DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 067 530 08 AC 012 806

AUTHOR McCaw, Edward A.TITLE Commerce Supervisory Course: Discussion Guide.

Theories of Supervision.INSTITUTION Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.NOTE 32p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS Leadership Training; *Management Development;

Management Education; *Supervisory Methods;*Supervisory Training

IDENTIFIERS *Department of Commerce

ABSTRACTThe contributions of Frederick W. Taylor, Henri Fayol

and Elton Mayo to the development of current concepts of supervisorytheory are outlined. Ten newer concepts of management, with graphics,provide the supervisor with an opportunity to formulate his ownpersonal theory. Suggested bibliography for supervisors is given.(Author / NF)

A UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF

COMMERCEPUBLICATION

OFFICEOF THE

SECRETARY

'OFFICE OFPERSONNEL

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTHEDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EOUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPROOUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF f OUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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THEORIES OF SUPERVISIONNO. 1 -1.3

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ABOUT THE DISCUSSION GUIDES

The study of supervisory processes and practices hasbeen going on for many, many years, and practicalknowledge of experience based supervisory activitiescontinues to increase. These discussion guides provideideas, concepts, and approaches to the supervisory func-tion that capture the experience of successful super-visors in the Federal Government.

These guides, covering the major processes of theGovernment supervisor, are in response to the need forbasic supervisory training materials that can be used inthe instruction and training of supervisors throughoutthe U.S. Department of Commerce.

Each discussion guide may be used separately or inconcert with other guides. Latitude is provided in thedesign to tailor the subject matter to the needs of therespective bureaus of the U.S. Department of Commerce.

These guides were developed by a Task Force composed of representatives of the various Bureaus of the U.S. Departmentof Commerce and the Office of the Secretary. Their background and experience reflects a variety of professional andtechnical specialties within the Department.

COMMERCE TASK FORCE ON SUPERVISORY TRAINING

Miller McDonald, Chairman Office of the Secretary

Robert F. Bain National Bureau of Standards Harold E. Macke! Environmental Science Services AdministrationKarl E. Bell National Bureau of Standards Edward A. McCaw Office of the SecretaryDaniel E. Bella Environmental Science Services Administration Samuel W. McKeen Office of the SecretaryJ. Gordon Hermes Maritime Administration Betty D. Neuhart Bureau of International CommerceJohn J. Hickey Bureau of the Census Jack W. Osburn, Jr.. Business and Defense Services AdministrationConWell Jones Ecnnnmic Development Administration Richard C. Pinkham Patent OfficeDavid C. Lewis Bureau of the Census Robert J. Rish Patent Officr

Frederick Seibold, Jr. Maritime Administratic

The discussion guide on the subject of Theories of Supervision was the task assignment of Edw, rd A. McCaw, Office of

1,/

the Secretary

Ofr

L.C"N.4)O

U. S. Department of Commerce

COMMERCESUPERVISORY

COURSE

SESSION 1-1-3THEORIES OF SUPERVISION

Office of PersonnelOffice of the Secretary

3

3-2U. S. Department of CommerceCommerce Supervisory Course

SESSION 1-1-3THEORIES OF SUPERVISION

OBJECTIVE OF SESSION

The purpose of this session is to provide anunderstanding and appreciation of the historicaldevelopment of supervisory theory and how it hasinfluenced the current concepts of management.

TIME REQUIRED --- 2 hourS

PREVIEW

This session briefly outlines the contributions of Taylor, Fayol, andMayo to the development of the current concepts of supervisory theory.The session stresses ten newer concepts of management and provides thesupervisor with an opportunity to formulate his own personal theory.

MATERIALS:

GRAPHICS:

HANDOUT:

Blackboard or Easel with Chart PaperOverhead Projector and Screen

I -1 -3G1 I-1-3G5I -1 -3G2 I -1 -3G4 I-1-3G6

I -1 -3H1 I -1 -3H2

PREPARATION FOR THE INSTRUCTION:

You will probably find it helpful to prepare yourself for this. sessionby readinga'text book on Management Theory. For example, the followingtexts would be beneficial:

"Management: Theory and Practice"by: Ernest DalePublished by: McGraw-Hill

Chapters 8-15

"Essentials of Management"By: Joseph L. MassiePublished by: Prentice-Ha11, Inc.

Chapters 1-3

"The Successful Supervisor"By: William R. Van DersalPublished by: Harper and Row

Chapters 5-6

U. S. Department of Commerce - Commerce SuperW.eory_Couruu

DISCUSSION GUIDE

SESSION: 1-1-3 SUBJECT: THEORIES OF SUPERVISION

3-3

This session will review briefly some of the influenceson the development of the management thiscentury. Thus we shall discuss Taylor's scientificmanagement, Fayol's general principles of management andthe influence of the behavioral sciences.

SUPERVISOR MEMBER The first-line supervisor is part of management. As aOF MANAGEMENT member of the management team the supervisor should beTEAM concerned with the development of an accurate and useful

theory of management.

THEORY AND PRACTICE The popular notion that'theory and practice are opponentsNOT OPPONENTS overlooks the fact that good theory underlies and improves

practice.

WHY? Why is this so? (Exploreget various comments fromthe group.)

FREDERICK W. TAYLOR'1856-1915

OVERALL GOAL:HIGHER INDUSTRIAL

EFFICIENCY--INCREASED PRO-

DUCTIVITY--LOWER UNIT COST

POSSIBLE COMMENTS- To be proficient in any sport (golf, football,

etc.) one must know--why certain things are done(theory) and then try to apply this theory inthe game.

- Pre-flight students learn areo-dynamics theorybefore flying a plane.

- Medical students learn theory before practicingmedicine.

TAYLOR'S SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Frederick Taylor is generally acknowledged to be the fatherof scientific management. His overall goal was higherindustrial efficiency, in the form of increased productivityor lower unit cost. What distinguishes scientific managementfrom other approaches is not its overall goal, but its basicassumptions, specific objectives and techniques. (Repeatthese three points (write on board).

3-4 U. S, Department of Crmff.nrce Commerce Supervisory Course

SCIENTIFIC METHOD:OBSERVATTON,MEAS-UREMENT AND EXPER-IMENTAL COMPARISON

HIGH WAGES LEADTO HIGH PRODUC-TIVITY

STANDARDIZATIONOF WORK CONDITIONAND WORK METHODS

MOTION STUDYDEFINITION

TIME STUDY

TAYLOR'S DIFFER-ENTIAL PAY PLAN

CONNECTION TOOPERATIONSRESEARCH

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

1. The application of the methods of science toproblems of management will lead to higherindustrial efficiency. Observation, measurementand experimental comparison are thus among themethods of science that can be applied toproblems of management.

2. The incentive of high wages will promote themutuality of interest between workers and managersthat will result in high industrial efficiency(or productivity).

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. The standardizatiqn of working conditions (roomtemperature, etc.). The provision of work breaksof optimum duration and frequency to achieve higherefficiency.

2. Standardization of work methods. Determining thebest procedure for doing a job.

Example: Motion study is the observationof all motions that comprise a particularjob and the determination of the best setof motions that leads to greatest efficiency.

3. Planning of large daily tasks for greater efficiency.Time study is related to this objective. Eachcomponent part of the task is timed by use of astop-watch and the appropriate production standardcan be determined.

4. Encouragement to stay in a job should be given tohigh producers. Accordingly, for those producingabove standard the per-unit pay under the TaylorDifferential Piecework Plan would be higher thanfor the low producer. (The production standard tobe used in a wage incentive system can be determinedby using the time study technique.)

Though the historical connection is not direct, recent work inoperations research which emphasizes the application of themethods of science to managerial decision-making, as a furtherdevelopment of one of the operating assumptions of Taylor'sscientific management.

U. S

RITICISMS OFTAYLOR'S METHODSTIME STUDYQUESTIONED

LACK OF HUMANELEMENT

HENRI FAYOL1841-1925

SIX ACTIVITIESCOMMON TO ALLORGANIZATIONS(LIST ON BOARD)DEFINE BRIEFLY

INCREASED MAN-AGERIAL SKILLREQUIRED---ASINDIVIDUAL PRO-GRESSES

ILLUSTRATE ONBLACK BOARD ORCHART PAPER

De rtment of Commerce - Commerce Supervisory Course3-5

After Taylor's death, critics stated that time study, asit was currently being practiced with the stop-watch, wasunethical, wasteful and inaccurate. . .employed questionablemethodology in arriving at standard times, and was costlybecause of the inaccurate and useless data it developed.

In addition, others criticized the Taylor system for"absolute lack of the human element." This led us intoall the human sciences with a special stress on advancesin education, the new psychology and psychiatry in all itsvarious developments.

FAYOL'S GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

In contrast to Taylor's emphasis on first-line supervisionin production areas, Henri Fayol's work is oriented towardthe higher levels of the organization. The functionalapproach to the study of management Is a direct outgrowthof Fayol's work.

Fayol identified six activities which he believed had to beaccomplished in all organizations:

1. Technical (production, etc.)2. Commercial (buying, selling)3. Financial (use of capital)4. Security (production)5. Accounting (financial position)6. Managerial (planning, organizing, commanding,

coordinating, and controlling.)

Most of Fayol's analysis of organizational activities wasdevoted to the last listed area, that is the analysis ofthe managerial activity.

Fayol held that the importance of managerial ability increasesas one goes up the chain of command. Consequently, one wouldexpect that managerial skill is the most important componentof job performance in top management positions.

Example: Greater managerial ability required fora bureau Director position than for ajourneyman position (accountant, engineer,etc.). Illustrate as indicated below:

%A

ECHNICALPERTISE

Journeyman Bureau Director

3-6 U. S. De

FAYOL'S FOURTEENGENERAL PRIN-CIPLES OF MANAGE-MENT

HANDOUT I -1 -3H1

DISCUSS POINTSAT RANDOM---THISWILL PROVIDEFLEXIBILITY FORTIME PURPOSES

REMUNERATION (7)

SCALAR CHAIN (9)

UNITY OF COMMAND(4)

INITIATIVE (13)

DIVISION OF WORK

(1)

ORDER (10)

1tment of Commerce - Commerce Sw)ervisov, Course

Fayol also identified a number of principles of managementwhich apply in varying degree in all managerial situations.Our purpose in defining some of these principles.is notto achieve a mastery of the ideas contained therein, but toprovide a sample of his terminology and his approach tomanagerial problems.

FAYOL'S PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

1. Division of work2. Authority and'responsibility3. Discipline4. Unity of command5. Unity of direction6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest7. Remuneration8. Centralization9. Scalar chain

10. Order11. Equity12. Stability of tanure of personnel13. Initiative14. Esprit de Corps

"Remuneration of Personnel" concerns the importance of themethods of payment being'fair and affording maximumsatisfaction to employee and employer. The principle issimilar to one of the basic assumptions underlying the fieldof scientific management, which we discussed in the lastsection of this unit.

The "Scalar Chain" refers to the chain of superiors from thehighest to the lowest rank, which should be short-circuitedonly when scrupulous following of it would be detrimental.This principle suggests that an employee should not feel freeto contact his superior's superior.

The "Unity of Command" principle suggests that an employeeshould receive orders from only one superior.

"Initiative" is conceived of as the thinking out andexecution of a plan. Fayol suggests that since it is oneof the "keenest satisfactions for an intelligent man toexperience,"managers should "sacrifice personal vanity"in order to permit subordinates to exercise it. Fayol thusappears to suggest that managers should share some of theirdecision-making authority with their subordinates.

The principle of "Division of Work" suggests that specializationwithin an enterprise leads to a higher level of efficiency(or productivity, etc.).

"A place for everything (everyone)and everything (everyone)in its (his) place" concerns the principle of "order".The use of a formal organization chart in a company would beconsistent with the objective of this principle.

8

U. S. Department. of Commerce - Commerce Supervisory Course 3 -7

STABILITY (12)

FA1OL'S PRIN-CIPLES NOTE1HAUSTIVE

ELEMENTS ORFUNCTIONS-- -

ESSENCE OFMANAGERIAL JOB

PRINCIPLE FUNC-TIONS:PLANNINGORGANIZING ,COMMANDINGCOORDINATINGCONTROLLING

UNIVERSALITY

METHODS AND PRIN-CIPLES OF TAYLORAND FAYOL COM-PLEMENTARY.

HAWTHORNE STUDIES

"Stability of tenure of personnel" suggests that highemployee turnover is detrimental to an organization.

In concluding his discussion of the management principles,Fayol stated that he had only tried to present those that hehad the most occasion to use in his career as a manager.Thus the principles were not regarded as being exhaustive.

In addition to his description of organizational activitiesand principles of management, Fayol considered the specificfunctions, or elements, of management. These elements, orfunctions, constitute the essence of the managerial, job.

Though w.2 are making only brief reference to this aspect ofFayol's work, it constitutes a major part of his writing.Principle Functions _of Management:

PlanningOrganizingCommandingCoordinatingControlling

Throughout Fayol's writings, there is an emphasis on theuniversality of management functions and principles. There-fore, political, religious, philanthropic, and otherorganizations would be able to apply to his principles.

Because their interests were directed toward differentaspects of managerial work in organizations, the methods andprinciples developed by Taylor and Fayol are typicallyconsidered to be complementary (the principles and techniquesused are not contradictory).

INFLUFNCE OF THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

The behavioral science approach to management concernsapplication of the methods and findings of psychology, socialpsychology and sociology for the purpose of understandingorganizational behavior.

Historically, the first significant use of the behavioralscience approach to management problems occurred in thefamous series of studies in the Hawthorne Plant of theWestern Electric Company during the late 1920's andearly 1930's.

2

3-8 U. S. Department ofpsemmrce-Com2rseqapezyisaagourse

ELTON MAYO Elton Mayo, the director of the Hawthorne studies, is also188o-1949 generally considered to ha the founder of the field of

human relations.

CONFLICT BETWEENTAYLOR AND MAYO

ORGANIZATION ISA SOCIAL SYSTEM

EARLY RESEARCHHIGH MORALEHIGH PRODUC-TIVITY

BREAK?

NEWER CONCEPTS

USE GRAPHICI-1-3G1(Items 1-8)

EXPLAIN ANDDISCUSS EACH OFTHE TEN CONCEPTS

NOTE: CONCEPTS -SHOW ONE AT ATIME

To Taylor, human relations problems stood in the way ofproduction and should be removed.

Example: In the Hawthorne Plant, Mayo found thatpiecework systems led to conflicts between workers andtime and motion study experts. Thus employee reactionsto piecework systems were not those desired by Taylor.

The Hawthorne studies provided evidence that, in addition tobeing a formal arrangement of functions, an organization isa social system whose success depends on the appropriateapplication of behavioral science principles.

Early research tended to focus on employee satisfaction andmorale, the implicit assumption being that high morale leadsto high productivity (later research has indicated thisassumption is oversimplified.)

If convenient give group a 15 minute break.

NEWER CONCEPTS IN MANAGEMENT (Through Influences ofbehavioral sciences.

1. Influence - rather than authority, is used by mostsuccessful managers, i.e. influence with people.Authority carries with it the threat of penalty.Few people like to be told to do something.

2. Group patterns of operation - linking pin concept.Traditional concept is to play subordinates againstone another, i.e., "all cream will rise to top" sobest man will shine. Group concept - all subordinatesrealize they know each others jobs to aspire to theboss' position. A good manager brings out the bestideas from all his subordinates and carries them forwardto the next higher group in the organization.

3. General goals set through participation - Goals areset by mutual agreement between manager and subordinates

" Participation commitment concept". Not managertelling what the goal is. Participation engendersthe feeling of requirement by the subordinate tofulfill his part of the agreement.

4. General Supervision - i.e. not detailed, °rower-.'supervision.

U. S. Department of Commerce - Comerce Supervisory Course3 1J

5. Total process measurement including interveningvariables. End result important but other variables(innovation, morale, etc.) are just as important--in the long run.

GRAPHIC I-1-3G2(Items 9 & 10)

Reference to Textby Van Dersal

InstructorOption: If

Chapters 5-6 arediscussed, useGraphics I- 1 -3C3/

BREAK INTOSMALL GROUPS,

QUESTION

6. Employee-centered supervision - i.e. the peoi;leaspect and not task oriented. Manager must know hisemployee and all that affects his effectiveness, i.e.personal problems, etc.

7. Concern for total communication process---not justone way.

8. High performance standards cooperatively sought(leadership - manager himself has to instillmotivation, etc.

9. Multidimensional approach to motivation - i.e.motivation is not.just money, but rather many otherfactors.

Example: Money, working conditions, etc. willnot motivate an employee--if they are not adequatethis will have a negative effect. But by increasingthem will not increase the employee's motivation.Employees are motivated by self-actualizing opportunitiesand recognition of their accomplishments.

NOTE: If desired, Chapter'S and 6 in "The SuccessfulSupervisor" by Van Dersal will provideadditional information on motivational theory.

10. Value of high attitudes realized - is directly pro-portioned to the degree of "structure" in the job.High attitude is required for a low structured job.For a highly structured job (i.e. simple task job,such as production line - attachment of nut to a bolt)the happiness and attitudes is not important as to howthe job gets done - strictly a physical function.High attitudes and good morale are very importantin unstructured jobs where the output from withinthe man is required (creativeness, foresight, etc.)

Example: Man assigned director of long range planninggiven office and staff only - his own personal direction(and attitudes) are his only guide.

Group Discussion - Break into small groups (approximately 4to a group) - Read question below - allow 15 minute discussiontime - have group select spokesman - get viewpoints - probe -Explore as time will alloo.

WHICH OF THE 10 CONCEPTS APPEAR TO HAVE THE MOST VALUE FORA FEDERAL SUPERVISOR AND WHY?

3-10 u, De

URGE SELF-DEVEL-OPMENT ASPECTS

RECOMMENDTEXT, BY DALE(OR OTHERS THATYOU DEEMAPP.ROPRIATE)

HANDOUTSUGGESTEDBIBLIOGRAPHYH.O. I-l-3H2

ANALOGYGOLF ANDSUPERVISION

rtment of ommerce - Commerce Su erviso Course

NOTE: If time permits, assign an additional question.

Example: Discuss the respective viewpoints of Taylorand Mayo--are they compatible?

SUMMARY

Every supervisor who wants to make his practice ofmanagement more successful should be concerned with thedevelopment of an accurate and useful theory ofmanagement.

We have only briefly touched upon the theories ofsupervision. Hopefully, you 1.11.11 pursue the subject further

on your own. There are many excellent references available.

One text that should proie invaluable to you is: "Management:Theo r and Practice" by Ernest Dale, published by Mc.Graw-

Hill (Give group Handout I-l-3H2.)

Mayo's theories and those of Taylor are not untrue, buteither singly or together they are somewhat incomplete.Today, behavioral scientists are trying to fill in thegaps.

Illustration: If two golfers have equal abilitythen one who has a full set of golf clubs willhave a definite advantage over the other---the greaterthe discrepency in the number of clubs--the greaterthe advantage.

Different situations in golf require the use ofa particular club to be effective. Different situationson the job require a supervisor to use a particulartechnique or device at a given time to be effective.

Keep this analogy in mind as you develop your own personaltheory---one club does not make a golfer a pro---one setway of supervisingdoes not make a supervisor a pro.

END OF SESSION

12

COMMERCE

SUPERVISORY

COURSE

Session 1-1-3

Theories of Supervision

GRAPHICS

NEWER

CONCEPTS

IN-

MANAGEMENT

1.

INFLUENCE

2.

GROUP PATTERNS OF OPERATION, -LINKING PIN

CONCEPT

3.

GENERAL GOALS SET THROUGH PARTICIPATION

4.

GENERAL SUPERVISION

5.

TOTAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

--

INCLUDING INTER-

VENING VARIABLE

6.

EMPLOYEE CENTERED SUPERVISION

7.

CONCERN FOR TOTAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS

8.

HIGH PERFORMANCE STANDARDS COOPERATIVELY

SOUGHT

9.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL APPROACH TO MOTIVATION

10.

VALUE OF HIGH ATTITUDES REALIZED

CD cf- 0 1-

43

co

0co 0

1-1

0 cn 0 0 0

MOTIVATION

HYGIENE

THEORY

HERZBERG

DISSATISFIERS

CO. POLICY & ADMIN.

SUPERVISION

TECH

SALARY

INTERPERSONAL RELS

SUPV.

WORKING CONDITIONS

MOTIVATORS

ACHIEVEMENT

RECOGNITION

WORK ITSELF

RESPONSIBILITY

ADVANCEMENT

es ta

li!: f

iry,

, rn ty

PEFORMANCE

EFFECTS

SATISFIERS LEAD TO:

INCREASED INTEREST

INCREASED ENTHUSIASM

INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY

DISSATISFIERS LEAD TO:

DECREASED INTEREST

DECREASED ENTHUSIASM

DECREASED PRODUCTIVITY

AN INCREASE IN QuIXS

CD c+ 0 1.4 0 0 C

D cn

Th

Co

PSYCHOLOGICAL

GROWTH

'KNOWING MORE

PERCEIVING RELATIONSHIPS

CREATIvIlY

EFFECTIVENESS IN AMBIGUITY

INDIVIDUALITY

REAL GROWTH

a -

c+ 0

F-21

CD CI

CD

MASLOW S

PRIORITY FOR HUMAN NEEDS

1.

BASIC PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

2.

SAFETY NEEDS

3.L

OV

EAND

BE

LO

NG

ING

NE

SS N

EE

DS

L.

ESTEEM AND SELF-RESPECT NEEDS

5.NEEDS FOR SELF-REALIZATION

COMMERCE

SUPERVISORYCOURSE

Session 1-1-3

Theories of Supervision

HANDOUTS

Ia

U, S. Department of Commerce Commerce Supervisory Course 3111

HANDOUT I-1-31i1.

FAYOL'S PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

1. DIVISION OF WORK

2. AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

2, DISCIPLINE

4. UNITY OF COMMAND

5. UNITY OF DIRECTION

6. SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL INTEREST TO GENERAL INTEREST

7. REMUNERATION

8. CENTRALIZATION

9. SCALAR CHAIN

10. ORDER

11. EQUITY

12. STABILITY OF TENURE OF PERSONNEL

13. INITIATIVE

lit. ESPRIT DE CORPS

3H2 U. S. Department of Commerce - Commerce Supervisory courL;o

SUGGESTED BIBLOGRAPHY FOR SUPERVISORS

HANDOUT I-1-3H2

MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITYBy: Saul Gellennan

American Management Association

PSYCHOLOGY IN MANAGEMENTBy: Mason Haire

McGraw-Hill

THE MOTIVATION TO WORKBy: Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner,

and Barbara Bloch SnydermanJohn Wiley and Sons

WORK AND THE NATURE OF MANBy: Frederick Herzberg

World Publishing Company

THE HUMAN SIDE OF ENTERPRISEBy: Douglas McGregor

McGraw-Hill

IT ALL DEPENDSBy: Harvey Sherman

University of Alabama Press

MANAGEMENT: THEORY AND PRACTICEBy.: Ernest

McGraw-Hill

ESSENTIALS OF MANAGEMENTBy: Joseph L. Massie

Prentice-Hall, Inc.ERIC Clearinghouse

S EP i 2 1972

on ALlut Education

7, .1: f.

0 t.,

INSTRUCTOR NOTES

23

INSTRUCTOR NOTES

-

INSTRUCTOR NOES

L

*--erevr--, ' . .

CNI

INSTRUCTOR NOTES

CnC

32