Do We Need Cyberarchivists?and what should betheir professional profile?

Work presented for obtaining aCertificate of continuing education in archival sciences[Certificat de formation continue en archivistique]

Jean-Daniel ZELLER

Aknowledgements:

I cordially thank my collaborator Thomas Sorton and the profesionnal review by Heather Heywood, archiv is t a t the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), whom gracefully revised the first version of this translation.

Geneva, 31 May 2004

Jean-Daniel ZELLER Do We Need Cyberarchivists ?

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. General Introduction 31.1. Work Plan 31.2. Definition 31.3. Terminological Prolegomena 3

1.3.1. e-archivist or cyberarchivist 31.3.2. Cyber 4

2. Theoretical Reflexions 52.1. The CART Report 52.2. And after… 62.3. A model with layers 7

3. The existing training 83.1. Introduction 83.2. AFRICA 9

3.2.1. Certificat d’e-archiviste-documentaliste d’entreprise (EBAD, Dakar, Sénégal) 93.3. AUSTRALIA 9

3.3.1. Information Management and Systems (Monash University) 93.4. NORTH AMERICA 9

3.4.1. Master in Library and Information Science – MLIS (University of California, Los Angeles) 93.4.2. Master in Library and Information Science – MLIS (Louisiana State University) 103.4.3. Master of Science in Information – Archives and Records Management specialization ARM (University of Michigan) 103.4.4. Master of Archival Studies (University of British Columbia, Vancouver) 10

3.5. EUROPE 103.5.1. Diplôme d’archiviste-paléographe (Ecole Nationale des Chartes, Paris) 113.5.2. DESS Réseaux d’Information et Document Electronique (RIDE) 11DESS en ingénierie documentaire (DESSID) (ENSSIB, Lyon) 113.5.3. DESS en [archivisitique] (Mulhouse, Angers, Lyon, St-Quentin-en-Yvelines) 113.5.4. Höherer Archivdienst (Archivschule Marburg) 113.5.5. E-TERM 113.5.6. ERPANET 12

3.6. SWITZERLAND 123.6.1. Specialist in information science (Geneva University of Applied Sciences - Management) 123.6.2. Post-grad certificate in archival and information science (Universities of Lausanne, Berne, and Geneva) 12

3.7. Summary on training 144. Which profile for which market ? 14

4.1. A poorly measured documentary evolution 144.2. Badly defined needs 154.3. Knowledge or skills ? proficiency 154.4. A need of specific knowledge 154.5. A complex reality 17

5. Cyberarchivist versus Cybrarian 185.1. The multiples faces of cybrarian 195.2. An ideal training of the cybrarian 205.3. Convergences and differences 206.1. The cyberarchivist: an individual, a team or a network ? 246.2. Which professional market for the cyberarchivist ? 256.3. And the IT specialists? 256.4. An action program 25

7. Bibliography 26List of Appendix : 30

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1. General Introduction

1.1. Work Plan

After some terminological considerations of the concept of cyberarchivist, I examine some texts which try to give a meaning to this new profile, in particular the report of the Committee on Automated Records and Techniques (CART) of the Society of the American Archivists (chapter 2). I then examine the modifications in archival training that resulted from these documents(chapter 3). From the analysis of several training programs and some known concrete implementations, I propose a profile of the cyberarchivist (chapter 4). Given the professional convergences brought by the widespread use of information technology in the documentary world, I analyse the commonalties and differences between the cyberarchivist and the cybrarian (chapter 5). Finally I propose some directions for future actions (Chapter 6). A commented bibliography (Chapter 7) and several appendices complete the work .

NB: All the web links were revised on 30.11.2007.

1.2. Definition

Maria Pia Rinaldi Mariani first employed this term in a contribution to the DLM-Forum of 1999. 1. She defined it very simply as a : “[person..] who administers - with no distinction - records, archival documents, data, datasets and information.” In fact, this definition does not highlight new competencies for the archivist, adding simply that he manages data, datasets and information (understood as electronic) in addition to the traditional supports. In this definition, every archivist is on the way to becoming a cyberarchivist.

The term is used again some years later by the president of the Society of American Archivists (SAA) during their annual meeting of 2001. He states that cybrarians and « cyberarchivist…are loading the Web with useful information – books, journals, special collections – that need to be preserved for the future as well as current use. »

Since these two broad definitions would not justify the work which follows, I propose my own definition of the term:

A cyberarchivist is an archivist who develops and manages material and organizational systems capable of assuring the long-term conservation of digital documents and their communication to a large public. To this end, he possesses adequate information technology and managerial competencies.

The following chapters will describe these competencies and assess whether they are available in the Swiss archival community at present.

1.3. Terminological Prolegomena[Translation note :][The following considerations reflect terminology problems in French; further development is needed regarding the Anglo-Saxon way of speaking/thinking]

1.3.1. e-archivist or cyberarchivist

With the blossoming of neologisms using the prefix “e-“ following the success of the Internet, it was tempting to call the new generation of archivists in charge of electronic documents by using the same prefix. However, several reasons made me abandon this possible usage.2

1 Maria Pia Rinaldi Mariani, DLM-Forum Follow-up: Proposals on training of Administrators and archivists, [http://web.archive.org/web/20030820204102/http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/dlm/fulltext/full_mariani_en.htm] 2 This is however the term which is used for a diploma program at the EBAD of Dakar. See below the chapter about existing education programs.

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a) EuphonyIn French, the succession of two vowels is not harmonious. This is even less so in this particular case, where there is often confusion between the French pronunciation "é" and an English pronunciation "i". This kind of obstacle is generally a reason to abandon a neologism for impracticability, even if the conceptual content is coherent, which is not the case as we shall see below.

b) EtymologyThe “e-“ neologisms apply at present to pre-existing activities modified by the use of the Internet or computer networks. There is an ambiguity between the written "e-", signifying electronic, and the pronounced "i-", implying Internet. In fact, “e-“ neologisms have often benefited from this confusion, with each person interpreting “e-“ words to fit his/her own purposes. We can measure the possible discrepancies by evoking for example the difference between « e-learning » and one of its possible French translations as télé-enseignement [distance learning] (a pre-existing concept).

In general, the prefix e- is used to mean an activity performed by means of an electronic network (internet, intranet, extranet). The novelty lies in the fact of the use of the network and not in that of the electronics, which is only the prerequisite technology. In this sense of the prefix, we cannot speak about e-archivist but we could possibly speak about e-archival or more cleanly of e-archivage [e-archiving] (the suffix -age being here the equivalent of the English progressive form -ing, usually used in the composition of these neologisms)3.

c) Documentary noiseA last practical reason militates against use of the term e-archivist. It is the noise which the term generates in search engines. We find indeed a whole series of non significant parasite formulations such as: Une archiviste (this without sexist connotation on behalf of search engines).

1.3.2. Cyber

The "cyber" concept has a longer history. The first neologism using this Greek root, cybernetics, was proposed by Norbert Wiener in the 1950s4. He defined it as the « science of the command and the transmission of messages by man and machines ».

In the cited work, Wiener also said « Messages are themselves a form of 'model' and of organization », a sentence which would not be inappropriate in the introduction to a work of contemporary archival diplomatic.

The Greek root « cybernetes » makes reference to the science of piloting of ships (Plato). The cyber concept refers more to the mastery of navigation (we find here the Web browser) and its heuristic nature than to the mastery of the network from a technological point of view. The cyberarchivist (the current tendency to contraction will perhaps transform this to cybarchivist, as is already the case for cybrarian) [Translation note: cybrarian is defined later in chapter 5.1.] would thus be an archivist who pilots both electronic and conventional archiving processes, similar to a navigator who integrates perceptible data (the immediate environment) and sophisticated electronic data (weather report, radar, GPS, etc.) and decides continuously (and in real time) on the course to follow. We shall see in chapters 4 and 5 what “navigational” competencies this new professional profile implies.

For Wiener, cybernetics deals mainly with feedback phenomena modulated by messages issued by a human being or a machine. These principles gave birth to robotics then to expert systems and finally fed all the speculations on artificial intelligence. On the other hand, for the young generations the "cyber" prefix is no

3 For the preservation of electronic documents, the Canadian librarians have named the French web page of resources « Cyberconservation », while the English page is titled « E-preservation », see [http://web.archive.org/web/20040811111307/www.collectionscanada.ca/cidl/preserv-conserv/preserv-f.htm] and [http://web.archive.org/web/20041011042920/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/cidl/preserv-conserv/preserv-e.htm].4 Norbert Wiener, The human use of human beings: Cybernetics and society , Doubleday, 1954; translated in French as Cybernétique et société, UGP 10/18, 1971, Paris.

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longer directly connected to its etymological origins, and it is accepted as a synonym for communications network: so the Web is called the cyberspace5 (which includes not only Internet but also e-mail, discussion groups, etc.).

As a matter of interest, Catherine Dhérent, in a summary article on standardization, proposed the neologism of info-archivist, by analogy to info-documentalist (which has since become cyber-documentalist), but this term was not followed up.6

2. Theoretical Reflexions

2.1. The CART Report

While the literature on archiving electronic records increases exponentially, there is very little reflection on the competencies necessary for the archivists in this domain and even less on the profile of the cyberarchivist.

The fundamental texts in this domain arise from the reflections of the Committee on Automated Records and Techniques (CART) of the Society of American Archivists (SAA). The final report and commentaries of this Committee were the object of the Summer 1993 issue of American Archivist7. Although some rare relevant articles have appeared since then, this issue of American Archivist will establish the skeleton of my theoretical development of the subject.

As indicated in the name of the Committee, at that time and for a long time, the archival community dealt simultaneously with information technology [at that time: data processing] as both a tool (automated techniques) and a generator of electronic documents (automated records). This confusion is evident as well in the competencies considered necessary for the archivists and in the training programme proposed as a consequence. (See appendix 1)

The final report was presented by Victoria Irons Walch and includes a statement on the necessity of a training curriculum in this domain and a history of the Committee’s work (which took place from 1991 to 1993, although preliminary reflections began in 1981)8. The report proposes a program divided into four large groups: foundation cluster, automated applications cluster, electronic records cluster, and management cluster. Some reflections on the implementation of such a program follow below and are completed by several additional articles which I shall cite later.

The development of a reflection on a foundation cluster in such a curriculum arose from the question (sometimes still asked today) of whether or not the theoretical principles of archival science are valid when dealing with electronic records. This issue is briefly evoked in Margaret Hedstrom's article (p. 427), which goes back to Charles Dollar's reflections in this domain. Although these reflections are fundamental to archival science, they do not constitute a specific element of a cyberarchivist’s profile. Furthermore, the second section of this cluster, concerning basic knowledge in information technology, mixes knowledge in the use of computer tools and knowledge relative to the nature of electronic documents.

On the other hand, understanding computer applications is a key domain. For the archivist of the time (as well as for today’s archivist), this basic knowledge seems indispensable. But for the cyberarchivist to have only basic knowledge is insufficient. He/she must also to be able to assess the implications at the archival level in order to be able to influence, if not the design of automated applications (which is ideal), at least their implementation.

The cluster on electronic records is also a central element. The nature of electronic records is only developed in the introduction while the main part is organized according to archival processes (evaluation, description, preservation, etc.).

5 Neologism introduced by the science-fiction writer William Gibson in his book Neuromancer, published in 1982.6 Catherine Dhérent, La normalisation dans les archives, Archives, vol. 31, no 3, 1999-2000. [http://www.archivistes.qc.ca/revuearchives/vol31_3/31-3-Dherent.pdf]7 The American Archivist, vol. 56, no 3, Summer 1993, pp. 411-531.8 The history is recounted in Thomas Elton Brown’s paper in the same issue.

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This particular organization of the first three clusters shows that the needs analysis of the necessary competencies was rather fuzzy at the time., Margaret Hedstrom expresses this idea indirectly by writing «  The needs assessment focuses on what archivists need to know about automation but does not present a detailed analysis of the various audiences for this education and training. » CART thus built an ideal profile, without knowing if the competencies were to be acquired by the archival community or by only some elements of the community.

The last cluster focused on management competencies. In a complementary article, Richard Kesner develops a provocative argument by claiming that the heart of the problem is that « the archivist is never trained as a manager ». This lack of managerial competence is not unique to the domain of electronic records, but has become more evident with the rise of electronic records. It seems nevertheless obvious that competence in project management is a key competency of the (future?) cyberarchivist.

2.2. And after…

After the considerable efforts of the CART project, the SAA set up numerous continuing education courses, universities gradually integrated these competencies into their programmes (see following chapter), and an increasing number of archivists passed from theory to practice. However, in a paper published in 1998, Richard Cox gave a mixed assessment of the results9. Without denying the progress made, he highlighted three new problems:

The absence of taking into consideration the Web, both as a source of official records (automated records) and as a means of disseminating information about archives’ holdings (automated techniques). Although these two aspects were missing from the CART report, it must be noted that the authors had emphasized that the list of competencies should be updated as technology evolved. The communication aspect of the Web implies a new development, barely envisaged in 1993: the digitisation and retro-conversion of archival collections and finding aids.

The fact that, although training for archivists in the field of information technology was developing, this knowledge was rarely part of the qualifications required for employment.

The archival community’s lack of reflection on the societal changes engendered by the Web, which should, according to Cox, change archivists’ vision of their social role and their (new) clientele, who will no longer be primarily historians.

Although some studies on these subjects have since appeared, these questions still remain open to discussion.

In Europe, at the DLM Forum of 1999 Maria Pia Rinaldi Mariani described some reflection similar to that of CART carried out under the aegis of the European Community in the period 1996-1999 10. In her paper, she described the situation in general terms and concluded with a chapter titled «  Toward a new profession?  » in which the term "cyberarchivist" appears for the first time (and she asks, without answering, if it is not just another term for « Information Resources Manager »). She defined the term as follows:

« … information is a business which, in order to be profitable, needs to be regulated, structured, organised, classified, indexed, made permanently accessible, updated, quality-controlled, provenance-guaranteed, filtered and made privacy-respondent by a CYBERARCHIVIST […] who administers - with no distinction - records, archival documents, data, datasets and information. »

This article did not propose a profile of a cyberarchivist or a programme of training strictly speaking, but it established the basis for several subsequent training programmes (see the following chapter):

The creation of the E-Term training programme The creation of the ERPANET network (Electronic Resource Preservation and Access Network)

9 Richard J. Cox, American Archivists, Cyberculture and Stasis, In: Cyber, Hyper or Resolutely Jurassic? Proceedings of a symposium to celebrate 25 years of professional education in the Archives Department [University College Dublin], October 1998 [http://www.ucd.ie/archives/html/conferences/cyber2.htm]. In this article, Cox also discusses how the role of archivists is changing in the Information Society, but I cannot develop these arguments here.10 Maria Pia Rinaldi Mariani, DLM-Forum Follow-up: Proposals on training of Administrators and archivists, [http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/dlm/fulltext/full_mariani_en.htm].

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The creation of the training course « Courants » at the Archives de France (on the model of the Stage technique international d’archives (STIA), but dedicated to new information technologies and initially reserved for archivists from the countries of east and central Europe).11

Another interesting aspect of the conclusion of this article is an indirect acknowledgement of a lack of information about the archival job market and a proposal to « creating a registry of archival vacancies for all European countries, with emphasis on the role and functions of the DLM website »12. Among other points, we also find the question of training of generalists versus training of specialists and the ideal relationship between core training and continuing education.

In Switzerland, the Global strategy for the long-term preservation of electronic records in Switzerland13, published in 2002, discusses the issue of training in this domain. It proposes quickly setting up specific training (pp. 158 and 170) as well as harmonizing core training in these domains (principally between the specialized technical colleges and the post-graduate archival diploma, p. 171). I shall return to this last point in detail in the following chapter.

2.3. A model with layers

The difficulty in setting up a curriculum model allowing the acquisition of knowledge and competencies in the management of electronic records from an archival perspective is, as numerous authors (both computer specialists and archivists) underline, the fast evolution of the domain. In order to clarify the situation, I propose below a model in layers which allows us to understand better the various levels of necessary competencies.

Archival actors

Archival activities

Electronic Information Systems IT activities IT actors

Cyberarchivist Communication Design of sites for the diffusion of records Building web interface

WEB master

Cyberarchivist Retroconversion Digitisation of analogue recordsConception of online finding aids

Digitisation IT-specialist/ EDM operators

Cyberarchivist Preservation Design of recordkeeping systems(RKMS : Record Keeping Management System)

OAIS-based systems

Migration Security

Specialised IT-scientist

Senior Archivist Authentication Systems for electronic authentication Electronic Signature(as ex)

Third party certifiers

Senior Archivist Evaluation Systems for metadata management Management of dictionaries and directories

Specialised IT-scientist

Junior Archivist Description Indexation

Electronic information systems Commercial software or specific software

Database designer

Records manager Records management

Records management system (RMS)

Electronic records management system

(ERMS)

Specific software Programmer(software producers)

Administrative clerk Office management

Office automation Basic IT (OS) Basic software Programmer(software producers)

The table builds from the bottom to the top, from the creation of documents/data in an organisation to their long-term preservation. Every actor at a higher level needs the knowledge necessary for the lower level plus competencies specific for his/her level. Although it is not the object of our discussion, it is important to note that the progression of competencies from basic to complex on the archival level should probably be matched by a parallel progression of competencies on the level of the computer specialists. In practice, the separation between the various layers is not so clear-cut; however this table simplifies a complex reality.

11 See: [http://www.archivesdefrance.culture.gouv.fr/fr/formation/DAFcourantspres.html]12 To my knowledge, long-term support for the DLM-Forum by the European Union remains uncertain, and this project was not realized to date.13 http://www.vsa-aas.org/uploads/media/f_strategie_03.pdf

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The two lower levels seem to be mastered today, as indicated by the existence of commercial software packages (although certain aspects of records management are still the subject of discussion, such as the control of transactions and workflows). Software for description and indexing are currently being acquired by most archives in the developed world and in principle their use will soon become part of daily practice. On the other hand, the higher levels are still the object of research, doctrinal controversies, and uncertainty about their longevity.

This table, although a little ideal, allows us to see the levels of competencies necessary while at the same time allowing us to understand their evolution over time. So, knowledge of basic data processing and office automation, which were cited by the 1993 CART report as competencies to be acquired, are today common knowledge for any secondary school student as a computer user. Knowledge in records management and in document management (defined as the mastery of software for management of current records) are at present widely (but not universally14) taught to students who specialize in the information management domain (including archivists). On the other hand, the mastery of metadata, electronic authentication systems and long-term preservation is still not well developed.

Every time one of these levels is not mastered by the responsible actors, the higher level actor has to assume the function. This means that the cyberarchivist of today is responsible for implementing Electronic Records Management Systems, establishing metadata, and developing automated standards-based descriptive systems. When these competencies become more widespread in the archival community, the cyberarchivist will be able to devote himself/herself to the later stages of electronic records management.

3. The existing training

3.1. Introduction

The following chapter does not claim to be an exhaustive analysis of all the programs offered in the domain; it is simply a selection of the programs in various training centers which try to answer the demand. I tried to cover a wide range of regions in order to discover possible trends.

In 1994, the Society of American Archivists adopted Guidelines for the Development of a Curriculum for a Master of Archival Studies Degree, which were replaced in 2002 by Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies. These Guidelines divide core archival knowledge into three main domains: knowledge of archival functions, knowledge of the profession and contextual knowledge. The domains are further divided into 13 chapters, and it is in the domain of contextual knowledge that one finds the chapter « Digital records and access systems ». In addition, in the area Interdisciplinary Knowledge, composed of 8 chapters, a chapter on « Information Technology » is proposed. Without knowing the number of courses actually offered by education and training institutions, we can extrapolate that for an archivist trained at this level, approximately 10 % of his/her training should be dedicated to this domain (half for general information technology knowledge and half for management of electronic records).

In a fairly recent article, Carol Couture analyzed the programs of about 74 training institutions.15 It also emerged from this study that the proportion of courses dedicated to information technology is of the order of 8%, going up to 11% in institutions delivering combined training in information science (archival, library and information science, 10 programs of the 40 analyzed). The author divides these courses into three categories: basic knowledge, information technology for the management of archives, and the management of the electronic records. In the second part of his article dedicated to research, he notes that the subjects favored by researchers are 1: electronic archives and 2: information technology applied to archives management. It remains to be seen whether this research will ultimately increase the representation of these disciplines in the programs offered.

We find below an indication of the factors which guided my choices, region by region.

Africa14 For details, see the chapter below about the existing education programmes.15 Carol Couture, Education and Research in archival science: General Tendencies, Archival science, no 1, 2001, pp. 157-182. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/mkx6j8524211v096/]

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Curiously, this is the only continent which offers training titled "e-archivist". This is the only program that I included, as a matter of interest (although…).

AustraliaI included Monash University, known for its research activity in the domain.

North AmericaAmong 17 universities offering training in archival science (sometimes expressed as a specialization « Information science ») listed by the Society of American Archivists16, I selected 4 American universities and 2 Canadian universities with well-developed courses in electronic archiving.

EuropeI chose to analyze programs close to our linguistic regions, namely France, Germany and Switzerland. In addition to these traditional programs, I added the European program E-Term, specifically dedicated to this problem, as well as ERPANET as an organizer of seminars and workshops.

3.2. AFRICA

3.2.1. Certificat d’e-archiviste-documentaliste d’entreprise (EBAD, Dakar, Sénégal)[Certificate of e-archivist & business documentation specialist]

Only the EBAD in Dakar, Senegal, offers a training program specifically named Certificate of e-archivist-business documentation specialist. Introduced in 2001, it is a 6-month distance learning program. The entry requirement is 4 years of post-secondary education. However, it seems clear from the prospectus that the program focuses on training computerized documentation specialists, adding some notions of records management and electronic records management. Archival principles and practices are largely absent from the training.[http://www.ebad.ucad.sn/fadis/guides/F2]

3.3. AUSTRALIA

3.3.1. Information Management and Systems (Monash University)Monash University offers three different types of post-graduate study in information management and systems: Graduate Certificate (24 credits), Graduate Diploma (48 credits) and Master’s degree (72 credits). The courses are almost exclusively dedicated to the management of electronic documents / data; it is presumed that knowledge of archival principles has already been acquired in a previous degree. The structure of the courses allows students to choose a master’s degree with specialisation in “electronic recordkeeping and archiving” or “library and information services.”[http://www.sims.monash.edu.au/courses/pgrad/mims/specialisation/archivesansrecordskeeping/ ]

3.4. NORTH AMERICA

3.4.1. Master in Library and Information Science – MLIS (University of California, Los Angeles)

The University of California proposes a 2-year MLIS degree with a specialisation in Archival Studies. The courses offered for the Archival Studies specialization (15) include a module « Digital Media Management » focused on management of multimedia documents as well as management of associated metadata. The course « Management of Digital Records » is specifically dedicated to the preservation of electronic records. In other related specializations, the MLIS programme offers courses on the preservation of audio-visual material.[http://polaris.gseis.ucla.edu/swetland/courselist.html]

16 See: http://www.archivists.org/prof-education/edd-index.asp.

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3.4.2. Master in Library and Information Science – MLIS (Louisiana State University)

In addition to a classic MLIS Degree, this university offers several specialisation among which the «  Online system and Services » (now “Electronic information retrieval”) programme offers several interesting courses on our subject such as : Management of information systems, Information science, Electronic information science, Information retrieval systems and Database management systems. However, the training proposed for archivists is a Dual Degree in common with its Department of History. There is also a Library and Information Science/Systems Science Joint Degree, which contains in-depth courses in information systems and computer applications to « …meet the growing demand for information professionals with a background in library science and computer science ».[http://slis.lsu.edu/degrees.html#mlis]

3.4.3. Master of Science in Information – Archives and Records Management specialization ARM (University of Michigan)

This programme of 11 modules includes both classic archival subjects and four courses on information technology: Understanding Network Computing, Information Technology, User Interface Design, and Management of Electronic Records. In addition, all the courses covering classic archival subjects include a sub-chapter dedicated to electronic records.[http://www.si.umich.edu/msi/arm.htm]

3.4.4. Certificate of Advanced Study in Archives and Records Management (University of Pittsburg, School of Library and Information Science)

This post-graduate certificate of 24 credits consists of 12 courses, only one of which is strictly dedicated to electronic records (digital preservation [http://www.sis.pitt.edu/~kgracy/LIS2674_Spr_03.htm]). On the other hand, there are about a dozen courses under the Information Technology specialisation.[http://www.sis.pitt.edu/~dlis/academics/specializations/preservation_management.html]

3.4.4. Master of Archival Studies (University of British Columbia, Vancouver)Among about twenty courses proposed in this programme, the following are related to electronic records: Database Design, Standard-Based Archival Automation: The Theory and the Practice, Continuing Preservation of Electronic Records, Design and Administration of Electronic Document and Records Management Systems (EDRMS), and Information Technology and Archives. There is no specific course on the preservation of electronic records, but the subject is included in the course on preservation.[http://web.archive.org/web/20070826215226/http://www.slais.ubc.ca/PROGRAMS/programs.htm]

3.4.5. Certificat en gestion de l’information numérique(Université de Montréal, EBSI)[Certificate in management of digital information]

In addition to a traditional certificate in archival science (where only one course is an introduction to digital information), the EBSI offers this recently created certificate intended for a diversified clientele, and thus not exclusively reserved for professionals in archival practice. It includes 18 credits of required courses and 9-10 of elective courses (3 credits represent 4h/week of in-class teaching; in a semester = approximately 60 hours). The compulsory courses, after an introduction to digital information, follow the life of electronic documents according to the traditional archival cycle (creation, organization, preservation, reference, distribution). Among the elective courses, only 4 are specific to this certificate; the others are part of programs in archival science (8), office automation (8) and information technology (1). Although not strictly focused on electronic archiving, this certificate certainly represents the most important French-speaking program on the subject to this day.[http://www.ebsi.umontreal.ca/cours/pdf/ebsi_inu.pdf]

3.5. EUROPENote: for more information on archival training in Switzerland and Europe, consult the site of the Association of Swiss Archivists, under the chapter on training17.

17 See: http://vsa-aas.org/index.php?id=267&L=1.

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3.5.1. Diplôme d’archiviste-paléographe (Ecole Nationale des Chartes, Paris)The programme of the Ecole des Chartes is still primarily traditional. Only some rare courses on basic office automation are offered. It is also significant that to this day, there has been no student thesis on a subject related to electronic records. Training in electronic records is available at the Institut National du Patrimoine -Department of curators, to which admission by entrance examination is open to graduates of the Ecole des Chartes.[http://www.enc.sorbonne.fr/liste_enseignements.html]

3.5.2. DESS Réseaux d’Information et Document Electronique (RIDE)DESS en ingénierie documentaire (DESSID) (ENSSIB, Lyon)

In addition to its traditional training in information sciences, the ENSSIB recently added two DESS with specialization in the new technologies, with a duration of one year (6 modules of approximately 96 hours and an internship of 4 months with a dissertation). Although they contain courses of great interest to a cyberarchivist, these two programs remain directed towards library science.The DESS RIDE aims at training people capable of leading projects linked to information technologies, and includes the following modules: Computer science refresher, Documentation and library services, Digital documents and networks, electronic information services, Collaborative work and information and communication technologies, and Information and electronic publishing markets.DESSID is a more technical program and includes the following modules: General information technology, Electronic documentation, Document management software, Management of document projects, and bibliographic/document description.[Translation note: Since the publication of this text, the DESS has become a Masters degree, in accordance with the Bologna System] [http://www.enssib.fr/offre-de-formation/presentation-master-1]

3.5.3. DESS en [archivisitique] (Mulhouse, Angers, Lyon, St-Quentin-en-Yvelines)Each of these schools offers a Diploma of Higher Education (DESS) formally equivalent to the others, but the variation in the naming and in the methods of education confers to each a particular coloring. All possess a computer science module, but the contents are more focused on information technology as a tool rather than on the preservation of electronic records. The DESS of Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, recently created in close collaboration with the Departmental Archives of Yvelines, which is well-equipped with information technology, shows a willingness to embrace the new technologies. The future will show if this willingness translates into thesis topics/diploma projects.Mulhouse :[http://www.flsh.uha.fr/flsh/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabId=1f1e3976-08d5-4965-8d21-990f78bac258] & [http://www.archivistes.org/IMG/fiches_Mulhouse.pdf]Angers :[http://www.univ-angers.fr/cours.asp?ID=497&langue=1]Lyon :[http://facdeslettres.univ-lyon3.fr/1150113738524/0/fiche___document/&RH=]St-Quentin :[http://masterarchives.freewebspace.com/cgi/ ]

3.5.4. Höherer Archivdienst (Archivschule Marburg)Similar to the Ecole des Chartes, the Archivschule of Marburg has kept a rather traditional programme in archival science. Thus it does not offer IT courses in its basic programme. On the other hand, it proposes in its "Kurrikulum höherer Archivdienst" (1170 hours) the following modules: Strukturformen elektronischer Aufzeichnungen und ihre archivische Bearbeitung (28h), Elektronische Bürosysteme (30h), Einführung in die Fach-IT (14h). At the technical college level, it offers the following modules : Archivierung digitaler Aufzeichnungen (28h) et Elektronische Bürosysteme in der Verwaltung (28h).[http://www.archivschule.de/content/46.html]

3.5.5. E-TERMThis program of continuing education was introduced by the DLM-Forum (1997), at the instigation of Peter Hofmann, archivist of the European Union. The project manager was Peter Horsman of the Archiefschool of Amsterdam. The distinctive characteristic of this program is that it is exclusively dedicated to the archiving of electronic records and is designed to allow for distance learning, hosted by University College London. It was intended that the program would offer three types of course materials:

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- Basic texts (5 modules), with introductory notes and questions;- Case studies;- A glossary of concepts.

Only the first part has been realized to date. The case studies were to be developed locally by the program’s partner schools (in addition to the Archiefschool and University College London, other participants are the University of Northumbria, the Fachhochschule of Postdam, and the University of Tampere). A draft curriculum was established by the partner schools in 1999, but a planned second set of pilot projects has never taken place. Although the project was intended to be European, the basic literature is mostly Anglo-Saxon, which makes it difficult to adapt the program for European countries with different archival traditions. Moreover, there is uncertainty about the continuation of the DLM-Forum and thus about the longevity of this program. [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/e-term/]

3.5.6. ERPANETErpanet18 also arises from the European DLM-Forum’s reflections. This network of exchange among concerned professionals organizes a number of two-day workshops (ErpaWorkshop) and seminars (ErpaTraining) on various subjects concerning the preservation of electronic records. The subjects covered to date are:

ErpaTrainingOAIS Training Seminar (28-29 November 2002, København)Policies for Digital Preservation (29-30 January 2003, Paris)Web Archiving (22-23 May 2003, Kerkira)Metadata (4-5 September 2003, Marburg)Appraisal of Scientific Data (15-17 December 2003, Lisboa)Building records management procedures and policies (4-5 March 2004Cork)Standards (17-18 June 2004, Wien)Newage Data - multimedia, virtual reality (23-24 September 2004, Amsterdam)

ErpaWorkshopDigitisation, Conservation, and Quality Control (23-25 June 2002, Toledo)XML as Preservation Strategy (9-11 October 2002, Urbino )The Long Term Preservation of Databases (9-11 April 2003, Bern)Trusted Digital Repositories for Preserving Cultural Heritage (17-19 November 2003, Roma)Audit and Certification in Digital Preservation (14-16 April 2004, Antwerpen)

[http://www.erpanet.org/]

3.6. SWITZERLAND

3.6.1. Specialist in information science(Geneva University of Applied Sciences - Management)

This three year programme contains an archival sector (approx. 360 hours). It also has a strong component on information technology ( primarily electronic information systems, approx. 400 hours) and, since 1995, includes a course on archiving electronic records. The duration of the latter went from 8 hours (1995) to 36 hours in 2003. Since 2002, the programme includes a sector on project management (approx. 150 hours), which constitutes the base for working through the major diploma project. It also offers a specialization in the management of documentary heritage (approx. 100 hours).[http://www.hesge.ch/heg/metiers_formations/form_hes_bachelor/form_id.asp]

3.6.2. Post-grad certificate in archival and information science(Universities of Lausanne, Berne, and Geneva)

This certificate, introduced in 2002 at the instigation of the Association of Swiss Archivists, is intended to "update" the knowledge of Swiss archivists who, for the greater part, were not able previously to benefit from specific training at this level. This in service training consists of 5 modules of 40 hours (restructured to 4 modules of 50 hours in the 2nd session) and corresponds to 20 credits ECTS. It has the particularity of being trilingual (German, French, English). One module is completely dedicated to records and information management, whereas another one is devoted to information technology and electronic records. The other

18 Erpanet: Electronic Resource Preservation and Access Network.

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modules are dedicated to traditional branches of archival science. A module on management, foreseen in the initial program, had to be abandoned for technical reasons.First session : [http://www2.unil.ch/sfc/archivistique.html]Since the publication of this text, the Certificate has become the first module of a Master in Archives and Information Sciences delivered by the University of Bern (first session: 26 October 2006).[www.archivistique.ch]

3.7. Summary on training

This overview shows that the available basic training is still far from offering a uniform and stable education in electronic records management. It still does not seem evident what level of training must be offered in this subject. It also seems that, considering the fast evolution in the domain, the archival communities have generally preferred continuing education, to the detriment of a structured basic programme. This analysis of programmes also puts in evidence the differences in training needs between archivists and those I called cyberarchivists.

We can consider that courses proposing the following three sectors, with modules of 32 hours, 64 hours or 96 hours of course time (according to the ECTS standards19) :

- Introduction to the basics of information technology, - Electronic information systems,- Introduction to electronic records and their archiving.

are sufficient for the current archivist. At first estimate, the complement necessary to train cyberarchivists would involve a number of specialised courses in each of the 3 sectors and completed by training in project management (if it has not already been received) and in information and society, in the sense of reflecting on the application of archival principles in a world increasingly dominated by information technology (in the sense of the reflections developed by Terry Eastwood20, Tom Nesmith21 and Eric Ketelaar22).

4. Which profile for which market ?

After this preliminary investigation, we can note that training in information technology for cyberarchivists (and for all archivists) is very blurred. Let us try to determine the reasons.

4.1. A poorly measured documentary evolution

While the archival community has worried for about twenty years about the consequences of the computerization of society, it has not developed the means to measure the changes which that implies. It is for example extremely difficult to obtain figures that predict the growth of paper and/or electronic archives.

Common intuition would anticipate that electronic documents will gradually replace paper documents. And yet we have no large-scale measures of the evolution of the volumes of record transfers to archives. Only a regular general increase is perceived, without being quantified. The only reliable figures that I can advance are those that I can measure in my own organization, which show for example a regular increase of the volume of files in the order of 5 % a year over the last twenty years. This represents a doubling of the volume in twenty years. 23

19 ECTS: European Credit Transfer System.20 Terry Eastwood, Reforming the Archival Curriculum to Meet Contemporary Needs, Archivaria, no 42, Fall 1996, pp. 80-88.21 Tom Nesmith, Professional Education in the Most Expansive Sense: What will Archivist Need to Know in the Twenty-First Century?, Archivaria, no 42, Fall 1996, pp. 89-94.22 Eric Ketelaar, Archivistics Research Saving the Profession, The American Archivist, Vol. 63, Fall 2000, pp. 322-340.23 We can compare this figure to the increase in the world consumption of paper, which is of the order of 3%. However we do not know which part of this consumption is intended for the administrative production (source: http://www.cepi.org/Objects/1/Images/Cepi-Stats05-9.jpg ).

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The hypothesis of the replacement of paper by electronic documents also remains to be verified. It could very well be possible that digital production does not replace paper but overlaps it. Here again, my experience shows that even when 20 % of the documents of my organization (the University hospitals of Geneva - HUG) are born digital, they also exist in paper form, and the paper format will be abandoned (by the users/producers) only if the digital proportion exceeds 60 %, which is far from being the case, even though the HUG is considered a strongly computerized hospital site.

In the same sense, it is evident that electronic data which are not structured as documents (data bases, digital images, GIS, etc.) add to the pre-existing paper documents and constitute a potentially supplementary volume of data to be archived.

As long as we have no reliable data on these volumes, it will be difficult to quantify the needs of people likely to take responsibility for them at the archival level.

4.2. Badly defined needs

If, at the time of the publication of the CART report twenty years ago, it was difficult to differentiate between information technology as a tool and information technology as a producer of electronic records, it seems at present that this distinction is more than vital to determine the necessary professional profiles. Electronic information systems as a tool are now clearly defined and the range of off-the-shelf commercial software packages demonstrates this. On the other hand, the specifics of preserving electronic records/data still remain problematic and should be the object of research and development. 24

From the beginning of discussions about information technology training programs and archival science, a debate took place between those who promoted training for all archivists and those who promoted the training of specialists (in the same way as the French archivistes-paléographes for example). In retrospect, this was perhaps a false debate. The knowledge of the current specialists, once it has been formalized in policies, directives, standards and best practices, will be the common knowledge of the profession tomorrow. Certain training domains proposed by the CART curriculum of the time, in particular basic knowledge in information technology, are currently taught at the secondary school level and do not need to be taken into account in a specialized training program in archival science. Mastery of electronic information systems (as a management tool for archives) is taught in most of the specialized courses. The new professionals are thus equipped to use information technology as a tool. On the other hand, still missing is a corpus of reflection and best practice on information technology as producer of potentially archival documents, as well as on the influence of information technology on the organization of document creators.

Similarly, confusion remains between the requirements for continuing education, for archivists already in the field, and the requirements for initial training of new professionals.

4.3. Knowledge or skills ?

The other big difficulty in the constitution of training courses and professional profiles is the confusion between knowledge andskill. In most cases, academic programmes, even if they include internships or practical exercises, privilege the acquisition of theory or knowledge. This tendency shows itself in the way that training programmes are described. Among the profiles presented in this study, only the profile proposed by the Canadian administration expresses itself in term of skills. This is probably explained by the fact that this profile was developed to evaluate people already in a function. This question is important however to the extent that much knowledge about information technology will not be directly useful for the archival preservation of electronic records, but will allow on the other hand a contextual understanding, which is essential when working on the global nature of organisations (for example, I personally learnt the programming language PASCAL years ago and have never done any professional programming, but this basis allows me to understand, even today, some dysfunction of the databases which I evaluate from an archival point of view).

24 On this subject, see the paper of Peter Keller-Marxer, L'archivage numérique aux Archives fédérales - un rapport d'expérience [Electronic archiving at the Swiss Federal Archives – a practical case study] , Arbido, 2003, no 10, pp. 16-18. Also accessible in electronic form at the address: [http://vsa-aas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/texte/ag_earchiv/keller.pdf]. See also the table at the end of this chapter.

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4.4. A need of specific knowledge

The table below summarise the points set out above. It is very clear that the limits of the domains need to be refined. In this table, the categories of information technology knowledge are defined as follows:

Office automation : The mastery of what is collectively included in office suites: word processing, spreadsheet, presentation software. We could define a superior level which would include databases, image management software and other specific software intended to interact with basic office applications.

IT Fundamentals : Basic theoretical knowledge about both the history of the development of information technology and the evolution of these concepts; and at the detailed level, the influence of information technology on society and archival principles.

Electronic information systems: Software useful for the management of documents, either for records management (RMS and ERMS), or for archival management (inventory and description of documents, EAD, EAC).

Electronic records : All the knowledge and skills needed to manage electronic records in all stages of the archival life cycle (creation, acquisition (capture), description [metadata], preservation, communication).

The level specialized training is at present understood in service training for cyberarchivists currently in the field. Later it should become part of basic archival training, but this will be discussed in the conclusion.

Fig. 1 : Table of information technology knowledge needed according to professional profiles and careers Zones in grey tint are those which still need to be developed, in the sense that they are presently either not acquired or not formalized in theory. The upward arrows indicate the accumulation of knowledge by training, the downward arrows indicate the transfer of skills and expertise that should occur in the course of time.

Professional profiles

Office automation IT Fundamentals Electronic information systems

Electronic records

Cyberarchivist Detailedknowledge related to the

archival aspects

Detailedknowledge

Detailedknowledge related to the archival aspects

Detailedknowledge related to the archival aspects

Specialized Training

SeniorArchivist

Practicalknowledge

Theoreticalknowledge

Detailedtheoreticalknowledge

Detailedtheoreticalknowledge

Continuous training

JuniorArchivist

Practicalknowledge

Theoreticalknowledge

Practicalknowledge

Practicalknowledge

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Basictraining

Student Practical knowledge none none none

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4.5. A complex reality

At this stage, it is interesting to examine the reality of the situation; To date in Europe, only two structures of long duration handle electronic archiving: the team CONSTANCE25 of the Center for Contemporary Archives of Fontainebleau and the team ARELDA26 of the Swiss Federal Archives (as the SFA keeps more or less only the documents produced since the creation of the actual Confederation in 1848, we can consider that it is also a center for contemporary archives).

I naturally had no possibility of being exhaustive in this area. It is necessary to note that the Austrian ELAK 27

project and the German DOMEA28 project are teams aiming at working out standards and good practices but are not intended (at least to this day) to become teams responsible for managing electronic records. This is also the case for the team of the Dutch Testbed29. As for the English NDAD30, comparison is difficult because it is a case where a university computer center is delegated a mandate by the Public Records Office to manage data sets to the exclusion of all other electronic records.

Fig. 2: Comparison between the teams CONSTANCE and ARELDA

CONSTANCE ARELDATotal posts of the Center for contemporary archives 44 68Posts dedicated to the archiving of electronic records 6 8Percentage 13.6% 12.5%Of which :

Posts of archivists with (certified) IT competencies 0 2Posts of IT-specialists with (certified) archival competencies 1 2Posts of archivists 1 0Posts of IT-specialists 1 2Posts of clerical staff 0 1Posts of technical staff 3 1

 Estimation of annual increase of volume of electronic records for the next 10 years (in Giga-or Terabytes)

many dozens of TB

5-20 TB/year31

Estimation of the increase of volume of paper records for the next 10 years (in linear meters)

300'000 lm 30'000 lm

The indicated data should be viewed cautiously. In effect, the number of posts often includes a number of part-time jobs or short-term employment for ‘one off’ research activities. Besides, as indicated in the previous chapter, estimations of the increase in the volume of archives (paper as well as digital) are to date very unreliable because we have no common methodology for these measurements.

In spite of these reservations, we can make the following observations:

a) The portion of staff dedicated to electronic archiving is of the order of 13%. This rate is almost identical for both the CONSTANCE team, which has been working for more than 20 years and which provides a regular service, and the ARELDA team, which is much more recent and is a project team (for more than 50% of its staff).

25 CONSTANCE = CONServation et Traitements des Archives Nouvelles Constituées par l’Electronique. [http://www.archivesdefrance.culture.gouv.fr/fr/archivistique/DAFcongresconstance.htm].26 ARELDA = ARchivierung ELektronischen Daten und Akten (Archiving electronic data and files). [http://web.archive.org/web/20030520195506/http://www.bar.admin.ch/webserver-static/docs/f/arelda_expose_0401_f.pdf]27 ELAK = ELektronische AKt, [http://www.cio.gv.at/elektronischerAkt/].28 DOMEA = Dokumentenmanagement und elektronische Archivierung im IT-gestützten Geschäftsgang, [http://www.uni-koblenz.de/fvi/projekte/domea.html].29 Digital Preservation Testbed : [http://www.digitaleduurzaamheid.nl/index.cfm?paginakeuze=286&lang=en]30 NDAD = National Digital Archive of Datasets [http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/].31 Source: Exposé du projet : Archivage des données et documents numériques sur supports électroniques de l’administration fédérale aux Archives fédérales suisse (ARELDA) [http://web.archive.org/web/20030520195506/http://www.bar.admin.ch/webserver-static/docs/f/arelda_expose_0401_f.pdf].

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b) The distribution of the profiles of competencies is rather different between the teams. Without knowing exactly the causes (it would be necessary to know the detail of the contracts of each of the workers) we can nevertheless advance the following hypotheses (strictly personal):

- The absence of archivists with IT competencies in the CONSTANCE team probably reflects the age of the project as this professional profile did not exist until recently. On the contrary, the ARELDA team wished to take archival requirements into account from the beginning of the project, which probably pushed them to seek this type of archivist.

- The greater proportion of IT specialists in the ARELDA team is probably due to the fact that the project team develops or pilots computer applications. Usually, in both French and Swiss administrations, the daily management of computer applications is under the control of the centralized computer services, which implies that the operational services have no (or very few) IT specialists operating directly within them.

- The greater number of technical posts (operators) in the CONSTANCE team seems to indicate a continuous mode of functioning, where it is more a question of maintaining and feeding machines or applications than of developing applications.

c) As indicated above, comparing volumes of electronic and paper data is difficult. If we retain the hypothesis of a progressive replacement of paper documents by electronic documents, we should expect an equivalent evolution in the ratio of staff, that is, a relative increase in the staff dedicated to electronic records. The CONSTANCE team, however, remained relatively stable over the last few years. This could mean that the volume of archival electronic data is also stable or that the increase in volume is hidden.

This examination of the practical reality, although limited, is instructive. It shows that even at the program level, there is no "magic formula" of responsibilities and skills. These differences are probably related to the variability of the larger institutional frameworks of which these teams are a part, different institutional modes of functioning and financing, and the competencies available at a given time.32

5. Cyberarchivist versus Cybrarian

” In the future, Cybrarians and Cyberarchivists will do a similar kind of job. Pick-up documents on a Net (or Nets), and put (or push) them at the disposition of the final users with appropriate finding aids.”

Peter Horsman, free discussion with the author.

Since digitizing documents potentially removes the notion of Unica, which is one of the distinctive characteristics of archival work, we can ask whether the role of the cyberarchivist could be assumed by a cybrarian. The convergences between both professions are numerous but not always accepted on both sides. If the European training programmes have for a long time (rightly or wrongly) made the distinction between the two professions, the North American and Anglo-Saxon training programs have often brought them together with the designation « Library and Information Science » in which archival science is considered a specialization.33

5.1. The multiples faces of cybrarian

Search engines clearly supply more references to cybrarians (26400 results on Google), a few to cyberthécaires (1850 results on Google) and even less to cyberarchivists (554 results on Google). Search results do not necessarily represent relevant documents or sites, and we can generally divide these figures by 3 or 4 to obtain really relevant statistics.

32 An analysis of the background and careers of the participants in the ERPANET training could highlight this variability. A satisfaction survey is currently in progress, which will at least identify the professional origins of this population.33 On this subject, we can usefully consult the numerous references quoted in Carol Couture's bibliography under the column "Harmonization". At the certain moments, debate on this subject raged in the North American archival community

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[Translation note]Since the publication of this work, the statistics at the end of 2006 look like this: cybrarians (179000 results), cyberthécaires (358 results) cyberarchivists (18 results).

The term “cybrarian” thus seems to be a neologism widely used on the Web, but the definitions of this word turn out to be very eclectic. An exhaustive analysis of the usage of the term could be the object of a thesis. Here are some examples to illustrate the variety.

Cybrarian :

“a person who creates and is responsible for a cybrary, or a person who works in a library and uses the Internet and computers as part of their job”. Cybrary: a collection of pieces of writings, images, etc., often relating to literature or educational subjects, that can be accessed on the Internet.” (Freesearch Dictionary34).

“The vision for the Cybrarian project is …To assist in decreasing the digital divide by facilitating access to the Internet and to learning opportunities for those who currently do not, or cannot, use the Internet because of a lack of skills or confidence or because of physical or cognitive disabilities".(UK Dept. of Education and Skills – Cybrarian project, 200435)

“A Cybrarian is a person who integrates, infuses, and injects Internet technology into education. The Cybrarian is more than a computer technician, who maintains the hardware and software. The Cybrarian is more than a teacher who uses the Internet in the classroom. The Cybrarian is more than the Webmaster, who maintains a World-Wide Web presence. The Cybrarian is more than a librarian who knows the resources of the Internet. The Cybrarian is community oriented which means The Cybrarian helps families, businesses, and government integrate the Internet into the educational environment in a coordinated effort. The Cybrarian is all of these. The Cybrarian can maintain the hardware and software at a minimum level, is a teacher who has used the Internet in the classroom, and is an Internet resource gatherer and disseminator of information. The Cybrarian has a strong virtual support staff which means the staff can be with me wherever I go. The Cybrarian by nature is not an island, but instead a part of a web, interconnected.”(Ted Nellen, On becoming a Cybrarian, 199736)

[Translation note]Since the publication of this work, the Oxford English Dictionary Online has include a definition (as draft entry, June 2006) of cybrarian as :“A person who is practised at finding information on the Internet on behalf of others, or who compiles or administer a library of reference material online.”And the cybrary as : “A collection of reference material held on line; a library which provides access to material held electronically.”

Cyberthécaire :

« …is a librarian specialised in multimedia products » […est un bibliothécaire spécialisé dans les produits multimédias ](Site Jetudie, d’orientation professionnelle belge37)

« In charge of searching for information and documentation available on the Internet » [Chargé de recherche d’information et de documentation spécialisé dans les documents disponibles sur Internet](ADBS, Panorama des métiers38).

34 [http://freesearch.co.uk/dictionary/cybrarian]35 [http://web.archive.org/web/20040625110257/www.dfes.gov.uk/cybrarianproject/uploads/Cybrarian+Project+Information+Pack+vr5.0+-+April+2004.doc]36 [http://www.tnellen.com/ted/tc/cybrarian.html]. Ted Nellen, as this definition shows, was heavily involved in the educational aspects of the Internet and information technology. On these topics, consult his web site [http://www.tnellen.com/ted/#pu]37 [http://jetudie.com/formations_metiers/documentation/cyberthecaire]38 [http://www.adbs.fr]

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« Le terme provient d’une traduction du néologisme anglais « cybrarian » et apparaît pour la première fois dans la presse professionnelle [française] en 1994 : Bauwens, Michel39. – Le temps des « cybérothécaires » ? Entretien.- Documentaliste science de l’information, 1994, vol. 31, n° 4-5. p. 233-237. »(Mémoire de fin d’étude d’Olivier Roumieux, 1994 40)

We find a very complete history (and miracle: updated !!!) of the emergence of digital libraries and cyberthécaires in a study published under the title Le Livre 010101 by Marie Lebert.41

[Translation note]Since the publication of this work, Jean-Michel Salaün, new director of the EBSI of Montreal, has proposed the term of “Archithécaire” as a fusion of cyber librarians and archivists, a role which is predicted as a consequence of the general tendency to digitize all documents, as expected with the Google print project.(see: http://grds04.ebsi.umontreal.ca/jms/index.php/2006/08/16/58-vers-des-archithecaire).

5.2. An ideal training of the cybrarian

In an article edited in 2000, Yolande Estermann and Alain Jaquesson considered the question of the profile and the training necessary for the management of emerging digital libraries.42 They proposed a program of training in the neighborhood of 260 hours, intended « to raise the level » of librarians so as to allow them to assume these new tasks. A more detailed analysis of this program shows that of the 75 proposed subjects, 25 are at present a part of the general program of HEG-ID of Geneva, 27 appear in the program in the module « Archiving of electronic documents » of the same school, and, for me, 71 could be part of a program of basic training for archivists (see appendix). It remains to analyze more closely the relative importance in terms of time which we should dedicate to these various subjects.

On the other hand, the section on preservation, if it is quoted in this list of knowledge, is unmistakably insufficient for the training of both a general archivist and a cyberarchivist. Similarly, the section on communication, if it is touched upon, is treated exclusively from a library perspective (copyright, type of access, etc.) while this aspect should be the object of a special reflection with respect to archival documents (administrative transparency, authenticity, etc.).

5.3. Convergences and differences

With the spread of electronic information systems and the tendency to digitize everything (which, although slower than predicted by the proponents of the « paperless office », seems no less inevitable in the medium term), the differentiation between the various information management professions moves from documentary supports to documentary functions. So the difference will no longer be made with regard to supports (books, articles, archival documents, etc.) but with regard to their status (wide or restricted distribution, document with official value or not, document of short or long duration) and with regard to their functions (different controls, see the table of functional divisions below).

An outline of a typology which could clarify this differentiation was proposed in studies initiated by the “Secrétariat du Conseil du trésor du Québec” on the components of an electronic document 43, with the aim of better systematizing useful and comparable metadata. Distinction is made between:

39. It should be noted that Michael Bauwens, in addition to his activities of cybrarian, wrote a number of articles on the information economy on the Internet.40 Le bibliothécaire informaticien [http://www.chez.com/roumieux/documents/docII1.htm]41 [http://etudes-francaises.net/entretien/010101/] & [http://etudes-francaises.net/entretien/index.htm]42 Estermann Yolande, Jacquesson Alain, Quelle formation pour les bibliothèques numériques?, Bulletin des Bibliothèques de France, Tome 45, no 5, Paris, 2000, pp. 4-17.[http://bbf.enssib.fr/sdx/BBF/pdf/bbf-2000-5/01-jacquesson.pdf]43 Parent R. et Boulet N. (coordonné par ), Conseil du trésor - Sous-secrétariat à l’inforoute gouvernementale et aux ressources informationnelles Les composantes d’un document électronique, Rapport du Groupe de travail sur les métadonnées et les structures logiques, Collection en ingénierie documentaire : 2, Janvier 1999, réalisé dans le cadre du Chantier en ingénierie documentaire[http://www.services.gouv.qc.ca/fr/publications/enligne/administration/ingenierie/composantes.pdf]

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a) reference documents, including :- acquired documents (deposited in a library), - published documents (publicly published including on the Internet), - circulated/distributed documents (Intended for a restricted and selected public),

b) transaction documents, c) messages.

This table shows where the border between the cybrarian and the cyberarchivist could be situated, the first dealing with acquired and published documents, and the second taking care of circulated/distributed documents, transaction documents and messages.

On this basis, we can propose a functional division as follows:

Type of control Acquired and published documents(Library)

Other documents (RM & archives)

Identity control Of the readers for copyright management

Of creators and/or addressees for purposes of authentication

Access control For the (possible) collection of financial rights

Protection of privacy versus administrative transparency

Appraisal of value Relevance and topicality Evidence and information value

The last point is certainly the most conflicting as it includes the component of long-term preservation which is currently the prerogative of the archival world. This difference in the position of the various actors of documentary management in the space-time continuum is made explicit in the figure below, which shows the extent to which the scale of time varies between them.

Fig. 3 : Distribution of the interests of the actors in information management in space-time(Dotted lines indicate records creators, solid lines indicate the "curators")

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6. Conclusion(s)

At the end of this investigation, sometimes a bit chaotic, can we draw up a profile of the skills of the cyberarchivist? In the light of recent developments, I propose a second reading of the big categories proposed by the CART report, while indicating that which appears to remain constant and that which requires an evolution.

Basic training in information technology (Foundation cluster)

A. Archival perspectivesThe subjects outlined in this chapter remain current and concern the whole archival community. While cyberarchivists are leading the way in this area, the whole profession must engage in the debate. Although numerous contributions have been published on different aspects of this domain, there is still not a well established theoretical course on the application of archival principles to electronic records. 44

B. Basic IT conceptsRegarding the elementary understanding of these systems, we can consider that the new generations of archivists are at the correct level. An effort must still be made to provide continuing education to older generations of archivists. However, in order to have an understanding of these same systems at a sufficient technological level allow the development of real strategies, new theoretical foundations need to be developed.

IT Applications (Automated applications cluster) Use of current office applications (office automation) can be considered as acquired. Archival education programs also provide a good base regarding the use of documentary applications as tools. On the other hand, competence in project management for the implementation of large systems is missing (see the section below on management) as are the resources to monitor technological developments (from an archival point of view) considering the continuing rapid evolution of these products.

Electronic records (Electronic records cluster)

This subject is the most specifically archival area of the program (it is significant that the CART program structured it according to the main stages of archival activity). At present there are theoretical models for almost all of these stages but few practical implementations. Above all, these implementations are not publicized enough and are not the subject of detailed academic research. This is also the domain where the division of the skills necessary for general archivists and for cyberarchivists remains rather fuzzy. The table presented below tries to show this division, which can be summarized as follows: cyberarchivists develop the principles, policies, methods and know-how which are then applied by all archivists.

44 As an example, we can cite Luciana Duranti’s article, The impact of digital technology on archival science, Archival Science, no 1, 2001, pp. 39–55.[http://www.springerlink.com/content/014x428316652473/?p=47eb32ffe8aa455595daa45f0ada8d3f&pi=0]

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Fig. 4 : Table of the necessary competencies and skills for processing electronic records

Activities Archival competencies Cyber-archivist competencies

Environment and context

Understanding of the fundamental principals of information technology

Detailed knowledge of computer applications and their use in the production of documents reflecting the activities of the organizations

Constitution of funds Understanding of the documents produced by information technology

Detailed knowledge of the modes of production and development of adequate typologies for later use

Records management Understanding of the document production and management functions of RM systems

Design or participation in the design of the RM systems (procedures and software -> classification)

Evaluation Application of appropriated appraisal criteria to electronic records

Development of appraisal criteria and methods for electronic records

Acquisition Application of the methods of capturing electronic records

Development of criteria and methods for capturing electronic records (definition of sets of useful metadata)

Filing - classification Application of the methods of classification of traditional documents to electronic records

Development of document typologies for electronic records

Description Application of descriptive standards to electronic and traditional records

Development of procedures and good practices for conversion of finding aids and research tools Development of standard methodologies for description

Preservation Analysis of the preservation needs of electronic records transferred to archives.Application of accepted standards for the preservation of authenticity

Development of systems for the long-term preservation of electronic recordsDevelopment of methodologies for the preservation of authenticity in an electronic environment

Communication Daily contact with remote users.Answering requests arriving by electronic means.Analysis of requests in order to identify records that could be digitized.

Analysis of target audiences and development of communication interfaces adapted to the diffusion of documents in digital form.Development of selection criteria for holdings to be digitized and made available on the networkDevelopment of methods of analyzing virtual reading rooms to understand the needs of remote users.

Management (Management cluster)

Personally, and I share the opinions of Cox and Kesner on this subject 45, the acquisition of competencies in management concern not only the management of electronic records but the whole profession. This deficiency probably explains the lack of large-scale reliable and comparable data on archives holdings. There is great potential for developing standards and management models. This need is often expressed but we have, at present, no collectively shared concept. 46

45 See chapter 2 and bibliography.46 As an example of a first attempt in this area, we can cite the recent publication of the book La gestion d’un centre d’archives, mélanges en l’honneur de Robert Garon, Presse de l’Université du Québec, 2003, 360 p., and in a more restricted domain but in Switzerland, the reorganization of archival description at the State Archives of Zürich, related in an article published in 2002. Mährle. Wolfgang et Stumpf Marcus, Evaluation des Arbeitsbereich Erschliessung im Staatsarchiv Zürich, Der Archivar, Jg. 55, h. 3, pp. 247-249 [http://www.archives.nrw.de/archivar/2002-03/heft3_02_s242_249.pdf].

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The CART report includes in this group of competencies Information policy formation, which discusses among other things the issues of data ownership, security and protection of privacy. For me, these subjects must be treated earlier, either in the initial archival perspectives, or at the level of the environment and context of the creation of electronic records. The same comment applies for the digitization section, which belongs either to the description section (retroactive conversion of finding aids and research tools) or in the communication section, (digitization of holdings with the aim of their communication).

In summary, these groups of competencies can be structured today as follows:

a) A fundamental theoretical reflection on the changes that information technology and networks introduce, as much at the level of society as at the level of archival theory.

b) Applied research on the processing of electronic records at each stage of the archival cycle, resulting in standards, policies and good practices.

c) A theoretical reflection on the communication of archival documents in the context of all documents currently available, and the development of skills to communicate (digital) archives to new publics.

d) The skill to measure archival activity and to report it politically in order to obtain necessary resources.

6.1. The cyberarchivist: an individual, a team or a network ?

In view of the number of in-depth skills necessary for the cyberarchivist, it seems evident that they cannot be concentrated in one person. The ARELDA and CONSTANCE teams, as well as the theoretical reflections within the framework of the Global Strategy for the long-term preservation of electronic records in Switzerland, show that, fundamentally, the cyberarchivist has to work in a team. We can even widen this vision and say that with respect to training, development of theoretical models or constitution of good practices, the effort required is such that only an international collaboration (or at least European) is capable of supplying such tools. This pressure for national practices that are comparable, if not identical, is also due to the fact that all these products will ultimately be offered on a network which is already global (Internet).

6.2. Which professional market for the cyberarchivist ?

From the figures listed in chapter 4.5, we can form the hypothesis that, at the moment, the need for archivists able to manage electronic records could be met by a population of cyberarchivists equaling 13 % of the total number of archivists. The current number of professional archivists in Switzerland is of the order of 400 (members of the Association of Swiss Archivists). By extrapolating, the minimal population of cyberarchivists in Switzerland today should be about fifty individuals (including the staff of the ARELDA team of the Federal Archives). This figure justifies one of the conclusions of the Strategy document which recommends the creation of a center of competency on a national level47. Indeed, to meet this proportion, only archives services employing more than 10 people could devote a specialist's post to a cyberarchivist, which would be far from being a satisfactory situation considering the extent of necessary skills and the implied fragility of having a single person in a post so critical for the future.

Even taking into account professional mobility (which is rather low in our profession), it is unthinkable to develop a regular training program specifically for cyberarchivists. Considering the demonstrated similarity of cyberarchivist and cybrarian activities48, a concerted action in this domain seems to be obviously imperative, but will probably not be enough to reach a critical mass in Switzerland. It is also evident that the basic training program for archivists has to include as far as possible a maximum of the stated competencies in order to limit the need for supplementary training for cyberarchivists. Specialized training for cyberarchivists could possibly be assumed at a European level. 49

47 See [http://kost-ceco.ch/phpwcms_1.2.5-DEV/index.php?language_fr]48 See chapter 5.49The training offered by ERPANET goes in this direction. However, the formula of two-day seminars/workshops allows the exchange of experience but not the development of a solid theoretical base. Moreover, there is no guarantee that the European Union will continue the ERPANET program beyond 2004.

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We must therefore accept the idea that training in this domain will remain part of continuing education programs for a long time, especially since many traditional archivists should or will want to update their knowledge in the subject. However, these continuing education courses could be integrated into an ideal long-term program in order to present a certain coherence with regards to the domain of electronic archiving, such as is defined above in this chapter. This should be one of the crucial tasks of the new AAS eArchiv Committee 50 in association with the Education Committee, which is now elaborating a new concept of continuing education for the Swiss archival community.

6.3. And the IT specialists?

As shown in the table presented in chapter 2.3, the acquisition of information technology competencies by archivists goes hand in hand with the acquisition of archival knowledge by IT specialists. Identifying what knowledge we must share is an important task for the archival community if we want our preoccupations to be more widely taken into account by society in general.

6.4. An action program

Based on the groups of competencies outlined at the beginning of this chapter, I shall conclude by proposing a certain number of actions for the implementation of these objectives:

a) Theoretical ReflectionThe foundations set out in the Global Strategy for the long-term preservation of electronic records in Switzerland are only a catalog of questions. It is now important to develop answers. Because the problem is global, this reflection is conducted at the international level. It is important that the Swiss archival community gives itself the means to participate in this debate.

b) Applied ResearchThere are numerous projects and implementations which partially answer certain questions about practical application at various stages of archival work. It is necessary to collect and communicate this expertise by incorporating it into a structured logical framework. This is one of the tasks of the eArchiv Committee. All of these elements should fit into a coherent program of continuing education.

c) Which kind of users for the archives of the 21st century?It is commonly accepted today that historians are no longer the exclusive users of archives. To set up coherent programs of preservation and communication of electronic archives, it is absolutely necessary to have a forward-looking vision of the future users of archives and which services they are entitled to expect from our community. This topic could be the focus of a workshop or one-day conference.

d) Adequate management instrumentsTo prepare a (r)evolution, it is important to know where we are starting from. It is therefore evident that we need management tools for our archives which will allow us to forecast the future volumes we shall have to manage and to quantify the workload they will represent. An ad hoc working group of the AAS seems to be the best solution to develop such tools.

50 For more information, see: [http://www.vsa-aas.org/index.php?id=70&L=1].

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7. Bibliography

The monographs and the articles are cited in alphabetical order by author.

Association des archivistes suisses, Stratégie globale pour la conservation à long terme des documents électroniques en Suisse, 2002. 182 p., [http://www.vsa-aas.org/index.php?id=110&L=1]

Brown Thomas Elton, A Decade of Development : Educational Programs for Automated Records and Techniques Within the Society of American Archivist, The American Archivist, Vol. 56 no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 410-423.The article relates the history of the SAA’s reflections on training in information technology and archives. The successive projects demonstrate the difficulty of defining the objectives and wishes of the archival community.

Bureau des documents gouvernementaux – Archives Nationales du Canada, Gestion de l’information et des documents-Profils de compétences, Avril 2000, [http://www.imforumgi.gc.ca/documents/2000/compet/compet00_f.asp]List of necessary competencies for information managers. The competencies are expressed in term of skill and not of knowledge, according to four levels of responsibility: beginner, technician, specialist, manager.

Couture Carol et al. La formation et la recherche en archivistique dans le monde : une étude comparative, Montréal, Université de Montréal, EBSI, 1999,[http   :mapageweb.unmontreal.ca/couturec/rapport/table.htm ]A goldmine of information on training and research programs in archival science, with a very complete bibliography (appendix 9), which regrettably stops in 1996.

Couture Carol et Martineau Jocelyne, La formation en archivistique et le profil de l’archiviste contemporain , Archivum, vol. XLV: 2000, pp. 19-40.Analysis of about 70 archival science training programs. The analysis information technology shows that the domain constitutes 8 % of the subjects taught. Of the 43 courses analyzed, only 7 directly address electronic records.

Couture Carol, Education and Research in Archival Sciences: General Tendencies , Archival Science 1: 2001, pp. 157-182.English version partially modified and completed of the French article produced initially for Archivum.

Cox Richard J., The Roles of Graduate and Continuing Education Programs in Preparing Archivists in North America for the Information Age, The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 444-457.The author investigates the reasons for which, in his eyes, North American archivists have not adequately dealt with educating archivists in new technologies. Following an analysis of proposed programs, he denounces the fact that there is a lot of talk but little action. He laments the lack of academic research on the subject, which he attributes to the relatively small number of archival educators in American universities.

Cox Richard J., American archivists, cyberculture and stasis, in Cyber, Hyper or Resolutely Jurassic?, Proceedings of a symposium to celebrate 25 years of professional education in the Archives Department [University College Dublin], Oct. 1998 [http://www.ucd.ie/archives/html/conferences/cyber2.htm].

Duranti Luciana, Meeting the Challenge of Contemporary Records: Does it require a Role Change for the Archivist ?, The American Archivist, vol. 63 (Spring/Summer 2000), pp. 7-14.The author wonders about the changes which the electronic environment may introduce into archival practice. Faced with certain recent provocative positions which present the archivist as an actor in the creation of records, she tries to define the crucial issues which should be investigated as:

- the distinction between the archivist’s methods and the archival mission- the distinction between the archivist’s work and the archival functions- the distinction between professional issues and archival science issues

Duranti Luciana, The impact of digital technology on archival science, Archival Science, no 1, 2001, pp. 39–55.

Eastwood Terry, Educating Archivists About Information Technology, The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 458-466.

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The author asks whether new technologies should be treated as a separate subject in archival training programs of archival training or whether the usual functions of archival science (constitution of holdings, acquisition, appraisal, description, preservation) should be broadened to include electronic documents records. Noticing the wide disparity in « computer literacy » of archivists, he remarks that on the one hand, only training adapted to these various levels has a chance of succeeding and that on the other hand it is necessary to develop thinking skills rather than expertise.

Eastwood Terry. Reforming the archival curriculum to meet contemporary needs. Archivaria. Fall 1996; 42: 80-88.Despite an abundant literature on the subject, training in archival science still does not meet all contemporary needs. Turning to the past, the author makes a distinction between the European tradition, which puts an impressive number of complementary disciplines at the service of archival education, and the North American tradition, which is more dictated by the practice of the discipline. As an answer to the current needs, the author provides the example of the courses proposed in the new Master of Archival Science program at the University of British Columbia.

Estermann Yolande, Jacquesson Alain, Quelle formation pour les bibliothèques numériques?, Bulletin des Bibliothèques de France, Tome 45, no 5, Paris, 2000, pp. 4-17. [http://bbf.enssib.fr/sdx/BBF/pdf/bbf-2000-5/01-jacquesson.pdf]An article reflecting on the knowledge required by "Cybrarians". Proposes a training program estimated at 260 hours (knowledge: 100 hours, expertise: 150 hours, Visits: 10 hours).

Fernandez José Bernal Rivas, Archives et archivistes dans un environnement nouveau, Comma, 2001, no1/2, pp 26-28.General article on changes in archival science brought about by information technology. The author cites four specific examples: the link between archival documents and their creator, the structure of the archival document, the relationship between documents and users, and preservation. He concludes that it is necessary to modify the role and responsibilities of the archivist, but gives no details.

Gagnon Arguin Louise et Grimard Jacques (sous la direction) La gestion d’un centre d’archives, mélanges en l’honneur de Robert Garon, Presse de l’Université du Québec, 2003, 360 p. [http://www.puq.ca/fr/repertoire_fiche.asp?titre=titres&noProduit=D1188] Miscellaneous reflections about different aspects of managing archives services.

George Jerry, What's Happening to Archives? A Tale of Three Sessions, CLIR Issues, Number 24, The author develops a reflection on the future of long-term preservation of electronic records, based on the opening speech of Leon J. Stout, President of the Society of American Archivists , at the SAA’s 2001 Annual Meeting in Washington, D.C. He addresses the concerns of both cyberarchivists and cybrarians and mentions K. Thibodeau’s presentation on the ERA project (Electronic Records Archives) in development at the US National Archives.

Gilliland-Swetland Anne J. From education to application and back: archival literature and an electronic records curriculum. The American Archivist. Summer 1993; 56(3): 532-544.The author reviews the literature dealing with the management of electronic records. She analyzes the role of this literature in archival education and underlines its strengths and weaknesses. The main themes are examined with respect to key reference texts and she indicates area where literature is lacking.

Hedstrom Margaret, Teaching Archivists about Electronic Records and Automated Techniques: A Needs Assessment, The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 424-433.Exposes the problems of providing training in new technologies in the fuzzy context of the period. She raises the difficulty of establishing a stable curriculum when knowledge is evolving very quickly. She also underlines the debates about archival principles raised by characteristics of electronic records. She also notes the distinction between information technology as a tool of archival science (automated techniques) and information technology as creator of electronic records.

Henry Linda J., An Archival retread in Electronic Records: Acquiring Computer Literacy, The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 514-521.

Horsman Peter, E-TERM and beyond, in: Proceedings of the DLM_Forum, 2002, pp. 320-330. [http://europa.eu.int/historical_archives/dlm_forum/docs/dlm-prceed2002.pdf]

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Describes the development and implementation of the E-TERM training program.

Ketelaar Eric, Archivistics Research Saving the Profession, The American Archivist, vol. 63 (Fall/Winter 2000), pp. 322-340.A plea for archival education to concentrate more on "Why" than on "How", which implies a development of archival research with the cooperation of professional archivists. It also implies shifting the focus away from the acquisition of skills and practical knowledge towards the acquisition of an archival understanding and attitude.

Kesner Richard M, Employing the case study method in the teaching of automated records and techniques to archivists. The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 522-531.The members of the Committee on Automated Records and Techniques (CART) recognized the usefulness of case studies in training archivists about electronic records management and the application of automated techniques in archives management. The author defines this educational tool and describes the methods for using case studies. To overcome the lack of case studies dealing with electronic records and automated techniques, the Society of American Archivists set up workshops on case study writing and presented a project, awaiting financing, to generate a bank of case studies.

Kesner Richard M., Teaching Archivists about Information Technology Concepts: A Needs Assessment , The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 434-443.Provocative paper in which the author defends the thesis that in order to meet the challenges brought by information technology, archivists must first and foremost learn management techniques.

Menne-Haritz Angelika, Archival Training in a Changing World, The American Archivist, Vol. 63 (Fall/Winter 2000), pp. 341-352.After an introduction on the role of the archivist between memory and oblivion, the author presents the School of Marburg’s training policy, which consists of a three-pronged approach: basic training before employment, post-graduate continuing education and archival research on fundamental principles. In this context, a colloquium on digital archives took place in 1999. She reports on two directions of research: preservation of electronic records and automated techniques/software for finding aids and research tools.

Miller Fredric C., The SAA as Sysiphus: Education Since the 1960s, The American Archivist, vol. 63 (Fall/Winter 2000), pp. 224-236.Summarizes 30 years of debate in the American archival community for and against the accreditation of archival education programs. He underlines that many efforts were fruitless because there was no consensus on the contents of the programs.

Nesmith Tom. Professional education in the most expansive sense: what will the archivist need to know in the twenty-first century? Archivaria. Fall 1996; 42: 89-94.The phenomenon of computerization of information will likely lead to important changes in archival practice. However, archival principles will remain valid. The challenge which the profession faces is to maintain its humanist tradition while widening its field of knowledge and developing an appropriate expertise in the sectors of administration and new technologies.

Parent R. et Boulet N. (coordonné par ), Conseil du trésor - Sous-secrétariat à l’inforoute gouvernementale et aux ressources informationnelles Les composantes d’un document électronique, Rapport du Groupe de travail sur les métadonnées et les structures logiques, Collection en ingénierie documentaire : 2, Janvier 1999, réalisé dans le cadre du Chantier en ingénierie documentaire, [http://www.services.gouv.qc.ca/fr/publications/enligne/administration/ingenierie/composantes.pdf].Established a functional typology of electronic documents and defined the associated metadata required to manage the document effectively.

Reid Lydia J.E., Electronic Records Training: Suggestions for the Implementation of the CART Curriculum, The American Archivist, vol. 58 (Summer 1995), pp. 322-339.Following the publication of the CART report, the author considers how to implement the proposed program. She suggests that the North American tradition of workshop sessions is insufficient with respect to the declared training needs.

Rinaldi Mariani Maria Pia, DLM-Forum Follow-up: Proposals on training of Administrators and archivists, Proceedings DLM-Forum, 1999

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[http://web.archive.org/web/20030820204102/http://europa.eu.int/ISPO/dlm/fulltext/full_mariani_en.htm] One of first uses of the term cyberarchivist.

Walch Victoria Irons, Automated Records and Techniques Curriculum Development Project, Final report of the Committee on automated records and techniques, The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 468-505.Final report of the Committee on Automated Records and Techniques of the Society of American Archivists. Contains a history of the work of the CART, a description of the objectives of training in the subject and a certain number of recommendations for their application.

Walch Victoria Irons, Innovation Diffusion: Implications for the CART Curriculum, The American Archivist, Vol. 56, no3 (Summer 1993), pp. 506-511.Analyzes the factors for acceptance of or resistance to the training program proposed by CART. She explores the sociological composition of the archival community and the progressive process by which change is adopted by innovators, early adopters, the majority and laggards. She suggests that the majority of American archivists accepted electronic records as an archival concern sometime in the late 1980s.

Wallace David A., Survey of Archives and Records Management Graduate Students at ten Universities in the United States and Canada, The American Archivist, Vol. 63 (Fall/Winter 2000), pp. 284-300.Reports the results of a survey of 150 archival science students in 10 North American universities. Although the sample is statistically small, the results nevertheless highlight certain trends, but they primarily to the origins and expectations of the students rather than to the adequacy of the education programs in which the students were enrolled.

List of Appendix :

1/ LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR ARCHIVISTS IN AUTOMATED RECORDS AND TECHNIQUES, Extract of the final report of the Commission on Automated Records and Techniques (CART) of the Society of American Archivists SAA(American Archivist, vol. 56, no 3, Summer 1993, pp. 485-490).

2/ LA FORMATION EN ARCHIVISTIQUE [Training in archival science], Selection of articles concerning electronic archives, extract of the Carol Couture bibliography.

3/ Quelle formation pour les bibliothèques numériques? [What kind of training for digital libraries? ], Table of course contents.

4/ Mise en perspective des trois profils de métadonnées d’une classification plus générale des documents gouvernementaux [View of three metadata profiles from a general classification of government documents], Extract of: Les composantes d’un document électronique, Rapport du Groupe de travail sur les métadonnées et les structures logiques, Collection en ingénierie documentaire : 2, janvier 1999.

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