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Reform and Development of Higher Education in Europe:France, The Netherlands- and Poland.United Nations Educational, Scientific, and cultural*--Organization, Paris (France).64100p.; Educational Studies and Documents No. 49Unesco Publications Center (NAIP), 317 East 34thStreet, New York, N.Y. 10016 ($1.00)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; Educational Administration;

*Educational Development; *Educational Planning;*Educational Research; *Foreign Countries;Governance; *Higher Education

IDENTIFIERS *France; Netherlands; Poland

ABSTRACTThis document examines reform and development of

higher education in France, Poland, and the Netherlands. Part Iexamines facets of higher education in France including the tasks ofthe universities: research, teaching, and development of highertraining and continuing education; present structures of Frenchuniversities; increase in student enrollment; degree coursestructures; decentralization of universities; and higher, training andcontinuing education. Part II reviews higher education in theNetherlands including the purpose of university education; public andprivate university education; democratization of higher education;higher education and social and economic development; the expansionof higher edUcation and research; and legal provisions concerningautonomy and unity, required educational standards, and internalorganization. Part III, higher education in Poland, disucssesprocedures and methods of planning, and the future organization ofhigher education. (MJM)

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educational studies and documentg'

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Reformand development

of highereducation in Europe

France, The Netherlandsand Poland

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1 *Report on the Cruse° La 1?reviere Interoational .Setninar onIVorkers' Education, by G. D. 11. C:ule and AndiPhilip.

African Languages and English in Education.How to Print Posters, by Jerome Oberwager.

4 l?iloteral Consultations for the huprotement of Hikingbooks.

.1lethods of Teaching Reading and Writing: a preliminalysmey, by Gray (out of print).

6 Modern Languages in the Schools (ant of print).7 *Education for C.2 mmunity Development: it selected bibliagrapity.8*Ii'ort-cri' Education fbr International Umlerstanding, by

Asa Briggs.9 Experiments in Fundamental, Education iu Preiult Afrieatt.

Territories.to *The Use of Social Research`. in a Community Eduiation

Programme.t I *Some rItelhods of Printing and IteAraduction, by H. R. \Perry.12 *.Ifultiple-Class 'reaching, by ,John M . Braithwaite and

Edward J. King.13 A Bibliography on 'The 'reaching qf Modern -Languages.t4 Adult Education in Turkey, by 'Puritan Ogukan.15 *Fundamental, Arluh, Literacy and CoMmunity Education in

the !Vest Indies, by H. \V. Howes\16 Some Studies in Education of hmniglants for Citizenship.17 * Museum 'Techniques in .Fundamental113 *Literary Teaching: a selected hibliograph

* Health Education: a selected bibliography.20 ReporrI of the First International Coqferenc on Ed urational

Retearr h.2 I. The Place of Sport in Education: a compar4tie study.22 Educabon Clearing Houses and Documenta .an Centros:__

a pre"iminary international surrey.23 *An intemational List of Educational Periodicals.24 Primary School Curricula in Latin America, bk M. B.

Lourenco Filho.25 *The Nem Zealand School Publications Branch.26 Psychological oundd4ons of the C 'riculum, by N Marti

C. Olson.27 Technical and Vocational Education in the U.K.: a

graphical survey.28 *Curriculum Revision and Research.

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In

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29 'aehim! about the United .Vations acrd the Specialized.14,171l-ir,.; a ,Clerltd bibliograMv.,

!If) Trehni(ill and l'orational Education in the '.S.S.12.:hi bi ;041 phieoll C. by NI. I. Movsovic.

3 I *. I N. Intritiattortal Bibliographr 1 'ethnical and .VacatimmlEducalma.

3 3 let /rod, If boll! Enrol went Pr niectioTh by E. G. .Jacoby.33 .S'epouboy lirlarical and IMational Education ire undo-

der elotal countries.'3.1 n Intel 1 i °nal d)ireclory of Eduernion Association .35 *.Va, Tiendc in 1)inth Organizations: a compinatit e3ti 'rechnical and Vocational 1 :)lnottion in the U.S.A.: a biblio-

graphical parry..ts 7 Formal Programmes of International Co-operation between

Uniretity Institutions.38 * Unesco Regional Seminar on the Educational Role of Museums.

39 Higher Education in the 1.7.S.S.R.411 Importance and Value rf Evantinations.

The ...Veer's. of Asir; in Primary Education.42 Evaluating Educational Achievements.43 The Organization q/ the School leaf: a conOarative study.

Education Documentation Centrei-in IVestem Europe: a com-parative struiy.

45 *Elements of Educational Planning.46 *Second [timid Goon/ rence on Adult Education.

47 Higher Education in the United Slater.48 *Nero Mei'hods. and Techniques in Education.

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Reformand development

of highereducation in Europe

France, The Netherlandsand Poland

-PREFACE

11ore and more students are seeking places in institutions of higher learnirig as a result of the demographicincrease front 19.15 onwards, and of the dernocratizaticr of higher education. As knowledge grows aml therange of subjects widen, new problems, such as the need for diversification and greater specialization., makethemselves felt at this level and specifically in certain branches of science and. technology. Society has,in addition, -its own demands to make on the university, as national prosperity depends more grid more on thedevelopment and eoloitation of human resources. Ti!rhnical advances, economic development,rapid modifica-tion of Social structures, the widening spectrum of !unman culture all these are reflected in demands madeon the university by society and test its resourcefulness and capacity for adaptation.

Reports from France, the ;Vetherlands and Poland figure in the present study and show how the problemsand challenges raised by change are being dealtwith in. different settings. The three reports set out thenational objectives of higher education and treat of the factors, methods of approach and'planning involved inits long -term development in each country. The views expresso/ are naturally those of the authors, and do notnecessarily reflect the views of Unesco.

UncSco has already published other studies relating to higher education in its Educational Studies andDocuments series. These are entitled : Formal 'programmes of international co-operation between universities(No. 37) 1960; Higher Education in the USSR (No. 39) 1962; and higher Education in the U.S.A.(Vo..17) 1963.It is felt that studies such as these will assist in the development of a comparative appraisal of higher educa-tion problems. Finally, it should he noted that the fourth valuate of the World Survey of Education, which dealswith the higher education field, will be issued in 196-1,65.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE .

Higher Education in 'Vince, by L. CapdecomeChapter One. Tasks of 'liie universities 6

Research at the universitiesTeaching 6Development of higher training and continuing education 7

Chapter II. Present structures of French universities 9

Chapter III. Increase in student enrolment 11

Chapter IV. Degree course structures 13

Chapter V. Decentralization of universities 18

Chapter VI. Higher training and continuing education 19

Chapter VII. Conclusions 21

Annexes, tables rnd diagrams 23

PART TWO

Higher Education in the Netherlands, by A .,T . I'iekaar and J. NittelChapter One. Introduction 58

Purpose of university education - 58Public and private university education 60Democratization of higher education 4G()Higher education and social and economic development 61

Chapter II. Expansion of higher education and research 62

Scientific research 62Higher education 64

Chapter III . Legal provisions 70

Autonomy and unity 70Required educational standards 72Internal organization 73

Chapter IV. Conclusion 75

Annexes 1 77

PART THREE

higher Education in Poland, by Zygmunt Ratusznia

Chapter One. Introduction 81;

Chapter II. Procedure and methods of planning 88

Chapter III. The future organization of bigher,education 90

Chapter IV. Conclusion 96

PART ONE

HIGHER EDUCATION IN FRANCE

byL. Capdecombe

Formerly Director-General, Higher Education,Ministere de l'Education nationale, Paris

CHAPTER ONE

TASK:- OF THE UNIVERSITIES

The responsibilities of French higher education,as defined in a recent official text (Decree of6 January 1959 on Education Reform) are as fol-lows:

"Public higher education is responsible for:1. contributing to the advancement of

science, the training of research workers and thedevelopment of research in science, letters andtechnology";

2. "dispensing higher scientific, literaryand artistic culture";

3. ''training recruits for professions re-quiring broad culture asAvell as detailed know-ledge. (In particular, higher education contributesto the training of teachers by providing for theirscientific instruction and participating in theirpedagogic instruction)";

4. " to take part, at the highest level, incultural education and professional upgrading ".

"Its structure and programmes must be con-stantly adjusted to the exigencies of scientificprogress and the needs of the nation".

Thus thre, essential and indivisible purposesemerge at the higher education level:

research,teaching, ,andupgrading.

Special attention is drawn to the leading placeallotted to research and to the expressed intentionthat university activities be constantly adapted tothe economic and soc!al needs of the nation and tothe advancement of knowledge.

RESEARCH AT THE UNIVERSITIES

University staffs should normally devote a veryconsiderable part of their time to research work.

This characteristic responds to the necessityof maintaining the teaching of the various subjectsat a high scientific level, each teacher remainingdirectly associated, throughout his working life,with the advancement of the discipline he teaches .

The universities have complete freedom inthe matter of research. With their numbers, theyconstitute a huge area of unrestricted research%%there ideas can flourish and projects developwithout any sense of pressure or concern to im-mediate returns.

The very diversity of university studies isconducive to the most varied and fruitful associa-tions between researchers belonging to differentdisciplines. Another feature of university research,besides its complete freedom, is its universality.

6

University research projects can relate bothto applied and to pure science. The universitiesdo indeed fill the essential role in basic research,but they also have increasingly important com-mitments in applied research, and it is in theirlaboratories that the majority of young research-ers for industry get their training alongside thosewho will remain in education.

There has been a notable expansion of re-search at French universities during the past fewyears.

A key circumstance is the appreciable en-largement of the professorial body, necessitatedconjointly by the rise in the number of studentsand by the need to improve the student-teacherratio. The numbers of professors, Maftres deConMrences ,(lecturers)and assistants almostdoubled between 1956 and 1961 in the human sciences(Arts and Law), and between 1957 and 1961 in thenatural sciences.

This large increase in university directionaland supervisory potential for research teams has beennaturally conducive to an increase in the numberof young researchers . Column 3 in Tables 6 and6 bis shows the evolution of the numbers of stu-dents pursuing post-graduate arts and sciencestudies in faculties over the period 1948-1961. Itwill be noted that, in the scientific disciplines, theexpansion has been continuous and has become morestrongly marked since 1956 to a degree which willdouble the number of young researchers in tenyears. In the arts disciplines , after a slackeningbetween 1957 and 1959, a considerable expansionis again in evidence.

Other factors contributing to the recent ex-pansion of university research and to the increasein the numbers of young researchers in universitylaboratories have been the provision of morescholarships at this level of higher education, theintroduction, initially in the science faculties(Decree of 20 July 1954), and subsequently in thefaculties of arts and human sciences (Decree of19 April 1958), of the Il3erne Cycle d'Enseignement"designed to "give students a thorough knowledgeof a speciality and an initiation into research'',and the concerting of efforts by higher educationalestablishments and the Centre National de la Re-cherche Scientifique.

TIi ACHING

The current changes in the French universitiesare based on three groups of considerations:

1. Demographic cbnsiderations

The French universities will have to cope in thedear future with the effects of an unprecedentedrise in population.

Table 1, attached, shows the evolution of thenumber of births from 1935 to 1961, and the esti-mated figures down to 1975.

Tab 3e 2 and Graph 2 bis show the evolutionand distribution year by year, from 1953-1'664 to1960-1961,andfrom1960-1961 to 1970, of thenumbers of young people in the 18-24 age group ,i .e .population group from which the bulk of universitystudents are recruited (nearly-80% of studentsare in fact in that age group).

The fall in the number of births during theSecond World War produced a corresponding fallin the nuinbc s of young people in the 18-24 agegroup from 4,432,400 in 1953-1954 to 3,902,700at the date of writing, with the prospect of a fur-ther slight shrinkage to approximately 3,890,800in 1962-1963.

Thus the section of the population on whichhigher education draws goes on fallinguntil 1963-1964, and from then on there will be aconsiderable recovery in its numbers, which willexceed 5,650,000 in 1971. This circumstancealone would produce an annual increase of about5-6% in number of students during the six yearsfollowing 1965 even if the rate of enrolment in alltypes of secondary education remained stationary.

2. Considerations arising from the markedincrease in the rate of enrolment in second-ary level education and in higher educationitself

During the past few years, the numbers of pupilsenrolled in all types of secondary education haveincreased considerably as a result not only of thedemographic factors discussed above but also ofthe social trend which is increasingly leadingfamilies to commit their children to extendedcourses of study.

Table 3 shows the rise in the numbers of pup-ils attending public or private secondary establish-ments between 1951-1952 and 1961-1962.

A direct consequence of this expansion insecondary education is an increase in the numberof pupils passing the baccalaureat examination,which concludes secondary education and opensthe way to higher education, as its first step.

Table 4 shows the growth in the Lumbers ofbacheliers from 1948 to 1961, and the estimatedgrowth down to 1970, as worked out during thepreparatory studies fof the Fourth Plan forSchool and University Equipment (1962-1965). Itwill be observed that the number of bacheliersapproximately doubled over a ten-year period,and that by 1970 the present figure would have in-creased by about 2.1/2 times .

Concurrently, the number of university stu-dents has risen considerably over the past fifteen

years, going from 120,000 in 1945 to 130,000 in1950 and 215,000 in 1961. The last column ofTable 5 and Graph 5 bis show the formal patternof this expansion in numbers, which, significantly,is entirely due to a rise in the rate of enrolment,most of the young people now taking higher edu-cation having been born during a period of regres-sion in the French birth rate corresponding to theperiod of the Second World War. Thus the figuresin Table 5 show that for the last few years thesteady annual increases of 5-10% in the numbersof university students , with an increase of 7%over the final four-year period, are solely due toincreased enrolment.

3. Need to provide an extensive range ofemployment outlets

But there can be no disguising that at a time whenthe number of students is about to rise very con-siderably, the ample openings available for someyears past in the teaching profession cannot pos-sibly increase or even remain at the same levelindefinitely; the impact of the population upsurgeon secondary education is making for large-scalerecruitment, resulting in an appreciable reduc-tion in the general age level among teachers.Hence the posts filled today will not fall vacantfor a long time to come, and the creation of newposts will be on a smaller scale once the effectsof th population increase on secondary schoolshas ceased and the only'operating factor will bethe increase - on a necessarily diminishing scale -in the rate of enrolment.

Moreover, there is no doubt but that, in thenext few years eveninthe liberal professions, newopenings will be few and far between, and thebulk of the students reaching the universities will,therefore, have to turn to other careers.

In addition to their traditional task of creatinga highly cultured elite, with as many members aspossible, the universities are also called upon,more than ever before, to train new middle andupper level scientific, technical and administra-tive staff. Their essential task, therefore, is toprovide all students with training for careers , andto adapt themselves accordingly to the need forproviding a wide variety of trail'. g courses tomeet the requimments of the main rofe ns.

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER TRAINING ANDCONTINUING EDUCATION

Numbers of technicians who have had no opport-unity of extended education prove, on the job, tobe fitted for more responsible posts . The uni-versities must be opened to them for the supple-mentary scientific or technical training of whichthey stand in need. Universities have in short,an increa2ng part to play in social advancement.

Again, science and technology are evolvingso rapidly that frequent refreshing of individual

7

knowledge in each case is becoming a generalnecessity. The universities must offer widefacilities for "reprocessing" acquired knowledge,

8

while facilitating the retraining of technician;where necessary.

CHAPTER II .

PRESENT STRUCTURE OF FRENCH UNIVERSITIES

In principle, French universities are groups ofestablishments of public higher education existingwithin a given territorial division known as anAcaddmie

Each university is headed b: a Rector, whois Chairman of the University Council and carriesco t its decisions. The Council consists of repre-sentatives of the establishments of higher educa-tion and of the local communities served.

The award of the successive university de-grees - baccalaurdat, licence and doctorat inparticular is the exclusive prerogative of thefaculties . The latter, though coming under theuniversity, have corporate status, legally andfinancially, and thus enjoy a very great degree ofautonomy. A faculty is administered by a Deanelected by the members, and he is Chairman ofthe Faculty Council, which comprises all the fullprofessors and is the faculty's Board of Admini-stration. The Dean is also Chairman of theFaculty Assembly, which is more or less theboard in charge of the organization and improve-ment of studies and consists of full professors,Metres de Conferences or Agrdgds, and Readerswith Doctors' Degrees.

In France, the various disciplines are group-ed into five faculties:Law and Economics, Medicine,Pharmacology, Science, Arts and Human Sciences.Not all universities have all five. Some of themlack one or more; in others, Medicine and Pharma-cology are merged into a combined faculty, andin some cases one of the branches of learning i9provided for by a school, college or institutewhich is attached for the purposes of its subject toa faculty coming under another university.

The following table shows the geographicaldistribution of degree-course establishments inFrance.

Thus there are other establishments - schools,colleges or institutes and centres - functioningalongside the faculties and under their supervision,and so enabling study facilities to be "spread"geographically.

Apart from the public establishments, thereare municipal or private faculties, schools andcentres whose students are examined by the Statefaculties.

It was 1920 which saw the start of the syste-matic proliferation of faculty or university insti-

r.

tutes, as teaching or research establishmentswith a measure of autonomy and their own admini-strative councils in which distinguished non-mem-bers of the university could be included. Some ofthem are intended solely to "spread" facilities fortraditional-type studies, and are called collegesin the case of science or arts and human sciences,schools in the case of medicine and pharmacology,and institutes in the case of law and economics,but the difference is merely a terminological one .

In other institutes, the aim is to providevarious types of specialist education, so as topermit the conferring of diplomas of their own,distinct from the usual university degrees, e.g. dip-lomas in engineering, while some of them eitherconcentrate entirely on specialized forms of re-search or combine specialized research and in-struction.

Finally, there are cases where institutesare the medium enabling two or more faculties tocombine forces for special types of research orteaching. In such cases the institute is attacheddirectly to the university; particular examplesare the Instituts d'Etats politiques (institutes ofpolitical studies) or Institut& de Preparation auxAffaires (business training institutes) in whichfaculties of law and economics and faculties ofarts and human sciences co-operate.

At present, the French universities betweenthem incorporate 484 university or faculty insti-tutes, including 41 schools of engineering, 7 insti-tutes of political studies, 13 institutes of businesstraining or management, 98 institutes of medicalor pharmaceutical science, 116 institutes of artsand human sciences and 115 scientific institutes(Table 7).

The autonomy enjoyed by the institutes givestheir teaching a notable degree of flexibility. Inparticular, they have very wide latitude in thechoice of their teaching staff. Practising mem-bers of professions have long been able, forexample, to co-operate with university teachersin providing specialized training for students .

Incidentally, the creation of university insti-tutes enabling several faculties to co-operatewithin a single organism has been extremelyimportant factor in reducing the isolation which4,might have developed between different facultilwithin the same university.

9

Table of establishments of public higher educationproviding degree courses

Academy UniversityLocation

Nature of establishmentof

constituentestablishments Law and

Economics Medecine Pharmacology Sc;enceArts and

HumanSciences

Paris Paris Paris Faculty Faculty Faculty Faculty Faculty

Aix Aix Aix Faculty FacultyMarseille Combined Faculty Faculty -Nice Institute Faculty* College

Besancon Besancon Besancon Combined School Faculty Faculty

Bordeaux Bordeaux Bordeaux Faculty Combined Faculty Faculty FacultyPau Institute College College

Caen Caen Caen Faculty Combined School Faculty FacultyRouen Institute Combined School College CollegeLe Mans College -

Clermont Clermont Clermont Faculty Combined Faculty Faculty Faculty

Dijon Dijon Dijon Faculty Combined School Faculty Faculty

Grenoble Grenoble Grenoble Faculty Combined Faculty Faculty FacultyChambery - College Institute

Lille Lille Lille Faculty Combined Faculty Faculty FacultyAmiens - Combined School College -

Lyon Lyon Lyon Faculty Combined Faculty Faculty FacultySt-Etienne 1..- College -

Montpellier Montpelrer. Montpellier Faculty Faculty Faculty Faculty FacultyPerpignan - College Institute

Nancy Nancy Nancy Faculty Faculty Faculty Faculty Faculty

Nantes Nantes Nantes School Combined Faculty Faculty CollegeAngers COmbined School College -

Orleans Orleans College -Tours Combined Faculty College College

Poitier3 Poitiers Poitiers Faculty Combined School Faculty FacultyLimoges Combined School College -

Reims Reims Combined School Faculty

Rennes Rennis Rennes Faculty - Combined FacuPy Faculty FacultyBrest College College

Strasbourg Strasbourg Strasbourg Faculty Faculty Faculty Faculty FacultyMetz College CentreMulhouse

arm

College

Toulouse Toulouse Toulouie Faculty Combined Faculty Faculty Faculty

..........tEacutty in process 01 Iormation1

10

CHAPTER III

INC REASE IN STUDENT ENROLMENT

\\

(As already noted, the continuous rise in studentenrolment will proceed at a more rapid rate,particularly from 1964 onwards, through the com-bined effect of the increase in school enrolmentand the population bulge.

The general figures for variations in enrol-ment for each French university and for all uni-versities con,hined in the period 1948-1961 aregiven in Table 5, and in the annexed Graphs 5 bis ,5 (III), and 5 (IV). Between 1948 and 1961 thetotal figure for all universities rose by about 73% .

The estimates arrived at by the Commissionde l'Equipement Scolaire et Universitaire indrafting the fourth equipment plan show the antici-pated expansion for the next few years (see Table 8ter). Total enrolment will exceed 500,000 in1970, representing a more than Twofold increaseover a period of ten years .

The distribution of students between thevarious categories of studies between 1948 and1961 is given in Table 8 and plotted in Graph 8 bis .

During this period, variations in enrolmentin law and economics faculties and medicine andpharmacology faculties were relatively slight.In the case of law, there was even a fairly mark-ed drop, coincident with the extension of the li-cence course from three to four years (decided onin 1954).

In science faculties and in faculties of artsand human sciences, on the other hand, the pastten years have witnessed a very considerable in-crease in enrolment, especially (since 1955) inthe former, consequent on the new urge to go infor science and technology.

The Equipment Commission reckoned toat,taking overall employment prospects into account,the present student distribution between types offaculty is likely to shift,in the period down to 1970,towards an even more marked increase in enrol-ment in the scientific disciplines, and Graph/9------,plotted from the estimates of bacheliers qualified,thus gives us a prospective student distribudonof two-fifths for science, another two-fifths forarts, law, business or economics, and one-fifthfor medicine and pharmacology.

ThP inference from these estimates is thatfaculties of science and faculties of medicine andpharmacology must be prepared for a doublingof enrolment during the seven-year period from1963 to 1970, with a slightly lower proportionateexpansion (90%) in faculties cf arts and of law

These figures demonstrate the tremendousefforts that will have to be made by the French

universities before 1970 in respect of building,equipment, staff recruitment and adaptation tomeet the needs of student placement.

Special mention should be made of engineer-ing training at universities. As far back as 1947,a stimulus was given to engineering studies bypromoting certain institutes to the status of EcolesNationales Superieures d 'lngdnieurs (ENSI)(NationalEngineering Colleges) followed by the establish-ment of additional institutes or colleges. Of the51 engineering schools attached to the universities,20 now rank as engineering colleges. Their num-bers will in due course be increased by theInstituts nationaux des Sciences appliqudes (INSA)(National Institution of Applied Sciences), thefirst of which has been in operation at Lyon since1.958, in close liaison with the university, whilethree others are under construction or projected,at Toulouse, Rennes and Lille.

Taking all universities and the Lyon Institutetogether, the number of engineering studentstotalled 5,245 in 1961, while the number of engin-eers graduating from them in that year was 1,560.

It should be pointed out that in France thereare several categories of establishment trainingengineers - the engineering schools coming undertechnical ministries other than the Ministry ofEducation, private engineering schools, andschools of engineering coming under the Ministryof National Education, including those attached tothe former Direction de l'Enseignement Techniqueand those rur4by the Direction de l'EnseignementSuperieur . In 1961 the latter group trained about25% of the total number of engineers graduating(1,560 out of 6,263).

The Equipment Commission's estimate wasthat by 1970 the schools under the Direction de11Enseignement Superieur would be responsible forthe training of 5,500 engineers (or about 4,000more than in 1961), representing nearly half thenumber of graduate engineers who will be pro-duced in France at that date.

Here again, the vastness of the task of pre-paration which the universities must tackle isevident.

One point to be noted is that growth is veryuneven between one university and another . Thisis because .the population factors and particularlythe growth of secondary school attendance arevariable between regions .

Table 5 shows the disparity in numericalgrowth rate between the universities over theperiod 1949-1961. The most rapid rates are

11

essentially reflections of successful regionaldrives for secondary school enrolment.

This growth pattern suggests that towards1970 a state of relative equilibrium in this res-pect will develop, marked by a progressive ap-proximation of the academies with the lowestrates now to those where they are now highest.

Hence university expansion will remain un-even during the next few years and may bes7ecially great in those academies where expan-sion has been smallest hitherto.

12

Graph no. 10 shows the Equipment Commis-sion estimate for academies other than the ParisAcademy. The University of Paris alone willhave an enrolme!), ,1 about 150,000 in 1970(Graph no. 11).

As the Equi, Commission puts it,never at any time in their history will the Frenchuniversities have experienced such changes.

CHAPTER IV

DEGREE COURSE STRUCTURES

LENGTH OF COURSES

The rapid advance of knowledge is leading, in allcountries, to increases in the length of studies forthe traditional degrees.

This has happened in France, too, eitherformally (the length of the course of the licencein law, for instance, was extended from three tofour years in 1954, and there have also been in-creases in many engineering schools) or in prac-tice, as a result of a kind of almost unavoidableexpansion of the teaching programmes; thus, themajority of students take at least four years toget the arts or sciences licence, whereas former-ly most people qualified in three . There is no-thing abnormal in this development, and it is evenan undeniable necessity for the attainment of astandard of culture or specialization which is highin terms of modern knowledge.

However, the development of secondary edu-cation opens higher education to a much largerpercentage of young people than formerly, andthough all are anxious to have university training,a good proportion aim at entering employmentwithout spending more than two -or three years onpost-baccalaurdat studies . With higher educationbecoming increasingly mass education, we canno longer simply content ourselves with turningout the most finished scholars possible, withoutregard to the time it takes.

"Steps" must be introduced within the succes-sive degrees of higher education; and it has alsobecome necessary to start new diplomas forshorter courses of study, whether of new types ornot, for those who want or have to take up employ-ment earlier. To the extent that these shortercourses are stages in a fuller course of highereducation, they preserve the students' full chancesof further advancement. This will provide answersto the problem of the organization, and more parti-cularly the length, of higher education in line withpresent conditions.

ORIENTATION AND READJUSTMENTOF STUDIES

The considerable growth in the proportion of youngpeople taking up university studies logically im-plies a review and readjustment of those studieswith a view to the more effective placement ofstudents in the various branches of natural acti-vity.

While it is true that, for many years past,students leaving the czkotersity have not turnedsolely to teaching and the liberal professions,the problems of providing them with outlets andof training them for employment undoubtedlycalls for new arrangements .

If necessary, evidence could be drawn fromthe Equipment Commission's work on the FourthPlan to show the disparity that will exist from1964 onwards between the openings offered inteaching and foreseeable licence graduations .Graphs nos . 12 and 13 show the estimated concur-rent increase in licence graduations and openingsin science and arts teaching.

It clearly emerges that while France, likeall other countries, at present has a seriousshortage of prospective teachers at licence level,this situation will tend to be reversed towards1965 in the science disciplines and towards 1967in the arts disciplines. At that stage, extensiveopenings outside the teaching sector will be ab-solutely necessary.

It is in view of these prospects ilmt the pro-grammes and the very nature of the degree coursesgiven at French universities have undergone ap-preciable modification in certain particulars,more especially by the introduction of specialistlicences with a technological bias, planned on atwo-step basis with an intermediate diploma.

It was with the same considerations in mindthat it was made permissible for the new licencesto cover instruction which might in some casesbe given in different faculties which together con-stitute a training accepted as satisfactory for thepursuit of certain professions .

All these new arrangements are designed notonly to facilitute, at.the various university leavinglevels ,the guidance and training of students for employ-ment, but also to make it possible for the universities,tha,nks to the range of courses available, to meetthe multifarious requirements indicated by themajor professions as regards the training of theirsenior staff. It must not be forgotten that in thismatter, the accelerated rate at which technologyand the economy are working may make swiftnessof adaptation by the university essential. Extreme-ly abrupt shifts may occur in fact, inthe quantita-tive and qualitative demand for graduate levelstaff.

Table 14 attached shows in summary synopticform the system of studies in individual faculties.

13

FACULTIES OF LAW AND ECONOMIC SCIENCES

The teaching in faculties of law and economicshas undergone extensive reform, culminatingchronologically in the institution, in 1959, of alicence in economics, and the adoption, in 1962,of a new structure for the licence in law which is,in fact, a modification of the structure establishedearlier by a reform of 1954 .

One characteristic of law and economicsstudies is that they take four years, representingan extension as compared to the pre-1954 licence,with its three-year course . Another feature isthe institution of separate degree courses for lawand economics sciences . This is obviously justi-fied by the development of the latter and the de-mands of specialization, but the two courses havebeen designed with a number of subjects takentogether by candidates for either licence, withfacilities for transfer either way: in particular,the first year studies is more or less the samefor both.

The lengthening of the course for the lawlicence, dictated by the need for adequate moderntraining, has to some degree been offset by arevision of the syllabuses for the first two years,leading to the diplome d'Etudes juridiques gdndrales(formerly called the baccalaurdat en droiti, whichcan thus serve as the final degree for placementin certain positions.

In the third year the curriculum already per-mits of initial specialization through the possibi-lity of choice of subjects offered to the student.

The fourth and final year, with the materis.1subdivided into certificat courses, is the realyear for specialization. Provision is made for awide range of options, and qualifications awardedby specialist establishments - Instituts d'EtudesPolitiqu;:a; d'Etudes Juridiques, de Prdparationaux Affaires, etc. - or by faculties of other cate-"gories than law and economics are acceptable asequivalents in the case of certain certificates.

Thus 1962 saw the completion of a studystructure well adapted to the exigencies both ofhigher cultural education and of training at twolevels for a wide range of posts.

The recent reforms involved no changes inthe structure of the doctorates granted by facul-ties of law and economics . For all three - doc-torates inlaw, political science and economics -the requirement is successful training in individ-ual work after the post-graduate specialist instruc-tion provided by the courses for two advancedstudy diplomas.

Also unchanged is the structure of the coursefor the capacitd en droit certificate. This exam-ination, restricted to young people needing to em-bark on legal studies without having first takenthe baccalaurdat, is in itself a good instrument ofsocial upgrading. Since 1961, incidentally, facili-ties have been granted to holders of this certifi-cate for admission to the licence course.

14

FACULTIES OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACOLOGY

The special purposes of the faculties of medicineand pharmacology, involving both first-rate basicscience teaching and training for difficult profes-sions, gives them a structure possessing fea-tures not shared by other faculties.

Medicine

Medical studies have been in process of re-form since 1961.

The minimum length of the course for thedegree of Doctor of Medicine has been reducedfrom 7 to 6 years, though this naturally does notstop plenty of students from continuing voluntarilybeyond the minimum period in order to perfecttheir knowledge or to specialize.

The prime object of the reform is to createsingle entities, known as Centres hospitaliersuniversitaires (CHU), incorporating the formerfaculties where students got their scientific andtheoretical I ristruction and the hospitals wherethey were given clinical training.

The aim of the promoters of the reform was tomake the CHU an establishment where medicaleducation and medical research can both flourishround a full-time teaching staff freed from theworries of private practice and readily organiz-able into teaching and research teams in whichthere will be constant and natural co-operationbetween the clinical and the basic sciences. Itamounts to the general application of a systemwhich has proved its worth in certain French uni-versities where it already existtI in effect aswell as in many foreign universities. In point offact, the reform is only just beginning to be im-plemented, and its future depends on a vast re-cruiting drive for instructors and the executionof extensive building operations for which the plansare well advanced.

The actual pattern of the six-year medicalcourse is as follows:

The first year is devoted to general sciencestudies, comprising physics, chemistry andbiology. In the second and third years, sciencestudies are continued while concurrently with anintroduction to symptomatology in the wards thethree final years are used almost entirely formedical training proper allied to the basic scien-tific disciplines.

The scientific foundation required during thefirst three years is considerable, and it would bereasonable, in the near future, to allow it tocarry with it the regular possibility of transfer tofaculties of science, say at the level of the Diplomededtudes scientifiques gdnerales (general sciencediploma).

The full six-year course, leading to theDoctorat d'Etat de Medicine (State Doctorate ofMedicine) opens the way to further intramuralstudy for the Certificats d'Etudes spdciales, i .e .to specialization and research.

Pharmacology

Students completing their pharmacology studiesare now turning to a fairly wide variety of careersranging from dispensary work to biological orchemical research or inaustrial chemistry.

For some years past, it had been felt thatpharmacology studies needed reviewing, and thiswas done in 1962. As a result of the decisionsthen taken, they will shortly be recast to fit thediversity of the ends they serve .

The length of the course will be kept at fiveyears, but the first year - formerly devoted todispensary training - will henceforward be one ofgeneral science education of equivalent level tothe course for the preliminary certificate (SPCN)of the science licence, the training periods to bespread over all five years of the course.

The second and third years will provide abasic science education and an introduction topharmacology; and for their fourth year allstudents will take a common pharmacology course.

In the fifth year, specialization will becatered for by the provision of a widr, range ofoptions, with subjects splitup into "Certificate"courses, and may also be facilitated by extendingequivalence to certificates awarded in other facul-ties or in institutes. Thus the pharmacology stu-dent, like the law student, is to get backgroundeducation during the initial years of his course,with extensive possibilities during the final year,facilitated by the channels opened up between thedifferent faculties, for adapting his studies to avariety of employment openings.

Another point to note is the convergence ef-fected with science faculties by agreeing theequivalence of first year pharmacology and thescience faculties' SFCN certificate. It may beadded, in the same context, that the basic scienceinculcation in the first three years of pharmaco-logy is adequate to afford possibilities, in thenear future, of transfer to science faculties at thelevel of the Diplome didtudes scientifiques gdnd-.rales.

The recent reform has not changed the condi-tions of qualification for research or advancedspecialization via the doctorate or the courses forCertificats didtudes spdciales subsequent to theamended traditional courses.

FACULTIES OF SCIENCE AND FACULTIES OFARTS AND HUMAN SCIENCES

Of course, the engin \ering schools attachedto the faculties of science and a number ofspecialized institutions ali-o have long been pro-viding training for certain areers in industry,but the numbers of bachelieN-s who will be enteringhigher educational establishkients from now oninvolves a far more extensive effort of guidanceand training at different level: for a variety of:areers matching the needs of the economy.

Hence the introduction in tile science facul-ties , in 1961, of the Licence ek:Sciences appli-ques, and Diplome didtudes supd\rieures techni-ques (DEST), and in 1962 of the L iplome d 'dtudesscientifiques gdndrales (DESG), B. '3 new stages inthe regular Licences es- Sciences, snatching theDiplome didtudes littdraires practi ues (DESLP' ,introduced concurrently, in facultie of arts andhuman sciences, as a stage in certain specialistlicences.

Faculties of Science

(a) Diplome didtudes scientifiques gdra rales(DESG) and normal Licences es-Sci noes

The DESG was introduced in order to meg theneed for a step in the full licence course Owwork on doctor's degrees at which some students

scan branch off into employment in possession ofa diploma of a standard which is clearly defined,especially against the background of the cert, fi-cates of higher studies which are accepted ascredits for these diplomas and strictly relate ,othe basic subjects, such as general mechanics'.electricity, optics, general geology, botany, z(),o-logy, etc., to say nothing of all the other diffe4tcertificates which can count towards the licenceproper.

Thus the attractions of the DESG shouldserve to encourage students, without prejudice tothe free choice of subjects in faculty studies forthe licence, to proceed with their studies inrational sequence.

(b) Diplome didtudes supdrieurs techniques(DEST) and Licences es-Sciences appliqudes

The institution of the DEST and the correspondinglicences in applied science,is also recent, datingonly from 1961, and the innovation is thereforestill in the experimental stage.

The aim in view is to make direct provision

It is in the faculties cf.' "cience and the facultiesof arts and human sciences that impending in-flux of students is likely to be heaviest.

Traditionally, these faculties were for pro-ducing professors and researchers, and it was theculture acquired in reading for the traditionallicences which enabled a fair number of studentsto turn successfully to professions other thanteaching or basic research.

for openings for students by guiding and initiatingthem into particular occupations, while at thesame time giving them. a science education com-parable to what they could get through the normallicence approach.

Here, again, the training provided is at twolevels, and licence in applied science includes thesubjects taken for the corresponding DEST

In view of the introduction of the DEST, the re-quirements for the preparatory certificate for thelicence have been made more flexible to allow

15

candidates, if they wish, to devote more attentionto subjects of their own choice . While retainingthe principle of a basic general science education,the view has been taken that it is only reasonable,in the case of numbers of students aiming at tech-nological careers, to allow some measure ofspecialization from the start which cannot buthelp to keep standards high in the selected special-ist fields.

Streaming and initiation in the technologicalrange is effected through the medium of the crea-tion by science faculties of Certificats de Tech-nologie covering syllabuses which have to beagreed on with the professions concerned. Forthe DEST, students must take the Certificat deTechnologie plus a specified Certificat clidtudessupdrieurs selected from the basic certificatesfor the licence.

Alter qualification, the DEST is actuallyaward,.:d only after a year in the profession con-cerned.

Innovations rarely meet with immediate un-derstanding, and invidious comparisons haveoccasionally been made from the standpoint of theservices they can render of the respective skillsof DEST-holders and the techniciens supdrieurs(senior technicians) produced by the regulartechnical education process. Actually, the twoare different kinds of engineer's assistant: bothare equally essential, and in fact complementary.The senior technician has a good secondary edu-cation and a very thorough training in workshoppractice - he is specifically trained for super-visory duties. The DEST- holder has had a morethorough basic scientific training and on that ac-count is equipped to give the engineer directassistance in planning and execution. Undoubtedly,too, practical experience is bound to even out thedifferences between the senior technician and theLEST- holder as time goes on, with the former ac-quiring more background knowledge and the latter,improving his grasp of technical practice throughday-to-day activity. Incidentally, experience showsthat a good general education by appreciably in-creasing the power of understanding, makes itpossible to acquire technical knowledge veryrapidly.

The Licence es-Sciences appliqudes can beobtained by taking four further Certificats d 'dtudessupdrieurs in addition to tior:e for the corresponding_DEST. The choice of these certificates, some of whichare wholely related to science, while others are highlytechnological in nature, is determined by agree-ment between the faculty and the professions con-cerned. In this way, the/universities adjust to theneeds indicated by their students' prospective em-ployers.

The division of science studies into certifi-cate courses, each covering one year's study,opens up wide possibilities of adaptation and con-version, which are still further enhanced by thefact that t..0 of the four science certificates re-quired cal. be replaced by certificates from otherfaculties .16

(c) Doctorates in science

Traditionally, training for research and readingfor a doctorate go hand-in--hand.

The conventional doctorates obtainable inthe universities, the Doctorat es-Sciences d'Etatand the Doctorat d 'Universitd, were supplementedin 1954 by a Doctorat de 3eme Cycle, less ambi-tious than the Doctorat d'Etat but enabling largernumbers of research recruits to be given an initialgrounding and efficiently directed to individualspecialistwork .

The diploma of Ingdnieur-Docteur, created asfar back as 1925, was intended to promote train-ing for applied research. In 1961 a Doctorat es-Sciences appliquees at the level of the Doctorates-Sciences d'Etat was introduced primarily forthe benefit of applied science licentiates. Thusuniversity degrees at all levels are now obtain-able for applied science.

ARTS AND HUMAN SCIENCE FACULTIES

(a) Licences es-Lettres

The Licences es-Lettres, designed for prospec-tive educators and obtainable by taking a Certificatdidtudes littdraires gdndrales, supplemented byfour Certificats d 'dtudes supdrieurs, have notundergone any recent modifications in structure .It is, however, worth noting that the importanceassumed by certain disciplines such as psychologyor sociology has prompted the institution of specia-list licences in them.

The Licence de Psychologie, instituted in1947, provided the first example of co-operationbetween arts and human science faculties and otherscience faculties within the framework of a singledegree course by incorporating the latter's Certi-ficats de Psychophysiologie . Meanwhile, theLicence de Sociologie involves collaboration ofthe same kind with law and economics faculties byincorporating their Certificat d'EconomiePolitique et Sociale.

Thus a beginning has been made in opening acorridor between the arts and human sciencesfaculties and the other faculties within the actualcontext of the traditionaltypes of degree course.

(b) Diplennes didtudes littdraires pratiques andSpecialized Licences Diplomes didtudeslitt6raires oratique (DELP) were introduced

in 1962. While providing the essential backgroundeducation, they ground students in iecioiqueswhich will open employment prospects outsidethe traditional spheres of teaching and research.The DELP is thus the counterpart, in arts andhuman sciences faculties, of the DEST in sciencefaculties. Like the latter, it is obtainable bytaking a certificate for preparatory studies, fol-lowed by a basic certificate for advanced literarystudies, together with a certificate for a clear-cut

technical speciality (in documentation, secre-tarial work or journalism, for example).

The corresponding specialized licences areobtainable on the basis of two additional certifi-cates for advanced studies, the nature of whichwill depend on the needs of the profession forwhich the student is training. It should be notedthat here, again, one of these two certificatesmay, if necessary, be obtained in a faculty otherthan one of arts and human sciences.

The idea governing the composition of thelicence is the same as in the case of the Licencees-Sciences appliqudes.

(c) Doctorates 'in arts

As in the science faculties, the traditional Stateand university doctorates have recently (1958)been supplemented by a Doctorat de 3eme Cyclewhich has appreciably enlarged the possibilities

of specialization and a thorough grounding inindividual research work

SCHOOLS OF ENGINEERING

The vast demand for engineers-01'611,4s a charac-teristic feature of all industial cou5t/ries is re-sulting in a considerable expansion in recruitment,on the basis of competitive examindtion, at theschools coming within the orbit of the universities;of late years, however, it has been consideredadvisable to broaden entry to these schools by re-cruitment on the basis of qualifications, particu-larly of candidates from industry etc. who haveworked their way up.

Recruitment on the basis of qualificationsdoes not mean that selection is not severe; it isthe normal procedure for the Instituts nationauxdes Sciences appliqudes, the first of which wasestablished in Lyon in 1958.

17

CHAPTER V

DECENTRALIZATION OF UNIVERSITIES

The data in Table 5, and Graphs 5 (III) and 5 (IV),show that the enrolment at the various Frenchuniversities is extremely uneven at the presenttime, and that prospects of expansion during thenext four years vary within very wide limits.

Particularly noteworthy is the huge concen-tration of students at the University of Paris,where there are already nearly 80,000,and thefact that eight other universities already have over10,000 students each.

In each of these bigger universities, the actualfaculties would be stricken with hypertrophy andbecome hardly manageable were it not for thesystematic expenditure of considerable effort ofinternal organization and decentrdlization by theestablishment of more or less autonomous annexesand new establishments .

The dispersal of the French university systemhas been pursued by a variety of means:

(1) Immediate or gradual formation of newuniversities within the territorial framework ofnew academies formed by reducing the areas ofthe most populous ones;

(2) Decentralization of existing universitiesby opening new establishments (colleges, institu-tes, schools) in densely populated areas previous-ly unprovided with higher education facilities,thereby cutting down the expansion of the existingestablishments while increasing the proportion ofyoung people able to pursue their studies withoutleaving the family environment.

In practice, the establishments thus createdare intended to accommodate students beginningtheir higher education. It is at this level of studiesthat the maintenance of contact with the family en-vironment is most valuable, and also that thepremises and equipment required are least ela-borate and can most readily be standardized, thusmaking the operation less costly and enabling itto be expedited.

The new establishments would be in no posi-tion to provide genuine higher education but for thefact that their staffs, as in the faculties, have thedual task of conducting research and teaching,which means that they have to be equirued not onlywith teaching facilities, lecture rooms ,:lassrooms ,etc. - but also with the laboratories and librariesessential for the teaching staffs' individual work.

Nevertheless, this provision of reasonablefacilities for basic research is secondary to thenecessary concentration of the extremely costlytools for highly specialized research, which remainin the major establishments, the latter themselves

18

finding it desirable, at this level, to concert activi-ties so as to avoid duplicating such costly specialequipment. Where necessary, of course, thestaff of the new satellite establishments, hasaccess to the main establishment's capital equip-ment.

These were the circumstances in which twoacademies, planned to become the seat of univer-sities at a later date, were started at Reims andOrleans in 1961 as a step towards decentralizingthe University of Paris. Simultaneously, afurther academy was brought into being at Nantes,where there were already great teaching establish-ments worthy of promotion into faculties, andthis town has already become the seat of a newuniversity.

Since 1958, four new science faculties havebeen opened at Nantes, Nice, Orsay and Reims,as well as three combined faculties of medicineand pharmacology at Clermont-Ferrand, Nantesand Reims.

At the present moment, four major institutesor schools are in process of becoming faculties:the schools of medicine and pharmacology at Gren-oble and Tours, the Nice Law'Institute and theRouen Science College. This metamorphosis,however, is the culmination of a very long periodof installation and gradual development.

Actually, the decentralization of French uni-versities is based essentially on the opening ofarts and science colleges, for it is in the arts andscience disciplines that the flood of studentsoccurs.

The past four years has thus seen the estab-lishment of 14 science colleges and 7 arts colleges;and the investigations carried out enable the in-stallation of new colleges in other centres to beplanned in an order of priority determined by thelocal output of bacheliers. The practice followedis to establish the science college first and artscollege only some years later so as not to side-track students with a bent for science or techno-logy.

Thus the opening of all colleges is based on aplan conceived in terms of the demographic situa-tion and in accordance with the figures for antici-pated enrolment, and their natural effect shouldbe to ease the strain on all the large faculties .

Most of the colleges have to confine them-selves to the preparatory courses, though somedo provide courses towards the licence. It canbe reckoned, however, that if they go beyond thepreparatory year, their activity will normally be

confined to catering for the short-cycle diplomascreated ad hoc (DESG, DEST, DELP).

Altogether, over the past few years, the num-ber of univer-sity science establishments has

nearly doubled and the-numbe ofarts establish-ments increased kr, about fifty per

19

CHAPTER VI

HIGHER TRAINING AND CONTINUING EDUCATION

HIGHER TRAINING

Apart from a few courses of study which led, notto proper university degrees but to special diplo-mas such as the Capacite en droit or certainspecialist diplomas, the universities long re-mained almost completely closed to non-bacheliers,i.e. all who had not been in a position to continuesecondary education to its normal conclusion.

Since 1950, particularly, considerable effortshave been directed toward attenuating the obstaclesthese arrangements might place in the way ofsocial advancement. They have taken the form ofthe establishment, in the universities, of Institutsde promotion supdrieure du travail, of whichthere are now ten in operation. Their work isbased, of necessity, on evening courses andclasses, since their students are all in regularemployment. A paratory course designed toc-opvert gro ps of students with very differenteducaliQnal backgrounds into homogeneous classesis succei je'd- by courses which can lead to aDiplome d'dtudes sup4rieures techniques (DEST)and, in certain instances, to admission to a schoolof engineering. Original experiments have beencarried out on these lines particularly at theUniversities of Grenoble and Nancy.

Today there are about 3,000 students at PSTinstitutes, and provision is made for substantialgrants to the best of them for one or more yearsto offset loss of earnings so as to enable them tocomplete their studies on a full-time basis.

Higher training has been further facilitatedby opening the faculties more widely to non-bacheliers . In 1956, an entrance examination wasinstituted, subject to certain reservations, forcandidates who had not had a regular secondaryeducation. In 1961 the conditions of eligibility forthe examination were widely extended to in-clude occupational qualifications.

Concurrently, the holders of certain diplomaswere made eligible to study for the licence, thanksto a more generous system of recognizing equiva-lences, e.g. in the case of holders of the Capaciteen droit certificate or certain technicians' dip-lomas, such as the DEST.

It has become clear that the PST system,specially facilitated by the institutes, should alsobe able to make direct use of the wholegdmut of university teaching and aim at thecourses and diplomas intended for the studentbody in general.

20

This may necessitate adjustments of time-tables, but the principle is conceded and thearrangements may be of real value in helping toplace the entire university system at the serviceof higher training and its multifarious needs.

CONTINUING EDUCATION

The universities have become fully alive to theessential part they have to play in providingessential further education of the individual in aperiod of extremely and increasingly rapid andever more intensive scientific and technical pro-gress.

herein, in fact, lies the remedy to the alarm-ing tendency to saddle the young student with over-loaded programmes. It should become possible,by this means, to exercise selectivity in the rangeof subjects for school and undergraduate studies,to allow the schools and faculties to concentrateon training the mind soundly instead of crammingit with facts.

Numerous, if sporadic, schemes (seminars,evening classes, etc.) have been introduced infaculties and engineering schools for the "repro-cessing" of technicians and engineers, i.e. forbringing their knowledge up to date. Thus possibi-lities are being opened up for the improvement ofstandards and, if necessary, of retraining forother occupations.

The success of these schemes is largely de-pendent on the relations between the universitiesand industry: they are, in fact, becoming increas-ingly close and trusting, and in 1961, the necessaryaction was taken to give each University Councilan attached Cornitd de la formation techniquesupdrieure et de la promotion sociale (Committeefor Higher Technical Training and Social Advance-ment) bringing university men and representativesof the economic sector together.

The importance attached to the problem ofcontinuing education can be judged from the factthat the arrangements were made for the establish-ment of an Institut national de formation des adultesat the beginning of the 1962 academic year at theUniversity of Nancy by expanding the Centre uni-versitaire de cooperation econotnique et soeiale(CUC ES), which had already made its mark in nouncertain manner at the regional level. The pur-pose of the new establishment was to serve as aregular national centre for research in adult

teaching techniques, and the training of individualswho will themselves, in industrial or agriculturalundertakings of all kinds, and even in teaching,

become the trainers of their fellows It will thuspave the way, at all levels, for an immense ex-

pansion of teaching strength.

21

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS

French higher education, at present in process ofvigorous expansion, through the mere fact of in-creasing secondary school enrolment, will, duringthe next few years, and particularly from 1964-1965 onwards, develop on an unprecedented scalewhich is illustrated by what has been observedabove and by the actual estimates of the Commis-sion de Pdquipement scolaire et universitaire,namely:

a total student population by 1970 of about 500,000,of whom 450,000 will be French;

of these numbers, probably over 200,000 takingscience,as many taking courses in arts, lawadministration or economics, and over80,000 taking courses in medicine and pharm-acology;

a University of Paris with a student body of near-ly 150,000 and provincial universities with30,000 or 40,000 each; and, generallyspeaking, universities with a rise in enrol-ment such that some of them will be three oreven four times their present size in tenyears time!

These prospects involve such a break with pres-ent circumstances and former evolutionary pat-terns that recasting has become imperative in alldomains of university activity. Structures andprogrammes, in particular, must be redesignedto fit the diversity of aptitudes and aspirations ofthe students and the exigencies of effective train-ing for the various managerial and executive func-tions of a modern society.

22

The whole complex of measures worked outin 1961 and 1962 is directed to this end, and re-lies essentially on a combination of three linesof action:

organization of continuing higher education atsuccessive levels or stages logically consti-tuted and ordered;

creation of new types of studies suited for thescientific and technological training of quali-fied staff for the national economy;

dovetailing and combination of disciplines for thepurposes of such training within a frameworkof organic inter-faculty collaboration.

All these measures are already undergoing the re-quisite decisive test of experience. For them tosucceed, more than goodwill is needed: there hasto be devotion and faith on the part of all concerned.Their success also requires a substantial prioritycontribution by the public authorities. At the sametime, we reject the soporific idea of possiblemeasures or reforms which would be the only trueand good ones, after which the French universitiescould look forward to a long period of stabilityand tranquility. And the universities indeed, arekeenly conscious for their part, of the immenseand unceasing effort of adaptation that they areengaged in, in the force of ever-changing circum-stances, and fully realize what is thereby at stakein terms of the nation's future.

TABLE 1

Variation in annual number of births from 1935 to 1961Estimated annual births to 1975

(in thousands)

Years Births Years Births

Births registered Births registered

1935 641 1950 858

1936 631 1951 823

1937 61R 1052 819

1938 612 1953 801

1939 612 1954 807

1940 562 1955 802

1941 513 1956 803

1942 571 1957 813

1943 611 195R Mc)

1944 629 1959 826

1945 652 1960 816

1046 REIn 1961 8401

1947 866

1948 867

1949 R68

Estimates Estimates

1962 783 197 2 R76

1963 774 1973 891

1964 770 1974 907

1965 773 1975 922

1966 784

1967 796

1968' 811

1069 R27

1970 R44

1971 R61

1, Estimate (INSEE, B.M. de Statistique, No, 1, Jan, 1962): it should he noted that the 1960 estimate for birthsin 1961 was 795,000,

Source. INSEE, "Tableaux de Peconomie-ft caise ", 1960 edition,

TABLE

Numbers in the 18-24 ape croupper academic year 1

Variations from /953-1954 to /9704911

Year Numbers in groupPercentage variationbetween successive

academic years

1953-54

1054-55

1055-56

4 432 40n4 362 5nn4 2(0 200

2,6';2,2C0

1056-57 4 220 'Inn 1,

1057-5Q 4 1"7 300 (1,R(A,

1058 -50 4 132 non 1,3%

1959-60 4 nno Innin60-61 3 025 500 1,0%

1061-62 3 002 700 0,5,0

1062-63 3 ROO ROO 1,0%

1063-64 3 003 400 0,3%

1064-65 4 110 non 5,5%

1065-66 4 415 'ion 7,27b

1066-67 4 747 Inn 7,5%

1067-6R .5 034 00n 6,0%

1068-60 5 26R non 4,6%

1069-70 5 465 7001070-71 5 652 400 3,4%

1. The 18-24 age group provides approximately 80% of the student body at universities in anyacademic year.

Source : Repartition par annee de naissance de la population francaise scolarisable. INSEE andMin. Educ., Statistics Service, Documents No. 481 and 482.

25

26

5 700 000 -

5 600 000 -

5 500 000 -

5 400 000 -

5 300 000

5 200 000 -

5 100 000 -

5 000 000 -

4 900 000-

4 800 000

4700000

4 600 000

4 500 000

4 400 000

4 300 000-

4 200 000 -

4 100 000-

4 000 000 -

3 900 000

3 800 000 -

3700000-

3 600 000 -

3 500 000-

3 400 000-

3 300 000-

GRAPH 2 bis

18-24 age group - Variations from 1953 -54 to 19'0-'1-

5 465 700

L

4 432 400

4 362 500

I 4 269 200

4 220 800

4 187 300

11 1

I ,1 1

1 1

1

4 132 000

I I I [ I

L___t_=

4 000 100

3 925 5003 902 700

5 268 900

5 034 300

4 747 700

4 415 BOO

4 119 000

3 905 4003 690 800

5 652 400

3 200 000

-I1954-55 I 1956-57 1958-59 I

1960-61 I 1962'63 I I,64'65 1966-67 1960-69 1970-711953-54 1955-56 1957'58 1959-60 1961-62 1961.)4 1965-66 1967-68 1969.70

TABLE 3

Variations in enrolment at State and private,classical and modern lycees,

over the period 1951-52 to 1961-62(in thousands)

YearEnrolment at classical and modern lycees

Public Private

Total enrolmentat public and private

establishments

1951-52 353 187 5401952-53 376 191 567

1953-54 398 197 5951954-55 429 207 636

1955-56 460 217 677

1956-57 505 226 7311957-58 570 242 812

1958-59 632 260 8921959-60 699 278 977

1960-61 761 Enquetes non tern- inees

1961-62 832

Source: Min. Educ., nformations Statistiques", and work preparatory to the formulation of the 4th Plan :Inf. Stat. No. 19, Febraary-March 1960, p. 105; Inf. Stat. No. 27, March 1961, p. 66; Inf. Stat. No. 37, p. 38.

27

TABLE 4

Variations in numbers of bacheliers from 1947-48

to 1960-61 and estimates from 1960-61 to 1970

Year Number of bacheliers Year Number of bacheliers

1947-48 28 874 1957-58 47 678

1948-49 30 248 1958-59 49 100

1949-50 30 898 1959-60 59 287

1950-51 31 728 1960-61 61 4981951-52 31 666

1952-53 33 155

1953-54 34 713

1954-55 39 258

1955-56 40 146

1956-57 48 982

Estimates Estimates1961-62 67 800 1966-67 125 600

1962-63 76 700 1967-68 132 500

1963-64 93 500 1968-69 137 500

1964-65 108 400 1969-70

1965-66 116 200

Source Min. Educ., " Informations Statistiques ", and work preparatory to the formulation of the 4th Plan.

28

Var

iatio

ns in

e(t

oute

s di

scip

lines

)

TA

BL

E 5

nrol

men

t at F

renc

h un

iver

sitie

s fr

om19

48-4

9 to

196

0-61

Uni

vers

ities

1948

-49

1949

-50

1950

-51

1951

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1952

-519

53-5

419

54 5

519

55-5

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56-5

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-59

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60-(

31

Aix

6 55

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7 55

67

836

8 05

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R 9

479

679

10 7

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13 0

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1h 3

9015

4R

6

Bes

anco

n94

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393

394

21

037

1 07

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1 15

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1 99

62

165

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217

Bor

deau

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7 95

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2

Sour

ce: M

in. E

due.

, "In

form

atio

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tatis

tique

s"

200 000

150 000

GRAPH 5Variation in total enrolment at all universities

1948-49 to 1960-61

50 000

1

1948.49 1949-50 1950-5) 1951.52 1952.53 1953.54 1954.55 1955.56 1956-57 1957-58 19513.59 1959-60 1960-61

80 000

60 000 -

20 boo

d

0

56 829

52 318

58 958

GRAPH 5 bisVariations in total enrolment

at Paris University1948-49 to 1960-61

61 )66

59 609

62395

A

64 285 64 151

67 80668 785

70 536

77 796

69 904

^W.

1949-1950 1951 19521953-1954 1955 1954

1957 19581959.1960

1948 1941950 1951

1952.19531954-1955

1956.1957 1958-19591960.1961

31

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196

1

TABLE 6

Variation in total enrolment at Facultiesfor higher scientific studies

between 1948 and 1961

Year

Total forpreliminary

Course( 1st year)

Total for2nd cycle(licence)

Total for3rd cycle

(post-graduate.training

for research)

Grand total

1947 -4R

1948-49

1949-50

."'".3-0-5.-5,1,.......

1951-52

8 R62

9 34510 07011 037

41,699....

8 3548 920R 850

9 37310 ORO

3 1503 1R1

4 0343 870

3 763

20 66621 44622 95424 280

25 532

1052-53 13 000 -4"..irriMi-- -..-- 4 133-..,.......... 2R 133

1953-54 14 637 I 1 670 ..-3--:!--,______,.. 30 0601954-55 17 040 13 021 3 R50

-------3-5-941____ _ --

1955-56 18 785 13 660 4 719 37 1641956-57 21 752 15 7R8 5 033 42 593

1957-58 25 R44 18 620 5 915 50 3791958-59 27 931 23 131 6 619 57 6811959-60 2R 395 25 785 8 511 62 6911960-61 31 733 28 540 10 133 70 406

-.

Source : Min. Educ: "Informations Statistiques" and work preparatory to the formulation of the 4th Plan.

34

TABLE 6 bis

Variations in total Arts Faculty enrolment. 1948-1961

Year

Total forpreliminary

course(1st year)

Total for2nd cycle(licence)

Total for3rd cycle

(post-graduateresearch training)

Grand total

1947-48 R 945 15 757 4 702 29 4041948-49 7 529 16 575 5 637 29 7411049-50 7 731 17 344 5 951 31 0361950-51 7 838 17 462 5 874 31 1741951-52 8 679 16 708 6 577 31 964

1952-53 7 935 16 228 9 303 33 4661953-54 R 988 17 682 7 576 34 2161954-55 9 605 18 299 8 477 36 3811955-56 11 930 18 227 8 739 38 8961956-57 14 100 21 100 7 900 43 100

16 046 20 533 7 312 43 8911958:59-- 18 145 21 968 6 824 46 9371959-60 -1.8 253 24 903 8 224 51 3601960-61 20 864 28 394 11) 720 59 978

Source: Min. Educ : "Informations Statistiques" and work preparatory to the formulation of the 4th Plan.

35

TABLE 7

Consolidated tableof university and faculty institutes,

classified by disciplines

Disciplines Law Arts Medicine andPharmacology Science Total

Faculty and University Institutes 94 116 9R 115 423

Schools of Engineeringattached to universities 41 41

Institute of Political Studies 7 7

Institutes of ManagementTraining 13 13

TOTAL 114 116 98 156 484

Source Educ., General Division-trr:31:ation.

42

36

TA

BLE

8

Var

iatio

ns, b

y di

scip

lines

, in

the

num

ber

of s

tude

nts

at F

renc

h U

nive

rsiti

es 1

Law

and

Eco

nom

ics

Med

icin

eSc

ienc

eA

rts

and

Hum

an S

cien

ces

Phar

mac

olog

yT

OT

AL

Yea

rE

nrol

led

inFa

culti

esE

xtra

-Fa

culty

enro

lmen

t

Enr

olle

d in

Facu

lties

Ext

raFa

culty

enro

lmen

t

Enr

olle

d in

Facu

lties

Ext

ra-

-Fa

culty

enro

lmen

t

Enr

olle

d in

Ext

ra-

Facu

lties

Facu

ltyen

rolm

ent

Enr

olle

d in

Facu

lties

Ext

ra-

Facu

l ty

enro

lmen

t

Enr

olle

d in

Facu

lties

Ext

ra-

Facu

ltyen

rolm

ent

1948-49

35916

25 550

22837

33

158

6 731

.124 192

1949-50

37342

2R 200

24

555

34597

6 875

131 569

1950-51

36888

29 083

26

156

35471

6 810

134 40s

1951-52

37674

29 032

27

348

36069

6 R19

136 942

1952-53

39445

28 45R

29870

37864

6 729

142 366

1953-54

39655

28 652

31658

38666

7 234

145 865

1954-55

38763

28 922

35

248

40244

7 454

150 631

1955-56

35486

29 091

38

290

41785

7.594

152 246

1956-57

35994

29 661

44072

47539

7 903

165 169

1957-58

33609

30 423

53

177

50245

R 046

175 500

1958-59

32565

30 936

60063

54383

8 154

186 101

1959-60

32473

31 327

65

506.

57395

R 062

194 763

1960-61

33634

2887

29 915

1598

68062

3040

62395

4419

8697

25

202 703

11969

3652

131

513

7110

266

R14

872

221

467

2

(1)

The

div

isio

n of

Fre

nch

univ

ersi

ty s

tude

nts

into

thos

e en

rolle

d an

d th

ose

not e

nrol

led

in F

acul

ties

was

beg

un f

rom

196

0-61

.So

urce

: M

in. E

duc

: "In

form

atio

ns S

tatis

tique

s".

70 000

60 000

50 000

40 000

30 000

20 000

10 000

38

GRAPH 8 bis

Variations by disciplinein the number of Faculty students,

1948-49 to 1960-61

s.*'579195

F60

, 9065 799

A

063

54 383

58 952

39 44539 655

41 78540 244

47 539

el4S4

0411

072

50 245

35 91600.

33 158

37342....34 597

36 888.1 Ma WI 1M

35 471

37 674 38 763.....38 666

37 854..

36 06941/11

e3.5.2.:(4116

me29 8706.00 31 658

29 032,",..

.1.1.11L59*35 486

wow.. m.o.29 031

9.4%

--,.29 661

33609 ...32 565 .,.32 473.....0 ism

30 936 7775.0.000,..78

25 550

22 837

200024 555

2641-:,..

27 348

warm28 652

30 423

29 083

I/156

28 92228 454

6 729 .L2,24.......

6 731

6 875 6 810 ...1.6...8.19.7 454 7 594 7 903 8 046 8 154 8 062.......

1948.49 1949.50 1950.51

mega Law1951.52 1952.53

Arts

1953 -54 1954.55

..Medicine

1955.56 1956.57 1957.58 1958.59

Pharmacology, Science1959.60

68 062

62 395

33 634

29 915

8 697

1960.61

TABLE 8 ter

Variations, by disciplines, in enrolment at French universities,11961-62 to 1970

(estimates prepared for the purpose of the 4th Equipment Plan)

Year Law Arts Science Medicine Pharmacology Total

1961-62 35 R70 67 810 84 500 38 970 9 495 236 645

1962-63 41 250 73 180 96 130 41 570 10 410 262 540

1963-64 45 570 753 650 107 250 43 050 11 300 285 820

1964-65 52 875 87 370 123 925 46 595 12 610 323 375.

1965-66 59 990 97 910 144 360 50 560 14 515 367 335

1966-67 65 260 107 210 162 400 54 690 16 185 405 745

1967-68 70 990 115 570 177 010 58 600 17 630 439 800

1968-69 78 220 123 330 196 390 60 120 19 235 477 295

1969-70 R3 050 130 250 210 840 61 160 20 600 505 900

(16,4%) (25,7%) (41,7%) (12,1%) (4,1%) (100%)

1. Excluding the Strasbourg Faculties of Theology.Source : General Division of Higher Education, and Report of the Commission de l'Equipement Scolaire et Universitaire.

39

210

000

180

000

150

000

120

000

GR

APH

9

Var

iatio

ns, b

y di

scip

lines

, in

enro

lmen

t at F

renc

h un

iver

sitie

sdu

ring

the

10-y

ear

peri

od 1

960-

1970

(est

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es p

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red

for

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196

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60 1

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1961

196

219

62 1

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1963

196

419

64-1

965

1965

196

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66 1

967

1967

196

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68-1

969

83 0

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61 1

60

20 6

00

1969

-197

0

20 0

00

15 0

00 Aix

Lyon

Bor

deau

xT

oulo

use

Lille

Mon

tpel

lier

10 0

00

Gre

nobl

e

Ren

nes

Str

asbo

urg

Nan

cy

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n

Poi

tiers

5 00

0C

lerm

ont

Dijo

n

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tes

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anco

n

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ans

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ms 0

1960

196

1

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40'1

19

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reed

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18 7

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17 8

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.I , 15 6

50

470

19 7

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12 1

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10 4

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6

2 43

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4 65

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./..."

..3

i i4

800

.2

840

1961

196

219

62 1

963

1963

196

419

64 1

965

1965

196

619

66 1

967

1967

196

819

68 1

969

Ren

nes

20 0

10N

ancy

19

930

Cae

n 17

700

Str

asbo

urg

17 5

90

Poi

tiers

14

460

Rei

ms

11 0

00bC

lerm

ont 1

0 85

0O

rlean

s 10

820

Dijo

n 9

995

Nan

tes

8 55

C

Bes

anco

n 7

280

1969

197

0

GRAPH 11

Variations in enrolment at Paris University

(estimates prepared for the purpose of the 4th Equipment Plan)

150 000

117 835

107 730

1

151 800

139 155

100 000

71 548

50 000

0 --1960.1961

44

1961.1962 1962.1963 1963.1964 1964.1965 1965.1966 1966.1967 1967 1968 1968.1969 1969.1970

10 000

9 000

8 000

7 000

6 000

5 000

4 000

3 000

2 000

1 000

0

GRAPH 12

SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

Comparison of teaching requirementsand recruitment possibilities at the licence level

A10 366

8 893

. 47 498

-e"4

P

41

.

J.;

6 573./ 6 675

5 773

4̀ .2._5 000

01---/5 625

4 007

3 0003

345

r4 901

at /4

040,or

eve.350

ID

II illi Ni/ III

/POil ' "..1860 (1)

3 270

1 /11/ M Pia:3

1/2116/17191/iir

18270 'cli

2 400

,

3 5903 200

I III IR RI VIII0/0""700

Vs

675

-1-41-94.5Des":16 i3earic0Z77:::: (217218:e

2 24,16100///

men-72 755

ms."---VP

...1/5...

2 025

(1) Actual recruitment (exclud'ng specie assist nos).

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 X1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

I. Variation in number of new licencies in the previous p or.II. Limit of recruitment possibilities (15% of the licencieb for the previous year : estimate).Ill. Recruitment requirements estimated by the Commission in respect of the increase in school enrolment.IV. Graph for desirable recr.Jitment figure, as from 1965, in he light of the shortfall %/4, for the preceding period.

Source: Estimates adopted by the Commission de l'Equipeme t Scolaire et Universitaire for the 4th Plan (1962-1965).

4 000

2 760

1970

45

r

8 000

7 000

6 000

5 000

4 000

3 000

2 000

1 000

0

1958 1959

GRAPH 13

ARTS DISCIPLINE

Comparison of teaching requirementsand recruitment possibilities at the licence level

-1---

,............

_

....

--t

1--

3 960

\*N

\464/

4 232

...o,

.....--

4 744

5 30...1_

,

.

3 8103 860 L.,

R

,w!..8.a

cruirnVrit reuiroments 3 730

3 5083 304 X / /4/3I/ 11,0

//11%/ / //3.,°,5°

GoOrss

420

2 300

/2 522

2 425

3 044 ,/, / /7/ .,,r. // 3 040

2 680. 4 2 800i2 410 2 550

2 230 1

\ \\s'-------5-4-9(72 450

(ID--

vo.".1 292 (1)

00.1.7001 500

1 880

(1) Aztual recruitment (excludingv 1

special assistance).

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968

I. Variation in the number of new licencaes in the two previous years.II. Limit of recruitment possibilities (70% of the ficencas far the last year but one : estimate).III. Recruitment requirements estimated by the Commission, in respect of the increase in school enrolment.

Source: Estimates adopted by the Commission de l'Equipement Scolaire et Universitoire for the 4th Plan (1962-1965).

5 986

4 300

1969 1970

Dip

lom

as r

equi

red

Org

aniz

ai ,o

nof

stu

die

TA

BL

E 1

4

Org

aniz

atio

n of

uni

vers

ity s

tudi

esat

the

vari

ous

facu

lties

Dur

atio

nof

stu

dies

Exa

min

atio

nsD

iplo

mas

Subs

eque

nt c

ycle

of s

tudi

es a

t the

Facu

lty

LA

W A

ND

EC

ON

OM

ICS

(a)

Cap

acite

Nil.

Min

imum

age

17

(b)

Dip

lom

a in

gen

eral

Bac

cala

urea

t in

lega

l stu

dies

(c)

Lic

ence

in L

aw

(d)

Lic

ence

inE

cono

mis

(e)

Dip

lom

as in

hig

her

stud

ies

(DE

S)

(f)

Doc

tora

te in

Law

(g)

Doc

tora

te in

Polit

ical

Sci

ence

s

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

Bac

cala

urea

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lenc

cert

ific

ate)

Bac

cala

urea

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

Lic

ence

in L

aw(o

r eq

uiva

lent

dipl

oma)

Lic

ence

in L

aw(o

r eq

uiva

lent

dipl

oma)

and

D E

Sin

the

appr

opri

ate

doct

orat

e su

bjec

t

Lic

ence

in L

aw(o

r eq

uiva

lent

dipl

oma)

and

D E

Sin

Pol

itica

lSc

ienc

es

Ann

ul c

ours

es c

omm

onto

all

stud

ents

Ann

ual c

urri

cula

with

ace

rtai

n ch

oice

of

subj

ects

Ann

ual c

urri

cula

with

optio

nal s

ubje

cts.

Spe

cia-

lizat

ion

in th

e 4t

h ye

ar o

fth

e L

icen

ce c

ours

e

Ann

ual c

urri

cula

Ann

ual c

urri

culu

m f

orea

ch D

ES

Prep

arat

ion

of a

thes

is

Prep

arat

ion

of a

thes

is

2 ye

ars

2 ye

ars

2 ye

ars

afte

rth

e D

iplo

ma

in g

ener

alle

gal s

tudi

es

4 ye

ars

1 ye

ar

Unl

imite

d

Unl

imite

d

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

Ann

. al

A4r

amin

atio

n

Cap

acite

in L

aw

Dip

lom

a in

gen

eral

Lic

ence

in L

aw :

lega

l stu

dies

3rd

and

4th

year

s

Lic

ence

in L

awD

ES,

Doc

tora

te

I :.c

ence

DE

S,

Doc

tora

tein

Eco

nom

ics

DE

S (i

ndic

atin

gD

octo

rate

the

spec

ialit

y)

Def

ence

of

thes

is D

iplo

ma

of D

octo

rof

Law

Def

ence

of

thes

is D

iplo

ma

of D

octo

rof

Pol

itica

l Sci

ence

s

Dip

lom

as r

equi

red

Org

aniz

atio

nof

stu

dies

Dur

atio

nof

stu

dies

Exa

min

atio

nsD

iplo

mas

Subs

eque

nt c

ycle

of s

tudi

es a

t the

Facu

ltyL

AW

AN

D E

CO

NO

MIC

S-

(con

t'd)

(h)

Doc

tora

tein

Eco

nom

ics

ME

DIC

INE

(a)

Doc

tora

te in

Med

icin

e

(b)

Cer

tific

ates

ofsp

ecia

l stu

dies

(CE

S)

(c)

Di p

lom

a in

Den

tal S

urge

ry

Lic

ence

in L

aw(o

r eq

uiva

lent

dipl

oma)

and

D E

Sin

Eco

nom

ics

Bac

cala

urea

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

Doc

tora

te in

Med

icin

e or

6ye

ars

of s

ucce

ssfu

lst

udy

or r

esid

ent m

edic

alst

uden

tshi

por

dipl

oma

from

afo

reig

n Fa

culty

of

Med

icin

e

Bac

cala

urla

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

Prep

arat

ion

ofa

thes

isU

nlim

ited

Def

ence

of

thes

isD

iplo

ma

of D

octo

rof

Eco

nom

ics

(1)

3 ye

ars

ofge

nera

lA

t lea

stsc

ient

ific

trai

ning

and

6 ye

ars

prep

arat

ory

med

ical

stud

ies.

Ann

ual

curr

icul

a(2

) A

fter

pass

ing

the

prec

edin

g 3

annu

alex

amin

atio

ns, 3

year

sof

med

ical

trai

ning

.A

nnua

l cur

ricu

la(3

) Pr

epar

atio

nof

a th

esis

whi

ch is

def

ende

daf

ter

pass

ing

the

6 pr

evio

usan

nual

exa

min

atio

ns.

Indi

vidu

al c

urri

culu

mfo

rea

ch s

peci

ality

Ann

ual c

ours

esco

mm

onto

all

stud

ents

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

Var

ies

Spec

ial s

yste

mac

cord

ing

to d

epen

ding

on C

ES

CE

S

5ye

ars

Ann

ual

exam

i nat

ions

Dip

lom

a of

Doc

tor

of M

edic

ine

CE

Ssp

ec'

dica

ting

the

ity)

Dip

lom

a in

Den

tal

iurg

ery

PHA

RM

AC

Y

(a)

Stat

e D

iplo

ma

Phar

mac

yin

Bac

cala

uria

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

(b)

Cer

tific

ates

of

Hig

her

Stud

ies

(c)

Stat

e D

octo

rate

in P

harm

acy

(d)

Cer

tific

ates

of

Spec

ial S

tudi

es(L

. ES)

Dip

lom

a in

Phar

mac

y an

den

tran

ce e

xam

i-na

tion

Dip

lom

a in

Phar

mac

y an

dsp

ecif

ied

cert

ifi-

cate

s in

sci

ence

or p

harm

acy

Dip

lom

a in

Phar

mac

y (o

req

uiva

lent

qual

ific

atio

n)

(1)

One

yea

r of

gen

eral

scie

ntif

ic tr

aini

ng

(2)

Aft

er p

assi

ng th

e fi

rst

year

exa

min

atio

n, 2

year

s of

gen

eral

sci

en-

tific

trai

ning

and

pre

-pa

rato

ry s

tudi

es in

Phar

mac

y.

(3)

Aft

er p

assi

ng th

epr

eced

ing

annu

alex

amin

atio

ns, 1

yea

rof

pha

rmac

eutic

altr

aini

ng c

omm

on to

all s

tude

nts.

(4)

Aft

er p

assi

ng th

epr

eced

ing

annu

alex

amin

atio

ns, o

neye

ar's

spe

cial

izat

ion,

with

cho

ice

of s

ubje

cts.

Ann

ual c

urri

cula

.

5 ye

ars

Ann

ual c

ours

es in

all

sele

cted

sub

ject

s1

year

Prep

arat

ion

of a

thes

isV

arie

sin

a la

bora

tory

Ann

ual c

ours

es f

or a

llC

E S

1 ye

ar

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

Stat

e D

iplo

ma

inC

E S

, D

octo

rate

Phar

mac

y

Ann

ual

Cer

tific

ate

ofex

amin

atio

nsH

ighe

r St

udie

s(i

ndic

atin

g th

esp

ecia

lity)

Def

ence

of

thes

isSt

ate

Doc

tora

tein

Pha

rmac

y

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ions

C E

S (i

ndic

atin

gth

e sp

ecia

lity)

Doc

tora

te!

Dip

lom

as r

equi

red

Org

aniz

atio

nD

urat

ion

of s

tudi

esof

stu

dies

Exa

min

atio

nsD

iplo

mas

Subs

eque

nt c

ycle

of s

tudi

es a

t the

Facu

lty

SCIE

NC

ES

IG

ener

al T

rain

ing

(a)

Dip

lom

as in

Bac

cala

urea

t in

Gen

eral

Sci

entif

ic s

econ

dary

stu

dies

Stud

ies

(DS

fbl T

achi

ng o

rB

acca

laur

eat i

nD

octo

rate

Lic

ence

sec

onda

ry s

tudi

esor

equ

ival

ent

cert

ific

ate)

(c)

Lic

ence

fib

reB

acca

laur

eat i

nse

cond

ary

stud

ies

(or

equi

vale

ntce

rtif

icat

e)

(1)

Prep

arat

ory

Cer

tific

ate

Unl

imite

d.of

Hig

her

Stud

ies

for

Poss

ible

inth

e L

icen

ce2

year

s

(2)

Tw

o C

ertif

icat

es o

fH

ighe

r St

udie

s fo

r th

eL

icen

ce, c

hose

n fr

omgr

oups

of

basi

c ce

rti-

fica

tes

take

n af

ter

obta

inin

g th

e Pr

epa-

rato

ry C

ertif

icat

e

(1)

Prep

arat

ory

Cer

tific

ate

Unl

imite

d.of

Hig

her

Stud

ies

for

In p

ract

ice,

the

Lic

ence

3 to

5 y

ears

(2)

5 to

7 C

ertif

icat

es o

fH

ighe

r St

udie

s w

ithch

oice

of

subj

ects

,ta

ken

afte

r ob

tain

ing

the

Prep

arat

ory

Cer

tific

ate

(1)

Prep

arat

ory

Cer

tific

ate

Unl

imite

d.of

Hig

her

Stud

ies

for

In p

ract

ice,

the

Lic

ence

3 to

5 y

ears

(2)

5 C

ertif

icat

es o

f H

ighe

rSt

udie

s fo

r th

e L

icen

ce,

take

n af

ter

obta

inin

gth

e Pr

epar

ator

y C

erti-

fica

te

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ion

for

each

Cer

tific

ate

D E

S C

., sp

ecif

ying

Lic

ence

mat

hem

atic

alsc

ienc

es; p

hysi

cal

or n

atur

al s

cien

ces

Ann

ual

Tea

chin

g or

DE

S, D

octo

rate

s,ex

amin

atio

n fo

rD

octo

rate

Dip

lom

a C

AP

ES,

Agr

egat

ion

each

Cer

tific

ate

of th

e L

icen

ce in

.Sc

ienc

e

Ann

ual

exam

inat

ion

for

each

cer

tific

ate

Dip

lom

a of

the

DE

S 3r

d cy

cle

Lic

ence

in S

cien

ce D

octo

rate

s, U

nive

r-si

ty D

octo

rate

s

II -

Hig

her

Tec

hnic

al

(a)

Dip

lom

as o

fhi

gher

tech

nica

lst

udie

s (D

ES

T)

(b)

Lic

ence

s in

appl

ied

subj

ects

.

Tra

inin

g

Bac

cala

urea

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

Bac

cala

urea

t in

seco

ndar

y st

udie

s(o

r eq

uiva

lent

cert

ific

ate)

(1)

Prep

arat

ory

Cer

tifi-

cate

of

high

er s

tudi

esfo

r th

e L

icen

ce o

rce

rtai

n pa

rts

of th

isce

rtif

icat

e(2

) A

fter

aw

ard

of th

isce

rtif

icat

e :

(a)

a sp

ecif

ied

cert

i-fi

cate

of

high

erst

udie

s fo

r th

eL

icen

ce(b

) a

cert

ific

ate

ofte

chno

logy

A p

ract

ical

nin

e-m

onth

cour

se(3

)

(1)

Prep

arat

ory

cert

ifi-

cate

of

high

er s

tudi

esfo

r th

e L

icen

ce

(2)

Aft

er a

war

d of

this

cert

ific

ate

:(a

) C

ertif

icat

es in

tech

nolo

gy o

f th

eco

rres

pond

ing

DE

ST(b

) Fo

ur s

peci

fied

cert

ific

ates

, tw

oof

whi

ch m

ay b

eta

ken

outs

ide

the

Scie

nce

Facu

ltyII

I- D

iplo

ma

of h

ighe

r st

udie

sin

Sci

ence

Nil

Indi

vidu

al w

ork

lead

ing

to th

e pr

epar

atio

n of

am

emoi

rIV

- D

octo

rate

s

(a)

Uni

vers

ityD

octo

rate

Unl

imite

d.A

nnua

lPo

ssib

le in

exam

inat

ion

for

thre

e ye

ars

each

cer

tific

ate

(inc

ludi

ngth

e pr

acti-

cal c

ours

e)

D E

ST (

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t'd)

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a)

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dipl

omas

and

stud

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reco

gniz

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GIN

EE

RIN

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CH

OO

LS

OF

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HE

R E

DU

CA

TIO

N

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thes

is

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t yea

r : r

esea

rch

wor

k le

adin

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an

oral

exa

min

atio

n an

dpr

esen

tatio

n of

are

port

;

(2)

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nd y

ear

: res

earc

hw

ork

lead

ing

to th

epr

epar

atio

n of

a th

esis

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vidu

al r

esea

rch

and

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imite

dpr

epar

atio

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two

thes

is

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east

2 ye

ars

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east

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(a)

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iona

lSc

hool

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i-ne

erin

g (E

N S

I)

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ruitm

ent b

yA

nnua

l cou

rses

, whi

chco

mpe

tativ

e ex

ami-

may

incl

ude

the

prep

ara-

natio

n or

, in

exce

p- ti

on o

f a

Lic

ence

intio

nal c

ircu

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an-

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nce

ces,

on

the

basi

sof

dip

lom

as

Adm

issi

on to

com

pe-

titiv

e ex

amin

atio

n:

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arat

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clas

ses

at ly

cees

or

the

Facu

lties

of

Scie

nce,

or p

repa

rato

ry y

ears

at th

e Sc

hool

s th

em- ,'"

selv

es

As

a ge

nera

lru

le, 3

yea

rs

Ora

l exa

min

atio

nan

d de

fenc

e of

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is

Def

ence

of

thes

is

Dip

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a of

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ver-

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Cyc

le D

octo

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in th

e sp

ecia

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conc

erne

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ence

of

thes

isD

iplo

ma

of D

octo

-ra

te o

f A

rts

Ann

ual e

xam

ina-

tions

, whi

ch m

aybe

sup

plem

ente

dby

taki

ng th

eL

icen

ce c

erti-

fica

tes

Dip

lom

a of

Eng

inee

ring

Dip

lom

a of

Doc

tora

te o

fE

ngin

eeri

ng

Adm

issi

on o

n th

eba

sis

of d

iplo

mas

:

Inte

nded

for

for

eign

natio

nals

can

dida

tes

from

the

Fren

chC

omm

unau

te, c

andi

-da

tes

from

indu

stry

EN

GIN

EE

RIN

G S

CH

OO

LS

OF

HIG

HE

R E

DU

CA

TIO

N (

cont

'd)

seek

ing

high

ertr

aini

ng, a

nd s

tude

nts

hold

ing

part

icul

arlic

ence

s or

the

DE

ST(b

) Sc

hool

s of

Eng

inee

ring

(c)

Nat

iona

lIn

stitu

tes

(IN

SA)

Rec

ruitm

ent i

sno

rmal

ly b

y co

mpe

-tit

ive

exam

inat

ion

adm

issi

on a

rran

ge-

men

ts :

usua

llysi

mila

r to

thos

e fo

rth

e E

NSI

Rec

ruitm

ent o

fqu

alif

ied

cand

idat

eson

the

basi

s of

the

mat

hem

atic

sB

acca

laur

eat,

scho

olre

cord

and

an

inte

r-vi

ew w

ith a

sel

ectio

nco

mm

ittee

Ann

ual c

urri

cula

whi

chm

ay in

clud

e th

e pr

epa-

ratio

n of

a s

cien

ceL

icen

ce

Ann

ual c

urri

cula

Usu

ally

3 ye

ars

One

pre

pa-

rato

ry y

ear

plus

thre

efu

rthe

r ye

ars

Ann

ual e

xam

ina-

Dip

lom

a in

tions

whi

ch m

ayE

ngin

eeri

ngbe

sup

plem

ente

dby

taki

ng L

icen

cece

rtif

icat

es

Ann

ual e

xam

ina-

Dip

lom

a in

tions

Eng

inee

ring

Can

dida

tes

are

adm

itted

to th

e3-

year

cou

rse

onth

e ba

sis

of th

eir

resu

lts d

urin

g th

epr

epar

ator

y ye

ar

Dip

lom

a of

Doc

tor

of E

ngin

eeri

ng

Dip

lom

a of

Doc

tor

of E

ngin

eeri

ng

PART TWO

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS

byDr. A A.J. Piekaar

Director-General of SciencesMinistry of Education, The Hague

and

J. Nittel,Consultant for the Ministry of Education,

Arts and Sciences

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

As the Netherlands is part of the Western world iti, logical that its university education should bearthe stamp of the West; in other words, that thebasis and purposes of Dutch higher educationshould be the same as those of other Western coun-tries. Nevertheless, the present treatise clearlyshows that within this general pattern Dutch uni-versity education has its own character which re-flects the national character. That developmentcan take place along such individual lines followsfrom the freedom which characterizes the struc-ture of the Western world and which is evidentboth in the relationship between the university andthe State and also in the liberty of the scientificworker in pursuing his research. This freedomgives scope for a purposeful higher education pol-,icy and excludes programmes that treat universitytraining and the pursuit of scientific knowledge asmere instruments in the realization of a specificsocial structure.

Although the policy of Dutch higher educationis outlined in this essay, Dutch educational autho-rities are fully aware of the limitations of planning.This awareness is of the greatest importance,since it modifies the nature and extent of govern-ment intervention in university training and scien-tific pursuits. Personal initiative should be per-mitted to play a large part in such matters for,although large-scale government intervention mayappear to be effective for a certain period, contin-uing disregard of human freedom is bound eventu-ally to have repercussions . University trainingcan only bear fruit where a healthy freedom pro-tected by government can develop. A policy basedon t:ie belief that conditions can be improved pro-vided people can be encouraged to make changes ontheir own initiative is something quite differentfrom governmental compulsion. Government actionshould never degenerate into the planned imposi-tion of rules.

Higher education in the Netherlands has itsown national character, but in order to understandthe Dutch system it may be useful to focus, it againstthe background of the British and German systems.

A most important difference between the Britishand Dutch system lies in the wider aims that tradi-tionally characterize British university training.University training in Britain is as much educationas it is training; it aims at imparting not only acertain sum of knowledge but also a certain styleof living. The latter aim cannot fail to be influenced

58

directly by the university avhorities . The methodof selection for admission, the typical Britishforms of housing for stud._nts (colleges, halls ofresidence) and the tutorial system, all enableBritish universities to exercise control over thestyle of life and atmosphere of the student com-munity. The Anglo-Saxon university aims at pro-ducing good citizens rather than great scientists. Thisdoes not, of course, prevent research from oc-cupying a most important place in the British uni-versity system,nor does it hinder attempts to im-prove performance in the research field wherepost-graduate students, i.e. research students,form a majority of those involved. Cardinal New-man in his The Idea of a University Defined,states in a well-known passage: "If I had to choosebetween a so-called university which dispensedwith residence and tutorial superintendence, andgave its degrees to any person who passed anexamination in a wide range of subjects, and auniversity which had no professors or examinationsat all, but merely brought a number of young mentogether for three or four years and then sent themaway.... I have no hesitation in giving the prefe-rence to that university which did nothing, overthat which exacted of its members an acquaintancewith every science under the sun".

It is the German tradition, however, which hashad the profoundest influence on the Dutch system.The German university sprang from the scientificconceptions of the idealistic philosophy of the firstfew decades of the Nineteenth century. It startedwith the foundation of Berlin University by WiLhelmvon Humboldt in 1810. '1-% him and his spiritual'kinsmen (such as Fichte and Schelling) the vene-ration of scientific truth was a religious experi-ence. At schools, established knowledge is im-parted; the teachers are there to serve the pupils.At the university, both are there to serve sdience .Professors an' students alike seek the Truth.Thus man receives his highest education and theopportunity to develop all his talents in depth.]-'freedom and aloofness from the world are vitalconditions for the progress of science.

There are many reasons why these ideasfrom which the German university sprang havebeen criticized. The social reality of today is, infact, radically different from that of Von Humboldt'stime when it was possible to establish a universityfor a small and very select group, yet both theDutch and the German universities still owe theirfundamental characteristics to these beginnings.

Let us now turn to the Dutch system, takingas our starting point the Higher Education Act(1)(Wat op het wetenschappelijk onderwijs) which be-came operative on 1 January 1961.

In this Act, the Dutch legislature has endea-voured to adapt the legal provisions for universitytraining in the Netherlands to modern requirementsand to give universities such opportunities for de-velopment as are commensurate with the vital im-portance of university education and the pursuit ofscientific knowledge.

According to the definition laid down in theAct, higher education comprises training in theindependent pursuit of knowledge and preparationfor positions in society for which a scientifictraining is required or desirable. One of the mainfeatures of the system is the priority given toscientific research. Research cannot be divorcedfrom the imparting of knowledge and in the pre-paration for positions in society also scientificmethods and scientific thinking are a first con-sideration. Another fundamentally significantconcept is that the quest for truth underlying uni-versity study is valuable for its own sake. Thereis the conviction, too, that the university can workonly in an atmosphere of freedom, and this appliesto the relationship between university and State aswell as to internal conditions . Scientific workersare not fettered and the student shares that free-dom; the professor's freedom in teaching findsits counterpart in the student's freedom to learn.Much is left to the student's own choice and initia-tive; he is treated as an adult. These fundamentalideas, however, are rightly interpreted in a mod-ern sense by other sections of the Act which makethe collective responsibility of the faculty a firstprinciple of university life and call for studentrepresentation at faculty meetings. Finally thethird part of the definition of university educationgiven in the new Act covers the danger thatspecialization in science will have too great an in-fluence on university education and encouragesstudents to gain an insight into the relationship be-tween the different sciences.

The next section of the Higher Education Actsupplements the definition given in Section 1. Itstates that, in addition to giving tuition, univer-sities(2) shall aim at the pursuit of knowledge andshall encourage a sense of social responsibility instudents . Such legal recognition of this latter dutyas one of the aims of the university shows that, inthe Western world, education is socially orientedwhilst fully maintaining the freedom of outlook andthe responsibility of the individual. Legislationshould never be allowed to reach a point whereeducation becomes subservient to the realizationof a specific social structure.

The British system is directed at fosteringthe team spirit and the ideal of the gentleman, ofremaining loyal, of never letting another fellowdown and of playing the game fairly, not for one-self but for the team. The British university goesin for intellectual training for its own sake, not

for any purpose imposed from without. Consequently,the British university provides, in principle,general and not specialized training and there isno very close connexion between training and pro-fession. This is shown, for instance, in a reportof the University Grants Committee(3) on the dif-ficulties of forecasting the requirements perbranch of study, " .... nor will the supply of law-yers depend on the number of those who read lawat universities, since many of the most success-ful lawyers have preferred to read other subjectsat universities and defer their professional train-ing until after graduation".

British university degrees , as such, conferno official recognition of professional status. Pro-fessional training for lawyers, doctors, etc. isorganized separately. It can be said of Britainthat she has succeeded in keeping the universityclimate "pure" - at least in this respect - by notincluding professional training in university edu-cation. According to the conceptions of Germanidealism, too, the university is no pl...ce for pro-fessional training and it was not introduced inuniversity institutions until long after idealismhad become firmly established in Germany.

As we have already stated, the ai theDutch university is to prepare students fo the in-dependent pursuit of knowledge and at the sametime for their future place in society. The Dutchsystem differs from the British in that in theNetherlands the emphasis is laid on turning outmen or women capable of thinking and workingscientifically, whereas in Britain inculcation ofthe team spirit comes first. But however muchuniversity education in the various nations of theWestern world may differ, the primary object ofthe training is not to turn out the professional menand women needed by the State, but to produce hu-man beings who, however useful they may besocially, can find lifelong happiness in work that,freely chosen, offers them the opportunity for thefullest possible personal development.

(1) In this Act the term "hoger onderwijs" (highereducation), was changed to "wetenschappelijkonderwijs" (scientific education). However,since the term "higher education" is betterknown internationally, we continue to use it here .

(2) The term university includes also the Tech-nische Hogescholen (Technological Universi-ties) in Delft, Eindhoven and Enschede, theLandbouwhogeschool in Wageningen, the Nether-landse Economische Hogeschool in Rotterdamand the Katholieke Economische Hogcschoolin Tilburg.The Act applies also to other institutions ofhigher education which are not universities.

(3) An authoritative committee established toadvise the British Government upon theallocation of government funds to the univer-sities.

59

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITYEDUCATION

We shall now consider an application of the basicprinciples of university education in the Westernworld which is typical of the Netherlands and morethan anything else has ensured that our universityeducation is entirely in keeping with the nationalcharacter. In dealing with the problem of the re-lationship between government or "public" educa-tion and private or "free" education Dutch legisla-tors have practised the principle that all the di-verse trends of thinking in our country should berespected.

The Dutch have always regarded religiousfreedom as a most important part of their heritageand down the ages the Netherlands has been a re-fuge for victims of religious persecution. TheState of the Netherlands owes its origin to the"Eighty Years War" (1568-1648), in which reli-gious freedom was the principal issue . A largeproportion of the Dutch nation are very devout andwant schools in which tuition is in conformity withthe parents' conception of life. This right is rec-ognized in the Constitution, but the provisions gofurther than that. Were the unkeep of such schoolsto be borne entirely by the pupils' parents, theywould be paying for public education through taxa-tion and again for the private schools attended bytheir children. The Dutch system is thereforebased on the principle that private education, pro-vided it meets certain standards, should also besubsidized by the Government. This is what istermed the "pacification" idea, laid down in theConstitution of 1917, and it provides fair treat-ment for the diverse trends of thought existingwithin the Dutch nation. The Government doesnot impose any definite ideologies upon education;on the contrary, it promotes the free developmentof different schools of thought.

Government responsibility for religious free-dom is strikingly evident in the Dutch educationlaws. The new Higher Education Act is foundedon recognition of the fact that public and privateuniversities look after the interests of scientifictraining and research in the Netherlands equallywell. It was primarily the acceptance of thatprinciple, which reflects the actual situation inthe Netherlands today, that determined the struc-ture of the Act. Even more important than thestructure of the Act is the provision that theGovernment shall guarantee equal opportunitiesof development for the public and privfite universi-ties. For private institutions, the Governmentpays 95% of the net expenses "in so far as theuniversity does not exceed what are considered inthis country to be the standards of equipment andassets of a university". The remaining 5% isborne by the institutions themselves, or rather bythe associations that established them. The free-dom of the special institutions is emphasized bysuch private contributions which, in view of theenormous rise in the total expenditure of these

60

universities (see annexes 7 and 8), mean a fairlysubstantial sacrifice.

Democratization of higher education

Students in the Netherlands are granted generousfinancial aid by the Government and also by provinces, municipalities and private institutions.The principal motive of these subsidies of theGovernment (which shoulders the main burden) issocial justice - the ideal of equal opportunities .

At the end of the last century educational op-potunities in the Netherlands were by no meansr s numerous as they are now. Owing to the verybruited differentiation in the structure of educa-ti n in those days, the high cost of education whiChps ents had to bear and the fact that the advantagesof a secondary education (following compulsoryprimary education) to say nothing of a higher edu-cat'on were little appreciated, opportunities forfurs her development were virtually barred tomar. . Intellectual training and the intellectualprof Issions were, in fact, reserved for the des-cend tilts of a small elite, and in other circlespeorne were on the whole satisfied if their childrenwere aught the three R's. Now it is almostgener illy agreed that wherever there is ability itmust . e developed, Present-day society demandsthe ful cultivation of all available talent. Lackof mon .y should never be an obstacle to study.

Th r application of the principle of social jus-tice in his field has meant a step rise in theamount )f government grants for study: the totalamount located for higher education in 1950 wasonly 2,3 0,000 guilders, ten years later it hadrisen to 0,160,000 guilders. At present about30% of s rdents are in receipt of governmentgrants of ne kind or another.

The g eat advantages accruing from the culti-vation of a 1 the talent available cannot be mea-sured mer ly in terms of services rendered tosociety; th.y are found in the first place in thevalue of the individual training itself. The younghave a right to be educated for the sake of theirown inner er richment and because every oneshould be gi en an opportunity to develop hisnatural talen s. Each will then be able to rendervaluable sert ce to society, having,gained anawareness of _is social obligations and a sense ofresponsibility towards his fellow men.

The numbcreased rapidlquite 4,000 stuties; in 1938,War II, the nurr.there were monthe number is e:annex 3).

However, tit(not yet been attaimany more male33,000 male stude

r of university students has in-, in the last 50 years; in 1900 notlents were enrolled in the universi-e last normal year before Worlder exceeded 12,000. In 1960than 40,000 students and in 1975ected to reach 66,000 (see

ideal of equal opportunity hased. There are for instance,han female students - in 1960is as against 7,v00 females

although the numbs r of female students is gradually

increasing. In both secondary and universityeducation the percentages of male and female stu-dents are not yet representative and among theworking classes, only one quarter of those who,judging by their intelligence, could have gone to auniversity, are in attendance. Only about 8% of themale students are from the working classes,which is evidence that social factors must betaken into account and that the pursuit of educationafter compulsory education is still rare in certainworking class circles. If full information weremade available talented children from such cir-cles could be helped to overcome that difficulty,and an extension of compulsory education from 14years to 15 or 16 might also help to discover andstimulate latent talent. Such measures would, ofcourse, call for increased financial aid, particu-larly in the field of secondary education.

It is thus evident, that education in theNetherlands still shows traces of the old socialclass divisions, but they are beginning to dis-appear here as elsewhere in the social structure.The ideal of equal opportunity, although it cannever be fully realized, will always remain agoal in the further development of education. Nopolicy can obliterate differences which spring ul-timately from mankind's innate diversity. Never-theless, developments in the Netherlands are suchthat anyone can receive the education appropriateto his abilities and talents, regardless of his finan-cial status.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ANDECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Since World War II important changes have takenplace in the position occupied by the university insociety, . There have been far-reaching structuralchanges in the economic, social and cultural fieldsand these are reflected at the university level. Theincrease in the population, the maintenance of thehigh standard of living and the industrializationpolicy have all had an effect on the universities.After all, knowledge and education are in essencenothing but human life itself at a higher level ofconsciousness.

Knowledge and its application dominate thepicture of society in the making. Before the war,when the revenue from industry was of less import-ance to the Netherlands than it is now, this factwas hardly realized True, the Central Organi-zation for Applied Scientific Research (Centre le

Organisatie voor Toegepast Natuurwetenschappe-lijk Onderzoek, "TNO") had been set up in 1930with the co-operation of government and industry,but conditions were not yet propitious. Now, de-liberate industrialization is the backbone of Dutchgovernmental policy. If the Netherlands is tomaintain a reasonable standard of living she iscompelled to make efficient use of the nation's in-tellectual potentialities . Knowledge is no longerpursued for its own sake and not least amongsociety's motives in promoting fundamental re-search is the hope of benefiting later from the re-sults. Society gives science a free hand becausefreedom is vital to science, but society is parti-cularly keen on applied science because of itseffect on life in general. Nowadays no section ofthe community can do without science as a meansof maintaining the powerful and complicatedmachinery of our modern society. There is con-tinuous interaction between theory and practiceand scientific discovery and practical inventionare even more closely linked. Scientific researchis being organized on an unprecedented scale, forscience has become the dominant factor in thestruggle for material prosperity. Obviously thisnew function of science will affect all educationand in particular, higher education. The countrywith the best supply of trained scientific workershas the best chance of becoming materially pros-perous. The bottle-neck in economic developmentin all countries is due to the shortage of scientificstaff.

The Dutch Government is very much alive tothese problems . In October 1961 the CentralBureau of Statistics (Central Bureau voor deStatistiek) published the results of an investigationof research and development work in the Nether-lands during 1959(1). Even earlier two State com-missions had completed an extensive investigationof the expansion of university education up to1970(2)),

(1) Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. Speur-en ontwikkelingswerk in Nederland. Deel I .Onderzoek buiten universiteiten en hoge-scholen. Uitgeversmaatschappij W. de HaanN.V., Zeist, 1961..

(2) De spreiding van het hoger onderwijs tot 1970.Advies van de Commissie spreiding hogeronderwijs en van de Commissie spreidingteclutisch hoger onderwijs. Staatsdrukkerij,'s-Gravenhage 1960.

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CHAPTER II

EXPANSION OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The Netherlands really began to recognize the in-creasing importance of science only after the warwhen the work of the Royal Dutch Academy ofSciences, the highest authority advising the Govern-ment on science, was expanded. In 1950, theNetherlands Organization for the Advancement ofPure Research (Nederlandse Organisatie voorZuiver Wetenschappelijk Onderzoelc, ZWO) wasset up; its terms of reference were to encouragepure research, in particular by means of grantsfor which the nrganization receives a substantialgovernment subsidy. Numerous other researchinstitutes were also created, such as the Founda-

for Fundamental Research into Matter (FONT),the foundation for Radio Astronomy, and theFoundation for Chemical Research, to mentiononly a few . The enormous increase in the budgetestimates for university education and the variousresearch institutes testifies to this post-war growth.

The problems connected'with the expansion ofresearch do not involve simply the quantity of re-search work to be done, but the determination ofwhat direction research work would take. Thequestions concern matters of research and econo-mic policy, the various categories of research tobe undertaken and for what sectors of society re-search is to be carried out.

In the publication of the Central Bureau ofStatistics mentioned earlier(1), an attempt has beenmade to give a clear definition of research anddevelopment work and to establish a systematicdifferentiation. Although a rough estimate of re-search done at universities has been included inthe figures, the investigation does nqt take intoaccount research carried on in these institutions.These were published in volume II which appearedat the end of 1962 and results of similar investiga-tions abroad are also given.

Volume I was restricted to research beingdone in the field of natural sciences, including themedical and technical sciences. Expenditure onresearch in the field of the "alpha sciences" willbe relatively low, however, since these are bynature less costly than the natural sciences.

The total amount of money spent in the Nether-lands in 1959 on pure and applied research, inclu-ding development work in these fields, is estimatedat about 550 million guilders(2). In 1947 the esti-mates were from 30 to 35 million guilders and in1951, 165 million guilders - although these are notaltogether comparable. Pending the results of the

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investigations conducted among the universities,an estimated 50 million guildero has been inclu-ded to cover research at univers..ties, and about30 million guilders to cover research abroad(participation in international scientific projectsand organizations like EURATOM, CERN, etc.).

Thus, in 1950 in the Netherlands, morethan 1.6% of the net national income was spent onresearch as against an estimated 0.3% in 1947and 1% in 1951 (and 1955). 'These figures relate,of course , to civil research.

The following table shows the allocation ofthe 550 million guilders according to the placeswhere the research was done.

Guilders in millionsAbroad 30At universities (provisional

estimate) 50By industrial undertakings 336By other private under-

takingsAt institutes of the Organi-

zation for AppliedScientific Researci. inthe Netherlands 70

At other research institutes 56 .

550

In order to obtain a picture of the total scientificeffort for industrial development, the sum of 336million guilders spent on research by industrialundertakings should be augmented by expenditureon research work by, for instance, the Institutesfor Applied Scientific Research (TNO), for thepurchase of patent rights, etc.; this raises thetotal to 366 million guilders. The statistical pub-lication gives a differentiation both according tothe size of the enterprises involved and the diffe-rent branches of industry. Classification, accord-ing to size ,of the undertakings , shows that 93%of the research was done by concerns with a staffof more than 200, 5 large concerns having donethe lion's share of the work. Broken down accord-ing to branch of industry, research outside these"Big Five" was concentrated in three fields: thechemical industry, the metal industry and the food-stuffs and luxuries industry.

(1) Speur en ontwikkelingswerk in Nederland.(2) 1 guilder $0.28

Of the 70 million guilders spent on appliedscientific research within the framework of TNOand the 56 million spent on other research institu-tes such as the Netherlands Reactor Centre, theRoyal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, theCentral Instilbte for Brain Research, etc.). 32%was spent in investments and 18% on industrialresearch. Consequently, the volume of researchcan be expected to increase considerably here.As much as 45% of this research was in the fieldof industrial application and was therefore also ofbenefit to industry. Furthermore, 20% was re-lated to agricultural research, 20% to researchin the field of the natural sciences and 7% to medi-cal research. Fundamental research predomina-ted, particularly in the latter two branches.

Of the 470 million guilders that remainedafter deduction of 50 million for research at uni-versities and 30 million for research abroad,about 95.5 million was furnished by the Govern-ment, 2.7 million came from abroad and the restfrom industry and private enterprise. The Govern-ment grant is particularly important in the caseof the institutes al' the Organization for AppliedScientific Research and the group of other re-search institutes; these grants made directly orindirectly (for instance through the Organizationfor the Advancement of Pure Research (ZWO)),amounted to as much as 70% .

These figures relate to pure and fundamentalresearch and applied scientific research combined,since it was impracticable to separate the twobranches. Generally speaking, however, pureand fundamental research is more likely to domi-nate at universities, and frequently also at re-search laboratories outside the Organization forApplied Scientific Research, than at indu: :riallaboratories and applied scientific research insti-tutions. Consequently, pure research in theNetherlands depends to a great extent for its fin-ances on the Government which either pays for theuniversities or pays in full or in part for thevarious research laboratories.

It is clear from the foregoing how importantit is that statistics should be differentiated. Thishas beer done properly for the first time in thisldifficult field by the Central Bureau of Statistics.The forecasts thus established for research at uni-versities may serve to indicate fields of researchat universities that are still "underdeveloped".However modest the sum of 50 million guildersmay appear, it is of paramount importance forhere more than anywhere else pure research domi-nates. Scientific research is essential to thelife of universities, and they are the most appro-priate places for pure research, although thisdoes not mean that research should not also bedone elsewhere. The rapid expansion of fundamental research at industrial and extra-universitylaboratories in the Western countries, has dimin-ished the contribution of the universities to re-search in the field of the natural sciences. Pessi-mists believe that this process will go much

further so that in the long run the physical,chemical and biological laboratories at the uni-versities may become little more than traininginstitutions.

Such a development would, of course, befatal, for it is this very combination of teachingand research which should typify university life.The trend must therefore be watched, but the fearthat it may go too far need not be too great, be-cause pare and fundamental research is only part-ly capable of being taken over by industrial andother laboratories, which differ essentially fromuniversity laboratories. Whereas is industry theconsideration of ultimate usefulness; always playsa part, even in fundamental research, the univer-sity researcher is not only formally free, butfree in the full sense of the word, to choose hissubject of research. For instance, he may de-vote his entire scientific life to the study of fleasor to the synthesis of all the isomers of C12 H26without ever having to justify his choice of topicto others. This freedom has led to surprisingdiscoveries and ingenious theories, although medi-ocre results are also an unavoidable consequence.

A good science policy should aim at estab-lishing a balance not only between the sciencesthemselves, so that one branch of science doesnot grow at the expense of the others, but alsobetween pure and fundamental science, appliedscience and training. Staff shortages and oftenthe high cost of scientific equipment make it im-perative to establish that balance and to use theavailable means wisely.

Various factors have given rise to a develop-ment in the direction not only of the assignmentof particular subjects to particular universities,but also to closer inter-university co- operationthrough the establishment of inter-university insti-tutions. Examples of the former are the concen-tration of studies for civil engineering, architec-ttzre and naval architecture at the technologicaluniversity at Delft and the concentration of studiesin oriental languages at Leyden. Examples of thelatter are the Inter-University Reactor Instituteat Delft, where studies of reactor physics areconcentrated, and the Inter-University MarineResearch Institute at Den Helder where the uni-versitic3 have pooled their marine-biological re-search.

For the same reasons the relationship betweenresearch in the Netherlands and participation ininternational research projects will have to be re-viewed. The ever rising cost of research in cer-tain fields and the necessity of making the utmostof the available staff are compelling arguments infavour of international co-operation. The Nether-lands is convinced that this is the proper courseand it has therefore participated fully in CERNand EURATOM in the fields of theoretical nuclearphysics and nuclear energy. The Netherlands isalso taking part in two European organizationsset up this year for co-operation in the fields ofspace research, the European Space Research

63

Organization (ESRO) and the European LauncherDevelopment Organization (ELDO) . In additionto such multilateral scientific co-operation, bi-lateral co-operation has been established withBelgium in the field of radio astronomy for theconstruction of a giant cross antenna and withNorway in the field of nuclear energy. Inter-national co-operation in organizations such as theCouncil of Europe, Unesco, OECD and NATO is,of course, also important .

However, in all these cases international co-operation needs proportionate national backing.Participation in CERN and EURATOM, for instance,is backed by research undertaken at Dutch univer-sities by the Foundation for Fundamental Researchinto Matter, the Netherlands Reactor Centre, etc .The decision to participate in international spaceresearch was prompted by the hope of givingadded impetus to the national effort in that field.Similarly, co-operation in the cross antenna pro-ject resulted from the experience gained by theFoundation for Radio Astronomy with the radiotelescope at Dwingelo.

In farming policy careful consideration should,however, be given to the kinds of co-operativeeffort in whibh the nation should participate, soas to avoid placing too great a strain on the man-power and financial resources available for scien-tific projects.

Foreign students and research workers canbenefit from what is being done in the Netherlandsand the universities co-operate in this workthrough the Netherlands University Foundationfor International Co-operation (NUFFIC). TheInstitute of Technology at Delft, for instance,organizes international post-graduate courses inhydraulic engineering and sanitary engineering.The International Training Centre for Aerial Sur-vey (ITC), also at Delft, attracts students fromall over the world and the Institute for Social Stu-dies at The Hague offers a number of internationalcourses in public < dministration, social welfare,etc. The Agricultural University at Wageningenhas also organized some international courses.

Higher education

Since the end of World War II, the universitieshave developed gradually and have been able toadapt; ;smoothly to conditions without seriously af-fecting,either the steady growth of science or thenumb,a- of students . They are now confrontedwith quifo a different situation as a consequenceof the great increase in the number of students,the accelerated rate at which science is developingand the heedto meet society's demand for a muchgreater rwmf.-,er of university graduates.

In order tr) meet .these requirements two newmedical faculties were established in the first tenyears after the Second World War at the private(Protestant) university, in Amsterdam and theRoman Catholic University, in Nijmegen.' Underthe auspices of the medical faculties in Leyden

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and Utrecht, a medical school, the "SticaingKlinisch Boger Onderwijs", was established atRotterdam for students preparing for the finalexamination, after their "doctoral examination'?(which approximates to the master's degree).Nijmegen University was given a faculty of mathe-matics and physics and large-scale provision wasmade to extend and modernize existing faculties.The most important measure was perhaps thefoundation of a second technological university atEidenhoven in 1956.

There was however a growing conviction thatthe problems connected with the necessary exten-sion of scientiEe training should be tackled moresystematically. In 1954 the Central Bureau ofStatistics published Ilerzien,..! berekeningen omtrentde toekinstige loop der Nederlandse bevolking1951-1981 (Revised projection of populationtrends in the Netherlands 1951-1981), and oneyear later the Central Planning Bureau drew atten-tion to the rapid growth in the anticipated demandfor physicists and skilled technicians in its publi-cation En verkeumig der economische toekomstmogelijk heden van Nederland 1950-1970 (Assess-ment of the economic prospect of the Netherlands1950-1970). In 1956, the Central Bureau ofStatistics in co-operation with the Central Plan-ning Bureau and the Ministry of Education, Artsand Sciences, published Berekeningen omtrent detoekomstige om yang van het Nederlands hogeronderwijs en de aantallen afgestudeerden 1956-1970_ ("Forecasts on the development of HigherEducation in the Netherlands and of the number ofgraduates 1956-1970"). The Central Bureau ofStatistics based its calculations mainly on fore-casts of the growth in population and on the prob-able effect of the post-1945 increase in the birthrate on the development of university training.The anticipated expansion of secondary education,which is the main avenue of approach to universitytraining, provided the Bureau with a startingpoint. Account had to be taken not only of the con-sequences of the increased birth rate but also ofthe fact that in the rural districts the number ofsecondary schools was growing so that the backlogwas being made good and an ever-growing interestwas being taken in secondary education. The con-clusion reached was that in the period 1955-1970the number of students could be expected to doubleunder the influence of these factors.

The population trend can best be illustratedby the increase in the number of the average gen-eration of 18 and 19 year olds, the most normalage for admission to university education. Where-as the average generation reached 146,000 in1930 it will have risen to 261,000 in 1965. Inconsequence of the high birth rate in the post-waryears, the peak year may be expected to be fol-lowed by stabilization about 220,000 in the years1970-1985, as compared with about 160,000 inthe period from 1940 to 1955. The year 1985will be followed by another rise as an echo effectof the 1946-1947 birth rate peak, that is to say

when the children of the present generation have,in their turn, reached the age for university en-trance. A graph of this trend is given in Annex 1.

Since the number of pupils admitted to secon-dary education has risen in recent years from 9%to 14% of the respective generation, the percen-tage of first-year students from the generation of18 and 19 year olds is also expected to increase.It should be remembered that in the Netherlandsanyone holding the appropriate secondary schoolcertificate is entitled to sit for university exam-inations and the universities do not demand anyfurther selection before admission.

In its 1956 report the Central Bureau ofStatistics gave the following estimate Of the num-ber of first-year students and of the total. numberof students for 1956-1970. .

YearFirst-yearstudents

Total numberof students

1956-57 4,900 29,2001957-58 5,200 29,4001958-59 5,400 30,1001959-60 5,800 31,3001960-61 6,200 33,0001961-62 6,900 35,2001962-63 7,300 37,7001963-64 7,400 39,8001964 -65 8,700 43,1001965-66 10,100 47,2001966-67 9,600 50,2001967-68 9,100 52,4001968-69 8,700 54,0001969-7C 8,700 55,1001970 -71 8,700. 55,900

These figures have since proved to be too conser-vative. The total number of first-year studentsfor the academic year 1961-1962 is not 6,900 asestimated, but 8,125, and the total number of stu-dents is not 35,200, but 43,669 (see annex 5).

Clearly a long-term policy had to be devisedto deal with the influx of students and to preventuniversity training from encountering very seriousdifficulties. The Minister of Education, Arts andSciences appointed two commissions to advise onfuture policy, particularly with a view to fore-casting the increase in the number of students.These two commissions, the Commission for theExpansion of University Education (July 1957) andthe Commission for the Expansion of Higher Tech-nical Training (April 1958), submitted a joiht re-port in October 1959.

The report approaches the problem from twoangles, that of the influx, i.e. the anticipated risein the number of students applying for universitytraining, and that of the national demand for uni-versity graduates. By comparing supply and de-mand, the number of students expected for thevarious faculties in the next 10 or 20 years can beforecast. Such long-term estimates, of course,

are only of relative value, and it is of the greatestimportance that they be checked continuallyagainst actual development and that the investiga-tions be kept up to date and policy corrected inconsequence.

The Commissions worked on 'he principlethat everyone desiring to receive university train-ing and holding the necessary certificates or otherqualifications, should continue to have the oppor-tunity to do so.

In the interests both of the students and of thenation, the scope of the national demand for grad-uates per faculty needed to be investigated avid aseparate, highly expert commission, the Commis-sion for Statistics of the "Interuniversitair Con-tactorgaan" (the forerunner of the AcademicCouncil which will be dealt with in Chapter III),conducted the necessary investigations in closeco-operation with the Central Bureau of Statisticsand the Central Planning Bureau. The resultsappeared if. a report entitled "The growth of thenumber of university graduates until 1980. Supplyand Demand". (De ontwikkeling van het aantalacademici tot 1980. Aanbod en behoefte. 'Jag.Mij. W . de Haan N.V., Zeist, 1959).

The need to improve the efficiency of the uni-versity system in order to meet the rapidly grow-ing demand for opportunities for study and adaptit to its changing role was one of the strongestreasons for the enactment of the new Higher Edu-cation Act.

In 1965 (the year in which the two Commissionson expansion were appointed), the Minister ofEducation, Arts and Sciences in consultation withthe Ministers of Finance and of Reconstructionand Public Health had an initial assessment madeof the consequence of the expected increase in thenumber of students up to 1970 with regard toaccommodation requirements. At a rough initialestimate, it was then thought that the anticipateddoubling of the total number of students would callfor an investment of some 200 million guildersfor building and equipment. The estimate allowedfor the existing backlog, necessary replacementand new housing for students. It was decided thatthe individual universities should draw up plansforthwith for additional accommodation to meetthe expected increase so that the necessary si_esand buildings would be available.

On the basis of the provisional plans submit-ted by the universities, the Minister of Education,Arts and Sciences prepared a provisional invest-ment scheme for higher education covering theperiod 1959 to 1970. A sum of approximately1,500 million guilders was considered to be areasonable starting point for the university educa-tion expansion scheme up to 1970. As the prepa-ration and the initial stages of these plans wouldnecessarily take much time, the Minister pointedout that, although he was prepared to start withan average investment of 150 million guilders perannum, the full amount would not be needed for thefirst year but would probably be exceeded in subse-quent years.

65

rtThe facts have proved him to be right. In-

vestment in establishments of higher education in1962 amounted to over 150 million guilders, andin the years to come further rises'are to be ex-pected. Indications are'that even th. very firstrough estimate of 200 million guilders as th'?total required will probably be exceeded now thatthe university expansion plans are beginning totake shape.

The expansion Commissions have done theirwork in close co-operation with the universities.For instance, the "Interuniversitair Contact-orgaan" formed inter-university working groupsof professors for the various branches of study toadvise on the quantitative and qualitative aspectsof the problems concerned with the expansion ofhigher education. As the work of the Commissionsprogressed, a number of sub-committees wereset up to prepare preliminary reports on certainquestions such as the maximum capacity of a tech-nological university, the regional aspects of ex-pansion, the possibility of combining basic train-ing in the natural and the technical sciences . Thepreliminary reports of the sub-committees areattached to the main report.

The two Commissions regarded it as fSrtu-nate that according to forecasts the number ofstudents will double, for this is necessary if theanticipated demand for graduates is to be met.Taking as a basis an increase in the number ofgraduates per 10,000 inhabitants of from 44 in1955 to 62 in 1970 and 76 in 1980 (see annex 2), itwas found that the number of students would in-crease to 60,000 or 66,000 around 1975, i.e. morethan twice the 1956 figure and considerably in ex-cess of the figure calculated in 1956 by the CentralBureau of Statistics for the year 1970, i.e.'56,000.

The Commissions, liowever, emphasized thatfor periods of varying.duration more or fewerstudents than the nation required might graduatefrom certain faculties. If the choice of study offirst-year students were to be brought into linewith the anticipated increase in the demand forgraduates, a considerable shift would have to takeplace (see annex 4). Sound information on thecountry's anticipated demand for graduates contin-uously adjusted to tally with actual developments,might help to bring the supply into line with de-mand. The influx of otudents into those branchesof study in which the demand is greatest, the tech-nological and natural sciences, could also be sti-mulated by introducing changes in the present pat-tern of branches of study offered, i.e by offeringcourses in those studies at more universities thanhitherto. The inclination of the Dutch student topursue his studies as near home as possible ac-counts in part for the pronounced. regional charac-ter of Dutch universities, which appears to affectthe choice of faculty. Although compared withthose in other countries the distances are short inthe Netherlands;unless the student-to-be has adefinite preference for a certain faculty, the

66

distance between his residence and the universitiesavailable to him will usually determine his choiceof institution.

The Commissions held the view that the train-ing capacity of universities should be increased,primarily by improving and extending the capa-city of the existing universities. A further expan-sion could only be considered in so far as the anti-cipated increase in demand included students whowould be deprived of a university training forof regional institutions The provisions_ttr-b-e-made for this pi/poss._ rould Alse hike into accountthe changes in the present pattern of disciplinesnecessitated by the increasing demand. No newinstitutions of university education were to beestablished unless they were absolutely essential.

On educational grounds, the Commissionswere against the establishment of independenttraining facilities for students preparing for thefirst (candidate) examination. This examinationis in a certain sense comparable with that in thecolleges in the United States and qualifies the stu-dent for university entrance. The Commissionsthought that regional interests were never of suf-ficient importance to outweigh the educational ob-jections.

The Commissions stressed the fact that theimportant part played throughout the world bytechnology and natural sciences and also the pro-motion of industrialization in the Netherlands madeit imperative that the greatest possible attentionbe given to increasing the training facilities forthese two faculties .

Technological training facilities should prefer-ably be expanded by organizing new courses com-prising the three princip:.1 branches of study:mechanical engineering, electrical engineeringand the technology of chemistry, for these togetherattract 60% of all technical students . The Com-mission for the Expansion of Higher TechnicalEducation proposed the establishment of two new(technological) universities, one in the east andone in the north west, near Amsterdam, in orderto meet the requirements. The establishment ofa fifth technological university (in the south west)might prove to be necessary after 1970.

As regards the natural sciences, the Commis-sion for the Expansion of Higher Technical Educa-tion favoured a limited expansion of training faci-lities for the faculties of mathematics, physicsand chemistry, which might lead to a much neededstimulation of public interest in those branches ofstudy. The Commission did not recommend, how-ever, the establishment of a new faculty of mathematics and natural sciences in addition to the sixalready in existence, but was in favour of offeringcourses in pure mathematics, pitysics and chemi-stry at the technological university at Eindhoven.This idea, which is new to the Netherlands, wouldbe the counterpart of the experiments being con-ducted at the State university at Groningen where,in addition to pure scientific training, courseshave now been organized in applied mathematics,

r".

physics and the technology of chemistry. TheCommissions also recommended the introductionof training for the first (candidate) examinationin pure mathematics, physics and chemistry atthe technological university at Eidenhoven, and atthe new university to be established in the east.This would encourage students to enter these bran-ches of study and at the same time broaden thepattern of studies from which they might choose.

The structural changes in society have ofcourse had a great influence on the development ofthe services sector, so that the demand for grad-uates in the social sciences, i.e. law, economics,social sciences and psychology, is also expectedto show a steep upward curve. However, the de-mand for trained personnel from these branchesof study will not increase to the same extent asfor graduates in technology and science. Adjust-ment of the training facilities at short notice tothe increase in this demand can be realized at lessexpense and with less building than for technolo-gical and natural science faculties. Even now,however, more than 25% of all new studentschoose these branches of study, outnumbering thetotal number of students taking up mechanicalengineering, electrical engineering, the technolo-gy of chemistry, mathematics, physics and chemi-stry. But in the opinion of the Commission forthe Expansion of University Education there areother factors that, to a certain extent, and re-gardless of the quantitative aspect, make a limitedexpansion of the social sciences desirable. TheCommission refers to the growing interdependenceof these sciences, particularly of economics, lawand sociology, and also of these sciences andtechnology. On these grounds the Commissionsrecommended that a faculty of law 'and a course insociology should be included in the cur-ricule,of ,,the NederlandseEconomische Hogeschool at Rotter-dam and the Katholieke Economische Hogeschoolat Tilburg. They also recommended the establish-

iktsi.ment in the east of a new type of u rsity offer-ing social sciences, and in accordant with theaforementioned recommendations, technology andtraining for the first examination in mathematics,physics and chemistry.

The Commission for the Expansion of Univer-sity Education considered the training facilitiesprovided for the medical faculty adequate to meetthe anticipated der.and for medical graduates.After the second World War the training faciltieswere, in fact, extended by including medicine inthe curricula of the free (Calvinist) university atAmsterdam and the Catholic university at Nij-megen, and by the establishment of special train-ing facilities under the Stichting Klintsch IlogerOnderwijs at. Rotterdam. .

The Commission considered that dental train-ing called for expansion. The total training capa-city of the dental departments of the medical facul-ties,at the State universities at Utrecht and Gron-ingen was not considered sufficient for the train-ing of a sufficient number of dentists to raise dental

care in the Netherlands to a reasonable level. Inaddition to doubling the training facilities in Gron-ingen, the Commission recommended that a de-partment of dentistry should be added to the medi-cal faculty of the Catholic university at Nijmegs2nand, taking a long-term view, that a fourth dentis-try derv-irtment be established at Amsterdam after1970, if possible under the auspices of the twoAmsterdam universities.

The Commission did not think extension of thetraining facilities for the arts faculties justified.Most graduates in these subjects are destined forteaching posts in secondary schools. Immediatelyafter the war, training facilities for secondaryschool teachers were enlarged to meet the expec-ted growth of secondary education resulting fromthe post-war increase in the birth rate. In viewof the fact that this increased birth rate willshortly cease to affect the secondary schools, andthat no significant growth of secondary educationis to be expected, a surplus rather than a shortageof teachers in some disciplines is expected withinthe near future.. Having heard the advice of the universitiesand other institutions concerned on the report ofthe expansion Commissions, the Minister of Edu-cation, Arts and Sciences submitted to the SecondChamber of the States-General on 25 January 1961an exhaustive memorandum on the expansion ofhigher education (Note inzake de uitbreiding vanhet wetenschappelijk onderwijs). In the memoran-dum he explained the short and long-term measuresto be taken for the expansion and improvement ofhigher education. The Minister stressed evenmore than the Commissions could do in their re-port all the problems with which the Governmentwill be confronted when university education isextended in the years to come . In addition to anumber of concrete proposals based on the adviceof the expansion Commissions, the memorandumcontained detailed accounts of the aims and objectsof university education, the task'bf the Governmentin regard to the universities, the structuralchanges in university education, inter-universityco-operation, the assignment of particular sub-jects to particular universities, etc.

As regard's the recommendation of the ex-pansion Commissions to the effect that a new typeof institution be established in the east of thecountry, the Minister held the view that for thetime being the introduction of a proposal to esta-blish a technological university in that regionwould have to suffice. In the meantime, Parlia-ment passed a Bill on 21 November 1961 amendingthe Higher Education Act and including the thirdtechnological university. This university whichis to be established near Enschede is intendedprimarily for the trnining of mechanical, electro-technical and chemical engineers. Preparationsfor the setting up of the technological universityare now in full swing and special attention will begiven to fitting the social sciences into the curri-culum witiout, however, establishing a separate

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faculty for these sciences . The institution is ex-pected to open its doors to the first batch of stu-dents in September 1964. It will differ in yetanother respect from existing institutions, for itis intended to introduce a type of housing for stu-dents new to the Netherlands This new system,known in Britain as the "residential system", isto serve a double purpose, in the provision ofhousing accommodation and character-building.The institution is to be the first "campus" univer-sity in the Netherlands .

In principle the Minister was agreeable tothe establishment of a fourth technological univer-sity in the vicinity of Amsterdam, but the openingdate will have to be deferred owing to the shortageof scientifically trained staff .

The Minister is also, in principle, agreeableto the tentative introduction of pure scientificbranches of study in mathematics, physics andchemistry at the technological university at Eind-hoven, and of experimental joint propaedeutictraining in these branches of study and the appliedscientifii studies at both the technological univer-sity at Eindhoven and the new institution at En-schede.

The ter adopted the suggestion thatfaculties of law be established at the NederlandseEconomische Hogeschool at Rotterdam and theKatholieke Economische Hogeschool at Tilburg.A Bill for the amendment of the Higher EducationAct is shortly to be presented to the States-General.In the meantime, the addition of sociology alsoproposed in the report on expansion, became pos-sible when the Second Chamber, dealing with theHigher Education Bill, passed an amendment tothe effect that both of the above-mentioned institu-tions should also have a faculty of social sciences .

The proposals adopted by the Minister todouble the training capacity of the department ofdentistry at the State university of Groningen andto arrange for dental training to be available atthe Roman Catholic university at Nijmegen havebeen carried into effect. The Minister also agreedin principle to the establishment of a fourth dentaltraining centre at Amsterdam which would be ope-rativea few years after the establishment of thetraining centre at Nijmegen, i.e. even earlierthan had been foreseen in the report on expansion.

Concurring with the expansion commission,the Minister also rejected the regional demandsthat independent propaedeutic_training facilitiesbe provided .

The estimated investment called for by thesemeasures was based on the estimate of 1,500million guilders spread over ten years for thewhole of university education. The cost of build-ing the third technological university is estimatedat 150 million guilders and is included in theamount quoted. The calculation of the total sumis based on the estimate that the investment re-quired per student will be 15,000 guilders for thearts faculties and from 60,000 to 75,000 guildersfor the science faculties .

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Since the allocation for the new technologicaluniversity at Enschede will be only 10% of thetotal amount required, it is evident that theGovernment and the expansion Commissions aliketake the view that the expansion of the trainingcapacity of the universities should be achieved inthe first place by improving and extending existinguniversities.

The comparative tables in annexes 5 and 6 ofthe number of students (total figures and numberof first-year students in the academic years 1955-1956 and 1961-1962, according to university andfaculty) illustrate the rapid rise in attendance ofthe universities in recent years. Obviously verysubstantial sums will have to be invested in theexisting universities if they are to handle the anti-cipated influx of students properly.

The summary of the amounts invested in thevarious institutions since the war given in annexes7 and 8 clearly shows the steep rise.

Large sites had to be earmarked for the ex-pansion schemes . Each of the three State univer-sities, for instance, now has at its disposal asite of from 40 to 80 acres outside the town. TheCatholic university at Nijmegen has acquired asite of 32 acres and the technological universitiesat Delft, Eindhoven and ..,.,:nschede also have largesites. The municipal university of Anisterdam,however, preferred to keep its institutions in thecity proper and to concentrate them in three places.Like the free (Calvanist) university of Amsterdam,it has a much smaller site.

The total sum of 1,500 million guilders thathas been mentioned repeatedly includes invest-

-ments in extra-university scientific establishmentsand.institutions .

A substantial proportion of this sum has beenearmarked for facilities and utilities for studentssuch as housing, sports and catering. The greatestproblem is still to find suitable accommodation

-for-the-ever-growing-influx-of-stuaats, the tradi-tional Dutch system of renting private roomsbeing no longer practicable. Before 1970 d -ti o n al accommodation will have to be providedfor about 15,000 students and the work has alreadystarted with backing from the Government andbusiness circles . New blocks of flats for studentsare being erected and houses are being purchasedfor alteration as suitable student accommodation.Appropriate student bodies have been set up toadminister the housing facilities thus made avail-able and which amount to a total space of 3,000rooms

Government grants for student sports facili-ties also date from after the Second World War.In 1958 a sports centre and sports hall were builtfor the technological university at Delft with fin-ancial assistance from industry. In 1961 it wasdecided that the Government was to bear the costsof sports accommodation for all the universities,both public and private. The plans are now readyfor the majority of the institutions and are shortlyto be realized.

f he general "Mensae" set up after the warwhere students can have a good meal at a reason-able price have also become an institution in Dutchuniversity life . The Government bears 5010 ofthe cost of certain establishments run by students'organizations and the total cost of general cater-ing establishments unconnected with any students'organization.

Annexes 7 and 8 give an idea of the total ex-penditure on higher education in the Netherlandsin recent years . It should also be noted that capi-tal investment foreseen in future years will en-tail a considerable increase in current expenditure.

Such expansion of higher education is not ofcourse possible without a considerable increasein staff The number of professors in the facul-ties of law and medicine at the three State univer-sities has doubled since 1940. The number ofprofessors in the faculties of mathematics, naturalsciences and the arts has more than doubled andthe situation is very much the same at the

technological university at Delft. It is especiallyremarkable that the increase of scientific staffkept pace with that of the student body and wasconsiderably larger than that of the number ofprofessors. Good professors and scientific staffare very difficult to find particularly when asmp.11er generation has to train a larger one Theproblem becomes even more complex as a resultof the heavy demands made on that smaller gene-ration by industry, which is also in tikg processof development. Thus far, however, the univer-sities have always succeeded in meeting theirincreasing need for scientific staff fairly satis-factorily, but problems of staffing loom large,and are being tackled systematically. Indeedcertain departments of the universities have al-ready taken on sufficient staff to cope with theanticipated influx of new students in the next fewyears.

.... ............

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CHAPTER III

LEGAL PROVISIONS

Autonomy and unity

The Higher Education Act of 1 January 1961 wasdesigned to give the universities the opportunityof adjusting their organization and development tomodern needs in the field of higher education andscience.

Provident minds had already realized duringthe war that higher education would have to playa leading part in the post-war world. Moreover,the experience gained during the war years hadshown all too clearly the dangers that threatenhigher education when the State uses it for its ownpurpose. The problem was, therefore, how toachieve the maximum efficiency of organizationconsistent with the degree of freedom that highereducation and research require if they are toflourish.

The universities' desire for autonomy wasgrowing, partly as a result of the pressure ofenemy occupation. The concept was formed of-a-universitas neerlandica which was to symbolizethe autonomy of higher education as a whole. Itwas to be invested with administrative powers andwould distribute the subsidy that the Governmentwould pay it in a lump sum among the individualuniversities.

Unfortunately the idea did not materialize.Howtver, the new Act does acknowledge the ideaof greater autonomy and of higher education as anentity, and it is thus incumbent upon the Govern-ment to ensure that equal opportunities for deve-lopment are provided for both the public and theprivate universities.

As regards autonomy there is a historicaldifference between the public universities and theprivate institutions. In principle anybody is en-titled to establish an institution for higher educa-tion in the Netherlands and, as long as they do notask for a Government subsidy, such institutionsmay remain completely autonomous, except, ofcourse, as regards the standards that the Govern-ment must impose concerning the quality of theexaminations if an institution wishes its examina-tions to be given effectUs civilis. The Vrije Uni-versiteit, founded .at Amsterdamin1880.and sUb-sidized since 1948, was a long-standing exampleof such an institution. At present there are no un-subsidized universities whose examinations areequivalent to those of the State institutions.

When, after the war,it was decided that theprivate institutions should also be subsidized, asystem had to be devised that would enable them

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to maintain their freedom while accepting aGovernment subsidy. The legislature tried toachieve this through a scheme for subsidies inwhich the sums spent by the public universitieswere taken as standards for the subsidies to theprivate ones. Provided the subsidy did not exceedthe standard figure, the Subsidy Act of 1948 pro-vided for a certain grant towards the university'snet expenditure, the remainder (initially 35%)being borne by the institution. Since part of thecost was to be borne by the universities, theywere forced to be economical.

The struggle for greater autonomy appliedonly to the public universities, One of the mostimportant principles of the new Act is that underit the State universities at Leyden, Groningen andUtrecht and the municipal university at Amster-dam are regarded as corporate bodies with a cer-tain degree of autonomy. The technological uni-versities at Delft and Eindhoven acquired similarstatus in 1956. When the introduction of that re-form was being contemplated, the question wasnot whether autonomy was desirable, but how andto what extent it should be granted. It was rea-lized from the start that an autonomy such as thatof the British universities would not suit our sys-tem and that the Government should continue tokeep a certain control over the autonomous publicuniversities.

Have the legislators succeeded in dividing theresponsibility of university and Governmentfairly? From a dependent branch of the Govern-rivit Service, the "new style" university has be-come a corporate body and its Governing Boardhas been granted new powers. Under the provisionsof the Act, the Board of Curators is in charge ofuniversity buildings - no small matter in present-day universities with their numerous laboratoriesand institutions and their big expansion schemes.The Board also appoints the entire staff, exceptthe professors and readers who are appointed bythe Crown. Every year the Board draws up thefinancial plan and sets the budget. In addition, 41.prepares a development scheme every four yearsin which the future pelicy is .set out as regards.scientific research and training.

The powers of the university are subject togovernment restriction. The universit; may pur-sue its own building policy but the actual plansrequire ministerial approval as does the budget.As regards staff policy, the Board of Curators isobliged to observe the provisions which the Crownhas laid down coriernini the legal status and sala-ries of university personne'.

Another important feature of the new Act isthe principle of equal opportunities for develop-ment for public and private universities. Thisprinciple is based on the recognition that the inte-rests of higher education and research can be en-trusted equally well to public and to private uni-versities. Accordingly, the procedure followedin all previous education acts whereby regulationsfor public education were given first, followed bya few provisions concerning private education,has been abandoned. In the new Act the commonprovisions applicable to public and also to privateuniversities have been brought together, albeitwith certain differences.

The acceptance of the principle that privateuniversities contribute to national developmentand are therefore entitled to the same opportuni-ties as public institutions, has extremely import-ant financial consequences. The Act guaranteesequal opportunities of development for private uni-versities by providing that the Government shallcontribute 95% of the net expenditure, i.e. of thedifference between income and expenditure . Thiscontribution towards the net expenditure is granted"in so far as the university does not exceed whatare considered in this country to be .the standardsof equipment and assets of a university". If thenet expenditure of the private university exceedsthat standard, the Government shall contribute"in so far as such expenditure in the opinion ofour Minister (i.e. the Minister of Education, Artsand Sciences) iscompatible with the general pro-visions made fore science and higher education".Thus, according to the new conception, subsidiesto public universities no longer set the standardfor subsidies to be granted to private institutions.Henceforth the standard is to be determinLd bythe .equipment and assets of both public and privateuniversities. Clearly, this standard will changeaccording to what is deemed to belong to "equip-ment and assets" and what is deemed to conformwith "the entity of provisions for science andhigher education". Consequently the applicationof the new regulations will be based on consulta-tions between the private institutions and theGovernment in a spirit of mutual trust. As asafeguard against arbitrary action on the part ofthe Government, the Act gives the private institu-tions the right to appeal to the Council of State.-

The free (Calvinist) university at Amsterdamand the Catholic university at Nijmegen which are,at present, engaged in organizing the most costlyfaculties: medicine and mathematics and physics,are, in particular, benefiting from the governmentsubsidy, 19'out of every 20 guilders, or 95% of thecoSt, being furnished by the State.

The remaining 5% is borne by the private uni-versities themselves, or rather by their foundingassociations, this contribution being regarded asa guarantee of freedom. The 5% may, however,mean rather heavy financial sacrifice, in view ofthe enormous increase in total university expendi-ture.

Both public and private universities are re-quired to submit a "financial plan" to the Ministerof Education, Arts and Sciences every year, givingan estimate of expenditure for the four years fol-lowing the budget year. The estimates must, ofcourse, be based on the development scheme.,and may be more exact for the first and secondyears than for the third and fourth )ears. Sincea financial plan must be submitted every year,estimates "move up" a year at a time, making itpossible to adjust the figures, the estimates fora new year being added annually.

In order to make full and continuing provisionfor university requirement, the new Act providesthat the Viinister of Education, Arts and Sciencesand the Minister of Finance, upon receipt of thefour-year financial plans drawn up by the univer-sities, shall prepare a general financial plan forthe universities and submit it to the States-General,together with the development and financial plansreceived from the universities. Thus, the Actcontains a basic provision which makes it possibleto consider the expansion of higher education,both public and private, against the background ofwhat must be deemed necessary in the generalinterest. Since the preparation of developmentschemes must precede the preparation of financialplans by the universities and since further experi-ence in the preparation of such four-year financialplans is needed, the Ministers have not yet drawnup a general financial plan for submission to theStates-General, although they have prepared alimited financial plan for the technological univer-sities, which have been required to submit annualfour-year financial plans every year since 1956.However, all the universities are now engaged indrawing up development schemes and four-yearfinancial plans.

Another.reform introduced by the new Act,the establishment of the Academic Council, isevidence of the tendency to regard higher educa-tion as a single entity. As stated in the Act, theCouncil is intended to form a link between thevarious Dutch universities and between the univer-sities and the community. It encourages co-operation between the Dutch universities and theadaptation of higher education to the developmentof science and the national requirements. TheAcademic Council consists of a chairman appoin-ted by the Crown from a short list drawn up bythe Council, two members from each of the uni-versities (one of whom is appointed every year bythe Senate and the other by the Board of CLrators)and ten members appointed by_the Crown. Theforerunner of the Academic Council was the"Interuniversitair Contactorgaan" through whichbody the universities had co-operated on a volun-tary basis since 1956 to consider their commonproblems and to prepare the ground for appropriatelegislation. A Council for Technical Higher Edu-cation to promote co-operation between the twotechnological universities was also set up underthe Higher Education Azt of 1956.

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The establishment of the Academic Councilwas closely associated with the granting of a cer-tain degree of autonomy to the public universitiesand the introduction of the system of equal oppor-tunities of development for both public and privatehigher education. It was obvious from the outsetthat a co-ordination of effort from an overallnational point of view in respect to the developmentof higher education was indispensable. At thesame time the Government accepted the principlethat each university should have internal responsi-bility for its contribution to the total effort.

Each university can cover only part of the totalfield of the sciences The shortage of scientifi-cally trained manpower, the limited means avail-able and the necessity of linking up each scientificcontribution with all the others make co-ordinationa matter of the greatest urgency. Only in thinway can the universal character of science be pre-served, given the present trend towards speciali-zation.

Fortunately the necessary co-ordination can,for the most part, be effected by the universityworld itself. The new Act asks the universitiesto reflect on the general aspects of their policyevery four years and to embody their conclusionsin a development scheme. The schemes are sentnot only to-the Minister but also to the AcademicCouncil which considers them as a whole and ad-vises the Minister accordingly. The developmentschemes, which are intended to describe in broadoutline the developments anticipated by each uni-versity in the near and distant future, must alsobe considered as a whole to see whether they fitinto the total framework of the provisions forscience and higher education. Demands may beexcessive or there may be undesirable duplicationor gaps that need to be filled. Higher educationas a whole must adapt itself continuously to thedevelopment of science and to the nation's needs.

In view of the very difficult decisions to betaken on policy in the field of higher education,including the adaptation of education to the country'sneeds, it may prove to be of great help to theGovernment to be able to consult a single bodythat can be regarded as the "spokesman" of highereducation in the Netherlands. Since the AcademicCouncil has only just begun to function, the posi-tion it will occupy in the future is not yet certain.Within the framework of legal provisions concern-ing autonomy and unity, however, the Council hasbet n entrusted with an important function as ano_gan of consultation for the universities and asan advisory board for the GoVeinnient.

Required educational st:Lndards

1

Since the aims of higher education also include thepreparation of men for positions for which scien-tific training is required or may be useful, it fol-lows that the Government should guarantefa thequality of that training. Consequently the Govern-ment should have at least some controldn the

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matter of study programmes rnd standards, aswell as in the organization of university education.In its own interest and in that of the community,the Government cannot shirk this dutY. The im-position of some restrictions upon the universityand its professors as regards the training of stu-dents for functions in §ociety is both necessaryand justified.

Although the Dutch Government desires torespect the fundamentally independent characterof the university as far as possible, it is boundto demand guarantees at least with regard tofinal exaininations,in particular those conferringofficial recognition of professional status.

Dutch higher education differs in this respectfrom the system in the United Kingdom where theuniversity confers no degree with civil effect,and there is another important difference betweenDutch and British universities.. All Dutch univer-sities have equal status and no distinction is madebetween graduates from the various universities,nor even in the course of their studies. A studentmay pass an examination at one university andc.cmtinue his studies at another, and a final examina-tion at Cirie-univ.ersity entitles one to take a doctor'sdegree in the same la " at any of the other uni-versities. From the Dutch point of themost striking feature of British and Ame;icar...___universities is their diversity, the informal yetgenerally accepted differences in status betweenthe universities. Education can be given freerein according to the Dutch view, provided theresults, which can only be assessed by means ofexaminations, meet the_standards set for univer-sity training.

The new Higher Educ... Act conthatts--.^.-orn-_mon provisions for both public an -ovate univer-sales on a number of important points suct.=4.sthefaculties system, admission, examinations anddoctors' degrees. That is a new departure, eventhough these provisions, in accordance with theConstitution, are to be regarded as binding in thecase of the public universities and as conditionsfor recognition and the granting elf subsidies inthe case of the private universities.

The most important regulation resulting fromthe Higher Education Act is the Academic Statute,in which among other things the examination re-quirements are laid down. Concerning the com-pulsory subjects, the examiners and the order inwhich the examinations shall be taken. A newAcademic Statute has been drafted by the Ministerof Education, Arts and Sciences, and sent to theuniversities for comment. New examination pro-grammes have not yet been incorporated in thedraft Statute. These will first have to be dis-cussed exhaustively by the different facultieswithin the framework of the Academic Council.

The new Statute will contain provisions con-cerning the institution of a propaedeutic proba-tionary year for all branches of study. In theNetherlands admission to the academic examina-tions is open to any holder of the required

secondary school certificate, and the Dutch uni-versities may not practise discrimination in grant-ing admission to a university. This is perhapsone of the reasons why many students entering theuniversities and holding secondary school certifi-cates later prove to be incapable of completingtheir studies. In some faculties the first exam-ination is not held until several years of studyhave been completed so that it may be a very longtime before a student is aware of his inaptitudefor university studies. It is of importance both tosociety and to the individual that students shouldbe given some indication as early as possible asto their aptitude for the faculty they have chosen.A propaedeutic examination after one year ofstudy would thus meet an urgent need.

The new Statute will also give effect to theprovision of the Higher Education Act for the hold-ing of examinations for a bachelor's degree inaddition to the present "candidate" and "doctoral"examinations. In addition, it will lay down therequirements for the grant of testimonials forscientific research carried out after the doctoralexamination. The reason for these two new pro-visions is the ever longer duration of studies,some of which take as long as eight years. Theinstitution of examinations for the bachelor's de-gree will enable students to complete their univer-sity studies after a shorter period and to take thedoctoral examinations sooner if part of the re-search work is postponed until after these exam-inations.

Time will tell to what extent such bachelor'sdegree examinations will replace the candidateexaminations, thus bringing the course of studymore into line with the British system, in thatstudies are undertaken by stages, first for abachelor's degree and then for a doctoral exam-ination which is comparable with the examinationfor a master's degree.

The problems of the length of studies and theintroduction of new short university studies andalso that of the effectiveness of the trairdng aredealt with in detail both in the report of the ex-pansion commissions and in the ministerial memo-randum on the expansion of higher education.

Since World War II particular attention-hasbeen given to the methodology and didactics ofhigher education, to what is termed the "guidance"of the student. The traditional system of lectureshas to a great extent been replaced by a systemof smaller working groups which somewhat easesthe transition from the disciplined life of, a,second-ary school to independent study at the university.

The broad basis typical of university studyin the Netherlands may also partly explain whymany of our studies take so long.

The study of a wide range of subjects with nospecialization until studies are begun for the doc-toral examination is intended to make graduatesversatile and to fit them for a wide choice of oc-cupations. The emphasis is entirely on learningto think scientifically and on learning how to taci:le

a subject scientifically. Partly for that reasonefforts are being intensified, particularly at thetechnological universities, to include some of thehumanities so as to avoid one-sided developmentand help the student to grow as a "human" beingin the fullest sense of the word.

The special grants made available by the newAct to students who have passed their candidateexamination and are evidently gifted may have animportant effect on the future of higher education.These grants are intended to encourage graduatesto sit for research examinations after the doctoralexaminations.

Internal organization

In giving the faculties a firm legal basis, and pre-scribing their organization and their duties, theHigher Education Act introduced an importantreform.

Under the provisions of the new Act themanagement of the university is conducted by aBoard of Curators and the Senate, assisted by thefaculties. The Boards of Curators, appointed bythe Crown in the case of the State universities,are responsible for all accommodation questionsand for the financial administration and control ofboth movable and immovable assets. They areresponsible for seeing that the Higher EducationAct and the regulations made under that Act areobserved. The Senate's main duty is to safeguardthe general interests of education and research.

The conduct of daily affairs is entrusted to acommittee of which the Rector and a curator ap-pointed by the Board of Curators are members.The secretary of the university, who holds a mostimportant position in the system, attends themeetings of that committee and of the Board ofCurators and has an advisory vote. The dailybusiness falling within the scope of the Senate isconducted by the "Rector and Assessors".

The 'Act IS e5tplicit On matters concerninginternal organization and the promotion of co-operation between the various university bodies.The granting of independence to universities isnot justified unless the various university bodiesare given wider powers and consultation betweenthem is better regulated, both horizontally andvertically. The Act offers numerous alternativeways of achieving this, and each institution isfree to elaborate its own method, and make itsown regulations to this end.

Comparison of the old and the new Acts showsthat a much stronger position is given to thefaculty under the new Act. The faculties assistin drafting the development plan, the financialplan and the budget; they make proposals to theBoard of Curators concerning the appointment ofstaff and advise the Board in certain cases on ex-penditure for material equipment for educationand research. But the most important feature ofthe Act is the responsibility it gives to the facultyfor the proper organization and effectiveness of

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education. In order to fulfil this task the facultymust be willing to pursue a policy of its own andaccept the principle of collective responsibilitywith all its consequences.

One factor that has hitherto preverted the uni-versity from taking the fullest advantage of itsfreedom is the system under which each memberof the Senate is completely independent. But thescope of the Senate's responsibility is too largefor this individual approach, whereas the scopeof a single faculty is sufficiently limited to besurveyed by any of: its members. The faculty assuch is now jointly responsible for the organiza-tion of tuition and research in its special field.The Act places the members of the faculty,led bythe chairman of the faculty (Dean),under the obli-gation of arranging for properly organized tuition.They draw up a programme, stating the optimumlength of study which should precede the examina-tion and supervise the carrying out of the pro-gramme. All this entails much more than merelydevising a series of university lectures . Thisprincipl; of collective responsibility departs from

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the principle hitherto frequei tly applied, that eachmember should use his own j Idgement in carry-ing out his duties. It is no lo, ger in doubt whohas the authority; it is veste in the chairman,who in future will be elected fc r a four-yearperiod.

Perhaps the delegation of ollective responsi-bility to faculties and sub - faculties constitutesthe new Act's most fundamenta. change in policy.The universities, however, havand therefore to a certain extenaversion to this collective respc

Priorities are rarely detersNevertheless, co-operation in wvalues are respected is possible

a traditional,understandable,

nsibility.fined jointly.

rich individualThe reforms

that are envisaged will require action by the uni-versities themselves, particular)It-iSEcrit-that some resistanceindividual members of the faculty

by the faculties .on the part ofwill have to be

overcome in implementing this reorganization,but the Dutch universities with the r strong tradi-tion of freedom and adaptability wi .1 surely meetthe challenge .

CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSION

The world in general and the world of science andeducation in particular, are in a continuous pro-cess of change . Scientific discoveries are beingmade at an ever-increasing rate and research isbecoming more and more exacting. Every pro-gramme of study calls for regular revision. Stu-dents are demanding more and more attentionboth inside and outside the framework of tuitionowing to the sheer weight of their numbers andtheir diverse backgrounds . Scientific staffs aregrowing bigger and their functions are becomingever more involved. Society must master theapplications of the newly acquired knowledgequickly if it is to continue to exist and it thereforeconstantly appeals to the universities. The nation'sdemand for university graduates continues to growand developing social consciousness at all levelsof the population stimulates the movement towardsthe halls of knowledge and the higher professions.Obviously the Government. to whom education isof incessant concern, cannot adopt a dilatory poli-cy towards this development,for greater foresightis expected of the Government than ever before.The Netherlands Government is fully aware of thisand pursues a positive policy in accordance witha well-considered long-term plan for the expansionof higher education, based on a thorough prelimin-ary study of all the relevant aspects. It is alsoaware that future developments will necessitatecontinuous adjustments.

The Netherlands Government hopes in thisway to provide the ever-increasing number of stu-dents with the best possible opportunities to deve-lop their personalities and, at the same time, todirect the Dutch potential of intellect and skill to-wards the service of economic progress. Edu-cational standards will have to be raised steadily

if the Netherlands is to hold its own in the inter-national struggle for existence and the right toeducation will have to become a reality at a rateparallel to that of economic development.

This by no means implies that science andeducation should be made subservient to economicpolicy. Science is not solely concerned with thematerial benefits and power that it bestows. Mancannot live by bread alone. Science is driven bythe inquisitive mind of Man who wants to under-stand himself in his relation to the highest valuesin life which will unite him, he hopes, with hisfellow man and with the world in which he lives.

It is in that spirit that education must helpto mould the students who will eventually fill posi-tions of responsibility in the community. It mustwiden their spiritual horizons, for only then cantheir specific knowledge and abilities function tothe best effect and stimulate a sense of human re-sponsibility.

Within this framework, the influence ofgovernment concern for higher education andscience is limited. A democratic governmentwill base its concern for eclue,:iion and science onthe freedom and individual responsibility of citi-zens. Authorities can do no more than providethe opportunities. Thi3 is done by indicating thebroad outlines along which they consider that futuredevelopments can best take place, and by provid-ing the means towards that end .

NB. Several passages of this survey have beencopied from official document and other publica-tions, e .g. de Schets van her NederlandseSchoolwezen by Prof. Dr. Ph. J. Idenburg,(1960).

75

ANNEXES

1. Growth of the average generations of IR and 10 year-olds, 1030-1005 (as at 31 December).

2. Increase in the number of graduates, 1900-10RO.3. Increase in the number of students 1000-1075.4. Average distribution of first-year students among

various faculties (in percentages).5. Comparative table for the academic years 1055/6

and I061/2,No. of students per university.6. Comparative table for the academic years 1055/6

and I061/2,No. of students per faculty.-7. Operating costs of and investments in the universi-

ties in the years 1048 -1062.R. Comparative table of operating costs of and invest-

ments in the universities in the years 1056 and1062.

ANNEX 1

Growth of the average generations of 18 and 19 year-olds,1930-1995 (as at 31 December).

1000 1000

without emigration

with emigration

79

ANNEX 2

Increase in the number of graduates, 1900-1980,in absolute figures and per 10 000 of the population

1900 1930 1955 1970(a) 1980(a)

abs. pe:10 000

abs. per10 000

abs. per10 000

abs. per10 000 abs. per

10 000

Arts 350 1 1 450 2 3 080 3 5 630 4 6 130 4

Theology 2 100 4 2 250 3 4 000 4 4 600 4 5 730 4

Law 3 200 6 4 240 5 9 480 0 12 400 10 14 250 10

Economics 230 0 3 500 3 7 600 6 11 150 2

Social sciences - - 50 570 0 1 800 1 2 950 2

Psychology - 250 1) 1 370 1 2 241) 2

Medicine 2 480 5 4 700 6 10 200 9 13 790 11 15 970 12

Dentistry 171, 0 800 1 2 160 2 4 050 3 5 540 4

Veterinary medicine 310 1 670 1 990 1 1 230 1 1 300 1

Natural sciences 1 0:10 2 2 150 3 4 160 4 0 150 7 13 660 10

Technical sciences 700 1 4 530 6 7 630 7 14 850 12 21 950 16

Agriculture 40 0 350 0 1 R00 2 2 520 2 3 730 3

Total 10 350 20 21 420 27 47 820 44 70 080 62 104 600 76

(a) Estimated requirements.

ANNEX 3

Increase in the number of students 1900-1975

1900 1938 1955 1965 1975

EstimatedSupply Demand

EstimatedSupply Demand

Arts

Theology

Law

Economics

Social sciencesPsychology

Medicine

DentistryVeterinary medicine

Natural sciencesTechnical sciencesAgriculture

Total

-

1

186

445

551

-

-315

-6R

430

716

55

1

1

1

3

1

1

063

829

434

081

--334

385

124

697

011

462

2

1

2

3

1

1

5

4

5

97 '

002

551

141

502

117

595

672

477

477-----

025

776

6 860

1 290

3 230100

7 340

NI)

680

R 930

11 070

1 630

2 580

1 290

5 000

6 450

1 750

1 320

2 21200

340

R 600

12 RRO

1 630

8 610

1 530

3 R80

6 730

4 470

2 900

0 410

2 210

830

11 290

13 520

1 990

3

1

6

2

1

6

2

10

15

1

010

530

110

800

0

590

510

570

390

735

610

990

3 775 12 220 20 397 53 430 49 340 66 370 59 900

sin the absence of any data it is assumed that in theology and agriculture the demand will be fully met by the supply.

80

ANNEX 4

Average distribution of first -year studentsamong various faculties .(in percentage)

1955/19571 1958/19622 1963/19672 1968/19722

Arts 13 9 6 4Theology 3 3 3 3

Law 8 12 10 10

Economics 11 13 14 14

Social sciences 6 3 SO 4

Psychology 4 3 3 10

Medic ine 12 11 10 10

Dentistry 2 4 4 4Veterinary medicine 1 1 1 1

Natural sciences 15 15 16 17

Technical sciences 22 23 25 26

Agriculture 3 3 4 4

Total 100 100 100 100

1, Actual figures2. Estimated require:

AN".:E.X 5

Comparative table for the acid: mic years 1955/56 and 1961/62No. of students per university

First-year students Total number of students

1955/56 1961/62 1955/56 1961/62

Absolute Index Absolute Index Absolute Index Absolute Index

State University at Leyden 624 100 010 147 4 266 100 5 731 134

State University at Groningen 313 100 723 231 2 248 100 3 732 166

State University at Utrecht S06 100 1 410 176 5 067 100 7 102 142

Municipal University atAmsterdam Rii 100 1 134 140 6 320 100 7 430 fig

Free (Calvinistic) Universityat Amsterdam 39`3 100 566 142 2 096 100 3 330 159

Catholic University atNijmegen 435 100 760 177 1 737 100 3 371 194

State Technological Universityat Delft 957 100 1 260 133 5 025 100 7 176 143

State Technological Universityat Eindhoven 420 1 342

Netherlands Institute ofEconomics at Rotterdam 2 3n 100 420 187 1 245 :100 .. N.24 171

Roman Catholic Institute atTilburg 100 100 220 220 617 100 1 023 166

Agricultural University atWageningen 165 100 248 150 776 100 1 214 15'

Total 4 840 100 8 125 16R 20 307 100 43 660 140

81

ANNEX 6

Comparative table for the academic years 1955/56 and 1961/62No. of students per kculty

First-year students Total number of students

1955/56 1961/62 1955/56 1961/62

Absolute Index Absolute Index Absolute Index Absolute Index

Arts 622 100 1 081 163 2 972 Inn 6 165 207

Theology 141 100 13 94 1 002 100 971 80

Law 341 100 662 195 2 551 100 3 3Rn 133

Economics 506 100 934 185 3 141 100 4 691 149

Social sciences 330 100 525 160 1 502 Ion 3 n03 200

Psychology 213 100 277 130 1 117 100 1 6QR 152

Medicine 625 100 476 140 5 505 100 5 564 (")(")

Dehtistry 95 100 203 214 672 100 930 140

Veterinary medicine 71 100 115 162 477 100 501 105

Natural sciences 734 100 1 373 187 4 477 100 7 058 158

Technical sciences 057 100 1 699 177 5 025 100 9 519 170

Agriculture 165 100 249 150 776 100- 1 191 152

Total 4 R40 100 R 125 169 29 307 100 43 660 149

ANNEX 7

Operating costs of and investments in the universitiesin the years 1948 - 19621

(multiples of f 1 million; f 1.- = $ 0.28)

Year Operating costs2 Investments3 Year Operating costs2 Investments3

1948 17 964 1 751 1056 62 R31 24 1901949 21 614 3 468 1957 77 766 38 034

1950 26 701 3 997 1058 06 193 56 016

1051 3n 487 4 705 1959 Ins 722 69 440

1952 3n Rii R 612 1060 125 R65 96 ROO

1953 37 107 13 545 1 1061 167 s09 137 500

1q54 43 65n 17 905 1062 106 183 151 104

1955 52 349 21 062

I. Excluding the Agricultural University at Wageningen; investments for Municipal University at Amsterdamsince 1958 only; perating for costs Municipal University at Amsterdam since 196] only.

2. Excluding the academic hospitals.3. Including the academic hospitals.

82

ANNEX 8

Comparative table of operating costs of and investments in the universitiesin the years, 1956 and 19621

(multiples of I I million; j 1.-=$ 0.28)

Operating costs2 Investment s3

1956 1962 1956 1962

AbsolUte Index Absolute Index Absolute Index Absolute Index

State University at Leyden 12 465 100 29 080 232 3 3')7 100 17 500 515

State University at Groningen 8 000 100 18 050 "L26 2 758 100 10 700 388

State University at Utrecht 15 686 100 34 606 221 4 516 100 16 604 368

Municipal University atAmsterdam 26 691 21 000

Free (Calvinistic) Universityat Amsterdam 3 06q 100 9 550 311 1 953 100 10 000 512

Catholic University atNijmegen 4 616 100 17 450 387 4 463 100 18 500 415

State TechnologicalUniversity at Delft 17 669 100 39 486 244 6,542 100 25 800 394

State TechnologicalUniversity at Eindhoven 197 17 595 551 23 000

State TechnologicalUniversity at Enschede 675 2 500

Netherlands Institute ofEconomics at Rotterdam 678 100 1 850 273 2 500

Roman Catholic Institute ofEconomics at Tilburg 452 100 1 1.50 254 3 000

Total 62 831 100 196 183 312 24 180 100 151 104 625

I. Excluding the Agricultural University at Wageningen.2. Excluding the academic hospitals.3. Including the academic hospitals.

83

PART THREE

HIGHER EDUCATION IN POLANDby

Z. RatuszniakDirector, Department of Planning

Ministry of Higher Education, Warsaw

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Poland may well be proud of the considerableprogress it has made, since the Second WorldWar, in the field of higher education. The num-ber of institutions of higher education in Polandincreased from 27 in the academic year 1938-1939, to 76 in 1960-1961. The number of studentsincreased proportionately: more than 170,000 in1961 as compared with approximately 50,000 in1938. This increase is even more appreciablewhen the number of students per 10,000 inhabi-tants is considered: 14.4 in 1938 and 56.6 in 1961.The nember of faculties and departments has in-creased accordingly: at present, there are morethan 300 faculties, 99 correspondence courses andalmost 2,500 departments . After the war, between1946 and 1961, approximately 270,000 graduatescompleted their higher studies, as compared withonly 85,000 between 1918 and 1939. This increasewas accompanied by profound qualitative changesand particularly by the democratization of highereducation. It may be said, very briefly, that thisdemocratization is reflected in the enlargement ofthe network of higher educational establishmentsand in the wide opportunities for higher educationavailable to the children of workers and peasantsafter the completion of their secondary schooling,and also to workers , as the activities of highereducational establishments and the needs of thecountry and of the population are more and Moreclosely co-ordinated.

This undoubtedly represents an enormous ad-vance, particularly for a country in which the warwiped out nearly 42 per cent of the national re-sources and the Nazi occupiers systematically de-stroyed all cultural property. The couvtry,hasbeen able, however, to carry out large-isc4e in-dustrialization arid .expand its system of generalsecondary schOols and technical%schools as theindispensable basis for higher education.

/What were th circumstances in which uchprogress was achieved? Are these advances theresult of the spontaneous development ofpcfwerfulforces or of planning? Linked up with the'develop-ment of the country's productive forces al..t.1 with-its culture, they were rendered possible or.ly bythe changes brought about in Poland as a sequel tothe Second World War.

As in other countries, higher education in Po-land was, and still is, closely related to the cir-cumstances of the country's history. The historyof the develt...)ment of public education and of schoolsystems shows that every State organizes its edu-cational system with a view to preparing the citizen

36

to work and live in given social and political con-ditions . Thus, in order to understand the essence,content and place of higher education in Poland,it is necessary to have a true and accurate ideaof its function, which is determined by the trendsand aims of State policy.

This function was defined Article 1 of theLaw on Higher Educational Establishments of5 November 1958 (Official Gazette, No.68). Thisarticle states that higher education shall play anactive part in the establishment and consolidationof socialism in the Polish People's Republic by:

carrying out creative scientific research;training scientific workers and preparing them

for research and teaching;training highly qualified scientific personnel;developing the national culture and promoting tech-

nical progress.

The object is to make higher education an integralpart of the life of the country and to associate itwith all national acuities. However, no radicalchange has been made in the actual organization ofhigher education in Poland. Only its aims, scopeand place in the country's economy have changed .Higher education is provided in State establish-ments, but there are two schools, financed by theState, whose programme of activities forms partof a much bigger programme applied on a nation-wide scale.

As is well known, the Polish economy is aplanned economy, involving definition of the aimsof economic activity and the means of achievingthem. Programmes are ratified by the competentbodies (National Economic Planning Service, Dietor Government) and provide directives for the exe-cutive agencies . At the higher level, the followingplans are prepared: (a) advance long-term plans;(b) national economic plans for several yearsahead; (c) annual national economic plans. Eachnational plan comprises the plans of the differentministerial departments and there is an economicplan for higher education forming part of the nation-al plan. Such a plan specifies not only the tasks ofhigher education, but also the resources needed

-arrying them out: building of new schools,students' hostels, percentage of students to beawarded scholarships and other forms of assistance,building of luring accommodation for scientificworkers, ec ',ping of schools and laboratorieswith the necessary scientific apparatus, etc. Itwould, however, be over-simplifying matters to

conclude that higher education is governed solelyby economic directives and that the higher educa-tion plan is simply an economic plan; for the acti-vities of a..higher educational establishment areessentially complex. The idea of planning as ap-plied to higher education is therefore much morecomprehensive than the idea of planning as appliedto economic activity.

The higher education plan is essentially abroad overall plan comprising a whole series ofindividual plans. For instance, the national eco-nomic plan includes a directive concerning thetraining, within a given time, of a specified num-ber of graduates in various specialized fields cor-responding to ;the tasks to be undertaken by thenational economy. While, however, this aim isset before those in charge of higher education andthe schools themselves, account also has to betaken of other factors concerning young people be-fore their admission to higher educational estab-lishments, during their studies at such establish-- ments and later on when they are in employment.The higher educational authorities would be guiltyof an unpardonable error if thinking solely of thenumber of specialists needed by the country, theywere interested only in quantitative results. Infact, they are equally concerned with giving gradu-ates the best possible training combined with thebest possible education, making them not onlyspecialists but also citizens, broad-minded menconscious of their tasks and social respon.ibilitiesin their particular field of work. Whether he isdestined to become a teacher or a production man-ager in an industrial establishment, an agricul-turist or a builder, the future graduate must alwayspossess, besides the knowledge which is the stockin trade for his chosen profession, Ugh moral andintellectual qualities, and a certain prestig.: whichcan come only from his value as a man and a citi-zen. One more gesiieral remark is necessary: ifplanning In higher education is taken to mean abody of directives concerning the achievement ofspecified aims, the "directives" can in no case be

identified with "orders" from the higher authorities.The university is an institution with specific cha-racteristics, which has taken shape through thecenturies and has its own traditions, its own styleand its own methods of work. In this case ,"direc-lives" must be understood to denote a series ofrecommendations drawn up in conjunction with thehigher educational establishments. This is theonly procedure likely to be effective and-to achievethe ends in view. This collaboration betweenaca-demic circles and the Department of Higher Edu-cation is ensured by the Law on Higher EducationalEstablishments . Independently of thi. legal guaran-tee, the whole practice of higher education duringrecent years shows that the important problems ofa higher educational establishment - problems whichconstitute an element in planning - are settled afterdiscussion with the future implementers of the planor, in other words, in the main, with academic cir-cles.

Lastly, higher educational planning is in aclass apart, in that the "subject", as well as the"object", of this planning is man, with his person-ality, his passions and his intelligence. It is be-cause of this that the discharge of tasks in highereducation can never become an automatic process.Necessary changes and corrections have to be made,though they should not - at least in principle - alterthe initial policy lines.

It is scarcely possible to speak of a single"plan" for higher education. Higher educationalestablishments pursue a variety of aims: thetraining of students and of new scientific person-nel; many kinds of scientific research,:and refreshercourses for staff in employment; practical studiesand technical development work. It is thereforemore accurate to speak of plans or, better, of theprogrammes of higher educational establishments.

Following these general rem.-...1-ks, whose prac-tical significance will become clearer in the restof this study, I should like to speak about planningprocedure and methods, as well as the organizationof higher education.

37

C H A 1) E 11 II

PROCEDURE AND METHODS OF PLANNING

The five-year plan for higher education (1961-1965)is now under way. At the same time, work hasstarted in connexion with the twenty-year long-term plan (1961-1980) relating to the developmentof the national economy. Although not yet comple-ted, the main lines of the plan are already known.It is expected that, during these twenty years, Li-dustrial production will increase by approximately500 per cent, agricultural production by almost200 per cent and the national income by about400per cent. The implementation of this plan will en-tail further changes in the country's economic andsocial structure. In this connexion, higher educa-tion will have an important part to play, as it willhave to provide highly qualified specialists for allfields of human activity. The increased proportionof higher-grade staff needed in the total labourforce is a feature of industrialization.

The need for a long-term plan for the futureof higher education is obvious when it is borne inmind that the graduates who will complete theirhigher studies during the implementation of theplan will have to carry out the tasks involved in thedevelopment of the country's economy. The five-year economic development plans, drawn up in theordinary v,.:y, are insufficient, as the training ofspecialists who have had a higher education usuallytakes more than five years. A longer iime-span..snecessary in order to prepare the requisite infra-str...cture (ne,,, educational buildings, new students'ho s, etc.) and staff.

It is true that reservations may be made withrespect to the assessment of the needs for qualifiedstaff, which is based on economic planning spreadover several years, particularly if we bear in mindthe technical hanges that are taking place in ourtime . Nevertheless, if it be accepted that the planfor higher education is a body of directives, policytrends and forecasts which, as the plan is carriedout, will have to be modified, corrected and sup-plemented in accordance with new needs, there canbe no question that the drawing up of such a planandthe preparation of higher educational establishmentsfor the performance of new tasks in accordanceFiththat plan are completely justified.

Before the main wor.c for the preparation ofthe higher educational plan was started a numberof investigations were carried out to give an ideaof the present situation.

The statistics complied by the CentralStatisti-cal Office and the samplings carried out in all sec-tors of tie economy showed that,inl9r,O, the number.)f persons who had had a higher educationfell short

88

by approximately 59,000, of the target previouslyfixed. Estimates were then made of the increasein the numbers of such personnel wanted by 1980for each branch of the national economy, these cal-culations being based on the assumptions of thelong-term plan with regard to increases in indutrialand agricultural production, in services and generalemployment, the development of technology and theincrease in the productivity of labour. Severalmethods were used for making these calculations,such as fob evaluation and systems of norms andindices . For many branches of the economy, sys-tems of norms, devised by experts, were used,e.g.:

in agriculture, the number of specialists withformal agricultural training per farming unit,per village and per 1,000 hectares of arableland; the number of veterinarians per animalhealth centre and per 1,000 animals, etc .;

in forestry, the number of specialists per admini-strative unit and per 1,000 hectares of forest;

in primary and secondary education, the numberof teachers per class;

in higher education, the number of students super-vised by each research director or assistant;

in the health service, the ratio of staff numbers tosize of population.

in some branches of industry, indices were reliedon, i.e. it was accepted as a principle thatthe rate of increase of personnel with universitylevel training should be faster than that ofgeneral employment, slower than the rate olincrease of production, and approximating thatof work productivity;

for scientific institutes and other research estab-lishments, the principle adopted was that thenumber of workereought to double in ten years.

To secure an accurate idearbf the needs for gradu-ates of higher educational establishments, theconsiderations to be taken into account are that itwill be necessary (a) to increase the number ofposts; (b) to bring numbers up to strength, replac-ing men lacking the required qualifications; (c) tofill vacancies (due to death and retirement on reach-ing the age-limit,or health reasons). The require-ments under (c) were calculated from the tables drawnup for the various professions and the mortalitystatistics . The population census revealed that theemployment of women in the various professionshad had some influence on the total wastage.

c!,

For teachers, etc. in higher education, theapproximate wastage calculated was between 1.7and 2.5% .

The surveys were carried out by many teamsof experts set up by the Planning Commissionattached to the Council of Ministers, and consist-ing of economists, members of the teaching staffof higher educational establishments, statisticians,demographers, etc. Their operations made itpossible to give the Ministry of Higher Education

an indication of the requirements for higher-gradestaff up to 1980; these can be summarized asnecessitating the training of three times as manygraduates as can now be turned out by establish-ments of higher education.

Many countries need to increase the numberof trained higher-grade staff and the data relatingto staffing requirements show a degree of regu-larity.

89

CHAPTEll III

THE FUTURE ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The target figures thus worked out were submittedfur detailed analysis to the Ministry of higher Edu-cation, which thereupon started preparing a planfor the exparminn of higher education for the periodup to 1980.

'Faking the view that the considerations govern-ing the planning of higher education do not relatesolely to the national economy, the Ministry ofHigher Education has set up teams to investigate,from all angles, the various problems posed andto make recommendations in the light of theirfindings. These pointers are calculated to help thehigher educational establishments in both the quan-titative and qualitative attainment of their object-ives .

The teams consist of persons directly involvedin, and responsible for, the workof the highereducational establishments - from faculty membersand administrators down to representatives ofstudents' organizations.

While the plan is still in course of preparation,a certain number of questions and general ideashave already been pin-pointed.

If the problem of the increasing tasks fal-ling on higher educational establishments is to besolved, we have to begin by recognizing that nogreat change can be brought about in the next fewyears. The fact is that the number of students ad-mitted has been constant for some years past.Clearly, therefore, no quantitative increase canoccur instantaneously. Further, there is littlepossibility of increasing the numbers of first-yearstudents , since the intake and output of the exist-ing establishments are limited by their accom-modation and the number of teachers. Hence theurgent tasks are: (a) to expand the existing esta-blishments and build new ones; (b) to constructstudy and living accommodation for students; (c) toprovide for the training of university staff in suf-ficient numbers for teaching and research.

We can thus expect some quantitative improve-ment in higher educational establishments in thefinal years of the 1966-1970 five-year plan, 1-zt. inabsolute figures the aprreciable increase in . urn-bens of students, and hence of graduates, will takeplace between 1971 and 1980.

Once the number of graduates to be reachedwas k: own,, an estimation of the total number ofstudents became practicable. Here a very import-ant question arises, namely the outcome of thehigher educational establishments' work. In otherwords, we need to know the number of students tobe dealt with in each year, from the first to the

90

year of graduation, to secure the desired numberof graduates,and the Ministry of Higher Educationhas undertaken an analysis of this for each yearof each degree course. There is no doubt that thechief of the problems raised by the considerableincrease in the requirements for university-trained personnel is that of the yield from educa-tion. Achieving, if possible, a high percentageof graduations within the set periods ensures aspeedier rise in the 'umber of specialists for thenational economy. Considering the question ofretardation and wastage solely in terms of the ex-pense is too narrow an approach, it has anotheraspect which is at least as important, namely itseducational and hence social implications. ftwould unquestionably be useful to undertake investi-gations, even on an international scale, of the ex-penditure and social consequences attributable toirregular and delayed studies. The Ministry ofHigher Education has fairlj precise and systema-tically compiled statistics which show that, al-though an improvement has been noted of late years,achievement an %sicluity are still not satisfact-ory, with the h st percentage of failures occur-ring in the first year. For the purpose of gaininga more accurate idea of the phenomenon, theauthorities looked further than the statistics, andthe "Higher Education Research Centre" of theMinistry (under the charge of a well-known socio-logist, Professor Jan Szczepanski), conductedsurveys among first-year students; from which'itemerges that, among the initial difficulties, mustbe included a number connected -tth the change ofatmosphere on leaving secondary school. Amongthe students questioned, 42.8% cor. licl..:red that theg.?atest difficulty at the beginning of their univer-sity course lay in the impossibility of contact withtheir teachers . The majority found their maindifficulty in organizing the studies systemati-cally, in the lack of "teac. in their own edu-cational deficilnces or, 'hull lack of interest.Taking ,;n too laud-, and time ).sting are obstaclesto study for over 30% of students. Of those sur-veyed, 23.7% studied regularly, 17.3% studiedonly before the examinations, and about 50%stu.'ied from time to time, with a burst beforeexaminations. It would be over-simplication toblame this state of affairs on the students or onthe teachers exclusively. The problem is a com-plex one and probably arises in many countries. Itis due essentially to the fact that a secondaryschool differs in kind from a school of higher edu-cation. For the adolescent there is an abrupt shirt

from the method to which has been accustomedin secondary school to that in use in higher educa-tion. In secondary school he had a teacher'ssupervision and "direction" almost daily; in thesenior establishment he becomes an often anony-mous unit in a large crowd and the results of hiswork are assessed only at examination time and atthe periodical progress check-ups. Between oneterm and the next the adolescent becomes "adult","independent" and unsuperv,sed. These points areimportant; very often the fact of bring free andindependent, with new people all around him, goesto the student's head, and this is automaticallyaccompanied by some decline in his industry.

Aftcr thoro igh discussions by professors athigher educational establishments and leading educa-tionists, a scneme has been evolved to improve thesituation. Its main features are as follows:

1. Stress will be la:.d on the "tutorial" roleof the independent research workers in the organi-zation of each department's teaching and on im-proving the actual teaching qualifications of thelecturers and associates.

2. Programmes will be recast once againand the number of lecture periods reduced so asto give more time to assignments and practicalwork. Priority will be given to the basic subjects.

3. Investigations will be undertaken with aview to introducing more effective universityteaching methods, with special attention to in-creasing the interest of assignments and exercisesthrough the use orteterision, radio anc morescience films.

4 . Studies and scientific research on theteaching principles applicable in university-levelschools will be undertaken.

5. The organization of instruction and studyregulations will be improved to deepen the sense ofdiscipline in their work among the young.

6. The conditions for students' personal workwill be improved (a) by a better supply of univer-sity textbooks (a separate plan is being worked outfor this purpose); (b) by developing the networkof university libraries, faculty libraries and auxi-liary libraries in student hostels.

7. Endeavours will be made to broaden thescope of students' science-club activities (by in-creasing grants to the clubs) and to draw in giftedstudents in larger numbers.

8. Special attention will be directed to first-year tud.ants. Teaching in that year will be verycarefull.. organized's° as to :,elp students in grad-ually making the transition from the work habitsof school to working on their own; dividing first-year students into small groups under experiencedguidance and instituting a system of compulsory"tutorials" should help them to make the grade formoving on to their second year.

Obviously the successful implementation ofthis scheme depends on many factors, and most ofall on the active co-operation of teaching staff andstudents. It is difficult to estimate its effects.Leaving aside the so-ial implications, even a 2 or

3% increase in the proportion of students comple-ting their courses as scheduled would make a sub-stantial quantitative difference.

Another question which should be given closeconsideration when the long-term plan for highereducation is drawn up is the basis of recruitment.In other words, accurate forecasts are needed ofthe number of candidates for the higher education-al establishments.- They consist of those who haveattended general secondary schools and hold the.senior secondary leaving certificate , former pup-ils of technical- schools whose leaving certificatesrank with the general senior secondary certificate,and a proportion of unsuccessful candidates fromearlier years who have still not given up hope ofhigher education.

From careful observation of population move-ments by the Central Statistical Office and by demo-graphers, and in the light of the development plansfor general and technical education, it has beenpossible to form a clear picture of the situation,while data collected over a number of years en-able an estimate to be made of the approximatepercentage of all canal,. +es sitting the entranceexamination who are likely to pass. It is thusknown that the number of school-leavers in anyyear accepted for higher education represents from42 to 50% of the successful output from gei,eralsecondary schools and about 15% of the ou' putfrom technical schools (the remainder startingwork in their trades). In this way it haS been pos-sible to extract the numbers of candidates forhigher educational establishments for the periodup to 1980, and the figures show that the steadygrowth of the population in Poland And, even more,the progressive extension of secondary educationcreate the necessary conditions for a larger andlarger higher education intake.

The second important factor in the basis ofrecruitment is assistance to young peoplemaking their choice of course , entailingthe organization of what is commonlycalled "educational guidance". The conclusionsemerging from extensive discussions on the pointare that adequate arrangements for the informationof the young arc needed when they reach second-ary school stage, and it is even argued that guid-ance should commence as early as possible."Guidance and information" is provided in variousforms (from what is given by secondary schoolteachers, or by student clubs down to informationbooklets of all kinds). In Poland, so-called mathe-matics and physics Olyrnpiads(1) are arranged forschoolchildren and the teaching staff of higher edu-cational establishments give series of popularscience lectures.

The problem has a second facet. In Polandacceptance for higher education is conditional onpassing an entrance examination which, in certaincases, is competitive. The conduct, importanceand needfulness of entrance examinations are

(1) Tournaments, contests.

91

perennial subjects of discussion, on which thereis often disagreement, and much has been pub-lished ,)n the nature, requirements, conditions andorganization of these examinations . The essentialdispute is about the usefulness of entrance exami-nations. Most of the teaching staff of higher edu-cational establishments believe they are neces-sary as not all holders of the senior secondarycertificate have the qualities necessary for highereducation. Others assert that these examinationsare useless and argue either that they are a mererepetition of the leaving certificate examination orthat they cannot constitute an adequate basis forjudging a candidate's suitability for higher educa-tion. Yet another school of thought claims thatentrance examinations run counter to the principleof the democratization of higher education, whichshould consist first and foremost in absolutely un-restricted access to it. Hence, however, we musttake into account the fact that the establishmentsof higher education have only a limited number ofplaces and that it is impossible to accept allthosewho would like to enter; and furthermore, thenumbers of teaching staff remain inadequate, des-pite constantly rising numbers of lecture roomsand of places in laboratories, mechanical drawingstudios, etc. Further, the Polish State not onlybears the cost of tuition, but also provides studenthostels (accommodating nearly 60% of the studentbody), scholarships (for more than 50% of the stu-dents), canteens, etc., and without these facilities,"unrestricted access" t) higher education would,in many cases, be an empty pretence, with demo-cratization coming down to the right to "camp inthe hobo jungle". For democratization to be morethan nominal, allowance must be made f ^ all theobstacles to the pursuit of higher educa: , whethergeographical (access to the big towns where thehigher educational establishments are located) or-material. Obviously, none of these arguments canlessen the feeling of frustration of those not selec-ted, though we may hope that this feeling will dis-appear later on, when the sufferer is in employ-ment, as a result of free access to evening schoolsand correspondence courses. As things now are,care must be taken to make thc examination as ob-jective as possible. The Ministry of Higher Edd-cation, Unive y Senates(1), and Faculty Councilsmake the nee,. ry arrangements each year to en-sure that the elsuminations are as satisfactory aspossible. Before the examinations, the examinersand secondary school teachers coLfer on methods,time-tables, reconciliation of the requirements ofthe several examining boards, etc . The Ministryof Higher Education recommends that, whereverpossible, university teachers should be the exami-ners and, at the last, should supervise the conductof the examination. Representatives of the schoolinspectorate also takt_ part(2) . The reports on theexaminations are me st carefully analysed both by ithe Ministry of Higher Education and by the Ministry.of Education and thus are of assistance in improv-ing secondary education.

92

It :,hould also be realized that the process ofselecting the candidates is delicate and complex.Sustained observation and research are requiredand the procedures cannot be regarded as immut-able.

Another question requiring discussion is thatof the social structure of the student body. Thishas altered fundamentally in Poland in favour ofthe worker and peasant classes, as can be seenfrom the following table:

Academic

Year

Class origins of students in ";Artisans Others

Induntrial workers Peasants Intellectuals

1937/38 8.9 8.01961/62 26.3 X19.0

51.5(1)

49.2 4.6(1) combined intellectual and artisan

25,60.9

Changes so radical in the social structure onlybecame possible as a result of the political changesin Poland after the Second World War.

The wide network of secondary schools opento the children both of workers and of peasants,and the development of welfare facilities in highereducation (student hostels, scholarships, canteens,medical assistance) have made such education pos-sible on a large scale, for people excluded, formaterial reasons, before the war.

Once the total numbers to be accepted forhigher education had been calculated and budgetsdrawn up on that basis,'student welfare plans w( reworked out, notably

\h scheme for expanding the

groups of university residences . Between now and1980, the Ministry of Higher Education plans toraise the percentage of students accommodated instudent hostels to 70% of the total, an increasewarranted by the larger numbers of students whowill be comin -rom towns and villages at a dist-ance from the university centres. Great effortsare also being made in the case of university ear -teen services. A scholarship scheme has beenworked out and it is clear that, if the present pro-portion of grant-aided students - 55.9% - is to bemaintained, the scholarship appropriations willhave to be increased considerably.

An item in the general plan for higher educa-tion meriting separate treatment is the developmentof higher education for people in work (evening and.correspondence courses). Before the war, nothingof the kind existed in Poland and the system hasgrown up only over the last few years. Today, thevalue of such studies is unquestioned and theirscale is steadily growing. E: verience confirmstheir great cultural value; and their political,

(1) Cowl, tlo consisting of deans and heads of de-partments and institutes, under the chairman-ship of the Rector.

(2) Representing the State education authorities.

social, and economic silt .ificance as factors inthemodernization of industry, the organization oflabour, etc ., is also realized.

Evening schools may help in the setting up ofcultural centres and contribute to the intellectualdevelopment of areas which have hitherto had nohigher educational establishments . The studentstaking these courses are experienced men and wo-men who have acquired a vast store.of practicalknowledge in their employment; most of them aremarked by ambition and a sense of method. It isplanned to set up special centres to develop newteaching methods better adapted to this kind ofeducation.

Particular points in mind F.re: (1) to draw inmore teachers; (2) to enlist well-known expertsin the economic sphere for lecturing; (3) to stepup research on t. aching methods and to use rat ,

television, films, etc. as means of improving ti:courses; (4) to ensure that students are duly sup-plied with textbooks and guides on method; (5) todevelop the workers education network by usingthe universities and other existing s.:hools ofhigher studies; (6) to increase the number of tu-torial centres where students can get practic ad-vice. A special convention is being drafted re-quiring managements to give time off and assist-

ance to workers taking such cdurses.The foregoing are the essentials of the scheme

for the instruction of students in higher educationalestablishments. The plan is not yet in its finalform and it will undoubtedly be amended or ampli-fied in many particulars. One thing is certain:that the execution of a scheme conceived on solarge a scale will have a profound influence on theeconomy and culture of the country.

Another plan of great importance worked outin the higher educational establishments with thehelp of the Ministry of Higher EduCation is the pro-

.gramme of scientific research.In Poland, the universities and schools of

higher studies, the ins, itutes of the PolishAcademyof Sciences, the industrial institutes maintained byMinistries and other research centres, centrallaboratories, building design departments, etc .,all c,rry on research. Nevertheless, the majorscientific potential is represented by the schoolsof higher education, with over 2,400 departmentsand nearly 16,000 research workers. The finan-cing of research and of the scientific equipmentneeded for all these departments is the responsi-bility of the Sta.*: bodies under which are the schoolsof higher education: The Polish Academy ofSciences collaborates in the planning, organizationand co-ordination of the scientific research carriedon by all Polish scientific institutions. More par-ticularly, it submits to the Council of Ministersproposals concerning the needs of Polish scienceand its organization, and reports on the qmpleme.n-tation of' research plans. The first national five-year plan (1961-1965) covers 97 items of specialimportance for the Polish economy and Polish cul-ture.

The plan assigns an important share of thework to the higher educational establishments,whose research activities cover 94 items, but,independently of the plan, they also carry out asecond programme of their own. The nationalplan, designated by the symbol "P" (from the word"Panstwo"(1)), and the plan of the university de-partments, with the symbol "R" (from the word"Ilesort"(2)), are equal in importance and status.The plans of individual departments are submittedto the Faculty Councils and the Senates of thehigher educational establishments, which take intoconsideration not simply the interest of the re-search projects in themselves, but also their fea-sibility. The plans then go to the Ministry ofHigher Education, where they are evaluated by es-pe.-"Fts distinguished research workers speciallyappointed for the duty by the Minister. On recei;ltof a favourable report on a departmental plan, theMinister incorporates it in the national plan. Aswill he noted, the role of the Ministry is to co-ordinate and finance scientific research, the for-mer by backing up scientific institutions, ensuringthe concordance of their research programmes,circulating information on the progress of theplans, eliminating obstacles, and finding means ofputting the results to practical use. The Ministryorganizes conferences where representatives ofthe departments concerned discuss problems aris-ing in the execution of the plans and evaluae theprogress of the work. Reports by individual de-partments are sent to the Ministry, which usesthem to prepare information bulletins o; the re-sults achieved, for circulation to those concerned.

Plans con, or may have to be, amended inclurse of execution in respect alike of content andof time schedule.-.:.,

The higher education teaching .staff consistsof full professors, readers or "docents ", andassistant staff (assistants, senior assistants andassociate professorS). The research staff areaided by a large number of instructors, lecturers,librarians, engineers, technicians, laboratorystaff, labourers, etc., and it is on these numbersand standard that the standard of the establishment,and hence automatically of the yield of its work,depend. Nevertheless, the docents and professorshave a key role, and their intellectual level, crea-tivity, experience, teaching ability, ethics, in-dustry, and intellectual honesty are decisive fac-tors in the quality of higher education. The lead-ing place of science in the modern world and icslinks with practical affairs, the setting up of avastnetwork scientific institutes and other researchbodies, and the `ever- growing quantitative demandfor university-trained staff, have all played theirpart in substantially enhancing the prestige of thescientist and adding to the numbers of scientific

(1) State .(2) Ministry - also applied to individual branches

of national activity.

9.3

personnel in the develope countries. Statistics,for the period 1950-1960 show that, in the SovietUnion, the number of scientific workers rose from162,0.-J to over 350,900 (Statistileskij Sbornik,1960). In the United States of America, in 1960,the staff of higher educational establishments num-bered nearly 250,000 (N. Stanford, The AmericanCollege). The studies carried out by Unesco(Current Trends in Scientific Research, by PierreAuger, Unesco 1/61) show that, simply to mai»7tain the present proportion of scientific personnel,an annual increase of about 3% on the absolutefigures is necessary, but if we take into accountthe contemporary expansion of science and tech-nology, an extra 10% must be trained every year,which means doubling the numbers every tenyears.This trend, observable in all civilized societies,i,s also operative in Poland. However, the country'sspecial situation, in particula, the devastation itsuffered during the war; and the upsurge of itseconomy and its culture in the post-war period,.nake specially energetic measures essential.

At the beginning of 1961, in accordance withthe Government's recommendations, work beganon the 1961-1970 overall plan for the expansion ofscientific staffs. The executive agency was theMinistry of Higher Education, and attention wasnot confined to educational establishments but alsodirected to other research establishments, thestitutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences, in-

dustrial institutes and centra., laboratories. Thedrafting of the plan was r,receded by a successionof studies designed to identify the factors whichmay, to a greater or lesser degree, hamper thetraining of new scientifi : personnel. For instance,studies were made of the ages of professors andassistants, the degree of interest taken by profes-sors in the training of young scientists, the aver-age time required to obtain scientific degrees(Doctor's and Docent's) and the ratio of professorsand assistants to students.

For planning purposes, the following classifi-cation of sciences was followed: I. Social sciencesand law; II. Economics; (Ii. Natural and exactsciences (mathematics and physics); IV. Techno-logy; V. Agriculture and forestry; VI. Mec calsciences.

The plar ,nx.red for the period 1961-1970deals with the

number of doctors' degrees;number of docents' degrees;numbers of teaching staff in industrial and

agricultural institutes;numbers of auxiliary staff, engineers and

technicians.For the period 1961-'965, the plan was based onthe estimates of the Faculty Councils of higher edu-cational estaolishments and other institutions, aftercutting their figures for doctorates and docents'licences through fears of over optimism, by 25 to30% . A different method was used for tl e 1965-1970 plan, for which the forecast of docte-ates

94

taken in 1964 was used to determine the numberof docents in 1965-1970 on an estimated percentagebasis . Obviously, the number of do,: orates awardedis directly dependent on the number of candidatesfor the degree. The latter come mainly from theranks of assistants and associates in schools ofhighe studies and other scientific institutions.Others are employees in various building-designoffices and research departments and it has beennoted, of recent years, that the degree attrac'sengineers working in industry. However, themajority of the doctors come from among thejunior academic personnel, i.e. those who havechosen science as a career, and it is thereforeplanned to make large increases in f.ne numbersof assistants and associates as a means of increas-ing the number of doctors.

The calculations showed that, by 1970,-thenumber of doctors could be almost quadrupled,with special attention to selected fields such as thenatural and exact sciences, and technology, while2 whole series of expedients and measures wouldensure that the average age of doctors was be-t,en 29 and 30.

The plan for the academic rank of docent, forthe period 1961-1965, was prepared on the basisof the detailed proposals made by-Faculty Councils,with a precautionary reduction of their estimatesjust as in the plan for doctorates. For the period1965-1970, the plan has been based on the antici-pated number of doctorates conferred between thepresent date and 1965, on the assumption thatabout 40% would qualify for the academic rank ofdocent.

In the plan worked out, there are two distinctstages, the first for the period of past and futureincrease in the number 9S-doctors and the secondior that in which the_nUinber of docents will in-crease. It may he -noted that over 3,000 doctors'degrees were - conferred from 1959 to 1961 alone .

These data made it possible to calculate theprospective growth in the number of researchworkers on the basis of: (a) present numbers andage structure (with allowance for wastage) and(b) the pla 'lied number of docents' licences amongpresent holders of a doctor's degree or those secur-ing one between now and 1964. A two .and-a-half-fold increase in the number of research workersby 1970 is expected and concurrently, the age struc-ture of this cat. dory should change for the better .

Finally, the numbers of junior staff wereplanned in the light of the following considerations:need to create the cLditions essential for recruit-

ing Prospective i esearch workers:expected rise in the number of students;!heed to keep a proper numerical proportion be-

tween professors and assistants;estimate of the development needs and trends in

the various scientific institutions.Numbers in this category should almost double be-

tween now and 1970.

A plan on this scale requires the application of awhole series of measures: which are specified in

the plan (judicious selection of scientific personnel,organization of their training, etc.).

Over the selection of candidates for careersin science, the choice cannot be left to the initia-tive of the young themselves. It is the duty of theirteachers to channel them towards research afterobserving their abilities and their interest in theselected branch. Students' clubs provided tea-chers attend their meetings can provide an op-portunity for such observation. Consideration isbeing given to increasing the number of scholarshipsfor students evincing an interest in research. In1961, an experiment was tried out in higher edu-cational establishments which seems likely to givesatisfactory results: namely,the institution of trialassistantship. Deans of faculties are authorizedto select graduates for twelve-month appointmentsas probationers, during which period they are at-tached to a department to prove whether or not theyare capable of becoming research workers lateron. We can reasonably expect that this systemwill allow of efficient selection of new assistants.

Scholarships are granted by the Minister onthe advice of Faculty Councils to individuals suf-ficiently advanced in the preparation of their doc-i-,ral theses and their work for the docent's licence,but, in view of the shortages in certain branches oflearning, a special type of training, known as 'doc-toral studies" has been started in higher educa-tional establishments at doctorate Thesecourses are provided in those depart. gents wherethe kind of staff and equipment desired are avail-able, and are reserved for candidates who havecompleted scientific and professional pr )bationer-Ehips. During their curse, the candidates con-centrate exclusively on scientific activities. Theyhave gra& and other material benefits but maynot work for remuneration.

Mention should also be made of the periodsspent by assistants in well-known scientific centresin Poland or abroad. In all cases, training mustbe provided by active, independent and experiencedscientific personnel, and in close liaison with re-search activities.

>rie question remains - that of the formal cri-teria for academic employment,namely the thesisfor the doctorate and the dissertation for the do-cent's licence. The thesis must be "zt piece ofpersonal scientific work" and the docent's disser-tation must represent a "creative contribution tothe advance of a branch of kfowledge". Both are

_judged by a comple.. vhich orieinated inthe universities in tht . teenth and early Twen-tieth centuries, at a time w:ren research was main-ly on fundamentals and was a one-man activity.Today, in contrast, we arc faced with the emer-gence of group research in which a number ofspecialists co-operate and, further, applied re-search is taking its place beside basic researchand becoming increasingly important. The bound-aries between the sciences are growing indistinctand all the sciences are reacting increasingly onthe productive forces and general culture of humansocieties. New links are emerging between thedifferent branches of study: new means of research,and new forms of organization for scientific re-search are developing. Finally, the very develop-ment of higher education and its ties with the eco-nomy, politics and industry have modified thenature of the university's activities. Hence thereis an inevitable antinomy between the kind of workthe universities are doing and their structure,which took shape when conditions were completelydifferent. It is felt that the higher educationalestablishments are behind the times and should bereadjusted to the circumstances and needs of ourday. There are also proposals for modifying theqystem of doctoral theses und docent's disserta-:ions and simplifying-the procedure for the awardof academic degrees.

Earlier it was said that the structure of highereducational establishments had not indergone anyfar-reachir dhanges, but it must be realized thattite current radical changes in their activities andthe evrgution in working methods now taking placeare bound to call for a structure better fitted tothe exigencies of our time.

95

Clia,PTER IV

C:ONC LUSION

Quite apart from the matters discussed earlier,there are yet other problems confronting highereducation, for independently of the education ofstudents, schools of higher studies have the dutyof providing refresher training for highly qualifiedstaff already serving. This is a relatively recentdeparture, catering for ever-widening professionalcategories. Twenty or thirty years ago the know-ledge one acquired as a student 'remained adequatefor many years; today, it needs to be constantlybrought up to date as a consequence of the rapidpace of scientific and technological progress andthe need for putting new discoveries in pure scienceto practical use . With their staffs of scientists, thehigher educational establishments are the bestplaced for the successful conduct of this work,whichtakes a variety of forms (short or long courses,specialization courses or refresher courses) . Withthe numbers served increasing yearly, this isanother sphere where plal r ng and budgeting areneeded.

Polish higher educational establishments areextremely:active in the publishing field, producingnot only textbooks for their students but alsoscientific books and monographs,. home study coursesand methods guides. The output of the National

96

Office of Science Publicati.:.,s (PWN), which comesunder the Minst,,, of Higher Education, runs toabout 20,000 sheets ofprint a year. The univer-sities, etc. also publishing scientific treatises(about 6,000 sheets of print a year), get the necesbsary funds for the purpose from the budget of theMinistry.

The higher, educational establishments havelibraries with extremely valuable book collections,which also undertake research tasks. The in-creasingly close links between the universitiesand industrial circles are reflected in the creat...p,in the various university departments, of specialsections serving industry (preparation of projects,construction of prototypes, expert appraisals, etc.).

In the higher schools of agriculture, newmethods development centres have been set up,whose object is to help agriculturalists to exploitscientific discoveries , and to work out methodsfor post-university training. The higher schoolsof agriculture run large ernerimental estates,notmerely for training, but for productive ends.

The soundness of the work of higher educationas a whole, with the vital role it has to play, de-pends on that of the estimates and forecasts, theplans made, and the way they are carried out.

15.

Ike should like to draw the attention of our readersto the Unesco Coupon Scheme,

which may :nable_thern-to-purchase materialslisted in 'this periodical.

Because it is often difficult to send moneyfrom country to country for the purchase of books,

films, laboratory equipment, etc.,esco-has-created a sort of international currency,

the UNESCO COUPON.These coupons enable schools,

universities, teachers and studentsin many parts of the worldto buy freely the materials

which they need for study and research.

UNESCO COUPONS are on salein most Member States

which have currency restri,-tions.If you do not know where to obtain coupons,

please consultrur National Commission for Unesco

or write to Unesco, Paris,for the information.

The TRAVEr. COUPON SCHEME,which is designed

to overcome the currency barriersto educational and cultural travel,

is an extension of the Unesco Coupon Sc:.emedescribed above.

Travel Coupons are a formof international travellers' cheque.They provide thr. foreign exchange

needed to enable travell.p.s such as students,teachers and research workers

to spend rime abroad for study or research.

For full rieiai:s,please refer to the following explanatory leaflets:

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with separate addenda on BOOK COUPONS, FILM COUPONSCOUPONS FOR SCIENTIFIC MATERIAL

INTRODUCING TIr.: UNESCO TRAVEL COUPON(containing the addresses of the national agencies responsiblefor the allocation and issue of coupons, and the hanks wherethey may be cashed)

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'IND9NESIA: N Fadjar Ilitakti. hjalan Nusantara 22.DJAKARTA.

IRAN: COM111131011 nationsie Irani, one pour l'I'vesco,avenue du Alusee,TAI.AHAN.

IRAQ: McKenzie's Bookshop, Al-Rashid Street, Iffilaityso.IRELAND: The Natimal Press, 2 Wellington Road, 11.,11.

bridge. Duntim.ISRAEL: Illuinstein's Book:awes: 35 Allenby Road and 411

Naltlat Benjamin Street, TEL Aviv.ITALY: Libreria Corothissionaria Samosa (Agent,. generale),

via Cint) Capponi 26, casclla postale 552, FIRENZE; LibreriaInternazionale Rizzoli, Galeria Colonna, Largo ChigROMA; Libreria Zan ich ell i, l'ortici del Pavaglinne,110L0ONA:Hoepli, via Ulric° Hoepli 5, MILANO: Librairie francaise,piazza Castello 9, Toatrio.

JAMAICA: Sangster's Book Room. 91 Harbour Street.KINOTTON: Knox Educational Services SPALUINCI..

JAPAN: Maruzen Co. Ltd., 6 Tori-Nichome, Adhonhashi,P.O. Box 605, Tokyo Central, TOKYO.

JORDAN; Joseph I. Babous & Co., DarmlK otub, SallRoad, P.O. Box 66, AMMAN.

KENYA: ESA Bookshop, P.O. Box 3.167, NAIR0111KOREA: Korean National Commission for Unesco. P.O

Box Central 64 CE0I1L,LEBANON: Librairie Antoine, A. Naufal et Freres, B.P.

656, Iffiva0t1T11.LIBERIA: Cole & Yancy llookshopr Ltd., P.O. Ray 206.

MONRC.71A.LIBYA: Orient Boni shop, P.O. Box 255, Tateou.LIECHTE STEIN: 1, mocan Trust Reg., P.O.B. 124, Sett aaN.LUXEMBOURG: Lihroirie Paul Bruck, 22 Grand-Rue,

LuxehtliOURO.MADAGASCAR: Commission nationale de Ia Republique

insliache, Ministere de l'education nationale, TANANARIE.For The Courier": Service des muvres post et perbseniaires,Ministere de Peducation nationale, TANANARIVE.

MALAYSIA: Federal Publications Ltd., Times House, RicerValley Road, SINGAPORE.

MAL SEpiP111.1'S Library. 26 Kings, ay. VALLETTA.MAURITIUS: Nalanda Co. Ltd., 30 I lurbon S'reet, PORT-

Louts.MEXICO% Editorial Hermes, Ignacio Mariscal 41, MExico

D.F.MONACO: British Library, 30, boulevard des Moulins.

MONTE-CARLO.MOROCCO: Librairic "Aux belles Images", 2131 avenue

Mohammed V, RABAT.MOZAMBIQUE: Salema & C:arvalho Ltda., rain, postal 192,

BEIRA.NETHERLANDS: N.V. Martin,: Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout

g, RAVENUAOR

NETHERLANDS: ANTILLES' C. C. T. Van Doris & Co.(Ned. Ant.) N.V., WILLEMSTAD ICUTIKEO,

NEW CALEDONIA: Reprex, avenue de la Victoire, Imincuble Painbotte, Nousst.a.

NEW ZEALAND: Government Printing Office, 20 Motes,worth Street, (Private Bag), WeLLMOTON; GovernmentBookshops: AUCKLAND (P.O. Box 5344); CURISTC11URCI1(P.O. Box 021); Dungeon (P.O. Box 1104)

NICARAGUA: Libreria Cultural Nicaraguense, calle t5 deSeptiembre y avenida Bolivar, apartado 807,IsIsffinton.

NICER IA: CMS (Nigeria) Bookshops, P.O. 112x 1- 4,_Laxos.---NORWA-Y: A. S. BoklijOriel:1111FCle71ii730_

Far "The Courier": A.S. Narvesens Litteraturjemum. Sum.tingsgt. 2, Postboks 115, Ost.n.

PAKISTAN: The WestPak PubFshing Co. UnescoPublications House. P O. hos 174. 56 N GUlberc Industr;al1:01onv, LAHORE.

PANAMA. Cultural Panamena, avenida 7.:1 1..° .11-49.apartado de Careens 2018, PANAMA.

PARAGUAY: Agenda de Librerlas de Salvador Nizza.Yegros, entre 25 de Mayo y Meal. Estigarribia, ASUNCIONAlb° Industrial Comercial S.A., Seccion Libreria. GrabDian 327, Astp,aon.

PER12:. IL/isAkibuidora INCA S.A.. Ayacucho 154, sasilla

PHILIPPINES: The Alalern Book Co., soft Real Avenue.pj). Box 632, MANILA.

POI AND: 0.1rodek linzpookechniania Wydawnietw Nauknoyeli PAN, Palac Kultury.i..Nauki, Waaskswa.

Poturucto.: Dias & Andrade !Ala.. Livraria Portugal.ma do Cantu, 70, LISBOA.

PEJF /ITO RICO: Spanish BOOM Publications, Eleanoritnasevell I15. apartado 1912, HAI 0 REY.

RHODESIA & NYASALAND (Federation of): lilt BookCentre, Cordon AYnnue. SaffismittY (Souther:, Rhodesia).

RUMANIA: Cortimex. Sir Aristide Itriand i4- di. P.O. Box

SF:IN'441::*(1i3A51.:BuLcau"IsElrisinn 11U Livre, avenue Resume, RP.20-611. DAKAR.

SINGAPORE: See Malaysia.REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA: Van Sehaik's Bookstore

(Pty.) Led.. Lihri Building. Church Street. P.O. Boy 224.PRETORIA

SP %IN Librerla Cientifica Aledinaccli. Donut de Isledinacel,

Edo lone, limroamericanas S.A., calkde Male :5, NIAnRID.

SUDAN : Al Bashir Bookshop. P.O. Ito 1,11,,,KIIAKSWEDEN: MB C Flukes lloybokbandel Freda

gala. 2, SToCKHOLM 16For" The Cot '''' ee '' Svenska Unescoradet, X'affigatan 15.,7STOCKHOLM C.

SWITZERLAND: Fan ,,pa Verlag, Ramistrasse 5, 7.0rucit:Payot, 40 DIE fill Marche, GENEVE.

TANGANYIKA: Dar es Salaam Bookshop. P.O. Box 9030,DAR ES SALAAM,

THAILAND: Suksapan l'anit. Mansion tt, RajdattmernAVCIMP, BANGKOK.

TuRKr.v Lihramie HtICI,eite .469 Istiklal Catitiesi.1st/N0111 .

UGANDA: Uganda Bookshop, P.O. Box 145, KAMPALA.

UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC: La Renaissance d'Egypte.o sh Adly Pasha. (:am. IF,gypt).

uNrrri) KINopm tl.M. Stationery Office, I' .0 Box569, I .0NTION, &E.1.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Unesco PublicationsCenter (NAIP), 317 East 34th Street, New YORK, N.Y.lool6; and, tertpt for periodicals: Columbia University Press.29110 Broadv.ay, NEW YORK 27, N.Y:

URUGUAY: Representacion de Editoriales, plaza Cagancha1342, I pr piso, Moseavinco.

USSR: Mezi.dunarothiaja Kniga, MOSES A G -200.VENEZUELA Libreria Politecnica, calk Villollor, local A,

al lado General Electric, Sabana Grande, CARACAS; LibrerlaCruz del Sur, Centro Comercial del Este, local 1 t, apartado10223. Sabana CTRIILIC, CARACAS; Oficina PUSIICECIOnell dela Unesco, Gobernador a Candilitu ti." 37, apartado postalin° 8092, CARACAS; Librerla Fundavac C.A., apartado delEste 5043, CARACAs; I. ffircria Selects, Avenida 3, n.° 23-23,MERIDA.

VIET NAM: Librairie-Papeterie Xuan-Thu. 105-193 rueTuDo, B.P. :283, SAIGON.

Y UCOSLAV IA' Jugosiovenska Kojitia, Terazije 27 Hemmen.

197 $ 1.00; 5/ (stg.); 3,50 F