Name: Galileo Galilei

Life: 1564-1642 Florence, Italy

Education: University of Pisa

Occupation: Professor of Mathematics, University of Padua

Patrons: Duke of Mantua, Medici Family, Pope Urban VIII

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Known for his work in astronomy, philosophy, and physics. Discovered that the period (time in which a pendulum swings back and forth)

is not dependent on the arc of the swing. Questioned Aristotle’s approach to Physics. Experimented to prove that all objects (regardless of density) fall at the same

rate in a vacuum. Wrote De Motu (On Motion) Invented a water pump. Invented the telescope. Able to view the moon’s surface. Discovered the four satellites of Jupiter. Verified the phases of Venus. Discovered sunspots. Proved the Copernican system.

Testimony

“[The universe] cannot be read until we have learnt the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word.”Opere Il Saggiatore p. 171.

Name: Tycho Brahe

Life: 1546 (Skane, Denmark)-1601 (Prague)

Education: Universities of Copenhagen, Leipzig, Wittenberg, Rostock, Basel

Occupation: Son of an aristocrat, Imperial Mathemetician

Patrons: Governor of Copenhagen, King Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II

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Known for astronomy, Built an observatory – the best in Europe for the time. Designed and built new astronomical instruments, calibrated them, and led

nightly observations. Changed observational practice to focus on the entire orbit of planets. Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits. Observed a new star in 1572 and a comet in 1577. Developed a combination of the geocentric (earth-centered) and heliocentric

(sun-centered) theories of the solar system.

Testimony

“And when statesmen or others worry him [the scientist] too much, then he should leave with his possessions. With a firm and steadfast mind one should hold under all conditions, that everywhere the earth is below and the sky above and to the energetic man, every reaion is his fatherland.”

Name: Nicholas Copernicus

Life: 1473-1543 Poland

Education: University of Cracow, University of Bologna, University of Padua

Occupation: Member of Catholic Clergy, Mathematics Teacher, Doctor

Patrons: Bishop of Kulm, Duke of Prussia, Cardinal Schoenberg

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Known for his work in astronomy, mathematics, and economics. Developed the heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of the solar system. Translated Greek manuscripts. Wrote an essay, “Commentariolus” Published On the Revolutions.

Testimony

“For it is the duty of an astronomer to compose the history of the celestial motions through careful and expert study.”

Name: Johannes Kepler

Life: 1571-1630 Germany

Education: Seminary at Adelberg, University of Tubingen,

Occupation: Teacher of Mathematics, Assistant to Tycho Brahe, Imperial Mathematician

Patrons: Duke of Wuerttemberg, Emperor Ferdinand, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II,

Actions

Known for his work in astronomy. Published Astronomia Nova (New Astronomy), which contained three laws of

planetary motion. Wrote letters to support Galileo’s assertions and discoveries regarding a

heliocentric (sun-centered) solar system. Used his knowledge of mathematics to calculate remarkably accurate orbital

paths for all of the planets (at that time) except for Mercury. Supported the heliocentric system of planets.

Testimony

“I much prefer the sharpest criticism of a single intelligent man to the thoughtless approval of the masses.”

Name: Isaac Newton

Life: 1642-1727England

Education: Cambridge University, M.A.

Occupation: Professor of Mathematics, Warden of the Mint

Patrons: Personally wealthy

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Known for his work in physics, mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy. Stated three universal “laws of motion.” Identified and defined gravity. Showed that the force of gravity was affected by distance and mass. One of the inventors of calculus. Studied light and optics. Published his theories in a book, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Designed a reflecting telescope.

Testimony

“If I have seen further it is only by standing on the shoulders of Giants.

“Truth is ever to be found in simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion of things.”

The Scientific Revolution: Movers and ShakersName Location Years Major Accomplishments Education Patronage

1. How does the level of educational training above compare to the access to education most Europeans had during that time?

2. What do the types of patronage tell you about the relationship between knowledge and power in early modern Europe?

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Directions: Place each of the five scientists (and their dates) on the map below