Corps trainees. Childcare is a major component of the ARMC's soloparent program, a demonstration project de-signed to test the impact of (1) having bothmothers and their children as residents of a JobCorps training center, and (2) offering specialservices and support to them. Since the programwas established by the Department of Labor inJune 1970, it has proven unique in its ability toprovide quality developmental child care withina non-child-oriented institution.
The Atlanta Residential Manpower CenterTotal enrollment at the ARMC averages 350
corpswoman, from 16 to 21 years old. All arefrom low-income families from Atlanta and thesurrounding area, and many have been on wel-fare. The average corpswoman has dropped outof school and has applied to the ARMC becauseshe was unable to find satisfactory employment.Residence is optional, and about 250 corps-women live at the center.
The Job Corps program offers these womenbasic education (enrollees can obtain a highschool equivalency diploma), vocational training,personal and vocational counseling, compre-
hensive health care, recreational activities, andother services. The center also helps each womanfind a job when she leaves the program.
The focus of the program is to encourage in-dividual responsibility, and this objective is usedto make learning experiences out of even themost routine chores. For instance, sharing ofhousekeeping, cooking, or babysitting duties islimited. And once a week, the entire group ofmothers goes grocery shopping with a counselorwho can help with decisions about foods andprices and can thus offer an extension to thenutrition and budgeting classes.
The Child Development CenterLocated in renovated interiors within the
ARMC, the Child Development Center is openfrom 7:45 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Monday throughFriday throughout the year. Its total indoor spaceof 3.618 square feet is adequate for all groupsexcept the infants, whose quarters are cramped.An attractively landscaped outdoor playgroundadjoins the indoor facilities.
The center is available to children of alltrainees, with residents given priority. Of thechildren currently enrolled, about 90 percent areblack, the rest are write. They range from 6months to 6 years in age. During the first year ofoperation, the average age was 2.2 years, and 20of the children were less than 1 year old.Demand and Capacity. Demand for child careservices far exceeds the center's capacity. Thereare rarely more than 1 to 4 openings monthly forthe 50 available places, hardly enough to beginto stiorten the lengthy waiting list.
The Atlanta RMC is in an area of the city se-riously needing subsidized day care. Child care isdifficult to arrange, yet, without it, Job Corpseducation and training is impossible for manypotential enrollees. Both ARMC staff membersand corpswomen who have completed traininghave also indicated that they would pay to havetheir children attend the center. Expanded daycare services would definitely be used.Program Approach. The center's developmentalprogram is characterized by obvious love andaffection between the children and staff. There islittle competition among children for adult at-tention, and a child can always find an availablelap or an adult willing to listen. The children arehandled with kindness, support, and carefulguidance and are encouraged to respond withindependence and cooperation. This blend ofaffection and clearly defined discipline is espe-
cially important for these children, many ofwhom show signs of emotional strain. The childdevelopment program is designed to supporttheir individual needs as completely as possible.
The typical routine includes supervised indoorand outdoor play and activities which varyamong age groups: singing, arts and crafts, story-telling, and cognitive exercises such as iden-tification of colors, numbers, and names.Teachers take an active part in free play sessions.Blocks, costumes, puzzles, and creative toys areplentiful, and many of the materials have beenmade by the children and the staff.Staff. The day care staff presently consists of anadministrative supervisor, a head teacher, fiveadditional teachers, a solo-parent counselor, andtwo aides. In addition to the regular staff, theChild Development Cente- -Iso serves as aplacement site for local college students in childdevelopment training programs. Since at any onetime there are at least two students workingthere part time, the overall adult:child ratio isbetter than 1:5.5. Even this ratio will significantlyimprove with the creation of the child devel-opment training program currently beingplanned. Many corpswomen have alreadyexpressed interest in training for such work.
There is considerable in-staff training at theChild Development Center. For example, a childpsychiatrist meets with the staff re,,ularly, and aspecialist in early childhood education helps staffmembers select the methods and media mostappropriate for the program.Health. Under the supervision of a part-timepediatrician and a full-time nurse, the center'scomprehensive health program offers full med-ical services from 24-hour emergency treatmentto routine examinations and followup. Themothers pay nothing for such services as referralsto specialists, medicines, hospitalization, labo-ratory tests, dental care, orthopedic shoes, andglasses.
Funding. The solo parent program is fundedentirely by the Job Corps. During the first year ofoperation, the Child Development Center spent$2,628 per child, and the entire solo parentprogram spent approximately $350 for eachparent. Mothers pay for neither child care northeir own training. In addition, they receivedependency allotments to cover family housing,clothing, and food expenses.Parent Involvement. Enrollee-mothers are veryyoung, and many are raising their children alone.As a group, they lack the maturity, emotional
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support, and finances that would make theirresponsibilities easier. For many, their previousefforts to find a job, earn a living, and simplyhandle daily problems left little time G! energyfor, their children, who are now a high-riskpopulation for emotional problems.
These women need to develop skills as par-ents. They need to learn more about how theiractions and decisions affect their children, howchildren develop, how to handle problems indevelopment, how to locate needed communityresources, and how to use this information tobecome more effective parents. The solo parentprogram focuses on these special problems andneeds in counseling and educating enrollee-mothers.
Mothers and children eat lunch together inthe ARMC cafeteria, and they spend time to-gether each morning and from 4 p.m. tillbedtime daily.All program mothers and many other enrol-lees take classes which include life-skills,elements of childrearing, budgeting, infanthealth, and health education.Solo parents attend several small groupseminars conducted by a child psychologist todiscuss their common problems.Resident mothers attend evening classes onnutrition.ARMC counselors are available to all corps-women, though the counselors tend to be lessconcerned with the problems of marriage andchildraising than with general enrolleeproblems. A special full-time solo-parentcounselor provides counseling on parentalskills and personal problems.Day care staff members have developed asincere concern for both mothers and childrenand are always ready to answer questionsabout a child's progress, offer advice andsupport, and help with family problems andcrises.Mothers attend twice-monthly individualinterviews with staff members to discuss theirchildren's progress.Other formal parent programs are being
planned, though the mothers' tight schedulespermit few extra activities, and parent involve-ment techniques are currently being evaluated.
Evaluation. Families, children, and child careservices are rarely found in such highly struc-tured institutions as a Job Corps training center.To determine the effects of such a project,t,%,11L, Itiun essentiol. Once or twice a year, a
ot three c held development experts reviews
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the child care program and makes suggestions. Inaddition, the Job Corps has conducted its ownevaluation. Evaluators have gotten the responsesof program mothers (corpswomen with childrenenrolled in the Child Development Center),nonprogram mothers (those whose child carearrangements are outside the center), othercorpswomen, the ARMC staff, and communitymembers. They have found that the presence ofthe child care center and of the families at theARMC is nearly unanimously approved andconsidered a definite asset to the Job Corpsprogram.Most program mothers are strongly in favor of
the solo parent program and its Child Devel-opment Center. They feel that the program hashelped them learn more about their children andabout themselves as parents, and that theirchildren benefit both from this increased par-ental skill and knowledge and from the care theyreceive at the center Their children now piaymore easily, commu.iicate better, clean up afterthemselves, and demonstrate generally improvedsocial, emotional, physical, and ir'tellectual skills.Program mothers are also convinced that theirperformance at the ARMC has improved becauseof reliable day care.
A statistical analyst.. prepared by Job Corpsevaluators for the Department of Labor in 1971(with a followup in 1972) illustrates this contri-bution of the solo parent program to )ob Corpseffectiveness. it was found that program mothersregardless of age, race, entry reading scores,and other factorsstay significantly longer in theJob Corps program than do either nonprogrammothers or corpswomen without children. Otherstudies have found that the longer an enrolleestayed in the Job Corps (up to 2 years), the morelikely she was to find employment and thehigher her wages would be. Thus, reliable childcare and supportive parental services appear tobe factors which add to the success of Job Corpstrainees,
However, changes in several aspects of theprogram were also supported during evaluation.Some mothers have requested greater access tothe outdoor recreational facilities and morefreedom to make decisions concerning them-selves and their children. Separate facilities, rules,and expectations have been suggested for allresident mothers so that they can better developindependence, judgment, and the ability tomanage their own families. In line with this,some of the more restrictive regulations havesince been revised to allow corpswomen to make
the kinds of decisions that will be required ofthem when they leave the center environment.
With evaluation as an integral part of its childcare design and with its willingness to incorpo-rate necessary changes, the solo parent programis a significant addition to the ARMC. Through it,women who would otherwise be unable to findwork and would thus spend years on welfare,can acquire the skill.; Lind self-esteem necessaryto become productive workers and more effec-tive parents. In addition, their children areprovided the physical, intelie,tu...1, and emotionalsupport essential to their development.
Ute Indian Tribe Full Day HeadStart Center
The Ute Indian Tribe Full Day Head StartCenter is an expanded Head Start project, uniquefor both its culturally oriented developmentalcare and its extensive parent and communityinvolvement. In a program emphasizing thewelfare and development of the whole child,children benefit from adequate health and nu-tritional services; they are given opportunities todevelop physically, socially, emotionally, andintellectually; and they are encouraged to learnabout, appreciate, and respect their Indian her-itage. Their parents and community influencetheir education and control nearly every aspectof the center's operationfrom making policy tomaking curtains.
Opened in December 1969, the Ute center isthe only full-time day care program around theFort Duchesne, Utah area, except for some familyd'y care services funded by State welfare. It waslaunched as a result of increasing communityemployment in tribally operated businesseswhich magnified the need for day care. Trilxmembers approached the local community actionprogram (CAP) agency, which was already op-erating part-time Head Start projects, and CAPthen established the center with OEO funds.
The Children and Their FamiliesForty-five preschoolers, nearly all Ute Indian,
are now enrolled, 35 full time. Most of thechildren come from two-parent families. Allparents either work or participate in school ortraining programs, and less than 25 percent havecompleted high school. Ninety percent of thesefamilies have incomes at or below OEO povertyguideline levels.
FacilitiesOpen 7:30 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday through
Friday throughout the year, the day care center ishoused in a renovated, low, U-shaped buildingwith approximately 60 square feet of indoorspace per child. The space is divided into threemajor classroom leas, a kitchen, and an officewhich doubles as staff room, medical area, andisolation room when needed Outdoor playspace is also ample, with over 100 square feetper child.
A Head Start media center, specially designedfor the preparation of bilingual and biculturalmaterials, is the outstanding feature of the fa-cility. It contains adequate work space, as well asequipment, books, records, tapes, and materialswhich can be checked out by center staff orteachers from other area Head Start programs.
EducationUsing the general principles and goals of Head
Start, the center's basic objective is to enricheach child's development by offering as manydifferent and constructive experiences as possi-ble. The children are divided into three groups,based on developmental levels rather thanchronological age, and each is supervised by ahead teacher and a guidance teacher. Teachersare not restricted to a formal, structured cur-riculum, but follow instead the interests andsuggestions of the children. Weekly topicsforexample, foodbecome the focus for classroomactivities, though another topic is introduced ifchildren aren't interested. No child is forced toparticipate in any activity.
Bilingual communication is a major focus ofthe program. Almost all the children speak Uteas their native tongue, so the teachers, who areall bilingual, try to say everything in both Englishand Ute. Children are encouraged to use com-plete sentences, to play word games, use thetape recorder, and listen to stories and records.
The center tries to instill in each child a senseof self-reliance and self-worth, as well as anappreciation of his Indian heritage. Teachersencourage children to hang up their own coats,to set tables, serve themselves and clean up atmealtimes, and to select their own activities.Mirrors and photographs of the children areplentiful.
Respect for the Ute culture and heritage isreflected in every possible aspect of the program,from baking Indian bread to inviting Indianstorytellers to visit the center. Children help
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prepare Ute meals. On field trips, they oftencollect berries, which are later dried and used infood preparation, and wild onions and otherroots which are used as dyes in basketmaking.Visits to tribally owned businesses and officeshelp the children see their own people con-structively. Indian music, dancing, and crafts;books on Indian life, legends, and costumes; andfield trips to Indian culture programs and to thespring Ute Bear Dance are all part of the centerprogram.
Staff members strongly believe that thisethnically oriented curriculum increases the Utechildren's pride in their tribe, their heritage, andthemselves. For the non-Indian children, suchexposure increases appreciation of both the Uteculture and their Indian friends.
Parent ParticipationUntil very recently, most Indians had virtually
no control over the torces influencing their ownlives or their children's education. The Ute daycare center effectively remedies this on the locallevel. Parent participation is required in CAPguidelines, and Ute parents have found not onlythat they can influence the day care program,but that their influent::: is vital.
Parent and community involvement in thecenter takes many forms. Within both the daycare center and the larger Head Start network,parents are prime policymakers. Policy decisionsat the center level are handled by the Head StartCenter Committee, whose members are parentsof center children. Although the day caredirector, the assistant director, teachers, parents,and CAP officials all take part in program plan-ning, the center committee is the final authority.Two members of this committee are elected toattend meetings of the area Head start ParentPolicy Council which evaluates each of the sixHead Start centerstheir equipment, paid andvolunteer staff, food programsand makesnecessary changes. The president joins thepresidents of the five other centers and com-munity representatives on the Parents' PolicyCouncil. Staff members give priority to theconcerns of the council and attend its meetingsonly as resource people for specific issues.
Other parent involvement includes:participation in the classroom as paid em-ployees, vounteers, or observersmonthly parent meetings at which parentsplan and implement such projects as fundraising, equipment construction, and revisionof the parent policy and procedure handbook
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training and technical assistance workshopswhich are offered for Head Start staff membersbut which are also open to parentsfrequent parent-teacher contact at daily ar-rival and departure times, when specialmedical or dental problems arise, when a childis absent for more than 3 days, and at ameeting at least one additional time during theyearalmost daily contact with the assistantdirectorvisits and informal conversations duringwhich parents often encourage changes thatare frequently adopted in center programs orpolicyfor example, in the menu, equipment,or guidance techniquesthe tribal paper, the Ute Bulletin, whichcarries announcements of center meetings, jobnotices, and national news concerning daycare.
FundingBudgets are developed by the executive
director of CAP, the Head Start director, and acenter parent from the Policy Advisory Com-mittee, and are presented to the Tribal BusinessCommitter for approval. The average cost of theprogram 41,344 for each child annually or$0.55 per child per hour. In-kind donations,primarily of .staff time, comprise approximatelyone-third of the annual operating budget; theremainder comes from the Indian and MigrantDivision, Office of Child Development in theOffice of Education, HEW. Parents pay nothingfor child care and related services.
Staff
The Ute day care center provides employment,adequate salaries, and opportunities for trainingand advancement in an area where jobs areoften scarce. Its staff includes the executive HeadStart director, the assistant Head Start director,three head teachers, three guidance teachers, a
nurse, a cook, and volunteers who participateregularly.
The director oversees the six area Head Startpiugram,. Under the director's supervision, theassistant director handles daily administrativedetails and public relations; counsels parents,teachers, and volunteers; and acts as the generalresource person for all center operations.
Head teachers and guidance teachers work inteams to plan and supervise daily classroomactivities for their group, to maintain anecdotal
records of the children's progress and commu-nicate such progress to the parents, and to ob-tain necessary supplies and materials. Their in-staff training includes weekly meetings on suchtopics as curriculum, behavior problems, andpolicy changes, as well as weekly discussions onaspects of child development with a psychologistfrom the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
In-kind staff contributions include work fromthe Ute tribe's summer work program and theNeighborhood Youth Corps, as well as volunteersparents, grandparents, community residents,members of teenage organizations, and HeadStart assistants from other projectswho donateabout 100 hours per week. Their participationimproves the adult:child ratio of 1:5, brings newideas to the programs, and enables the childrento interact with various community people. Al-though problems sometimes occurvolunteersare trained oniy by their experience in theenterthe benefits of their work considerably
outweigh any negative effect.
Social and Health ServicesThe center offers children and their families
many health and social benefits including dailynursing services, medical and dental care, acompensatory nutritional program, job coun-seling and family planning, and referrals tooutside agencies when needed.
Head Start's full-time registered nurse exam-ines children for diseases and infections; seesthat each child receives an annual physical,dental, vision, and hearing checkup; and main-tains health records. For the very few childrenwho have significant suspected or potentiallearning problems, formal evaluations are madethrough IQ and cognitive tests and throughpsychiatric or social-emotional diagnoses. Allexaminations are free to parents; they are paidfor by either the center or the Indian healthclinic.
The compensatory nutrition program addsneeded fruits, vegetables, and vitamin supple-ments to the typically high carbohydrate diet ofthe children, especially in winter when produceis scarce. Morning snacks are planned as ade-quate substitutes for breakfast, which manychildren do not eat at home. Lunches are hotand well-balanced, and afternoon snacks usuallyconsist of fresh or canned fruit.
The center's director can provide parents withboth job counseling and family planning infor-mation. Extensive community resources are also
available to center familiesresources within Ontribe, through local and State medical and wel-fare programs, and through the BIA. The centermakes numerous referrals to these agencies whenspecialized help is required for such major localneeds as employment, alcoholism rehabilitation,family planning, and medical, dental, and mentalhealth services.
Both staff and community members can par-ticipate in the CAP-sponsored career develop-ment program, which offers high school equiv-alency classes as well as college undergraduateand graduate level courses at Weber State Col-lege and Utah State University. After receivingsuch training, several guidance teachers werehired by the center and three were promoted tohead teachers.
Greeley Parent-Child CenterThe Greeley Parent-Child Center provides a
quality daycare "home" for 105 children, but itsplans include more than simply providing childcare. The goal of the center is to offer a com-prehensive program for the total development ofall the families involved.
The center opened in 1969, originally fundedby the Colorado Migrant Council .(CMC). As amodel program, Greeley offered the first full-yearday care for migrant children in Colorado. Whilemost of the center families are Mexican-Americanformer migrant farm workers, the policy ofthe program is to serve members of the low-income community regardless of family back-ground.
Owned and operated by a nonprofit, incor-porated parent board; the center enjoys extensiveparent participation and broad communitysupport. Its goals are:
to improve the home life of center familiesby freeing both parents to work or to pursuejob trainingto provide bilingual and bicultural educationdesigned to meet the specific needs of Chi-cano childrento foster communication and understandingbetween various sectors of the community,with emphasis on integrating the former mi-grant families into the "established" commu-n i ty.
Parent and Community ParticipationFamilies of center children tend to be large.
They live in inadequate housing, and a significantnumber are headed by women. In July 1972,
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three-quarters of these families had incomes lessthan $4,000 per year. With little enough moneyfor themselves, most parents have been unableto support the center financially.
When budget cuts for the CMC left the daycare program without funding only a few monthsafter start-up, staff members volunteered to workwithout pay. The University of Northern Colo-rado, the Weld County Opportunity Agency (acommunity action program agency), and Mont-forts (a major meat-processing and feedlot op-eration) gave financial assistance which contin-ued the program on a day-to-day basis. Parentsand community residents donatedand continueto donate--incalculable hours to the center.They painted, constructed equipment, worked asvolunteers in the children's activities, cooked,scoured the community for materials and do-nations, and petitioned for paving B Street infront of the old church building which housesthe center.
Just as they were beginning to see someprogress, the church building was put up forsale: the center either had to buy the building orclose. Once again, parent and community sup-port allowed the center to remain open. Theparents incorporated as a nonprofit group and,with community help, received a 100 percentloan to purchase the building on a rental basis.Montforts began supporting the $100 monthlymortgage paymentwhich has since been takenover by the Greeley National Bank Foundationand other community agencies and peopleoffered assistance.
As an incorporated group, the parents werenow in the unique position of owning their ownday care center. They formed a board of direc-tors which includes the parents of all enrolledchildren. The board takes final responsibility forevery aspect of the center's operations includinghiring staff, budgeting, program planning, andsetting admission criteria.
A 19-member advisory board of interestedcommunity, business, and professional leaderswas also formed. This board includes a financecommittee to raise money; a special needscommittee to help parents with housing, edu-cation, financial and marriage counseling; and acurriculum committee to plan learning activitiesfor the children.
The community's involvement in the center isreciprocated. To meet community needs, thecenter serves as a placement site for studentteachers and trainees from area schools and as a
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source of technical assistance for developinglocal day care programs. In addition, the Mexican-American families have an increased com-mitment to their new home. For many of theformer migrants, ownership of the center andparticipation on the board of directors representtheir first opportunity to experience a feeling ofpermanence and commitment to one community.And their success with the center has given theman unprecedented sense of competence andworth.
The combination of parental control and de-cisionmaking authority with community supportand technical assistance has permitted theGreeley center not only to function and grow,but also to fulfill its community relationsobjective"to foster communicatior lnd un-derstanding between various sector of thecommunity." In a town which har' only hesitantlyaccepted migrants as permanent communitymembers, old and new residents are beginning tomeet on a personal level because of their mutualconcern and commitment to the day care center.
EligibilityThe center is open to all children from infancy
through 5 years of age (1) whose parents are infinancial need and require day care services tofree them for work or job training, or (2) whohave a problem with language development orsome other physical, mental, or emotional dif-ficulty which might be helped by the center'sprogram.
Of the 105 children currently enrolled, 10 areinfants and 20 are toddlers. Twenty of thepreschoolers divide each day between districtHead Start programs and the day care center,although in summer they attend the center fulltime. The remaining 85 children are enrolled fulltime.
EducationThe curriculum at Greeley is designed with
typical developmePital goals: to enhance thechildren's self-image, encourage their psycho-motor development, and stimulate their so-cial growth and awareness. Its uniqueness stemsfrom its bilingual, bicultural approach to theseobjectives. Currently being developed, the bilin-gual, bicultural curriculum focuses on a thor-ough appreciation of the children's backgroundsand culture.
Most of the children speak Spanish as theirnative language and English to a lesser degree.
They need a strong language foundationa goodbasic knowledge of their own tongue before theylearn English as a second language. Some of thecurriculum is therefore presented in Spanish, andsome in both languages, so that each child canacquire a good background in both Spanish and
English before entering first grade.Children are encouraged to take pride in their
cultureto learn Mexican stories and folkloreand to appreciate Mexican holidays and food.Through the use of carefully chosen curriculummaterialssongs, finger plays, records, books,and poemsand through techniques rangingfrom dramatic play to storytelling, each child canexperience a wide variety of elements of boththe Mexican and Anglo cultures. Children'sbirthdays, for example, may become the occasionfor a bicultural birthday party or fiesta which cangenerate questions and reactions about thesimilarities and differences between culturalstyles.
Curriculum specialists have been hired todesign the program, to provide inservice trainingfor staff members, and to implement all aspectsof testing and development. The bilingual, bi-cultural curriculum is now in varying stages ofdevelopment for each of three age groups: forbirth to 1 year; for 1 to 3 years; and for 3 to 5years. As they are completed, these model cur-ricula will be shared with other, similar day care
programs.For the infant group, the curriculum centers
around stimulation, physical contact, and affec-tion. It focuses mainly on efforts to developeye-hand coordination, and constant affectionateverbalization. The center staff also works closelywith the parents of children in this group.
The toddlers' curriculum concentrates on asequential development of motor skills. The staffis trained to listen carefully to each child, nomatter how good or poor his language devel-opment. The program focuses on walking,climbing, socializing, eating in a group situationbut only when the child is ready.
For the oldest group, a complete series ofstudy units has been prepared on topics from"myself" and "my family" to "holidays" and"people from other countries." The children arestimulated to learn through play, to developphysical coordination, to relate to other childrenand adults, to deal with their emotions, to ex-pand concepts and ideas ab,Ilt the world, todevelop cu. iosity and creat and to becomeproficient in expressing themselves both verbally
and nonverbally. Their program includes fieldtrips, visits from resource people, audiovisualmedia, group planning and discussion sessions,and carefully designed interest centers.
FacilitiesMost of the day care center is still housed in
the original old church building; offices are in ahouse next door and the toddler and infantfacilities are temporarily located in borrowedbuildings several miles from the B Street center.While current facilities meet minimal licensingstandards, all are far from adequate. Maintenanceis both inefficient and expensive, and the presentscattering of buildings makes a unified programdifficult.
In 1972, the parent board was able to purchase
enough land at the church site to allow con-struction of facilities adequate for the entireprogram. A new infant center and office buildingare being designed, and priority will be givenfirst to the construction of new buildings andthen to the purchasing of necessary equipment.Although parents, community members, andstudents have constructed everything possiblefrom shelving to a creative playground madefrom discarded materials and community do-nations--certain pieces of developmentalequipment must still be bought.
Health and Social ServicesThe Greeley center's health and social services
program is designed to meet the particular needsof both parents and children, yet financial limi-tations necessarily restrict its scope.
Each child is examined upon enrollment.Medical and psychological services are availablefrom local clinics and doctors at no charge eitherto the center or to parents who cannot pay. Twonurses handle most of the center's health careprogram. A licensed practical nurse works dailyin the nursery with infants and toddlers, makes
followup checks in their homes, and providesemergency care for any child in the center. Aregistered public health nurse coordinates ex-isting health services with children's needs andencourages appropriate agencies to sponsor new
services.Health care is supplemented by well-balanced
breakfasts, lunches, and afternoon snacks. Sincechildren receive much of their daily nutritionalintake at the center, good food is essential.
Until lately, the center's family services havebeen available only on a crisis basis. The director
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and staff helped with any problem brought totheir attention, though they had little time toestablish special contacts with parents. Thecenter has recently hired a bilingual "familycontact worker." Beginning with in-depth pre-enrollment interviews and carrying throughregular family contacts, this person serves as li-aison between the center, community resources,and each family.
StaffThe staff has grown to 25 paid members in-
cluding the director, an assistant director, 5teachers, several teachers' aides, a registeredpublic nurse, a family contact worker, and asecretary. Many of the staff are Chicano andseveral are parents of center children. Othermothers, college students, Neighborhood YouthCorps workers, and staff members from the workincentive program of the Department of Labor,donate their time as unpaid staff. The overallstaff:child ratio is approximately 1:5.
Through arrangements with Aims CommunityCollege and the University of NorthernColorado,any staff member may take courses to advanceoccupational or educational goals: from ob-taining the necessary hours in child developmentto meet state licensing requirements for oper-ating a day care center, to working toward anundergraduate degree. In addition, variousprograms of inservice training related to thebilingual, bicultural curriculum are being ex-plored.
FundingAn unstable income is the center's main
problem. Approximately 75 percent of its regularincome is paid by the Weld County PublicWelfare Office to support children whosemothers are enrolled in job training. Much of therest is from local contributions. Neither of thesesources is reliable: private contributions cannotbe guaranteed, and the number of childrensupported by the county welfare office fluctuatesmonthly.
There are, however, several other sources offunds. The Department of Agriculture reimbursesthe center $0.55 per child/day for food costs,and surplus foods are used. Some parents paynothing for day care, while others pay up to $10weekly depending on their self-determined in-come and a sliding scale of charges. In July 1971,the center was awarded a 2-year 0E0 grant of$113,000 to support the infant and toddler
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program in separate facilities and to develop thebilingual curriculum.
The volunteer work of parents, communitymembers, students, and in-kind personnel hassignificantly reduced operating expenses. Thecenter could not function without such dona-tions of labor and supplies. Yet reserve funds forprogram operation, equipment purchase, con-struction, and other expenses are badly needed.
Planning for the FutureOf the four day care centers considered in this
chapter, the Greeley Parent-Child Center is boththe least securely funded and the most rapidlychanging.
The growth of the child care program is typicalof the center's progress. Early services, whichwere little more than babysitting, have evolvedinto quality day care. As the bilingual, biculturalcurriculum develops, even more of the children'sneeds will be met. The director and staff have along list of ambitious plans and hopes for thecenterif only funding can be arranged tosupport additional staff members,. facilities, andservices.
Plans for inservice training of staff, reorga-nization of the parent board of directors and theadvisory board, construction of new facilities,and expansion of the health services and animmunization program are a few of the manynear-future goals. Additional funding, if it be-comes available, will significantly speed all plans.
Public relations has been a vital element in thesurvival of the center since its beginning. Anextensive series of brochures is being prepared toinform selected audiences of the center's func-tions within the community and to ensure thateach group knows exactly how it can becomeinvolved. A speakers' bureau is being organizedby which parents, staff members, and communityrepresentatives will be trained to present slideshows and video tapes at civic and churchmeetings throughout the area. Each speaker willoffer a personal point of view derived from hisor her own involvement with the center to en-courage all community residents to become in-volved in the center.
The problems faced by the Greeley Parent-Child Center are not uncommon. Many day careprograms lack funding and resources, and most.operate under far from ideal conditions. What isunique about Greeley is the obvious success ofthe center and community in mutually sup-porting each other. Despite inadequate funding
and crisis situations threatening its operation, theGreeley Parent-Child Center has succeeded inoffering a variety of services designed for itschildren, parents, staff, and community.
The president of the advisory board puts it thisway: "It has brought many diverse individualsfrom both sides of the track together who neverhad a common bond before. And I think I knowwhy. The basic ingredient of the center is a heck
of a lot of love. "'
' Murphy, Betty, "0E0 Day Care Demonstration Centers,
Salt Lake Center: A Little United Nations; Greeley Center:
From Baby Sitting to Basic Learning," Opportunity, 2 (3)
April 1972. Not copyrighted. No permission necessary forreproduction.
ReferencesThese descriptions of exemplary day care centers are
largely based on unpublished materialsannual reports,program descriptions, informal evaluations, grant applica-
tions, and other materials prepared especially for this book.Some materials are available from the centers described.
Chicago Amalgamated Child Day Care and Health CenterMs. Muriel Tuteur, DirectorAmalgamated Child Day Care and Health Center323 South Ashland BoulevardChicago, III. 60607
Child Development Center, Atlanta Residential ManpowerCenter
Dr. Jon FieldingPrincipal Medical Services OfficerOffice of the Director, Job CorpsU.S. Department of LaborManpower AdministrationWashington, D.C. 20210
Greeley Parent-Child CenterMs. Ann Heiman, DirectorGreeley Parent-Child CenterBox 991Greeley, Colo. 80631
Ute Indian Tribe Full Day Head Start CenterMs. Elaine ValverdeUte Indian Tribe Full Day Head Start CenterFort Duchesne, Utah 84026In addition, see:
A Study in Child Care. 1970-71. Volume 11-A: Center CaseStudies, and Volume 11-B: System Case Studies. Cam-bridge, Mass.: ABT Associates, 1971.
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.
Chapter 16Exempl ry Networks or Systems
As the four centers in the preceding chapterillustrate, it is difficult, if not impossible, toimagine any two day care programs being exactlyalikethe characteristics of a particular programwill invariably be determined by the people itinvolves. The five networks which follow furtherillustrate the relation between quality day careand the community. Each is an organized systemof day care centers and/or family homes whichserves a particular function for a particularcommunity: from providing complete familyservices to the isolated rural people in themountains of eastern Kentucky to offering in-structional day care to the multiethnic popula-tion of Berkeley, Calif.
In general, a system is capable of a range ofplanning and program operations beyond theresources of an individual program. Mass pur-chasing, curriculum development, formal con-sultation, communitywide planning, integrationof various day care settings, integration of daycare and public school programs, centralizedprofessional administration, evaluationall ofthese are typically easier to accomplish through aday care network.
The Kentucky Rural Child Care Project, theonly nonurban system included in this chapter,operates 27 day care centers throughout easternKentucky. In this region where jobs are scarceand supportive services often badly needed, theproject has provided training and employmentfor many local residents, a social services pro-gram staffed by project-trained communitymembers, quality day care which emphasizeslanguage proficiency and personal development,and, most important, a way for people from thearea to help themselves.
The second network model, in Berkeley, Calif.,has operated in varied forms for 40 years. Underthe supervision of the city public school district,this systemthe Early Childhood EducationSystemincludes four different, quality pro-grams: day care for children of working or stu-dent parents; half-day educational nurseries forpreschoolers, in which parent involvement ismaximized; programs for handicapped children;
and an educational model which combinespreschool and primary school groupings.
Another California program exemplifies asuccessful, organized approach to family daycare. The Pasadena Community Family Day CareProject is a visible network whose purpose is togive structure to area day care homes already inexistence, as well as resources, training, andsupport to the family caregivers.
The Houston Neighborhood Centers-DayCare Association is another system of family daycare homes, but on a much larger scale than the26-home network in Pasadena. The Houstonsystem is countywide and includes nine day carecenters and 180 family homes. A private, UnitedFund agency serving mainly welfare or low-income families, the association provides devel-opmental child care, training and licensing forday home operators, family social services, and aprogram of medical and psychological screeningand referral.
The final system in the chapter comprises thefour Children's Centers of Santa Monica, Calif'This network is operated by the Santa MonicaUnified School District, a system in which stu-dents from the junior high to the junior collegelevels are involved in the workings of the childcare centers. Following this description is anevaluation of one of the centers conducted by agroup from Pacific Oaks College. This examplenotes many of the points which should be in-cluded in an evaluation of any quality day careprogram.
The centers and systems described here and inthe preceding chapter illustrate that there is nosingle "best" day care for all children and allfamilies. They illustrate the importance of di-versity, choice, and responsiveness to changingconditions. These programs are constantlychanging, constantly responding to changes insuch areas as funding, the families they serve,
1 It might seem odd that three out of the five networksincluded here are located in California. However, Californiais one of the most advanced :,fates in the country in termsof planning for children, and its programs are among themost innovative.
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A
and new knowledge about children and childcare.
Kentucky Rural Child Care ProjectThe Kentucky Rural Child Care Project (RCCP)
operates a system of 27 day care centers, whichare the focus of several social services, includingchild development programs, social work, andhomemaking. With locations in 11 Appalachiancounties, these centers serve about 900 children,while the project itself provides services for morethan 5,000 people. Such a comprehensive ap-proach is essential in these rural eastern Ken-tucky counties, where unemployment is exten-sive, poor health and malnutrition are common,and children often do poorly in school.
The children enrolled in the centers are from 4to 6 years old; they are from low-income fami-lies, most are white, and most come from homesin isolated areas. In rural Kentucky, day care isnot a service primarily for working mothers. Fewmothers work, and in more than 60 percent ofthe families served, both parents are unem-ployed. Rather, day care serves as a way of re-ducing the isolation of both children and parentsby providing contact with other children andadults, introducing the family to communityresources, and teaching language skills.
Started in 1964 as a Head Start program, theproject is run by the Kentucky Youth ResearchCenter, a vehicle for programs of research,demonstration, and training in child welfare. Theorganization of the individual centers into acentrally staffed network offers special advan-tages in this rural area with its widely scatteredpopulation. The network provides an internaltraining program for the directors and staff of thevarious centers; efficient transportation; cen-tralized funding activities by an experiencedstaff; large-scale purchasing; central record-keeping and fiscal management; program eval-uation; supervision of career development; andthe most efficient use of trained professionals tosupervise the work of volunteers.
FacilitiesSince no funds are available for construction,
finding adequate facilities is a continuing prob-lem. Centers have been located in churches,abandoned schools, storefronts, and communitybuildings such as American Legion halls. Parentsand community members repair these buildingsso that they comply with building codes and aresuitable for day care. They have also built much
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of the play equipment, including sandboxes,wooden cars, slides, and ladders, and have im-provised other equipment, such as play tunnelsmade from oil barrels and, at one center, evenan indoor tree house.
TransportationMany families served by the project live in
remote areas, end roads are often inadequate.Some children have been unable to attend acenter because they lacked transportation, somelive 2 or more hours from the nearest center, andsome can attend only during warm weatherwhen all roads are open.
Although public school buses are sometimesused, most centers provide their own transpor-tation. Transportation aides, paid hourly salariesplus mileage and part of their car insurance, usetheir own cars to transport children. These aidesprovide a link between the home and the centerby meeting the parents, seeing their homes, andlearning something about the child's environ-ment. Many spend time at the centers in additionto their transportation duties.
The project has applied for funds for several12-passenger vans to cut the number of dailytrips necessary and to simplify insurance prob-lems.
EducationMost centers are open from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m.,
Monday through Friday, 42 weeks a year. Eachtries to create a warm, understanding, andstimulating atmosphere where children can learnand develop. No formal educational program norwritten curriculum is used; instead, children areencouraged to express themselves with creativematerialssuch as paints, crayons, clay, andconstruction paperand to select activities forthemselves. Each week's program centers looselyaround a theme such as colors and shapes, theseasons, or wheels and transportation; but if thechildren show no interest in a theme or activity,it is changed.
A typical day includes periods of free play,organized activitiessuch as art, science, music,or language developmenttime to wash, listento a story, nap, and eat breakfast, lunch, andsnacks.
In this part of Kentucky, the teaching of lan-guage skills is a particularly important part of theday care program, since a long history of isola-tion has made many people laconic. Most chil-dren and nonprofessional staff members are at
first unaccustomed to expressing themselves inwords. Staff members, having been encouragedto be more verbal and expressive, have trans-mitted their new skills and enjoyment of lan-guage to the children. Naming familiar objectsand verbalizing in play are emphasized, andsome of the centers use special materials such as
the Peabody Language Kit.The centers also try to overcome the children's
typical shyness and withdrawal. One methoddevised by the staff is to make up a story about achild who has been sad or unresponsive; andactivities such as a beauty parlor day help thechildren improve their self-images.
Results of the education program have beenimpressive. In a study of 24 first- and second-grade teachers who have taught former projectchildren in public schools, the majority rankthem above comparable nonprogram children inschool readiness, school progress, emotionalmaturity, friendliness, leadership, eagerness tolearn and participate, and parent interest.
Children in the rural child care project, as inmany programs elsewhere, seem to gain little informal knowledge or specific social skills in thesecond year beyond what they learned the firstyear. Many mothers teach as volunteers, andsome have become as effective in teaching theirown children under structured learning condi-tions as project teachers are with other young-sters. The project staff feels that further up-grading of teacher training would produce evenbetter results.
To improve its child development program, the
project is currently experimenting in selectedcenters with curriculum innovations developed atthe High/Scope Educational Foundation in Yp-silanti, Mich. and at the Children's Center ofSyracuse University. In addition, it is workingcooperatively with several other agencies inKentucky and North Carolina to create an Ap-palachian heritage curriculum, seeking to dem-onstrate that positive aspects of the Appalachianculture can be taught within a preschool cur-riculum.
NutritionNutrition is also an important component of
the day care program. Breakfast is served tothose children who need it, and all receive lunchand two snacks. Project-trained cooks introducethe children to new foods and different ways ofpreparing them as a means of teaching not onlynutrition, but also concepts of color, texture,temperature, shape, and measurement. The
children also learn to plan meals, serve, andclean up. An added benefit of this nutritioncomponent is that the children carry to theirfamilies improved habits and concepts of nu-trition and sanitation.
HealthThe county social worker, a local resident
trained by the project, is responsible for seeingthat the children receive medical and dentalservices. Upon enrolling, the children receivecheckups, inoculations, and in many casestreatment for intestinal parasites, a commonproblem caused by unsanitary water supplies. Allmedical and dental problems are treated, usuallyby local clinics or doctors. When necessary,transportation aides take children to specialistsoutside the community.
StaffA major function of the rural child care
project is to train local residents to staff day carecenters and to perform social work and home-maker services under the supervision of a centralstaff of professionals. The total network staffnumbers 236. The organization is shown in figure16-1, in which all positions double-outlined areheld by project-trained local residents. Eachcounty also has a volunteer coordinator whorecruits, trains, and schedules volunteers, andawards certificates and pins for their services.
Preservice Training. It was assumed from the startthat family and child care services could beprovided by nonprofessionals, if they were ade-quately trained and supervised. Considerabletime, money, and planning have gone into stafftraining and career development, and the resultshave been outstanding. New jobs have beencreated in the community, and the project has adedicated, well-trained, competent staff.
Each county has a social worker, severalhomemakers, and a clerical aide, and each centerhas two teachers, two teacher aides, a cook, andtwo transportation aidesall of whom have beentrained by the project. Many of these people hadnever before held a full-time job, and less thanhalf had finished high school.
The training program for these positions isconducted by professional staff members andconsultants. Each trainee is taught recordkeeping,personnel policies, what is expected of full-timeemployees, the goals and methods of the project,the roles of different staff members, and theparticular duties of his or her own job. Trainingemphasizes the importance of each individual's
147
LTRCCP Full PolicyCouncil
.00
Figure 16-1
RURAL CHILD CARE PROJECT
SYSTEM ORGANIZATION CHART
Kentucky Youth Research CenterBoard of Directors
I
Executive Director
LHResearchDirector
Project Director I
Treasurer
Administrative IOfficer
IFiscal Officer
Social Work/HomemakingTraining Specialist
County PolicyAdvisory Committee (11)
41=11 .1111111
Child DevelopmentTraining Specialist
I
Asst. ChildDevelopment Train.ing Specialist
Regional TrainingSupervisors (2)
Social Workers (11)
ProgramCoordinator
Medical AdvisoryCommittee
Clerical Aides (11)
Child Development Centers(27)
Each with:1 Senior Teacher1 Teacher2 Teacher Aides
Center Policy1
Cook
Advisory Committees 2 Transportation Aides(27) Volunteers
148
Indicates nonprofessional, entry.leveljobs or openings oncommittees.
contribution. At this time, salary opportunitiesand career ladders are clearly described(fig. 16-2).
All trainees are taught how to help--how tolisten, understand, respect differences, andestablish trust. Specific skills are also taught. Forexample, homemaker skills include nutrition,housekeeping, laundry and mending, child care,budgeting, and personal hygiene; teachers andteacher aides are taught to use play equipmentand materials for teaching language skills, and torecognize health problems.Inservice Training. On the job training is directedby a regional training supervisor and a childdevelopment specialist or a social work/home-making training specialist. Formal training ses-sions are held periodically to teach new skills. Inaddition, scholarships are given to those whowant to work toward high school equivalencydiplomas or to earn college credit. Staff memberstake basic college courses such as Eng , as wellas courses directly related is their jobs. Astraining proceeds, staff members learn many ofthe skills needed for other project jobs so thatthey can work together as a team and will beable to change fields if they desire.Training Results. Staff training has producedexcellent results. Children are learning, and theirfamilies are using the homemaking services andother community resources far more extensivelythan in the past. Staff turnover is low, and jobmobility is high. Many staff members have beenpromoted within the program, and many othershave found jobs in other social service agencies,in the public school system, or with local busi-nesses. More than half have gained collegecredits.
Social Work and HomemakingThe social work and homemaking services of
each county are provided by one social worker,three homemakers, and one clerical aide.However, the focal point of project services isthe social worker, a local resident employed andtrained by the project to supervise the home-makers and the child development centers, tohelp the community organize policy advisorycommittees and medical advisory boards, towork directly with families, and to participate inthe group work programs run by homemakers.Many social workers have become communityleaders, developing local social services and lo-cating sources of help outside the community.
The social worker introduces families to the
project's social work and homemaking services.She contacts the parents to explain the home-maker service, emphasizing that it is voluntaryand deals only with problems which the parentsbring up. Initial homemaker placements are oftenmade at times of family crisis, when the home-maker will have a clear and important job.
When the project began, the homemakers'major concern was the physical well-being of thefamilies they ser !ed. They were trained to in-struct families and to make them eventuallyself-sufficient in personal hygiene, budgeting,and other household functions. However, as theproject developed, the homemakers began totake over many social work functions. Under thesocial worker's supervision, they now informfamilies of available community resources andfollow up to see that the family receives theservices to which it is entitled. Homemakers arenow given special training for their expandedrole. They are taught to help families expresstheir needs and problems and to offer alternatesolutions for consideration. They are taught notto impose their own opinions or solutions but tohelp each family solve its own problems in waysthat suit the situation.
Homemakers have also organized groupmeetings for mothers. Meeting topics are sug-gested by the mothers and have included car-pentry, plumbing, family planning, child be-havior, driver education, income tax, home loans,and food stamps. For many of the women, thesemeetings are their only chance to meet peopleand learn to speak out before strangers. Thegroups generally become more independent asthey progress, and the homemaker assumes arole as organizer rather than leader.
Parent InvolvementThe extensive involvement of parents in the
project's activities is a remarkable achievement,considering the physical isolation of many of thefamilies. Until the project began, some parentshad never been away from their own homes norparticipated in a community activity. Mothershave generally been more active than fatherswithin the project, and even those fathers whohave built equipment and made repairs havebeen slow to involve themselves on a continuingbasis.
Parent involvement was a basic part of theproject's strategy from the beginning. Parentswere hired for staff positions, enlisted for advi-sory committees, and used extensively as vol-
149
Figure 16-2
R.C.C.P. CAREER LADDER
(Salary range and basic qualifications)
PROJECT DIRECTOR$1213 mo,MS Degree.behay.sc.4 yrs. experience
PROGRAM COORDINATOR$951$1145 mo.MS Degreebehay.sc.or College Degree +2 yrs. experience
CH. DEV. TRAIN. SPEC.$710$862 mo.MS Degreebehay.sc.or equiv. experience
REGIONAL TRAINING SUPERVISOR$530$643 mo.College Degree required.
SOCIAL WORKER$504$612College degree$436$504Without degree
SENIOR TEACHER$340$415 mo.High School/GED +2 yrs. work experience
TEACHER$308$376 mo.High School/GED preferred,but not required2 yrs. work experience
TEACHER AIDE$279$324 mo.
/ 8th grade + 1 yr.// work experience
TRANSPORTATION AIDE$160 mo./or contractOperator's LicenseInsurance
150
HOMEMAKER$279$340 mo.Exp. in Homemaking21-60 yrs. old
COOK$279$324 mo.6th grade + cookingexperience).
AIM able MOO
SW/HM TRAIN. SPEC.$710$862 mo.MS Degree.behay.sc.or equiv. experience
S.CLERICAL AIDE$279$340 mo.High School, Clericalor equiv. experience
=CAREER OPPORTUNITY WITHINCAREER LADDER
=CAREER OPPORTUNITY INANOTHER CAREER LADDER
unteers. But the homemaker service has proventhe most important way of involving parents inthe centers. Homemakers have encouragedparents to take an interest in their children'sactivities at the centers, suggested ways they canhelp as volunteers, and told them how theycould participate in decisionmaking within theproject.
As a result, parents have contributed im-measurably to the centers. They have raisedfunds through dinners and bake sales, and theyfrequently offer innovative solutions to centerproblems. For example, when several childrenlacked clothing but their parents did not want toaccept hand-me-downs, a group of motherssuggested making "center pants" of colorful,donated fabric. These pants are now used whenneeded and are then returned to the center. Asanother example, a woman who took speechlessons to be able to help her own child nowpractices speech therapy at one of the centers.
Parents are also strongly represented at allthree levels of the project's decisionmakingstructurecenter, county, and full project. Each
center has a policy committee, composed of allthe parents, which meets monthly to discusscenter business. Each county has a county policycommittee, composed of eight center parentsand eight community members, which coordi-nates the center committees, makes basic deci-sions about the program, discusses resourcedevelopment, and forms personnel selectioncommittees and medical advisory boards. At thetop of the organization is the full project policycommittee, composed of one parent and onecommunity resident from each of the 11 coun-ties. Committee members compare problems,share ideas, and make recommendations to theprojPct's director and board of directors. (Seefig. -1 for the organization of the project.)
A monthly newsletter, published by the projectfor parents and community members, carriesreaders' stories, recipes, and artwork, reports onproject activities, and news about relevant Fed-
eral and State legislation.
Berkeley Early Childhood Education SystemIn Berkeley, Calif., a day care system has been
operating since 1933, its long success due mainlyto the support of the city public school district.The Berkeley Early Childhood Education (ECE)System is quite complex, since not only is it partof a State-wide system and a local system, but italso receives funds from Federal, State, city, and
parent sources. The system consists of a varietyof programs, which together serve over 800children from Berkeley's multiethnic population.These programs include:
five Children's Centers which provide day carefor children from 2 to 9 years old19 Parent Nursery classes which provide 2- to4-year-olds with a half-day educational pro-gram and include extensive parent involvementthe Early Growth Center program for pre-school children with physical, emotional, orlearning disabilitiestwo Early Learning Centers, innovative edu-cational models wh; implement cross-agegrouping for childrE.,. 21/2 to 9 years old.
BackgroundBerkeley has operated two kinds of nursery
school programs for more than 30 years. TheParent Nursery program grew out of communitydemand for child care in the early 1940's. TheChildren's Center day care program developedfrom the Child Care Center (day care) programwhich was started under the Federal Governmentprior to World War II. When Federal financingwas cut off, the Child Care Center program wascontinued with State funds in 1945 as a programfor working parents. This support was unique toCalifornia.
In 1965, the Berkeley Unified School District(BUSD) created the Department of Early Child-hood Education (ECE), consisting of variousprograms, with priority for day care given tochildren of low-income or single-parent families.The success of ECE and other State-fundedprograms led to California's passage of the StatePreschool Education Project (AB-1331), whichprovides tuition for preschool children of welfarerecipients. Th.! Department of Welfare con-tracted with the California Department of Edu-cation, stipulating that State preschool wouldhave an educational component, and consultantsfrom the Department of Education supervised the
programs.In 1966, the California Legislature renamed the
"Child Care Center program" to the "Children'sCenter program," stating the importance of"supervision and instruction" in day care, ratherthan merely "care and supervision." Later, Fed-eral Title IV-A funds became available to Chil-dren's Centers and they were brought under theFederal Inter-Agency Day Care Requirements.
The long history of Federal and State supportof children's programs in California was con-
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tinued in 1972 by the State's passage of thefar-reaching Early Childhood Education bill (SB-1302). This bill enables local school districts toestablish comprehensive educational programsfor children from nursery school through primaryschool. The bill confirms the State's commitmentto early childhood education as an essentialcomponent of public social services.
Program Goals and ObjectivesBerkeley child care is based on a well-
developed and defined educational philosophy,with specific goals and objectives for children,parents, and the community.
Parental involvement is a primary goal of allthe programs. Each has been designed so thatparents ran work directly with the staff to for-mulate goals, values, and behavioral standards forthe individual school communities.
A second objective of these programs is tooffer Berkeley citizens a series of alternatives totraditional patterns of child rearing as well as todiscover new and viable patterns. Throughout theschool district, special emphasis is placed on asense of multicultural eummunity to answer theneeds of Berkeley's wide variety of life styles andethnic groups.
The third objective is the use of small-sizededucational and administrative units, which fosterintimacy, permit attention to individual differ-ences, encourage commitment to children, andthus contribute to maximum growth.
There are also goals of a more general naturefor example, to help each child develop asense of self-worth and competence. Staffobjectives include helping the child acquireabilities such as initiating and maintaining con-tacts with both peers and adults, and using andcontrolling his body.
AdministrationSince 1970, ECE programs have been admin-
istered by a team of supervising teachers, eachon the level of a school principal and directlyresponsible to the assistant superintendent forinstruction. Other basic administrative servicesare provided by the school district, includingfacilities, purchasing and accounting, hiring,project planning, and research and evaluation.
StaffThe ECE teaching staff includes: the super-
vising teachers who have M.A.s or the equivalentin early childhood education; teachers, college
graduates with teaching credentials or Children'sCenter supervisory permits; assistant teachers,some having B.A. or M.A. degrees, and all havingat least provisional S'ate permits and a year ofexperience; and noncerrificated instructionalaides. Tidse staff members are not only well-qualified; they are also able to devote consistentand undistracted attention to high-quality edu-cation because of certain features in the ECEsystem, such as professional support, freedomfrom most administrative duties, an averageadult:child ratio of 1:5, and never more than 6hours of direct work with the children each day.
To support the regular teaching staff, ECE hasestablished a supportive service team of pro-fessionals and paraprofessionals, which includes:
community workers who handle attendance,clothing needs, and the recruiting of familiesreferred by the County Human ResourcesAgency for free er.rollment in the ParentNurserieshealth consultants who deal with physical andmental health, and dietary and nutritionalconcernsa guidance consultant (school social worker)who attends to family crises, emergencies, andcommon problems of child rearing, and whoobserves and evaluates childrena psychologist who has the administrativeresponsibility for the design, research, andfollow-through of the evaluation of children'slearning in the ECE programs.
Members of this team are assigned to the ECEcenters, and they meet regularly to discusschildren having problems and to make certainthat efforts are not being duplicated. They alsorefer families, when necessary, to appropriatecommunity agencies for guidance, counseling,health care, financial and legal aid, and crisisprevention.
Parent InvolvementParent involvement at the policymaking level
in the ECE system works as it does in any orga-nization administered by a California city schooldistrict: the Board of Education, by law, must setcertain policies and procedures, such as taxingpower and personnel practices. However, in1970, when the 8USD Department of EarlyChildhood Education decentralized its adminis-tration by delegating authority among five su-pervising teachers, it was able to maximizeparent involvement and increase direct com-munication between administrators and users of
the ECE programs. Following this decentraliza-tion, parents and staff felt increasingly able todeal with problems because the smaller admin-istrative units under the supervising teacherswere more directly available.
Parents now act in both advisory and deci-sionmaking capacities. For example:
The parents and staff from each site decidehow to spend their budget allocation for in-structional supplies.Parents are now members of advisory com-mittees for screening and interviewing newstaff members.Parents of children enrolled in the half-dayParent Nursery programs are required to at-tend weekly meetings besides their requiredclassroom participation.The working and student parents of childrenin the day care programs are involved in theschools' decisionmaking and have a st-onginfluence on curriculum and planning.
Through this kind of involvement, parent canclarify their own roles and styles as teachers oftheir children, as wel; as influence the programsin which their children are enrolled.
Many working parents visit the day care pro-grams during the noon hours, and eveningmeetings are held monthly, dealing with suchtopics as discipline, children's sex play, children'sexperiences in school, nutrition, and suggestionsfor program changes. A home visit is alwaysmade when children enter the Parent Nurseryprogram, and an intake conference (either in the
parents' home or the center) is held for eachchild in the Children's Center program. After thestart of the program, parent conferences arerequired for all children in an ECE program inthe winter and spring, either at home or at thecenter, to discuss the child's progress. Otherconferences are arranged as needed.
Parent involvement has been extended to theState level where politically active ECE parentshave helped to secure funding and the passageof child care legislation.
Community RelationsThe ECE facilities are always open to visitors
from the community or from other programs.Some centers serve as the sites of fieldwork or astraining laboratories for students in child de-velopment classes at local schools and colleges.For example, the Whittier ECE Complex andFranklin Parent Nursery serve as "laboratoryschools," where students from the University ofCalifornia School of Education do their practice
teaching. College students also participate byobserving or working as teacher aides or researchassistants under work-study programs. Students inhealth and nutrition programs often participateby working with children, providing inservicetraining for teachers, or making presentations atparent meetings. High school students from theNeighborhood Youth Corps work as aides or asclerical assistants, and other community volun-teers participate in the programs to prepare forchild care careers.
Children's CentersOpen 11 hours a day, 5 days a week the year
rouna, the five Children's Centers offer two basicprograms: the Children's Center nursery programand the school age program.
The Children's Center nurseries serve childrenages 21/2 to 5, who have working or studentparents. These children spend 6 to 10 hours dailyat the center. Breakfast is available to those whodid not eat at home, and all receive two snacksand a hot lunch daily. While much of their day isspent in self-chosen activities, both indoors andout, the children also receive instruction inspecific curriculum areas such as science, numberconcepts, language development, art, music, andreading readiness. Emphasis is on individual andsmall-group learning, though there is no oneprevailing curriculum model used throughout thesystem. Primary sensory and perceptual experi-ences and the beginning of the basic skills ofreading, writing, and math help develop thechild's self-concept, socialization, andproblem-solving abilities.
The school age program, for children fromkindergarten through third grade, operates incenters on primary school sites. This programserves children whose families are not at homebefore and after school. Through tutoring andsupplemental basic-skill activities, it providessupport and extension of the primary schoolcurriculum.
The Children's Center program is funded ap-proximately as follows:
Percent
Parent fees 5.7
State moneys based on actual attendance plussome State and Federal moneys based pn attend-ance for low-income and/or AFDC families 42.7
City Children's Center override tax (rate set on thebasis of budget needs) 51.4
Miscellaneous .2
5978,832 for Fiscal Year 1971 100.0
Parent fees are on a sliding scale based onlonthly gross income and family size.
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Parent NurseriesParent Nurseries offer 19 half-day classes for
2- to 4-year-olds, morning or afternoon, in sevenlocations throughout the city. Curriculem goalsand activities are similar to those of the Chil-dren's Center nurseries. but parents are requiredto participate in the program for the equivalentof 100 hours each semester.
All Parent Nursery classes are led by a trainedexperienced teacher and an assistant teacher whoencourage the parents to take part in both thedecisionmaking and operation of the school.Parents work directly with the teachers, assistingin all learning areas, maintenance tasks, specialprojects, and field trips. They attend weeklymeetings, are active in community and schoolaffairs, and enhance the curriculum by bringingtheir unique talents to it. Besides gaining theexperience of observing and working with pro-fessionals, parents contribute to the adult:childratio of 1:5.
In response to the needs of the community'sChicano families, two bilingual classes are of-fered through the district's affiliation with theBay Area Bilingual Education League (BABEL) atone of the Parent Nurseries. In addition to theregular curriculum, both Spanish-speaking andnon-Spanish-speaking children and parents learneach other's language and share their culturalbackgrounds. BABEL also provides staff andcurriculum resources; for example, through thecooperation of BABEL and the Parent Nurserystaff and families, 3- and 4-year-olds are nowlearning concept building with the use of filmand cameras.
The Parent Nursery program is funded asfollows:
Parent feesState moneysA portion of city adult education override tax __
A supplement from the Berkeley Unified SchoolDistrict's general fund
$229,350 for Fiscal Year 1971
Percent5.05.5
12.4
77.1
100.0
Almost all the 2-year-olds are fee-paying,although there are a few scholarships. Half theparents of 3- and 4-year-olds in each of the 19programs pay a fee of $21.50 a semester; theother half is enrolled free of charge through theState Preschool Education Project for familiesreceiving AFDC.
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Early Growth Center ProgramA special proc?ct connected with the ECE
programs since 1971, the Early Growth Center ispart of a national network of 100 projects fundedby the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped,HEW. The project has two major objectives: toprovide each child with a maximum chance forhealthy growth and successful participation inreguiar school programs, and to train parents andteachers to identify and help those children whohave learning and behavior problems.
The Early Growth Center program serves thosechildren enrolled in the Parent Nurseries andChildren's Centers who have been found to havephysical, emotional, or learning problems whichinterfere with their social adjustment and/orability to function in school. It also serves chil-dren with handicaps such as cerebral palsy,mental retardation, and hearing and speechdifficulties who do not require highly specializedprograms. At present, the major components ofthe project include:
a model developmental day care programintegrated with the regular program at KingChildren's Centerwhich focuses on theprevention and minimization of handicappingconditions in young childreninservice training for parents and teachers,including 1-month internships at King Chil-dren's Center and a series of lecture, work-shop, and practicum sessionsthe development of more effective methodsof communication and cooperation betweenparents, teachers, and the medical community.
Services to the other schools in the ECE systemare planned to increase as interns from the KingCenter complete their training and adapt themodel program to their home school.
Early Learning CentersThe State of California, as well as the Berkeley
ECE System, sees the Early Learning Centerconcept as a growing, replicable model. Its in-novative features include: (1) a combination ofChildren's Center, Parent Nursery, and primaryschool (kindergarten through third grade) pro-grams, with children aged 21/2 to 9 in cross-agegroupings; and (2) the blending of formal ortraditional education and day care. This modeleliminates the arbitrary separation of age groupsand of children receiving instruction and thosereceiving day care.
The Early Learning Center curriculum stressesconcept-building communication and socializa-
tion skills, as well as reading, writing, and math.The program provides early developmental care,a multiethnic setting, interaction of different-aged children, and a continuity of instructionwhich makes the transition from preschool toprimary school levels easier. Crucial to the suc-cess of the program are both (1) parent in-volvement in planning, policy, decisionmaking,and participation in the daily program func-tioning; and (2, small administrative units able tosupport the complex blending of teams, pro-grams, and funds.
There are presently two Early Learning Centers,both funded by a "packaging" of traditionalfunding sources. One unit is on a primary schoolcampus and has a combined Children'sCenter/Parent Nursery, two extended day carebungalows, and an Early Learning Center class-room. In 1972-73, another bungalow was added,combining a full kindergarten class and 4-year-old preschoolers with first grade children inextended day care before and after their classesin the primary school building.
A second Early Learning Center model, de-veloped by ECE teachers, parents, and adminis-trators, is currently using a rented facility, butwill move to its permanent location once con-struction is completed. The new school is de-signed to be used for instructional day careapproximately 11 hours daily and for a com-munity center available evenings and weekendsthe year round. The Early Learning Centermodel is an attempt to respond more fully to thetotal needs of not only the child and his family,but of the community as well.
The Pasadena Community Family DayCare Project
Though there are more than four times asmany children in family day care as in day carecenters, most communities lack an organizednetwork of family homes. Day care operators areoften not acquainted with each other or withavailable community services, and they generallyneed resources and training.
An exemplary approach to these problems hasbeen taken in Pasadena, Calif. where the com-munity family day care project (CFDC), admin-istered by Pacific Oaks College under a grantfrom OCD, has organized a visible network of 26operators of family day care homes. The projectprovides CFDC caregivers with resources andservices needed to improve day care quality. Inreturn, they act as project consultants, permittingstudents to work in their homes and providing
information for a project study of family daycare. The project pays each caregiver aconsultant fee of $10 per month.
The CFDC project staffa director, twohalf-time assistant directors, a research analyst,and a secretaryworks from a store-front centerin an interracial, working-class neighborhood.Their main functions are to identify and recruitfamily day care operators, provide them withstudent assistants and a central meeting place,refer parents seeking child care, and help themdevelop contacts with community resources.
RecruitmentAt first, the staff's most difficult task was to
locate family day care operators. Using a "gate-keeper" approach, the staff contacted agenciesand individuals who were trusted in the com-munity and who knew people offering familycare. "Gatekeepers" included the Department ofPublic Social Services, restaurant owners, a localmothers' club, a neighborhood clinic, and fam-ilies with young children living near the projectcenter. After describing the project's programand purpose to them, the staff asked for assist-ance in meeting day care operators. The staffalso placed information cards on neighborhoodbulletin boards, put a sign in the window of thecenter, responded to babysitting advertisementson bulletin boards, and canvassed extensivelydoor-to-door.
In the Spanish-speaking neighborhoods, therecruiting staff faced language problems as wellas distrust of the "white establishment." It wasimportant that a staff member was Mexican-American and spoke Spanish. Because the servicesthe project offered were badly needed, confi-dence gradually developed and the staff was ableto recruit three day care operators. The staff alsoarranged for Pacific Oaks College to sponsor asmall bilingual school in a neighborhood back-yard. Here children were prepared for kinder-garten, while parents had opportunities to learnabout child development and to socialize witheach other. Staff and student volunteers alsohelped barrio families in household emergencies,translated letters, provided transportation tohealth and recreation facilities, and recruited avolunteer translator-interpreter for a local clinic.
Of the 70 day care operators contacted, 26eventually joined the project. They vary in age,socioeconomic status, and ethnic background.Fees average $15 to $20 a week per child, usuaily
with a siding scale for siblings, and many of thecaregivers base their charges on what parents can
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afford.Caregivers work an average 10 hours per day,
caring for about five children each. They performa variety of servicesaccording to both theirabilities and the needs of parentsmany ofwhich are not offered by center-based day care.For example, parents can make special arrange-ments for early arrival and late departure oftheir children; the children receive individualattention in an environment closely resemblingtheir own homes; most caregivers will attendchildren who are ill; and many take childrenshopping and to the doctor, wash and iron theirclothes, and care for them on weekends.
Project Goals and ProgramFrom the start, the staff realized that the goals
of good child care can be reached through a
variety of individual approaches. The project hasbeen characterized by an acceptance of varyinglife styles and by confidence in the caregivers'capacity to serve a child's best interests. Ratherthan create a rigid structure within which familyday care homes. must function, the project em-phasizes the process of helping caregivers de-velop competence. The aim has been to makeresources available to day care operators and topose questions and offer guidelines, while al-lowing them to function independently.
In the project's early stages, meetings werefrequently held at the center to establish contactsamong the day care operators and to developcolleague-to-colleague relationships betweencaregivers and staff. Later, community resourcepeople were invited to discuss issues of mutualconcern, such as nutrition, discipline, licensing,and sex education. More recently, the format hasbeen revised to deal with special problems. Forexample, at one meeting a case study approachwas used to examine specific problems inworking with exceptional children. In addition tofurnishing specialized information, these meet-ings provide an opportunity for day care oper-ators to share ideas and discuss common prob-lems. The caregivers gain a sense of profes-sionalism and a realization that they arenot "just babysitters."
One of the project's major goals is to dispelthe widespread notion that family day care ismerely custodial and that only centers andschools can provide a stimulating and individu-alized environment. An important step towardthis goal was taken recently when project op-erators, with the staff's aid, created a self-help
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organization called WATCH (Women Attentive toChildren's Happiness). WATCH seeks to makethe Pasadena family day care network visible. Itenlists public support and acts as an unofficialaccreditor of local family day care programs. Atmonthly evening meetings, such subjects as
parent relations, new licensing laws, referrals,and methods of self-help are discussed. The mostimportant accomplishments of the organizationto date have been the developing of a positionpaper on quality family day care and thelaunching of a discount buying program.
WATCH has also arranged for courses to beoffered at Pacific Oaks College and Pasa6anaCity College so that day care operators can at-tend extension classes on such subjects as childdevelopment, working with parents, self-awareness, and the home as a learning environ-ment. They can receive credit for these coursestoward a high school diploma or toward a de-gree from either school. After completing a seriesof nine courses, a caregiver is awarded a Cer-tificate in Family Day Care.
Services
The CFDC project provides a variety of in-home and center-based services for consultantfamily day care operators.
Student Assistants. Nine students from PacificOaks College are employed and supervised bythe project to assist each of three or four care-givers for two mornings a month during theacademic year. The students keep a log of eachhome visit and attend a weekly seminar with theproject staff to discuss their activities, for whichthey receive practicum and course credit.
Another Pacific Oaks student works as a "fix-itman" in consultants' homes, and his repairs andnew construction work have made some homeseligible for licensing. He also builds sandboxes,easels, small chairs, and other equipment whichprovide a creative play environment. Whileworking on such projects, he serves as a modelfor adult-child interaction in the home and offersvaried learning experiences for the children.Community Resources. To provide caregiverswith easy access to pertinent community re-sources, the project staff has compiled and dis-tributed a resource book listing names, ad-dresses, and phone numbers of services forchildren and families in the Pasadena area.
The caregivers are also able to borrow booksfrom the Pacific Oaks College library, and theyhave an open invitation to visit the children's
school at the college to observe the facilities andthe interaction between teachers and children.Referrals. The project center operates a referralservice for parents seeking child care. Pareots areasked about their particular requirements andcriteria and are then referred to three or fourcaregivers whose services conform most closely.
Consultants have prepared a pamphlet, ACheck List of Ingredients for 'Good' Child Care,which contains information to aid parents indetermining the kind of child care arrangementthey want and also lists the services offered byproject caregivers. This pamphlet is sent toparents who use the referral service.
Nursery Schools. To lighten the caregivers' bur-den and to provide particularly active childrenwith a mixed model of center and family care,the project has purchased six 3-day-a-week slotsin the mothers' club cooperative nursery schooland adult education center. Parental requests forthis opportunity have exceeded openings, inspite of the club's requirement that a parentwork at the school 2 days a month for everychild enrolled.Trips. Several times a year, the project providestransportation for all 26 CFDC homes to the zooor a large park. Such outings give the children anopportunity to informally socialize in a largegroup outside the regular day care environment.
Loan Fund. To help caregivers who face a tem-porary financial crisis or who wish to remodeltheir homes to meet safety or licensing re-quirements, the CFDC project maintains a no-interest loan fund. Loans have been used tocover such expenses as venting a heater, makinga car safe for transporting children, andprogram-related needs such as food or supplies.The money has been returned promptly and inaccordance with a plan designed by thecaregiver.Toy Loan. Project funds have also been used topurchase toys, equipment, and other needed
items which caregivers are reluctant to purchase
because they are expensive or useful for only ashort time. Caregivers may borrow items for amonth at a time from an inventory which they
have helped to select.Bulletins. To promote communication amongcaregivers and between day care homes and thecommunity, the project publishes a monthlybulletin, focusing on local issues and needs andcontaining articles on the activities of the con-
sultants.
Parent InvolvementIn addition to upgrading the quality of day
care in the Pasadena area, the project has alsohad a significant impact on the parents of chil-dren enrolled. Young parents especially havebenefited from the caregivers' experience andoften seek them out for advice and friendship.When both pe rents and caregivers cooperate,family day care programs can be duplicated inparents' homes; a developmental program canserve as a child-rearing model for parents. Be-cause close involvement between parents andcaregivers is possible in the CFDC project, thespecial needs of parents and children can be metin Pasadena's family day care homes.
The Houston Neighborhood Centers-DayCare Association
The Neighborhood Centers-Day Care Asso-ciation (NC-DCA) of Houston, Tex. serves morethan 1,000 children in a countywide network ofnine centers and 180 family homes. Unlike theother networks described in this chapter,NC-DCA is a private, United Fund agency. Theassociation licenses homes, trains operators, andthrough its staff specialists directs families andchildren to social services in both the communityand NC-DCA community centers.
This large network is supervised by thedirector of the day care component. Area daycare managers, responsible to the director,oversee the center directois, counselors, and thetraining staff working with day home operators.Program specialists also work through the areamanagers to continually upgrade the quality ofcenter and home programs.
About 77 percent of the children cared for areblack, 17 percent white, arid 6 percent Chicano;the distribution of network staff is almost iden-tical. The children are primarily from welfarefamilies or low-income families in which bothparents work. Parent fees are scaled to ability topay and the number of hours a week childrenattend. Fees are the same for day home andcenter care$15 per week for full-day, $12 for
part-time care.Fourteen percent of the day care spaces are
made available to working families who are able
to pay the full amount or to families whosepayment can be supplemented by the UnitedFund allotment. The remaining spaces are re-served for families who meet Federal eligibilityrequirements for social services or day careservices under the AFDC and WIN programs. In
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these cases, the parent pays a per-child fee basedon family income, the number of children livingat home, and the number of children in care,and the agency pays the balance.
The annual cost for center care is $1,779.18per child; for day home care, $1,521.25 per child.Day care funds for the 1,172 children served arebudgeted as follows:Parent feesUnited Fund to Department of Public WelfareUnited Fund to localModel city programTexas Department of Public WelfareMilk reimbursement (DOA)
Total
$96,356316,46397,164
142,2231,093,384
3,000
1,748,590
Day Care HomesThe network's day homes care for about 700
children, ranging from infants to 12-year-olds.For these children, home care is important be-cause of location, parents' working hours, or thechild's special needs. The operators of these dayhomes are generally mature women or youngmothers who care for other children along withtheir own. All are supervised by agency coun-selors.
Operators are paid directly each week, thoughthe fee is not clear profit. The caregiver must useit to provide mealsexcept for baby foods andformulas which parents supplyand incidentals.Through the association, caregivers receive oc-casional donations of canned goods and artsupplies, and loans of cribs, playpens, tricycles,and educational toys.
Program. Day home activities are designed withina flexible framework to meet the specific phys-ical, social, emotional, and intellectual needs ofthe children in each home. Emphasis is placed onlanguage and concept development, stimulationof creativity and promotion of a positive self-image. Conversation, art activities, walking fieldtrips, music and rhythm, cooking, and gardeningare all important ways of meeting these objec-tives. Some toys, books, wheel toys, and edu-cational games are supplied through the asso-ciation's loan closet to supplement the ofteningenious equipment made by the operatorsthemselves.
Care is usually provided from 6:30 a.m. to6 p.m. but may be %.aried to suit parents' sched-ules. A hot lunch and morning and afternoonsnacks are served daily. As in the centers, agencytransportation is provided between day care andschool for older children, for field trips, andwhen necessary between day care and the child'shome.
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Licensing. The NCDCA licenses day care homesas an official agent of the Department of PublicWelfare. A prospective operator must be healthy,between the ages of 21 and 70, and have apleasant and stable personality suitable to caringfor children. If an applicant's house has adequatespace and is in reasonable repair, the licensingprocedure usually takes about 6 weeks.
The association's licensing staff arranges forphysical examinations of all household members.Building and maintenance staff inspect the homeand list alterations needed to meet State andlocal safety codes. Renovation costs average from$20 to $65, and some funds are budgeted forthis. When renovation is completed, the cityinspector is called in. If the house meets con-struction safety requirements and the householdmeets the association's medical and personalrequirements, it is licensed for 1 year and is re-viewed annually for relicensing.
A licensed operator contracts with theNCDCA to accept only children placed by theassociation, to notify them of any change whichmight affect licensing, and to abide by programpolicies. In accordance with State requirements,each caregiver agrees to care for no more thansix children under 14 years of age, including herown, and for no more than five children if one isyounger than 3. No operator may care for morethan two children under age 2. These require-ments are based on the amount of time andattention each age group requires.
Training. Although most operators have had childcare experience either with their own children,or as housekeepers, babysitters, or Sunday schoolteachers, few have had. formal training in childdevelopment and day home operation. Beforethe association places children in a home,NCDCA specialists train the new operator 3hours a day for 1 week in agency policy, nutri-tion, safety, and child development. Then, duringthe first 2 weeks of care, the caregiver receivesintensive, in-home training in all aspects of dayhome operation. Ongoing inservice trainingfollows, both in the operator's home and at as-sociation day care and community centers. There,groups of operators meet with association spe-cialists in child development, social services,psychology, nutrition, nursing, and parent in-volvement. Operators also visit the day carecenter in their community to observe skilledteachers. Occasionally, special workshops andseminars are conducted on new techniques ofprogram planning and working with children.
Regular newsletters offer information on childdevelopment, problemsolving, and possibleactivities for children.
Association counselors regularly visit operators'homes, providing guidance, evaluation, and helpwith special problems. Operators and parents areencouraged to discuss problems with counselorsrather than to confront each other and, whennecessary, are referred to community agenciesfor additional help.
Day Care CentersApproximately 500 children between the ages
of 3 and 12 receive preschool or after-schoolcare in the association's nine centers. These varyin size from 30 to 110 children and are open from6:30 a.m. to 6 p.m., five days a week, 52 weeks ayear. The staff of each center includes a directoror director/teacher, teachers, teacher aides, acook, and housekeeper. Teacher-pupil ratios andgroupings follow Federal and State guidelines.
Each center purchases food and other suppliesthrough the NCDCA central supply center anduses the services of its building and groundsmaintenance crew for repairs and new equip-ment. The association nurse, psychologist, nu-tritionist, and specialists in child development,parent involvement, and social service areavailable to each center.Psychological Screening and Referral. Infants andyoung children accepted into the program arenow screened for physical, emotional, intellec-tual, and language difficulties. This screening isfollowed by referrals for treatment to prevent orminimize more costly damage. Although thisprogram is only now getting under way, over 400center children have passed through the twoinitial steps and work has begun on about thesame number of children in day homes.
Program. Preschool programs in the nine centersare designed to provide each child with a varietyof experiences to promote all aspects of devel-opment. Balance is sought between large- andsmall-group interaction and individual work-playexperiences, with enough routine to providesecurity yet enough new material to stimulate.The program is flexible and focuses on a weeklytheme such as "spring" ur "cowboys," andlearning experiences including weekly field tripsare usually related to that theme.
On a typical day children begin to arrive at6:30 a.m. and are checked for signs of illness. Asick child is isolated until the parent can arrive.Breakfast, lunch, and three snacks are served
during the day. Mealtime is seen as an occasionfor meeting nutritional needs, teaching goodeating habits, 'developing language abilities, andproviding valuable sensory experiences.
School-age children leave at 8:30 a.m., as theyounger children begin planned work-play ex-periences. Quiet and more vigorous activities arealternated. Indoor areas include interest centersfor art, music, blocks, science, woodworking,role playing, manipulative toys, and books; andduring work-play periods, children may select theareas where they wish to work. The morningprogram also includes outdoor play; the well-equipped play yards contain climbing andbalancing equipment, sandboxes and diggingareas, swings, wheel toys, and open areas forgames. A nap period follows lunch, and theactivities of the remainder of the day are similarto but even more relaxed and informal thanthose of the morning. Children begin to departaround 4 p.m. with the last ones leaving by6 p.m.Inservice Training. Directors at each center holdweekly staff meetings as part of an inservicetraining program that includes regular visits byassociation specialists in child development andother relevant fields. Special workshops, semi-nars, and meetings of the Houston Associationfor the Education of Young Children offer furtheropportunities for professional growth.Parent Involvement. The NCDCA employs"parent involvement specialists" to work with theparents of children enrolled in association cen-ters and day homes. These specialists familiarizeparents with day care programs and othercommunity services and encourage them toparticipate in organized parent activities and todiscuss special needs and problems with coun-selors, center staff, or community social workagencies. They also help parents coordinate theirown child-rearing practices with their child's daycare program and find adult education classessuited to their needs.
Each center sends parents a newsletter de-scribing weekly activities, special parent contri-butions, recently enrolled children, new centerpractices, and notification of parent meetings.Meetings for parents of children in NCDCAcenters or day homes are held monthly at each
of the nine centers and include discussionsand lectures on community services,child development, and issues related to daycare. To maximize attendance, the associationprovides babysitting and some transportationservices.
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At each center, a parents' advisory committeeis a means for parents to express their concernst'o association administrators. The committeeglans parent education programs, communicatesassociation policies, and elects two representa-tives to the countywide Parents' AdvisoryCouncil. This body reviews the NC-DCA budgetand programs and elects representatives to otherchild care planning and advisory groups.
Santa Monica Chl Idran's CantonUnder the California State Children's Centersprogram, the Santa Monica Unified School Dis-trict operates a system of four centers whichprovide day care for children whose parents areeither employed or training for employment. Thisnetwork includes two nursery schools and twoschool-age centers and serves about 300 childrena year, most from one-parent families. (Since thishandbook deals with preschool programs only,details of the school-age centers are not in-cluded.) The two nursery schools together ac-commodate a maximum of 80. children, rangingfrom 2 years and 9 months to 5 years in age. Theprogram is characterized by a progressive edu-cational approach, fine facilities, and significantparent and community involvement.
All four centers are funded by State andFederal moneys, scaled parents' fees, and aschool district tax. Administrative proceduresrelated to curriculum, finance, personnel, legalrequirements, attendance, accounting, and healthare all coordinated through the school district.
ProgramSince both nursery programs are similar, only
that of the John Adams Child DevelopmentCenter is described here. Enrollment is limited to37 children to allow more personalized attention,and the children's major daily activities takeplace in four cluster groups, each of which hasits own group teacher and indoor and outdoorareas. The center has five professional teachingstaff members, as well as student assistants,teaching interns, parent and student volunteers, acook, and a housekeeper; a nurse and a familycounselor divide their time among the fourcenters. Parents provide transportation, and thechildren receive lunch and two snacks daily atthe center. Like the other Santa Monica centers,John Adams is open from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m., 5 daysa week, 52 weeks a year.
With a flexible curriculum, both teachers andchildren have considerable autonomy. Some
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activities are planned daily, though more thanhalf the children's time is spent in self-chosenplay. Teachers provide a wide variety of creativeequipment and materials to stimulate bothlearning activities and interaction with adults andother children. This type of learning, in whichindependence and self-motivation are stressed, isfelt to more likely have deep and lasting valuethan formal instruction. The teachers focus onencouraging and supporting the children'sgrowth. As they observe the children's interestsand activities, the teachers can offer highly in-dividualized responses to help clarify, explain,and expand opportunities and directions.
Social development is an important concern ofthe program. The children learn to interact, yetto still pursue their own purposes and wishes.Teachers plan activities, such as dramatic play, toencourage cooperative ventures which can leadto significant peer relationships. Independence ofideas and actions is encouraged within theframework of responsible behavior.
FacilitiesThe school district has provided both pre-
school centers with complete well-designed fa-cilities on junior high school campuses. The JohnAdams center consists of three classrooms, anadjoining children's bathroom, a covered patioimmediately outside, and a schoolyard sectionedinto three large play areas. It is stocked with alarge selection of toys, equipment, and animals.
Space has been carefully arranged to providefree movement and varied environments. Rugs,partitions, storage shelves, and shrubs mark clearboundaries between areas, and pathways allowmovement without interruption of other activi-ties. Each child has a partitioned napping area,and there are nooks where one can be alone orwith a friend at other times. Rockers, couches,soft rugs, and sandboxes provide varied andcomfortable recreation sites. Each group playyard has extensive equipment storage areas;special areas for large motor activities, gardening,creative and construction activities, and settingsfor dramatic play; and areas for exploring naturalmaterials such as sand, mud, and water.
Community InvolvementThere is a close relationship among all levels
of the Santa Monica school system, from thepreschool to the junior college levels. Each year,Santa Monica's two preschool programs giveabout 600 studentsmost from the junior high
schools where the centers are locatedan op-portunity to learn about early childhood devel-opment by working with or observing the cen-ter's children.
Junior high school students use the nurseryschools in various ways. Selected ninth-graderswith academic or personal problems are oftenassigned as assistants to a group teacher. Theresponsibilities of caring for young children oftenhelp to modify a student's problem behavior. Thestudents respond to the adult role they mustassume as they are depended on, looked up to,and called "teacher" by the children. Seventh-graders in remedial reading classes get pur-poseful experience reading stories to smallgroups of preschoolers. Their reading becomesvaluable, a source of esteem rather than failure,as the children uncritically listen.
In eighth- and ninth-grade homemakingclasses, part of the curriculum involves theclassroom and laboratory study of children. Thenursery schools offer ample opportunity for di-rected experience in working with preschoolersand observing their behavior and development.In related classwork, these experiences are ex-tended by discussion and reading, compilingprofiles of individual children from observations,writing and illustrating original stories appro-priate for preschoolers, and making simple de-velopmental play materials.
Local college students also observe or serve asinterns in the program to fulfill course require-ments for child development, pediatric nursing,social work, or teacher education. The addedstaff responsibilities of planning for and guidingstudent learning are more than compensated bythe benefits of extra laps and helping hands andthe increased individual attention the studentparticipants provide.
Parent InvolvementThe Santa Monica Children's Centers employ a
part-time family counselor, a qualified socialworker who meets with parents before or soonafter a child is enrolled to determine any specialneeds or problems. The counselor attends parentfunctions and is available at each center for2 hours a week to handle individual problems,provide counseling, and make referrals to com-munity agencies as needed.
General interests and concerns of parents arehandled by parent organizations. Parents fromeach of the four centers elect delegates to serveon the Parent Advisory Committee along with
the head teacher of each center and the pro-gram's director. The open monthly meetings ofthis committee allow parents to express concernsand suggestions directly to those responsible forpolicy and curriculum. At each center, parentsalso elect a parent board of four officers whoplan monthly meetings, coffee hours, and specialevents.
Parents have a standing invitation to visit andbecome involved in many facets of the preschoolprogram, and some are frequent participants.
EvaluationThe John Adams Child Development Center is
one of about 150 California day care programswhich have been evaluated over the years by theresearch staff of the Pacific Oaks College Chil-dren's School. The results of the John Adamsevaluation are included here for two reasons.First, it cites factors which contribute to superiorday care. And second, by describing evaluationmethods and criteria, it provides a model forevaluating other centers, in which trained ob-servers study what is most important about a daycare program in a straightforward way. (Ch. 14,"Evaluation," provides further information andreferences.)
in evaluating the Santa Monica center, theresearch staff studied the behavior of bothteachers and selected children as well as thoseaspects of the physical and personal environmentsuch as spatial characteristics, size, and lead-ership patternswhich helped to determine thatbehavior. This method of evaluation is describedin The Day Care Environmental inventory byPrescott, Kritchevsky, and Jones. (See "Refer-ences" at the end of this chapter.)Observed Behaviors. After several informalvisits, the researchers spent 3 days at the centerobserving six childrentwo who were thriving,two who were about average, and two who werenot doing as well as expected. During a 2-hourmorning play period and for another hour afternap time, the researchers (1) described thechild's moment-to-moment behavior with a15-second interval codiN; (2) identified activitysegmentswhich are labeled groups of relatedbehaviors such as riding a tricycle, eating lunch,or listening to a storyand described some oftheir characteristics, including how the childhappened to start and stop the activity, how longit lasted, whom it involved, and what happenedduring its course; and (3) described the extent
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and type of teacher intervention in the child'sactivity.
These observations were then compared withthose made in 13 other centers selected fortheir excellent community reputations. The be-havior of both children and teachers at the SantaMonica center differed significantly from thatobserved in the other day care centers.
In their moment-to-moment behavior, childrenhere were less apt to have accidents, to imitateothers' behavior, or to engage in behaviors suchas not attending, thumbsucking, or vacant staring.Rather, they did more of the following: sensoryexploring, receiving help, selecting and choosing,giving orders, recognizing cognitive constraints,problemsolving, testing and experimenting, andgiving structure to their own actions.
Certain features of activity segments were alsodistinctive. Only 9 percent of the children's time,compared to 20 to 30 percent in other centers,was spent in official transitions such as standingin line or waiting for lunch. More than half theiractivities were self-selected, about one-thirdwere initiated or facilitated by the teacher, butonly 6 percent were selected because of teacherpressure. Similarly, over two-thirds of the activitysegments were stopped by spontaneous choiceor because the activity had reached a naturalconclusion; less than 10 percent ended becauseof teacher interference or pressure. This differedradically from many of the other centers whereparticipation in over two-thirds of the activitieswas required, where teachers rarely gave thechildren suggestions or help, and where 50 to 70percent of the activities ended because ofteacher pressure.
In observing activity segments, the evaluatorsnoted that the type and variety of social settingsavailable at the Santa Monica center also differedfrom those commonly found in group day care.In some centers, much of the child's day wasspent as a member of a large, supervised group,with little or no time alone or in a one-to-onerelationship with an adult or a best friend. AtSanta Monica, however, time with the entiregroup was equaled both by time alone with anadult and by time in individual activity. Eachchild spent twice as much time with a best friendas with the entire group.
Although Santa Monica recorded the highestincidence of awareness of cognitive constraints inthe sample, the formal teaching of cognitive skillsand the presentation of standard cognitive ac-tivities there occupied only 1 percent of the
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observations. The children spent about 30 per-cent of their day in activity segments such ascreative exploring, unusual cognitive, and con-versation: for example, helping the teacher setup plastic divider sections; pouring water fromone container to another; using the 'ape re-corder and cameras; talking to the teacher aboutpussy willows; throwing bean bags at a target;interpretative dancing; dramatic play; mixingpaints. Such activities allow children to learnfreely about the behavior of all sorts of objectsin space and to experiment with ways of actingon them; to label, set up, and order their envi-ronment; and to test their understanding of time,quantity, and order. The dramatic play at SantaMonica struck the evaluators as particularly rich:children were reproducing experiences frommany different settings with infinite variations.
In the third type of observation, a descriptionof the teacher's role, over 15 percent of teacherbehavior at Santa Monica was related to socialdevelopment. But rather than the usual imposingof rules for social living on the children, theteachers made a point of helping them get alongwith each other without submerging their ownpurposes and wishes. Another 15 percent ofteacher behavior involved dealing with emotionsor providing circumstances by which the childrencould experience pleasure, awe, or wonder. Inmany centers, virtually no teacher behavior wasrecorded in these areas.
The total adult input in Santa Monica wasabout average for the sample, but it was con-siderably lower than that of some centers. SantaMonica teachers did not waste words. Theymade highly individualized, yet often brief, re-sponses which indicated that they had beencarefully observing the child's behavior. Whenthey interrupted an activity, it was to clarify,explain, or offer new directions. They regularlyspoke in private with each child or asked forhelp with chores which permitted time alonetogether.
One technique the evaluators observed in-volved soliciting help from other children tosolve a child's problem. A child who had par-ticular trouble adjusting to group life one day fellinto a crying spell. The teacher explained to theother children, who were watching helplessly,her perception of what was happening: Marthaseemed to be worried that someone would takedown her block structure. She suggested thatthey all work together on a sign telling people toleave it alone, so that Martha wouldn't have to
worry. Thus, the teacher clearly communicatedher concern to Martha without ever speaking toher, and she helped the other children under-stand and offer assistance.The Center's Environment. The experiences ofchildren in the Santa Monica program were quitedifferent from those observed in the 13 othercenters. The evaluators believe this was due notto luck, but rather to three specific factors:characteristics of the physical environment, thesize of the center, and the leadership patterns.All three factors are considered predictive of thetype of behavior observed, and in Santa Monicaall three were found to be superior to thesesame factors in most other centers.
The physical environment. Good space in a daycare program depends on the variety and orga-nization of the environment and on the amountto do. Of the many programs evaluated, SantaMonica rated highest on all these criteria andpresented the best example of a center whichsupports choice for children.
A center with good space ordinarily has five tosix different kinds of activities in a play area. AtSanta Monica, variety was much higher, withboth indoor and outdoor spaces providing from10 to 16 different kinds of things to do. Insteadof tricycles only, there were also four-wheelwagons, two-wheel trike trailers, and cars. In-stead of only one cage of rats, there were guineapigs, mice, fish, turtles, rabbits, and goats. Varietywas also provided by equipment not found inmany centers. For example, some equipmentpresented real riskshigh platforms, climbingboards, and ropes for swinging. Yet childrenshowed great skill and dexterity on these piecesand demonstrated that such equipment, whenused freely and without crowding, is seldom asource of accidents.
Variety is not limited to equipment alone; italso includes the degree to which the environ-ment is responsive to children. This factor has
been labeled "softness," and a softness rating hasbeen developed based on the presence of thefollowing features:
child/adult cozy furniture (rockers, couches,lawn swings, etc.)large rugs, full indoor carpeting, grass andsanddirt to dig inanimals which can be heldsingle-sling swingsPlay-doh, water, and very messy materials(finger paint, clay, mud)
"laps" or physical responsiveness from adults.While some schools offer few or none of thesefeatures, Santa Monica provided all these op-portunities for children to experience their en-vironment as soft and responsive to them.
"The amount to do" per child is a secondimportant indicator of spatial quality. It dependson the amount of equipment available in relationto the number of children who will be using it.When the number of potential things to do islimited, a problem arises each time child :topsan activity, since he will have difficulty findingsomething else to turn to. Centers with at leasttwo things to do per child rate high in this area.At Santa Monica, both indoors and outdoors,there were 5 to 10 possible activities per child inany one area. Variety and amount to do thuswork together to provide each child with morenumerous and satisfying experiences.
The third factor determining the quality ofcenter space is the organization of the physicalenvironment. At Santa Monica, several featuresmake the spatial arrangement particularly strik-ing.
The boundaries between activity areas areclear; pathways provide uninterruptedmovement between areas; and space withineach area is carefully arranged to hold a child'sinterest.The sides of the rooms are lined with openshelves on which toys, equipment, and ma-terials are categorized and arranged withineasy reach of the children. These storagepatterns are understood and upheld by chil-dren and are at least partly responsible for thecenter's high level of variety and amount todo.For outside storage, each teacher has a largepersonal storage shed, and each of thesecontains a striking diversity of equipment.Each child has a private napping area en-closed by either screens or other naturalharriers, and there are nooks where childrencan go to be alone. Children are not requiredto be constantly within sight of the teacher.There are well-defined yard areas, boundedby partitions or fences, and children are freeto use any of these. The teachers move fromyard to yard during the day so that a childwho wants to stay close to a particular adultwill find himself in a variety of play spaces.Center enrollment. Enrollment size is another
critical factor in determining the high quality ofthe Santa Monica program. The director has
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deliberately limited enrollment to 39 childrenand firmly believes a larger center could notwork as well. The evaluators agree.
In a previous study, the evaluators observed arandom sample of 50 day care centers and foundthat the size of a program was a general indi-cator of its quality. Large centersthose withover 60 childrenp!aced significantly moreemphasis on rules and routine guidance, andtheir staffs were usually rated as neutral or dis-tant. In smaller centers, opportunities forpleasure, wonder, and delight wei a significantlyhigher; child-teacher interaction was greater, andchildren seemed more interested and involved intheir surroundings. Such findings have beencorroborated by studies of other kinds of set-tings, such as schools and factory groups.
Leadership patterns. The type of leadershipavailable to a day care staff affects the quality ofthe children's experiences in the program. Staffmembers at Santa Monica are given the moti-vation and decisionmaking power to develop aprogram in which children can experience au-tonomy and initiative. The staff members havereal decisions to make. They are not tied tosomeone's curriculum plan or to constrictingrules and regulations. More than any other centerobserved, Santa Monica worked like a well-functioning large family, in which a great manythings were happening and in which everyoneassumed real responsibility.
The feeling of trust in this center is remarka-ble. Adults trust children to help keep thingsworking properly, to make lunches and answerthe phone, to take sensible risks without hurtingthemselves, and to be alone and out of sightwithout getting into trouble. In turn, the childrenrespond with extremely intelligent and respon-sible problemsolving behavior.
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ReferencesThese descriptions of exemplary day care systems are
largely based on unpublished materialsannual reports,program descriptions, informal evaluations, grant applica-tions, and other materials prepared especially for this book.Some materials are available from the systems described.
Berkeley Early Childhood Education SystemMs. Susan Thompson, CoordinatorDemonstration Day Care Projectdo Office of Early Childhood EducationBerkeley Unified School District2031 6th StreetBerkeley, Calif. 94710
Houston Neighborhood Centers-Day Care AssociationMs. Marceleete H. Womack, DirectorDay Care ComponentNeighborhood Centers-Day Care Association10 Chelsea PlaceHouston, Tex. 77006
Kentucky Rural Child Care ProjectMr. Joseph E. Perreault, Program CoordinatorKentucky Rural Child Care ProjectKentucky Youth Research Center, Inc.Post Office Box 713Frankfort, Ky. 40601
Pasadena Communi .. Day Care ProjectMs. lune Sale, CCommunity Far Care Project728 North Los isPasadena, Calif. 91104
Santa Monica Unified School District Children's CentersDr. Docia ZavitkovskySanta Monica Children's Centers1532 California AvenueSanta Monica, Calif. 90403.
For further information about evaluation of day care andthe methods used in the evaluation of the Santa Monicaprogram:Pacific Oaks College
Ms. Elizabeth PrescottDirector of Research714 W. California BoulevardPasadena, Calif. 91105Prescott, E.; Kritchevsky, S.; and Jones, E. The Day Care
Environmental Inventory, Part 1 of final report As-%ement of Child-Rearing Environments: An EcologicalA- proach. Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific Oaks College, 1972.
In addition, see:ABT Associates. A Study in Child Care. 1970-71. Volilme
II-A: Center Case Studies, and Volume II-B: System CaseStudies. Cambridge, Mass.: ABT Associates, 1971.
Sale, J.S. and To-res, Y.L. I'm Not just a Sittrg. A DescriptiveReport of the Community Family Day Care Project.Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific t Jaks College, 1971.
Sale, 1.S., et al. Open the Door . . . See the People. ADescriptive Report of the Second Year of the CommunityFamily Day Care Project. Pasadena, Calif.: Pacific OaksCc..:.ge, 1972.
Sale, "Family Day Care: One Alternative in the Deliveryof Developmental Service in Early Childhood." AmericanJournal of Orthopsychiatry 43, No. 1 I1973): 37-45.
* 11.a. GOVIIIINkUNT PN/NTINO °mein 111114 0-411-740
DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20201
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
U.S. DEPARTMENT OFHEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFAREOffice of Human DevelopmentOffice of Child DevelopmentChildren's Bureau 1974
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