DOCTORAL DISSERTATION PROPOSAL [FIRST DRAFT] …efnet.si/wp-content/uploads/DoctoralDissertationProposal_FirstDraft_Uhan.pdfdisregarded modes of thought, Hesse likely counted Daoist

UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION PROPOSAL [FIRST DRAFT]

DAOIST LEADERSHIP:

A THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTRUCT

Doctoral candidate: Miha Uhan, Young Researcher

Advisor: Dimovski Vlado, PhD, Full Professor

Ljubljana, September 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 DOCTORAL DISSERTATION TITLE ............................................................................ 1

2 DOCTORAL DISSERTATION TOPIC AREA AND ISSUES IT ADDRESSES ........... 1

2.1 Leadership and Leadership Theories.......................................................................... 3

2.2 Concept of Dao and Daoism ...................................................................................... 4

2.3 Concept of Daoist Leadership .................................................................................... 4

2.4 Daoist Model of Wateristic Personality ..................................................................... 6

2.5 Followership and Followership Effects...................................................................... 7

3 RESEARCH TOPIC, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND CONTRIBUTION TO FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE ............................................................................................................ 9

4 DESCRIPTION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS............................................................... 11

5 STRUCTURE OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATION........................................................ 13

6 REFERENCES USED IN DOCTORAL DISSERTATION PROPOSAL...................... 15

7 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES PROPOSED FOR DOCTORAL DISSERTATION .... 19

Doctoral Dissertation Proposal [First Draft] Miha Uhan Daoist Leadership: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of the Construct

1

1 DOCTORAL DISSERTATION TITLE Doctoral dissertation title in English: Daoist Leadership: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of the Construct

Slovenian translation of the doctoral dissertation title: Daoistično vodenje: Teoretična in empirična analiza konstrukta

2 DOCTORAL DISSERTATION TOPIC AREA AND ISSUES IT ADDRESSES

Topic area of my doctoral dissertation is a philosophy of management and an indigenous Chinese leadership style that is rooted in China's tradition – Daoist leadership, and a research on its antecedents, its measures, and its outcomes. The motivation for the research of Daoist leadership is threefold. The first reason is the rise of China as the homeland of the philosophy of Daoism in the global economy during the last few decades (Bardhan, 2010; Bergsten, Freeman, Lardy, & Mitchell, 2009; Cooney & Sato, 2008; Er, Wei, & Thepchatree, 2009; Farndon, 2010; Fishman, 2006; Hsü, 1999; Jacques, 2009; Kunzmann, Schmid, & Koll-Schretzenmayr, 2009; Li, 2009; Meredith, 2008; Overholt, 1994; Page, Xie, & Nathan, 2010). Goldman Sachs projections (Wilson & Stupnytska, 2007, p. 8) prior to the last financial and economic crisis have stated that by 2027 China would overtake the United States to become the world's largest economy. The post-crisis projections by BNP Paribas show that the crisis will even advance those shifts – the new milestone for China overtaking the United States is now predicted for the year 2020 (Cohen, 2010). The second reason for the research on Daoist leadership is in connection with the search for a general theory (Goethals & Sorenson, 2006) or integrative definition of leadership (Winston & Patterson, 2006). Daoist leadership might not be the final answer to this quest, but it certainly can offer a broader perspective on the recently popularized single positive theories of leadership, such as servant, ethical, moral, self-sacrificial and spiritual leadership. According to Heilbrunn (2009, p. 81), the poet, novelist, man of letters, and painter Herman Hesse writes that “in the ancient Chinese, and especially in Lao-tzu, we find reminders of a mode of thought that we have neglected, a recognition and cultivation of energies that we, busy with other things, have long disregarded (Hesse, 1973, p. 130).” Among some of these disregarded modes of thought, Hesse likely counted Daoist magic and mysticism, as well as the Daoist concept of sage-leadership. McCormick (1999, p. 331) cites Graham (1989, p. 170) and his description of Daoism’s most famous work, Laozi’s Daodejing, as a “guide to the art of rulership”. It is therefore essential to understand the basics of Daoist principles in order to be able to fully understand leadership.


2

The third reason for the research of Daoist leadership has to do with the fact that the business leaders of today could well use some of the ancient wisdom of Daodejing and other Chinese philosophical classics not only from the perspective of more effective leadership, but also from the ethical point of view in order to heal their “spiritual bankruptcy” (Kothari, 2010, pp. xv-xvi, p. 5, p. 29): “The corporate world is faced with a serious leadership crisis. … There is plenty of evidence to suggest that each of the past three major economic crises is related to unbridled personal greed at the highest level in the corporate world. While corporate executives enrich themselves using their management positions, everyone else pays the heavy price. The self-serving corporate leadership behavior aimed at get-rich schemes is unhealthy and detrimental to the society’s economic well-being. What we have observed is the management preoccupation with personal wealth maximization without any regard for the security, stability, and growth for the institutions they manage. Most corporate leadership decisions and actions may be legal, but they are not morally justifiable.” During the past decades, the world has witnessed China’s rise from an underdeveloped country to the second largest economic power. Business leaders have – as noted by Zhang, Chen, Chen, & Ang (2010) – taken a crucial role in developing the firms during this period, which constitutes the most powerful driving force for the rapid growth of the Chinese economy. At a time when China is becoming more central in a globalizing world economy, business managers as well as scholars from outside China increasingly feel the importance of understanding the thoughts and views of Chinese leadership and management (Chen & Lee, 2008). Researchers, educators, and practitioners are all aware that the Western-based leadership theories are not completely sufficient to understand the rich and unique leadership phenomenon in the Chinese context. To fully understand the miracle of the Chinese economy, it is essential to identify the unique issues in business leadership in the Chinese context (Zhang et al., 2010). Chen and Lee (2008: i) even state that with the rise of China in the global economy, it has never been more important for business leaders around the World to understand Chinese leadership philosophies and practices. This year's annual meeting of the Academy of Management was titled West Meets East: Enlightening, Balancing, and Transcending. Shortly thereafter, the August issue of The Academy of Management Perspectives dedicated the two introductory article topics to this East-West relational perspective (Chen & Miller, 2011; Gupta, 2011). A new call for papers, titled West Meets East: New Concepts and Theories, has also been announced recently by the Academy of Management Journal. It seems as if academia is just now finally realizing how important of a role China will play in the world in the decades to follow. And it seems as a perfect timing for a research on Daoist leadership. In compliance with the Regulations on the Doctoral Program in Economics and Business, I describe and define the issues that the dissertation addresses in the following sub-chapters.


3

2.1 Leadership and Leadership Theories In the Encyclopedia of Management (Helms, 2006, p. 445) leadership is defined as a process by which one individual influences others toward the attainment of group or organizational goals. Three points about the definition of leadership should be emphasized. First, leadership is a social influence process. Leadership cannot exist without a leader and one or more followers. Second, leadership elicits voluntary action on the part of followers. The voluntary nature of compliance separates leadership from other types of influence based on formal authority. Finally, leadership results in followers’ behavior that is purposeful and goal-directed in some sort of organized setting. Many, although not all, studies of leadership focus on the nature of leadership in the workplace. Leadership should be distinguished from management. Management involves planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling, and a manager is someone who performs these functions. Directing as a one of five function of management comprises supervision, motivation, communication, and leadership. Leadership is therefore a sub-function of a function of management. A manager has formal authority by virtue of his or her position or office. Leadership, by contrast, primarily deals with influence. A manager may or may not be an effective leader. A leader’s ability to influence others may be based on a variety of factors other than his or her formal authority or position (Helms, 2006, p. 445). Sprenger (2010, p. 9) defines leadership as the ability to bring like-minded people together to get remarkable things done. However, the question of how you bring people together to get things done is not that simple, and represents a point of division for many different existing theories of leadership. Indeed, leadership is probably one of the most researched concepts in the field of management science. However, despite many thousands of studies, there are, as Prince (2005) stated it, still no generally agreed definitions, and the mountains of accumulated data and ideas seem to have brought us no nearer to a detailed understanding of what the concept means. This is, apart from a few such scientific efforts (Goethals & Sorenson, 2006; Winston & Patterson, 2006), still the case today. Prince (2005) continues: “…the typically western approach to leadership is to try to establish codified principles that may be written down for transmission to a relatively passive `learner'. In contrast some aspects of Eastern thought, notably Taoism and Zen,' present a view of leadership, and more specifically the use of power, as a fluid set of interrelations co-ordinated with and within a natural order that is outside our immediate control but of which we are an intimate part.” Prince (2005) goes on by saying that Daoism may be helpful in our attempts to understand leadership by moving away from codes, prescriptions and specifications much more towards a located and responsive social skill developed through doing rather than thinking – an emphasis on internal `knowing' and experience rather than on external instruction.

There may be nearly as many different definitions and perspectives about leadership as there are people who study and write about it (Wankel, 2008). We get to read in the Encyclopedia


4

of Leadership (Goethals, Sorenson, & Burns, 2004, p. 844) that Stogdill (1974), Bass (1981),

and Bass and Stogdill (1990) catalogued and interpreted almost five thousand studies of the concept of leadership and found great variance in its definition. Burns (1978, p. 2) captured the

problem most vividly in a statement still widely quoted today: “Leadership,” he said “ is one of the

most observed and least understood phenomena on earth.”

For the purpose of providing a background framework and definitions of existing leadership theories for my doctoral dissertation, a chapter of the Encyclopedia of Leadership on leadership theories (Goethals et al., 2004, pp. 867–874) with the following structure will due to its comprehensiveness be reviewed and presented in the dissertation:

1. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory 2. Trait, behavior, and situational or contingency approaches 3. Theories of transformational leadership 4. Transactional models and idiosyncrasy credit 5. Procedural justice and compliance with authority 6. Cognitive and constructivist theories of leadership 7. Leader schemata

2.2 Concept of Dao and Daoism Daoism is one of the major schools of philosophy in Ancient China (besides Confucianism, School of Yin-Yang, School of Name, Legalism, Mohism, and School of the Art of War), which has, as we can read in The Britannica Guide to Modern China (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008), shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. Behind all forms of Daoism stands the figure of Laozi (Lao-tzu), traditionally regarded as the author of the classic text known as the Daodejing (Tao-te Ching, “Classic of the Way of Power”). The key concept of Daoism is Dao, commonly translated “path” or “way”. Dao is, as we read in Lai (2008), a notoriously difficult concept, arguably the most complex, in Chinese philosophy because of its use in both generic and specific terms and its applications in a wide range of domains including the religious, humanistic and naturalistic. In terms of its philosophical impact, Daoist philosophy accentuated the weaknesses of Confucian, Mohist and Legalist philosophies and prompted more thorough investigation of their fundamental ideas and values. The most significant feature of Daoist philosophy is its distinctive conception of opposition and dialectical reasoning.

2.3 Concept of Daoist Leadership Within the above presented Daoist context, leadership is, according to Dreher (2002), a creative process, a journey of discovery from what is to what may be. The heart of the journey is our own personal development, which intimately influences everything around us. Effective


5

leaders operate on two levels simultaneously. In the language of Dao, they combine yin and yang; inner directed, yet aware of externals, they balance the Socratic wisdom of knowing themselves with a keen awareness of the energies around them. Daoist leadership is a philosophy of management and an indigenous Chinese leadership style that is rooted in China's tradition. It has been evolving from Daoist teaching at least 2,500 years as its creator, Lao Zi, was a contemporary of Confucius. Since its inception, Daoism has been evolving in a parallel way with Confucianism. Daoism puts emphasis on conformity to Dao or the way, which is different from the virtuous way of Confucianism. The difference happens when the Daoist way refers to the natural way that is universal to social as well as physical realities, whereas the Confucian way concentrates on human relationship. Such a Daoist way emphasizes change, flexibility, and taking opportunity rather than maintenance of stable order. The Daoist way furthermore upholds the tenets of reversion, softness, and inaction. Among these tenets, the tenet of reversion tends to be the most profound as it recognizes the nature of dialectics or polarity, and proposes alternative and even diametrically opposite ways to achieve a goal. Put into practice, the tenet of reversion advises one to give in order to take, to forgo in order to capture, and to follow in order to lead. Furthermore, the tenet suggests the leader to behave like a child and to take a retreating stance. In a similar way, the tenet of softness advocates the strength of softness and regards it as more instrumental than hardness. The tenet likens the strength of softness to that of water, in terms of its penetrative and corrosive power. Applied to leadership, the soft leader is desirably invisible, noncoercive, inactive, effortless, and noninterventive. As such, the Daoist leader would stay away from competition, innovation, and being cunning. The ideal Daoist leader would be a ruler of a small group, imposing no rules, and instigating no desire among group members. Ritual, cultivation, and social order are not of concern to the Daoist leader, who prefers inaction, with no pushing and even training (Cheung and Chan, 2008). Daoist leadership has, according to Cheung and Chan (2008), its grounds in the theory of naturalism. The prominent characteristic of naturalism is the equating of physical and social realities. As such, tenets about leadership and social behavior just follow the operation of the natural world. The tenet of softness is therefore justifiable with reference to the nature of water. Similarly, the tenet of reversion reflects the nature of gravitation, in that the bottom is the most rich and powerful, as in trees, buildings, valleys, and oceans. Daoist theory regards the natural and social worlds as a form of a rotating wheel, which maintains a cycle with no beginning and ending. This analogy justifies the dialectic view regarding the change between darkness and lightness, or yin and yang. More essential in Daoist theory is the specification of Dao, the way, qi, or ether as the universal constituent of human and natural lives. Because of the common root of humanity and nature, Daoism anticipates and advocates people’s return or conformity to nature. As such, Daoism regards nature as the best teacher for leadership and other activities.


6

Daoist leadership is not an answer to the quest for a general theory of leadership, but it certainly offers a broader perspective on the recently popularized single positive theories of leadership, such as servant, ethical, moral, self-sacrificial and spiritual leadership. In fact, these recent concepts cover only a few of the Daoist wateristic personality characteristics (Lee et al., 2008, pp. 90–94), which is one of the main concepts of the Daoist leadership.

2.4 Daoist Model of Wateristic Personality Lee et al. (2008) propose a metaphor that links Daoism with altruism, i.e. water-like or wateristic personality features. Laozi advocated a "wateristic or water-like personality" partly because he observed that human conflict (e.g., fighting, killing, wars) was most likely to occur if everyone wanted to compete and to go after his or her interest (e.g., moving or fighting for more material, or more fame or higher rank). Thus, we human beings should learn from water because water always remains in the lowest position and never competes with other things. Instead, water is very helpful and beneficial to all things. While Westerners historically and currently value and enjoy assertiveness, aggressiveness and competitiveness, Laozi encouraged us to have a water-like personality, which is to maintain a low profile and to be humble and modest but very helpful and/or beneficial to others. To Laozi, modesty or humility (or humbleness), willingness to help and benefit others and ability to maintain a low profile (just like water) are qualities essential to a leader who wants to influence others. In Laozi’s eyes, those who are humble and modest not only exist in good harmony with others, but are effective leaders, just like the rivers and seas. In short, it may be that interpersonal and intergroup harmony and peace are more likely if people learn from water (i.e., adopting a wateristic personality) than if they are too competitive, controlling and aggressive (Lee et al., 2008). In sum, water has five features. First, water is very altruistic and always serves all things in its quality. What does water get from us? It gets almost nothing. Can we survive without water? Obviously we cannot. Perhaps we should learn from water to be helpful and altruistic. Second, water is modest and stays in the lower place. Naturally water always goes to the lowest position. Water yields. We should learn from water to be humble and modest. Third, water is so adaptable and flexible that it can stay in a container of any shape. We can learn to be flexible and adaptable to different people in different situations. Fourth, water is very transparent and clear. As human beings we should learn from water in being honest and transparent. Finally, water is very soft yet persistent. It is good to be soft, gentle and friendly with others but also persistent with them. Perhaps water is our best teacher. Thus the best is like water. This is what we call the Daoist/Taoist model of “wateristic” personality (Lee 2003, 2004; Watts 1975) which includes five essential components: 1) altruism, 2) modesty/humility (or humbleness), 3) flexibility, 4) transparency and honesty, and 5) gentleness with perseverance. This model is summarized in Figure 1.


7

Figure 1. The Daoist Model of Wateristic Personality

Source: C. C. Chen & Y. T. Lee, Leadership and Management in China:

Philosophies, Theories and Practices, 2008, p. 94.

These (Eastern) five water-like personality characteristics represent an interesting Eastern alternative view to Digman’s (1990) Western five-factor model of personality structure.

2.5 Followership and Followership Effects As we get to read in Goethals et al. (2004, p. 504), the concept of followership and its relationship to leadership was popularized by the business professor and management consultant Robert Kelley in his 1988 Harvard Business Review article “In Praise of Followers” and his 1992 book The Power of Followership. These works thrust followership center stage into what had previously been a leader-centric world. Followership is active engagement in helping an organization or a cause succeed while exercising independent, critical judgment of goals, tasks, potential problems, and methods (Goethals et al., 2004, p. 505).


8

The word follower has its etymological roots in Old High German follaziohan, which meant “to assist, help, succor, or minister to.” This parallels the Old High German root of leader,

which meant “to undergo, suffer, or endure.” In the original meaning, followers helped take care of leaders; the relationship between them appears to have been a symbiotic one between equals (Goethals et al., 2004, p. 505). Over time, follower came to mean “to go or be full in number,” as in a crowd. If someone, a leader perhaps, was issuing an edict, appearing in a public forum, or traveling a distance, the people in attendance were called followers. This did not denote any inferior standing; on the contrary, to be a follower was an honor. Christ chose his disciples, just as King Arthur chose the knights for his Round Table. In these cases, the follower gained prestige rather than lost it (Goethals et al., 2004, p. 505). Only in the last hundred years or so have the terms leader and follower taken on their current connotations. Kelley ascribed the “great person” leadership notion to the British philosopher Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881). He and other proponents of a leadership-centric world believe that leaders create or shape the events and institutions that define society. Without leaders, the (negative) status quo would continue until entropy pushed society into chaos (Goethals et al., 2004, p. 505). As for the negative stereotype of the follower, it is attributed to social Darwinism. Survival of the fittest pits contenders against one another; to struggle and compete is natural, good, and right. The winners, by definition, are leaders; the losers are everyone else. For example, Kelley found that when he asks training seminar participants whether they would rather be a follower or a leader, most quickly choose leadership. The result is a hierarchical social topography, as if only leaders matter, while the remaining 90 to 99 percent of the world is inferior and not worth mapping (Goethals et al., 2004, p. 505). And yet, that assessment makes no sense when one considers that followership and leadership are a dialectic. Just as there can be no front of an object without a back, there can be no leaders without followers and no followers without leaders. Each depends on the other for existence and meaning. They can never be independent. But unlike front and back, it is not always so easy to sort out who is leading and who is following (Goethals et al., 2004, p. 505). Due to its dialectic nature, it seems as if the Daoism is ideal for the study of leadership-followership relations, which form the basis of most leadership (and followership) studies. In fact, according to the Daoist philosophical text of Daodejing, effective leadership can only be reached through genuine followership: “Desiring to lead the people, one must, in one’s person, follow behind them (Lau, 1963, p. 128).” It is therefore important to study the effects of

Daoist leadership on followers. The outcomes of Daoist leadership we are especially interested in

are, similar to the research of Zheng and Zhu (2011) on ethical leadership in Chinese organizations, the following: follower job satisfaction, affective commitment, trust in leader, organizational citizenship behavior, and follower intention to quit: − Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of

one’s job; an affective reaction to one’s job; and an attitude towards one’s job. Job


9

satisfaction is a controversial construct because it is affected by many factors, including work responsibilities, variety of tasks, the work itself, rate of pay, promotional opportunities, leadership style, relationship among co-workers and leader-member (Zheng and Zhu, 2011, p. 193-194).

− Affective commitment is defined as follower’s positive emotional attachment to an organization. An employee who is affectively committed would commit strongly to the goals of the organization, desire to contribute to the whole organization, and feel proud of being a member in the organization. The employees’ organizational commitment lies in his/her emotional needs, rather than for money and material rewards (Zheng and Zhu, 2011, p. 194).

− Trust in leader is generated from both economic exchange and social exchange processes. When a leader or subordinate takes the initiative to give benefits to others, it will arouse a feeling of gratitude and responsibility, and mutual gratitude. Based on social exchange theory and reciprocity principle, through long and informal social exchange relationship, leader can establish high quality relationships with his/her followers, which are beyond formal work relationship and can induce a high degree of mutual trust (Zheng and Zhu, 2011, p. 194).

− Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is a special type of work behavior, which is defined as individual behaviors that are beneficial to the organization and are discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system (Zheng and Zhu, 2011, p. 195).

− Intention to leave is, according to researchers such as Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) and Igbaria and Greenhaus (1992), the most immediate determinant of actual quitting behavior. It is also of practical value from a research perspective, as once people have actually implemented the behavior to quit, there is little likelihood of gaining access to them to understand their prior situation. The validity of studying intentions in the workplace can also be drawn from Sagar’s (1994) longitudinal study of salespeople, in which intention to quit was found to differentiate effectively between leavers and non-leavers (Alam & Mohammad, 2010, pp. 124-125).

Our selection of the proper followership effects to be studied is confirmed also by the view of Helms (2006, p. 445), who stated that it is important to study leadership in a relation to key criterion variables of followership, such as subordinate satisfaction, commitment, and performance.

3 RESEARCH TOPIC, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND CONTRIBUTION TO FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE

The research topic of this dissertation will be the Eastern aspect and philosophy of leadership – Daoist leadership. The dissertation will provide a comprehensive literature review of the topic of Daoist leadership, examine the characteristics of Daoist leaders, their special


10

relationship with their followers, and its implications for key criterion variables of followership (see Figure 2). A scale development effort will also be needed in order to measure the Daoist leadership characteristics, since due to the shortage of scientific papers from the field of Daoist leadership, such a scale does currently not exist. I will introduce and test three main research hypotheses: H1: Daoist leadership has a positive effect on follower job satisfaction, affective commitment, trust in leader, and organizational citizenship behavior (see Figure 2). H2: Daoist leadership has a negative effect on follower intention to quit (see Figure 1). H3: The originally Chinese concept of Daoist leadership is, due to the universality of the wateristic personality characteristics, transferable also to other, non-Asian cultural surroundings and thus attests a broad usefulness for interpersonal relationship management and communication in the organizations worldwide, including Slovenia.

Figure 2. The Doctoral Dissertation Research Model

Source: Author's own conception.

Daoist Leadership

Job Satisfaction

Affective Commitment

Intention to Quit

OCB

Trust in Leader

(+)

(+)

(+)

(+)

(-)

Leaders Employees

Antecedents

Culture


11

Consistent with the view of Chen and Lee (2008, pp. 102-103), there are two major implications of research on Daoist leadership to the fields of management and leadership. First, altough the Daoism is an ancient “School of thought”, understanding the meaning of Dao can be still useful in management and leadership studies. Times may change, but human nature remains largely unchanged. Introducing Daoism to the leadership and management field might broaden its research outlook not only in the specific academic discipline, but also in the social and behavioral sciences in general. Second, a research on Daoist leadership may throw some light on empirical investigations in management science and social and behavioral sciences. Existing research on self-sacrificial leadership (Choi & Mai-Dalton, 1998; van Knippenberg & van Knippenberg, 2005) namely suggest that leaders who display self-sacrificial altruistic behavior lead their followers more effectively than those without self-sacrificial altruism, which is consistent with the Daoist wateristic model. As far as the dissertation’s direct contribution to the debated field of knowledge is concerned, this contribution might be vast. This is due to the fact that Daoist leadership, as a philosophy of management and an indigenous Chinese leadership style that is rooted in China's tradition, is one of the most important, but also most under-researched unique issues in business leadership in the Chinese context. When scanning the main scientific databases in a search for scientific articles and books on Daoist leadership, one namely faces a vast shortage of such publications. Moreover, a systematic and comprehensive approach to gathering the existing literature on Daoist leadership (literature review) is missing. In addition to that, no scale of Daoist leadership has up to our knowledge so far been developed, and also no empirical research in this field performed, which are all the constituents of the research plan of this doctoral dissertation, as evident from the expected structure of dissertation, presented in chapter five of this proposal. A dissertation’s value added is also its relatively innovative multidisciplinary (or cross-disciplinary) approach to the field of knowledge, since we touch two areas of science – management and philosophy, and thus link the past to the future.

4 DESCRIPTION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS In the past, management research only focused, according to Jogulu & Pansiri (2011, p. 2) on adopting either a quantitative or a qualitative methodology. Quantitative dichotomy is dominant in management studies and has been a reasonably unquestioned method for exploring social and behavioural sciences since the 20th century. However, qualitative research began to gain interest in the mid to late 20th century as an alternative approach to a quantitative method. More recently, a third methodology known as mixed methods has begun to gain researchers’ confidence. The mixed methods approach, also referred to as the third path, the third research paradigm and the third methodological movement is widely used and recognised by


12

management scholars. Mixed methods, being the third research paradigm, is known to be a profoundly comprehensive technique for research in social sciences through integration of thematic and statistical data. Divergent findings created through differing data collection and analysis techniques appear to lead to greater depth and breadth in overall results, from which researchers can make more accurate inferences with increased credibility. Mixed methods advocate, according to Jogulu & Pansiri (2011, p. 3) the use of both inductive and deductive research logic which is a great strength in itself. Having an inductive-deductive cycle enables researchers to equally undertake theory generation and hypothesis testing in a single study without compromising one for the other. With matching deductive-inductive dichotomies, researchers can provide better inferences when studying the phenomenon of interest. In fact, it is essential that we move to more sophisticated research designs, multiple data sources and analysis that create divergent views and findings. By employing mixed methods, researchers are possibly reducing over-reliance on statistical data to explain a social occurrence and experiences which are mostly subjective in nature. Figure 3 presents the four fields of the mixed methods design matrix, taken from Jogulu & Pansiri (2011, p. 6), where “qual” stands for qualitative, “quan” stands for quantitative, “+” stands for concurrent, “_” stands for sequential, capital letters - “QUAL” and “QUAN” denote high priority or weight, and lower case letters - “qual” and “quan” denote lower priority or weight. I have decided to pursue the sequential (equal status) approach in the framework of my doctoral research project, mainly due to the fact that different qualitative and quantitative methods will be needed in different phases of the research.

Figure 3. Mixed Methods Design Matrix

Source: U. D. Jogulu, & J. Pansiri, Mixed Methods:

A Research Design for Management Doctoral Dissertations, 2011, p. 6.


13

The idea of third research paradigm is similar to the case study approach or research strategy, which is an analysis of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods (Thomas, 2011, pp. 511-521). Depending on the required size of sample for a specific scientific method, four case studies or four sets of case studies will be introduced in my doctoral dissertation. Leader-employee relations will be studied from the Daoist perspective in a: a) Chinese for-profit organization in China, b) Chinese for-profit organization in Slovenia (or Europe, if no appropriate Chinese companies are found in Slovenia), c) Slovenian (or European) for-profit organization in China, and d) Slovenian (or European) for-profit organization in Slovenia (or Europe). In addition to that, a multi-field research could be performed as well, if we decide so, covering not only the for-profit, but also the non-profit (not-for-profit), and governmental organizations. This would certainly add a special value to the dissertation. The specific scientific methods that will be used in my doctoral dissertation are related to the dissertation's research program, which is evident from the following chapter, where the dissertation's structure is presented. Among the other possible methods, the following methods are planned to be used: − secondary data analysis: for literature review, − preliminary (exploratory) qualitative research – focus groups and in-depth interviews: for

item generation phase of scale development, − structural equation modeling: for theory testing/theory development, − multilevel analysis: for testing the leader-follower relations (questionnaires will be

distributed on both levels) − subsequent (confirmatory) qualitative research – in-depth interviews: for confirming the

developed theory and the results of the research As obvious from the above, the approach of triangulation will be used in my doctoral dissertation research in order to minimize the degree of specifity or depencence on particular methods that might limit the validity or scope of the findings.

5 STRUCTURE OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATION 1. Introduction

1.1. Research Problem Definition 1.2. Purpose, Goals, and Main Research Hypothesis 1.3. Methods 1.4. Potential Contribution 1.5. Structure

2. Daoist Leadership: Literature Review 2.1. Review Structure 2.2. Leadership, Leadership Theories, and Leadership Styles 2.3. Daoism 2.4. Daoist Leadership


14

2.5. Daoist Wateristic Personality 3. Research Model of Daoist Leadership

3.1. Research Model Development 3.2. Antecedents of Daoist Leadership 3.3. Determinants of Daoist Leadership 3.3.1. Altruism 3.3.2. Modesty/Humility 3.3.3. Flexibility 3.3.4. Transparency/Honesty 3.3.5. Gentleness with Perseverance 3.4. Outcomes of Daoist Leadership 3.4.1. Job Satisfaction 3.4.2. Affective Commitment 3.4.3. Trust in Leader 3.4.4. Organizational Citizenship Behavior 3.4.5. Intention to Quit

4. Research Design and Methods 4.1. Hypotheses 4.2. Research Design 4.3. Preliminary Qualitative Research 4.4. Sampling Procedure 4.5. Questionnaire Development 4.5.1. Operationalization of Constructs 4.5.2. Measures 4.5.2.1. Measures of Daoist Leadership Determinants 4.5.2.2. Measures of Daoist Leadership Process 4.5.2.3. Measures of Daoist Leadership Outcomes 4.6. Pilot Study 4.7. Data Collection

5. Results 5.1. Reliability and Validity Assessment

5.1.1. Reliability 5.1.2. Construct and Content Validity 5.1.3. Discriminant and Convergent Validity 5.1.4. Predictive Validity

5.2. Hypotheses Testing 5.3. Significance

5.3.1. Statistical Significance 5.3.2. Practical Significance

6. Discussion and Conclusions 6.1. Summary 6.2. Discussion of the Research Results 6.3. Contributions and Conclusions 6.3.1. Theoretical Contributions 6.3.2. Methodological Contributions 6.4. Limitations of the Study and Future Research


15

6.4.1. Limitations of the Theoretical Framework 6.4.2. Limitations of the Methods Used 6.4.3. Agenda for the Future Research

7. References 8. Appendices 9. English Abstract 10. Translated Slovene Abstracts

6 REFERENCES USED IN DOCTORAL DISSERTATION PROPOSAL Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Alam, M. M., & Mohammad, J. F. (2010). Level of Job Satisfaction and Intent to Leave Among Malaysian Nurses. Business Intelligence Journal, 3(1), 123–137. Bardhan, P. (2010). Awakening Giants, Feet of Clay: Assessing the Economic Rise of China

and India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Bass, B. (1981). Stogdill’s handbook of leadership revised. New York: Free Press. Bass, B., & Stogdill, R. (1990). Bass and Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: Theory research

and managerial applications. New York: Free Press. Bergsten, C. F., Freeman, C., Lardy, N. R., Mitchell, D. J. (2009). China's Rise: Challenges

and Opportunities. Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute for International Economics. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. Chen, C.-C. & Lee, Y.-T. (2008). Leadership and Management in China: Philosophies,

Theories and Practices. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chen, M. J., & Miller, D. (2011). The Relational Perspective as a Business Mindset: Managerial Implications for East and West. Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(3), 6–18. Cheung, C. K., & Chan A. C. F. (2008). Benefits of Hong Kong Chinese CEOs’ Confucian and Daoist leadership styles. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 29(6), 474–503. Choi, Y., & Mai-Dalton, R. R. (1998). On the leadership function of self-sacrifice. Leadership

Quarterly, 9(4), 475–501.


16

Cohen, J. (Executive Producer). (2010, October). Martin Jacques: Understanding the rise of

China [Online TED Talks]. London: TEDSalon. Retrieved September 4, 2011, from http://www.ted.com/talks/martin_jacques_understanding_the_rise_of_china.html Cooney, K., & Sato, Y. (2008). The Rise of China and International Security: America and Asia Respond (Asian Security Studies). Oxon, UK: Routledge. Digman J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual

Review of Psychology, 41(1), 417–440. Encyclopædia Britannica. (2008). The Brittanica Guide to Modern China: A comprehensive

introduction to the world’s new economic giant. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Er, L. P., Wei, L. T., & Thepchatree, P. (2009). The Rise of China and India: A New Asian

Drama. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company. Farndon, J. (2010). China Rises. London: Virgin Books. Fishman, T. (2006). China, Inc.: How the Rise of the Next Superpower Challenges America

and the World. New York: Scribner. Goethals, G. R., & Sorenson, G. L. J. (2006). The quest for a general theory of leadership. Northhampton: Edward Elgar Publishing (New horizons in leadership studies series). Goethals, G. R., Sorenson, G. J., & Burns, J. M. (2004). Encyclopedia of Leadership: Volume

2. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publication. Graham, A. C. 1989. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. La Salle: Open Court. Gupta, A. K. (2011). The Relational Perspective and East Meets West: A Commentary. Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(3), 19–27.

Heilbrunn, D. (2009). Hermann Hesse and the Daodejing on the Wu 無 and You 有of Sage-

Leaders. Dao, 8(1): 79–93. Helms, M. M. (2006). Encyclopedia of Management (5th ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. Hesse, H. (1973). If the War Goes On…: Reflections On War and Politics. Trans. Ralph Manheim. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.


17

Hsü, I. C. Y. (1999). The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. Igbaria, M., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1992). Determinants of MIS employees’ turnover intentions: a structural equation model. Communications of the ACM, 35(2), 35–49. Jacques, M. (2009). When China Rules the World: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom and the

End of the Western World. London: Penguin Books. Jogulu, U. D., & Pansiri, J. (2011). Mixed Methods: A Research Design for Management Doctoral Dissertations. Management Research Review, 34(6), 1–21. Kelley, R. E. (1988, November-December). In praise of followers. Harvard Business Review,

66(6), 142–148. Kelley, R. E. (1992). The power of followership. New York: Doubleday. Kothari, V. B. (2010). Executive Greed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kunzmann, K., Schmid, W. A., & Koll-Schretzenmayr, M. (2009). China and Europe: The

Implications of the Rise of China for European Space (Regions and Cities). Oxon, UK: Routledge. Lai, K. L. (2008). An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lau, D. C. (1963). Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. Lee, Y. T. (2003). Daoistic Humanism in Ancient China: Broadening Personality and Counseling Theories in the 21st Century. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 43(1), 64–85. Lee, Y.-T. (2004). What can chairs learn from Daoistic/Taoistic leadership? An Eastern perspective. The Department Chair, 4(4), 25–32. Lee, Y. T., Norasakkunkit, V., Liu, L., Zhang, J. X., & Zhou, M. J. (2008). Daoist/Taoist Altruism and Wateristic Personality: East and West. World Cultures eJournal, 16(2): Article 2. Retrieved September 2, 2011, from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/78r617cm. Li, M. (2009). The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy. London: Monthly Review Press. McCormick, K. (1999). The Tao of Laissez-faire. Eastern Economic Journal, 25(3), 331–341.


18

Meredith, R. (2008). The Elephant and the Dragon: The Rise of India and China and What It

Means for All of Us. New York: New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Overholt, W. H. (1994). The Rise of China: How Economic Reform is Creating a New

Superpower. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Page, B. I., Xie, T., & Nathan, A. J. (2010). Living with the Dragon: How the American

Public Views the Rise of China (Contemporary Asia in the World). New York: Columbia University Press. Prince, L. (2005). Eating the Menu Rather than the Dinner: Tao and Leadership. Leadership,

1(1), 105–126. Sagar, J. K. (1994). A structural model depicting salespeople’s job stress. Journal of the

Academy of Marketing Science, 22, 74–84. Sprenger, M. (2010). The Leadership Brain For Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Stogdill, R. (1974). Handbook of leadership. New York: Free Press. Thomas, G. (2011). A typology for the case study in social science following a review of definition, discourse and structure. Qualitative Inquiry, 17(6), 511-521. van Knippenberg, B., & van Knippenberg, D. (2005). Leader self-sacrifice and leadership effectiveness: the moderating role of leader prototypicality. Journal of Applied Psychology,

90(1), 25–37. Wilson, D., & Anna Stupnytska (2007). The N-11: More Than an Acronym, Goldman Sachs,

Global Economic Papers, 153, 8. Winston, B. E. & Patterson, K. (2006). An Integrative Definition of Leadership. International

Jounal of Leadership Studies, 1(2), 6–66. Zhang, Z. X., Chen, G. Z. X, Chen, Y. R., & Ang, S. (2009). Call for Papers. Management

and Organization Review, 5(3), 433-434. Zheng, X., W. Zhu, et al. (2011). Ethical leadership in Chinese organizations: Developing a scale. Frontiers of Business Research in China, 5(2), 179–198. Zhu, Y.X. (1999). Chinese management wisdom. Jiangsu: Suzhou University Press.


19

7 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES PROPOSED FOR DOCTORAL DISSERTATION

Arnold, J. A., S. Arad, et al. (2000). The empowering leadership questionnaire: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(3), 249-269. Autry, J. A., & Mitchell, S. (1998). Real Power: Business Lessons From the Tao Te Ching. New York: Riverhead Books. Ayers, M. R. (2006). The relationship of ego identity status to effective leader behavior

(doctoral dissertation). Virginia: Regent University. Barbuto, J. E., Jr., & Wheeler, D. W. (2006). Scale Development and Construct Clarification of Servant Leadership. Group & Organization Management, 31(3), 300–326. Baser, I. U. P., & Rofcanin, Y. (2011). A Scale Development Study on Implicit Leadership Theories of Selected Management and MBA Students from Turkey. The Business Review, Cambridge, 17(1), 129–133. Beazley, D. A. (2002). Spiritual orientation of a leader and perceived servant leader

behavior: A correlational study (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: Walden University. Berce, J. (2009). Tao veščine za vodenje projektov. Projektna mreža Slovenije, 12(1), 21–29. Boettcher, J. (2007). The reality of the Eastern business mind. The International Trade

Journal, 21(3), 275–297. Bono, J. E., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Self-concordance at work: Toward understanding the motivational effects of transformational leaders. Academy of Management Journal, 46(5), 554–571. Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2002). Conceptualizing and Measuring Ethical Leadership: Development of an Instrument. Academy of Management Proceedings, Social Issues in

Management, pp. D1-D6 (2002). Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Proeesses, 97, 117–134.


20

Carlson, S. C. (2005). Ethical leadership: Influences of ethical climate, perceived

organizational support, and perceived leader integrity (doctoral dissertation). Florida: Nova Southeastern University. Carmeli, A., R. Meitar, et al. (2006). Self-leadership skills and innovative behavior at work. International Journal of Manpower, 27(1), 75-75. Chansler, P. A. (2005). Individual and group level traits associated with leadership (doctoral dissertation). Alabama: Auburn University. Chen, Z. X., & Francesco, A. M. (2003). The relationship between the three components of commitment and employee performance in China. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62(3), 490–510. Cheng, K. M. (2003). A structural equation modeling analysis of leadership behavior,

organizational commitment and job satisfaction of employees in Taiwanese health clubs

(doctoral dissertation). Alabama: United States Sports Academy. Cheung, C. K. & Chan, A. (2005). Philosophical foundations of eminent Hong Kong Chinese CEOs’ leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 60(1), 47–62. Choi, Y., & Mai-Dalton, R. R. (1999). The model of followers’ responses to self-sacrificial leadership: An empirical test. Leadership Quarterly, 10(3), 397–421. Christ-Lakin, H. (2010). A correlation analysis of transformational leadership and spiritual

intelligence. Arizona: University of Phoenix. Chuan, L.C. (1997). The Tao of quality – another framework. The TQM Magazine, 9(4), 250–254. Dai, C., & Zheng, Z. G. (2002). Managing talent in China: Confucian origins. In C.B. Derr, S. Roussillon, & F. Bournois (Eds.), Crosscultural approaches to leadership development (pp. 155–167). Westport, CT: Quorum. Dalby, W. L. (2005). Leadership in the 21st century: Implications for problem-based learning

toward a new leadership development model (doctoral dissertation). Tennessee: Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University. Davis, D.D. (2004). The Tao of Leadership in Virtual Teams. Organizational Dynamics,

33(1), 47–62.


21

Dennis, R., & Winston, B. E. (2003). A factor analysis of Page and Wong's servant leadership istrument. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(7/8), 455–459. Dennis, R. S. (2004). Servant leadership theory: Development of the Servant Leadership

Assessment Instrument. Virginia: Regent University. Dennis, R. S., & Bocarnea, M. (2005). Development of the servant leadership assessment instrument. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26(7/8), 600–615. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale Development: Theory and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dreher, D. E. (1995). The Tao of Personal Leadership. New York: Harper Business. Dreher, D. E. (2002). Leading with the Tao: the energizing power of respect. The Learning

Organization, 9(5), 206–213. Drucker, P. (2001). The essential Drucker. New York: HarperCollins. Dugan, J. P. (2006). Involvement and Leadership: A Descriptive Analysis of Socially Responsible Leadership. Journal of College Student Development, 47(3), 335–343. Durlabhji, S. (2004). The Tao of Organizational Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 52(4), 401–409. Ekeland, T. P. (2005). The relationships among affective organizational commitment,

transformational leadership style, and unit organizational effectiveness within the Corps of

Cadets at Texas A&M University (doctoral dissertation). Texas: Texas A&M University. Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluation of the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4, 272–299. Fan, T. W., & Zhu, Y. X. (2003). On Taoist managerial psychological thoughts. Advances in

Psychological Sciences, 11(1), 116–119. Farh, J. L., Earley, P. C., & Lin, S. C. (1997). Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Chinese society. Administrative Science Quarterly,

42(3), 421–444.


22

Fernandez, J. A. (2004). The gentleman’s code of Confucius: leadership by values. Organizational Dynamics, 33(1), 21–31. Field, D. (2004). The relationship between transformational leadership and spirituality in business leaders (doctoral dissertation). Virginia: Regent University. Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. (1996). Strategic leadership: top executives and their

effects on organizations (doctoral dissertation). St. Paul, MN: West. Fung, Y. L. (1966). A short history of Chinese philosophy. New York: Free Press. Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2008). Research Methods in the Social Sciences

(Seventh Edition). New York: Worth Publishers. Frey, M. R. (2007). Personality, lifestyle, and transformational leadership from a humanistic

perspective. Georgia: Georgia State University. Gardner, W. L. (2003). Perceptions of leader charisma, effectiveness, and integrity. Management Communication Quarterly: McQ, 16(4), 502–527. Gerken, G. (1993). Management by Love. Düsseldorf; Wien: ECON Taschenbuch Verlag. Hoffman, K. (2004). Das Tao Model des Selbstmanagements. Schiedlberg: BACOPA Verlag. Goldsmith, R. E., & De Witt, T. S. (2003). The predictive validity of an opinion leadership scale. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 11(1), 28–35. Gurman, E. B., & Long, K. (1994). Work role identity and leadership behavior. The Journal

of Psychology, 128(4), 397–397. Hallinger, P. (2011). A Review of Three Decades of Doctoral Studies Using the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale: A Lens on Methodological Progress in Educational Leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 47(2), 271. Hamel, J. C. (2007). Sales leader-follower dyad and the relationship to follower commitment

and job performance (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: Walden University. Han, Y., Kakabads, N., & Kakabadse, A. (2010). Servant leadership in the People’s Republic of China: a case study of the public sector. Journal of Management Development, 29(3): 265–281.


23

Hariprasad, S. P. (2006). The relationship of managers' self-reported leadership practices and

their spirituality (doctoral dissertation). Florida: Florida International University. Heider, J. (1985). The Tao of Leadership. New York: Bantam Books. Henry, K. V. (2011). A quantitative analysis of ethical leadership character traits and moral

cognition among chief financial officer (CFO) leadership teams (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: Applied Management and Decision Sciences. Herman, S. M. (1994). The Tao of Work: On Leading and Following. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1(1), 104–121. Ho, J., & Nesbit, P. L. (2009). A refinement and extension of the self-leadership scale for the Chinese context. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24(5), 450–476. Horne, C. F. (1917). The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East: Volume XII:

Medieval China. New York: Parke, Austin, and Lipscomb. Houghton, J. D., & Neck, C. P. (2002). The revised self-leadership questionnaire: Testing a hierarchical factor structure for self-leadership. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(7/8), 672–691. Howell, J. (2007). Case study on followership and leadership in college teachers (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: School of Business. Hsieh, K. C., & Chen, Y. C. (2011). Development and Significance of Paternalistic Leadership Behavior Scale. Asian Social Science, 7(2), 45–55. Hsieh, S. C. (2010). Literature Review on Global Leadership Competency. The Journal of

Human Resources and Adult Learning, 6(2), 99–109. Huang, Y. T. (2007). Leadership style, leader-member exchange, and performance for a

family-run Taiwanese multinational enterprise (doctoral dissertation). Florida: Lynn University. Humphreys, J. H. (2000). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leader behavior

and constructive thinking ability: The relationship with proximal sales unit performance

(doctoral dissertation). Florida: Nova Southeastern University.


24

Hwang, K. K. (2001). The deep structure of Confucianism: a social psychological approach. Asian Philosophy, 11(3), 179–204. Innes, P. B. (2004). The influence of leadership on perceptions of organizational politics, job

involvement, and organizational commitment (doctoral dissertation). Virginia: Regent University. Jambor, E. A., & Zhang, J. J. (1997). Investigating leadership, gender, and coaching level using the Revised Leadership for Sport Scale. Journal of Sport Behavior, 20(3), 313–321. Janssen, O. (2001). Fairness perceptions as a moderator in the curvilinear relationships between job demands, and job performance and job satisfaction. Academy of Management

Journal, 44(5), 1039–1050. Johnson, C. (2000). Taoist Leadership Ethics. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(1), 82–91. Jung, D. I., & Avolio, B. J. (1999). Effects of Leadership Style and Followers’ Cultural Orientation on Performance in Group and Individual Task Conditions. Academy of

Management Journal, 42(2): 208–218. Kakabadse, N., Kouzmin, A., & Kakabadse, A. (2002). Spirituality and leadership praxis. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3): 165–182. Kalu, K. A. (2010). National culture and leadership: Followers' preference of

transformational or transactional leadership in a power distance culture (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: School of Business. Kao, P. H. (2005). Taiwanese executives' leadership styles and their preferred decision-

making models used in mainland China (doctoral dissertation). Texas: University of the Incarnate Word. Kaplan, R. E., & Kaiser, R. B. (2003). Developing versatile leadership. MIT Sloan

Management Review, 44(4), 19–26. Karadag, E. (2009). Spiritual Leadership and Organizational Culture: A Study of Structural Equation Modeling. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri, 9(3), 1391–1405. Khuntia, R., & Suar, D. (2004). A Scale to Assess Ethical Leadership of Indian Private and Public Sector Managers. Journal of Business Ethics, 49(1), 13. Kisling, R. A. (2007). Character for leadership: The role of personal characteristics in

effective leadership behaviors (doctoral dissertation). Virginia: Regent University.


25

Kull, S. L. (2003). The ameliorating effects of transformational leadership on resistance to

change: Transformational leadership and conductivity for schematic conversion (doctoral dissertation). Virginia: Regent University. Lagan, T. E. (2007). Examining authentic leadership: Development of a four-dimensional

scale and identification of a nomological network (doctoral dissertation). New York: State University of New York at Albany. Landau, J., & Hammer, T. H. (1986). Clerical employees’ perceptions of intra organizational career opportunities. Academy of Management Journal, 29(2), 385–404. Legier, J. T. (2007). Assessing leadership effectiveness: The relationship between emotional

intelligence and leadership behaviors on group and organizational performance (doctoral dissertation). Illinois: Workforce Education and Development. Low, S. P. (1994). Lessons from Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching for the Facilities Manager. Facilities, 12(12), 6–14. Low, S. P. (1995). Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching and its relevance to project leadership in construction. International Journal of Project Management, 13(5), 295–302. Mak, W. M. (2000). The Tao of people-based management. Total Quality Management,

11(4/5&6), 537–543. Mancheno-Smoak, L. (2008). Transformational leadership, work-related cultural values, and

job satisfaction (doctoral dissertation). Florida: Nova Southeastern University. Mancini, B. A. (2008). The relationship of transformational and transactional leadership to

job satisfaction and organizational commitment within for-profit organizations on Long

Island, New York (doctoral dissertation). New York: Dowling College. Martin, D. F. H. (2011). Improving the Detection of Narcissistic Transformational Leaders

with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire: An Item Response Theory Analysis (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: Psychology. Martin, F. C. (2006). The relationship between leadership practices and job satisfaction: A

survey analysis of National Aeronautics and Space Administration employees at the Langley

Research Center (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: Capella University.


26

McCann, J., & Holt, R. (2009). Ethical Leadership and Organizations: An Analysis of Leadership in the Manufacturing Industry Based on the Perceived Leadership Integrity Scale. Journal of Business Ethics, 87(2), 211–220. McCollum, D. L., & Kajs, L. T. (2009). A Confirmatory Factor Analytic Study of the Goal Orientation Theory of Motivation in Educational Leadership. Educational Research

Quarterly, 33(1), 3–17. McCroskey, S. D. (2007). The relationship between leadership practices and the three-

component model of organizational commitment: An empirical analysis (doctoral dissertation). Minnesota: School of Business. Messing, B. (1992). The Tao of Management. New York: Bantam Books. Mil činski, M. (1992). Klasiki daoizma. Ljubljana: Slovenska matica. Mirsky, J., & Wood, F. (2008). The Brittanica Guide to Modern China: A comprehensive

introduction to the world’s new economic giant. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. Moodian, M. A. (2007). An analysis of intercultural competence levels of organizational

leadership doctoral students (doctoral dissertation). California: Pepperdine University. Paris, T. D. J. (2003). Acculturation, assimilation, leadership styles and its consequences on

job satisfaction (doctoral dissertation). Ohio: Union Institute and University. Parolini, J. L. (2007). Investigating the distinctions between transformational and servant

leadership (doctoral dissertation). Virginia: Regent University. Parry, K. W., & Proctor-Thomson, S. B. (2002). Perceived integrity of transformational leaders in organisational settings. Journal of Business Ethics, 35(2), 75–96. Patterson, K. A. (2003). Servant leadership: A theoretical model (doctoral dissertation). Virginia Beach: Regent University. Peng-Hsiang, K., Kao, H. (2007). Taiwanese Executive's Leadership Styles and Their Preferred Decision-Making Models used in Mainland China. Journal of American Academy of

Business, Cambridge, 10(2), 71–79. Pheng, L.S. (1995). Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching and its relevance to project leadership in construction. International Journal of Project Management, 13(5), 295–302.


27

Pheng, L.S., & Lee, B.S.K. (1997). East meets West: leadership development for construction project management. Journal of Managerial Psychology 12(6), 383–400. Rarick, C.A. (2009). Daoism and the religious community traditions: their influence on Chinese managerial theory. Proceedings of the Academy for Studies in International Business, 9(2), 16–19. Rich, C. J. (2003). Transformational and transactional leadership as a function of

management level in service and manufacturing organizations (doctoral dissertation). California: Alliant International University, San Diego. Riggio, R. E., Zhu, W., Reina, C., & Maroosis, J. A. (2010). Virtue-based measurement of ethical leadership: The Leadership Virtues Questionnaire. Consulting Psychology Journal:

Practice and Research, 62(4), 235–250. Rudden, M. G., S. Twemlow, et al. (2008). Leadership and regressive group processes: A pilot study. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 89(5), 993–1010. Schmidt, A. A. (2008). Development and validation of the Toxic Leadership Scale (doctoral dissertation). Maryland: Psychology. Schyns, B., Meindl, J. R., & Croon, M. A. (2007). The Romance of Leadership Scale: Cross-cultural Testing and Refinement. Leadership (London), 3(1), 29–46. Scuderi, N. F. (2010). Servant leadership and transformational leadership in church

organizations. District of Columbia: Organizational Sciences and Communication (I/O Psyc). Sendjaya, S., Sarros, J. C., & Santora, J. C. (2008). Defining and Measuring Servant Leadership Behaviour in Organizations. The Journal of Management Studies, 45(2), 402. Setley, D. M. (2005). A study of the relationships between leader-member exchange and

subordinate goal commitment as moderated by various leadership styles (doctoral dissertation). Florida, Nova Southeastern University. Sherron, C. T. (2000). Psychometric development of the Adaptive Leadership Competency

Profile (doctoral dissertation). Texas: University of North Texas. Singh, N., & Krishnan, V. R. (2007). Transformational Leadership in India: Developing and Validating a New Scale Using Grounded Theory Approach. International Journal of Cross

Cultural Management: CCM, 7(2), 219–236.


28

Sriboon, N. (2001). Coach leadership behaviors, team cohesion, and athlete satisfaction in

relation to the performance of athletes in the 1999 Rajabhat Games (doctoral dissertation). Florida: The Florida State University. Stashevsky, S., & Koslowsky, M. (2006). Leadership team cohesiveness and team performance. International Journal of Manpower, 27(1), 63–74. Thorpe, R., & Holt, R. (2008). The Sage Dictionary of Qualitative Management Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tuffley, D. (2010). Leadership & the Tao. Scotts Valley: Create Space. Vercic, A. T., & Vercic, D. (2011). Generic charisma - Conceptualization and measurement. Public Relations Review, 37(1), 12. Wang, H. (2002). CEO leadership attributes and organizational effectiveness: The role of

situational uncertainty and organizational culture (doctoral dissertation). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (Hong Kong). Wankel, C. (2008). 21st Century Management: A Reference Handbook. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Washington, G. G. (2004). An analysis of the impact of empathy on propensity to lead. R.

Schuttler (doctoral dissertation). Arizona: University of Phoenix. Watson, B. (1996). Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. Watts, A. W. (1962). The Way of Zen. London: Penguin Arkana. Watts, A. W. (1975). Tao: The Watercourse Way. New York: Pantheon Books. Wielkiewicz, R. M. (2000). The leadership attitudes and beliefs scale: An instrument for evaluating college students' thinking about leadership and organizations. Journal of College

Student Development, 41(3), 335–335. Wielkiewicz, R. M. (2002). Validity of the Leadership Attitudes and Beliefs Scale: Relationships with personality, communal orientation, and social desirability. Journal of

College Student Development, 43(1), 108–108. Wilson, C. L. (2008). A relational study of leadership spirituality and organizational

performance in home health care agencies (doctoral dissertation). Arizona: University of Phoenix.


29

Winston, B. E., & Ryan, B. (2008). Servant Leadership as a Humane Orientation: Using the GLOBE Study Construct of Humane Orientation to Show that Servant Leadership is More Global than Western. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(2), 212–222. Wonders, G. E. (1996). Followership and leadership in nursing (doctoral dissertation). Washington: Pacific Lutheran University. Wright, S. D. (2004). The social phenomenon of transformational leadership among clergy

(doctoral dissertation). District of Columbia: The George Washington University. Xirasagar, S. (2008). Transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership among physician executives. Journal of Health Organization and Management, 22(6), 599–613. Yang, B., Zheng, W., & Li, M. (2006). Confucian view of learning and implications for developing human resources. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 8(3), 346–354. Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Zwart, G. A. (2000). The relationship between spirituality and transformational leadership in

public, private, and nonprofit sector organizations (doctoral dissertation). California: University of La Verne.

Documents

DOCTORAL DISSERTATION PROPOSAL [FIRST DRAFT] …efnet.si/wp-content/uploads/DoctoralDissertationProposal_FirstDraft_Uhan.pdfdisregarded modes of thought, Hesse likely counted Daoist