UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

DIVERSITY OF LIMESTONE ORCHIDS IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN PADAWAN, KUCHING, SARAWAK

MICHAEL LIM YEE LIANG

FS 2008 14

DIVERSITY OF LIMESTONE ORCHIDS IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN PADAWAN,

KUCHING, SARAWAK

MICHAEL LIM YEE LIANG

MASTER OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

2008

DIVERSITY OF LIMESTONE ORCHIDS IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN PADAWAN, KUCHING, SARAWAK

By

MICHAEL LIM YEE LIANG

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

Jan 2008

I certify that an Examination Committee has met on 11 January 2008 to conduct the final examination of Michael Lim Yee Liang on his Master of Science thesis entitled “Diversity of Limestone Orchids in Central and Northern Padawan, Kuching, Sarawak” in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the degree of Master of Science. Members of the Examination Committee were as follows: Hishamuddin Omar, PhD Lecturer Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Janna Ong Abdullah, PhD Lecturer Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Umi Kalsom Yusuf, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Mohamed Abdul Majid, PhD Professor Faculty of Science University of Malaya (External Examiner) HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 1 April 2008

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Rusea Go, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Faridah Qamaruz Zaman, PhD Doctor Faculty of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Julaihi Abdullah Deputy Manager Forest Research Centre Sarawak Forestry Corporation (Member) AINI IDERIS, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 10 April 2008

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DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or at any other institution. MICHAEL LIM YEE LIANG Date: 19 February 2008

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science

DIVERSITY OF LIMESTONE ORCHIDS IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN

PADAWAN, KUCHING, SARAWAK

By

MICHAEL LIM YEE LIANG

Jan 2008

Chairman : Associate Professor Rusea Go, PhD Faculty : Science Sarawak is situated in the north-west of Borneo, which is the largest state in Malaysia. Limestone hills and mountains are a natural landmark in parts of Sarawak and Padawan Formation is the largest outcrop in Sarawak. Padawan area is located at the south-west part of Kuching District and limestone hills are mostly of the wet type. The favourable climate and various forms of microhabitat strongly enhance the richness and diversity in the composition of limestone orchids in Padawan, especially rare and endemic species. Nonetheless, the Padawan orchid is poorly known due to the very few specific literature made and most of the documentations in field have not been published. This study is an attempt to document the orchid diversity in limestone areas not covered in the previous study by Phoon (2004). From this study, a total of 94 taxa in 36 genera from 4 subfamilies of orchids on 14 limestone hills and one riverbank from northern to central part of Padawan Limestone Area were recorded and botanized. A total of 25 taxa and one genus are new records for Padawan Formation. Out of these, eight taxa are new records for Sarawak and one taxon is a new record for Malaysia. Bulbophyllum reticulatum and Paphiopedilum stonei are endemic to Sarawak; whilst, B. longiflorum, B. reticulatum, Cleisostoma discolor, C. nieuwenhuisii, Dossinia marmorata, P. stonei, Phalaenopsis cochlearis, Trichoglottis winkleri var. minor and Vanda scandens are limestone endemic species. Discussions were based upon two main aspects: (i) floristic diversity significance, for analyzing species diversity and morphological diversity of Padawan orchids; and (ii) the geographical significance, for conferring the diversity patterns of Padawan limestone orchids distributed in different places and endemism. The Orchidaceae of Padawan principally comprised the Bornean element at the generic and species level given its geographical, geological, climatic and floristic proximity. Gunung Bekap, Gunung Mentawa and Gunung Timurang covered the most diverse amount of orchid species together with those rare and endangered species. Therefore, they have to be conserved broadly by implementing in situ conservation techniques.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains

DIVERSITI ORKID BATU KAPUR DI BAHAGIAN TENGAH DAN UTARA

PADAWAN, KUCHING, SARAWAK

Oleh

MICHAEL LIM YEE LIANG

Jan 2008 Pengerusi : Professor Madya Dr. Rusea Go, PhD Fakulti : Sains Sarawak terletak pada bahagian barat laut Borneo, yang merupakan negeri terbesar di Malaysia. Kawasan bukit dan gunung batu kapur adalah satu simbol semulajadi tempatan di bahagian Sarawak dan Formasi Padawan merupakan kawasan batu kapur yang paling besar di Sarawak. Kawasan Padawan terletak di bahagian barat daya Daerah Kuching dan bukit-bukau batu kapur yang terkandung dalam kawasan Padawan kebanyakannya ialah batu kapur basah. Iklim yang sesuai dan kewujudan pelbagai bentuk mikro-habitat banyak mendorong kepada kekayaan dan kepelbagaian komposisi orkid batu kapur di Padawan, terutamanya spesies yang jarang ditemui dan endemik. Walau bagaimanapun, orkid Padawan tidak banyak diketahui kerana hanya sedikit catatan spesifik yang dibuat dan kebanyakan dokumentasi di lapangan tidak diterbitkan. Kajian ini merupakan usaha bagi mendokumentasikan kepelbagaian orkid di kawasan batu kapur yang belum diterajui oleh Phoon (2004) pada kajian yang lepas. Daripada kajian ini, sebanyak 94 taksa orkid dalam 36 genera daripada empat subfamili yang terdapat pada 14 kawasan bukit batu kapur dan satu sungai dari bahagian utara hingga ke tengah Kawasan Batu Kapur Padawan telah direkod dan ditinjau. Sebanyak 25 taksa dan satu genus adalah rekod baru bagi Formasi Padawan. Lapan taksa daripada jumlah tersebut merupakan rekod baru bagi Sarawak dan salah satu taksa daripadanya adalah rekod baru bagi Malaysia. Bulbophyllum reticulatum and Paphiopedilum stonei ialah spesies endemik kepada Sarawak manakala Bulbophyllum longiflorum, Bulbophyllum reticulatum, Cleisostoma discolor, Cleisostoma nieuwenhuisii, Dossinia marmorata, Paphiopedilum stonei, Phalaenopsis cochlearis, Trichoglottis winkleri var. minor and Vanda scandens merupakan spesies endemik kepada kawasan batu kapur. Perbincangan mengenai dua aspek utama: (i) kepentingan kepelbagaian floristik, untuk menganalisis kepelbagaian spesies dan kepelbagaian morfologi bagi orkid Padawan; dan (ii) kepentingan geografi, untuk membincangkan corak kepelbagaian bagi orkid batu kapur Padawan bertaburan di tempat-tempat yang berlainan serta pasal endemik telah dilakukan. Famili orkid di Padawan kebanyakannya berasaskan elemen Bornean pada aras genus dan spesies dari segi hubungan geografi, geologi, iklim dan floristik. Gunung Bekap, Gunung Mentawa dan Gunung Timurang mengandungi kepelbagaian spesies

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orkid yang terluas serta spesies yang mengalami risiko kepupusan dan jarang dijumpai. Justeru, ketiga-tiga gunung tersebut perlu dipulihara secara menyeluruh dengan perlaksanaan teknik pemuliharaan in situ.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise and thanks be to God in the highest.

First of all, the author would like to express the deepest appreciation to his supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rusea Go for her appropriate suggestions, continuous guidance, unselfishly encouragement, invaluable advice and earnest concern, who also assisted to edit this paper and share her vast taxonomical and botanical understanding all over this study.

Secondly, the author’s thanks goes to Dr. Faridah Qamaruz Zaman as internal co-supervisor, not only made watchful corrections for the author during the inspection of this work, but also aiding and advising the author whenever he met difficulties throughout this study; and The Deputy Manager of Sarawak Forest Research Centre, Mr. Julaihi Abdullah, as external co-supervisor, who had provided the author the transportation comprehensively to execute and complete the collections of specimens in the field as well as given priceless effort and explanation in compiling this paper.

Members of the Sarawak Forest Research Centre also helped in the study, especially in guiding the field works and providing the essential and relevant information no matter inside or outside the field. The author wishes to acknowledge the hard work and proficiency of Madam Lucy, Madam Runi, Mr. Chan, Mr. Awang, Mr. Atak, Mr. Dino and those whose name are forgotten.

The author should like to acknowledge the sponsorship of Yayasan Sarawak Tunku Abdul Rahman Scholarship (YBSTAR) during the period of this study.

The author would like to thank Dr. Philip Cribb, Dr. John Beaman, Dr. Ruth Kiew and Dr. Jaap Vermeulen for their sincere guidelines and assistance in identifying a number of the specimens.

The honest gratitude is expressed too to the following authorities: Sarawak Research Centre Herbarium (SAR), Singapore Herbarium (SING), Universiti Putra Malaysia Biological Herbarium (UPM), University Malaya Herbarium (KLU), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Herbarium, Bangi (UKMB), State Library of Sarawak, Malaysian Meteorological Department of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Meteorological Service of Petaling Jaya and Mineral and Geoscience Department of Kuala Lumpur. They had supplied direction in examination of the herbaria specimens as well as provided significant data.

Without the truthful helping hands from lab assistants: Kak Latifah, En. Azman and En. Arif, together with the supports and cheerfulness from his seniors: Phoon, Claysius,

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Qutub, Joe, Wendy, Yet Han, Lea Yen, Loh Ming and Tang, the author might not be able to accomplish and conclude his study.

Perhaps most importantly, the author feels grateful for having his most beloved parents, brother, and all his friends especially Sin Ling, Meng Han, Jap Meng, Alvin, Swee Chiang, Leslie and Lip Nam. They are undeniable in giving him the courage, prayer, moral support and accompanying him most of the times since the project study started.

Last of all, the author would like to show appreciation for those who might not particularly named.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ABSTRACT ii ABSTRAK iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v APPROVAL vii DECLARATION ix LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF COLOUR PLATES xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1

OBJECTIVES 3

II LITERATURE REVIEW Sarawak, Kuching and Padawan 4 Padawan Limestone Area Habitat and Formation 10 Historical Background and Present Status of Orchid Collections in

Sarawak 14

Classification of Sarawak Orchids 16 The Characteristics of the Orchidaceae Subfamilies 19 The Morphological Structure and Reproduction of Orchid 21 The Ecological Distribution of Orchids 26 Diversity and Limestone Endemic 27 Conservation and Legislative Protection of Sarawak Orchids 31 Threats in Padawan Formation 41 Economic Uses of Orchids 44

III AREAS COVERED AND METHODS Areas Covered 46 Methods and Materials 49 Field Collections 49 Herbarium Preparing Procedures 49 Species Identification and Enumeration 51 Conservation Approaches 52

IV RESULTS Orchid Diversity in Padawan 53 Classification of Padawan Orchid Genera 62 Artificial key to the Subfamilies, Genera and Species of

Orchidaceae in Padawan 64

Key to the Padawan Orchids Subfamilies 64 Key to the Genera in Subfamily Orchidoideae 65 Key to the Genera in Subfamily Epidendroideae 65 Taxa Enumeration 68

V DISCUSSION Floristic Diversity Significance 235

Species Diversity of Padawan Orchids 235 Morphological Diversity of Padawan Orchids 238 Geographical Significance 246 Geographical Distribution of Padawan Limestone Orchids 247 Distribution of Orchids in Padawan Limestone 252

Conservation for Orchids of Padawan 257

VI CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 261

REFERENCES 268 APPENDICES 273 BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR 331

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Classification System of Sarawak Orchid Genera 17

2 The orchid flora in the world 26

3 General geographical distribution of the orchids of Sarawak 27

4 Genera in Sarawak with high levels of endemic taxa 29

5 List of limestone orchids in Sarawak 29

6 Red List status of the globally threatened orchids’ species (IUCN, 2002)

32

7 List of threatened species of orchids according to the 2002 IUCN Red List

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8 List of taxa known only from Sarawak and known only from the type collection(s) considered to be Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) or Vulnerable (VU), based upon the 1997 IUCN Red List criteria

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9 Protected Areas in Malaysia 39

10 Legally constituted National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Sarawak

40

11 List of genera collected in Padawan 55

12 List of new records of species for Padawan 56

13 List of new records of species for Sarawak 56

14 List of new record of species for Malaysia 56

15 Orchid distributions in Padawan Limestone Area 59

16 Geographical elements found in the orchids of Padawan 248

17 Similarities at the generic and species level between Padawan orchid and three various limestone hills

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18 List of Padawan orchids blooming in the green house 258

19 Records of temperature 274

20 Records of rainfall and relative humidity 275

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Map of Borneo showing the location of Sarawak 5

2 Outline geological map of Sarawak showing the location of Kuching and Padawan as well as the type of soil

12

3 The flower morphology of a Cattleya 22

4 Reproductive structure of an orchid flower 23

5 Study sites showing the north to central part of the Padawan District

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6 Total species and genera collected from limestone hills in Padawan 57

7 Abdominea minimiflora 277

8 Appendicula cornuta 278

9 Bulbophyllum armeniacum 279

10 Bulbophyllum botryophorum 280

11 Bulbophyllum coniferum 281

12 Bulbophyllum reticulatum 282

13 Bulbophyllum vaginatum 283

14 Cleisostoma discolor 284

15 Cleisostoma nieuwenhuisii 285

16 Cleisostoma striatum 286

17 Coelogyne prasina 287

18 Cymbidium rectum 288

19 Dendrobium clavator 289

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20 Dendrobium leonis 290

21 Dendrobium paniferum 291

22 Dendrobium rosellum 292

23 Dossinia marmorata 293

24 Eria jeseniana 294

25 Eria longissima 295

26 Eria ornata 296

27 Eria pseudoleiophylla 297

28 Liparis lobongensis 298

29 Malaxis lowii 299

30 Paphiopedilum stonei 300

31 Phalaenopsis cochlearis 301

32 Teaniophyllum filiforme 302

33 Thecostele alata 303

34 Thelasis capitata 304

35 Trichoglottis winkleri var. minor 305

36 Tropidia pedunculata 306

37 Vanda scandens 307

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

asl. Above sea level

c. Approximately

cm Centimeter

G. Gunung (Hill)

ha Hectare

km Kilometer

Kpg. Kampung (Village)

m Meter

mm Milimeter

oC Degree Celsius

pers. comm. Personal communication

Sg. Sungai (River)

sq km Square kilometer

— To

x Times

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LIST OF COLOUR PLATES Plate Page

1A Abdominea minimiflora (Hook.f.) J.J. Sm. 310

1B Acriopsis liliifolia var. liliifolia (J. König) Ormerod. Seidenf. 310

1C Agrostophyllum bicuspidatum J.J. Sm. 310

1D Appendicula cornuta Bl., Bijdr. 310

1E Appendicula undulata Blume 310

1F Arundina graminifolia (D. Don) Hochr. 310

2A Bulbophyllum coniferum Ridl. 312

2B Bulbophyllum gracillimum (Rolfe) Rolfe 312

2C Bulbophyllum longiflorum Thouars 312

2D Bulbophyllum purpurascens Teijsm. & Binn. 312

2E Bulbophyllum reticulatum Bateman ex. Hook.f. 312

2F Bulbophyllum tortuosum Blume 312

3A Bulbophyllum vaginatum Lindl. 314

3B Bulbophyllum sp. 2 314

3C Cleisostoma discolor Lindl. 314

3D Cleisostoma nieuwenhuisii J.J. Sm. 314

3E Cleisostoma striatum (Reichb.f.) Garay 314

3F Cleisostoma subulatum Blume 314

4A Coelogyne asperata Lindl. 316

4B Coelogyne prasina J.J. Sm. 316

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4C Corybas pictus (Blume) Rchb.f. 316

4D Dendrobium anosmum Lindl. 316

4E Dendrobium clavator Ridl. 316

4F Dendrobium leonis (Lindl.) Reichb.f. 316

5A Dendrobium paniferum J.J. Sm. 318

5B Dendrobium rosellum Ridl. 318

5C Dendrobium spurium (Blume) J.J. Sm. 318

5D Dossinia marmorata (Lindl.) E. Morr. (Plant) 318

5E Dossinia marmorata (Lindl.) E. Morr. (Flower) 318

5F Eria jeseniana J.J. Sm. 318

6A Eria leiophylla Lindl. 320

6B Eria longissima (Kraenzl.) J.J. Sm. 320

6C Eria tenuiflora Ridl. 320

6D Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) Hawkes (Light creamy color) 320

6E Flickingeria fimbriata (Blume) Hawkes (Yellow color) 320

6F Habenaria lobbii Rchb.f. 320

7A Liparis gibbosa Finet 322

7B Liparis lobongensis Ames 322

7C Malaxis lowii (E. Morren) Ames (Plant) 322

7D Malaxis lowii (E. Morren) Ames (Flower) 322

7E Malaxis oculata (Rchb.f.) O. Kuntze 322

7F Oberonia ciliolata Hook.f. 322

8A Paphiopedilum stonei (Hook.) Stein. 324

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8B Phalaenopsis cochlearis Holttum 324

8C Pholidota imbricata Hook. 324

8D Plocoglottis acuminata Blume 324

8E Taeniophyllum filiforme J.J. Sm. 324

8F Thecostele alata (Roxb.) Par. & Rchb.f. 324

9A Thelasis carinata Blume 326

9B Thelasis macrobulbon Ridl. 326

9C Thelasis micrantha (Brogn.) J.J. Sm. 326

9D Thelasis pygmaea (Griff.) Lindl. 326

9E Trichoglottis winkleri J.J. Sm. var. minor J.J. Sm. 326

9F Vanda scandens Holttum 326

10A Gunung Regu 328

10B Gunung Timungan 328

10C Gunung Timurang 328

10D Gunung Bewang 328

10E Gunung Bekap 328

10F Gunung Mangan 328

11A Gunung Mentawa 330

11B Anah Rais riverbank 330

11C Gunung Braang 330

11D Gunung Rinu 330

11E Gunung Gayu 330

11F Cave on Gunung Regu 330

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The orchid family (Orchidaceae) is a very large group of plants mainly distributed in

tropical and subtropical regions. Some of its members also thrive in temperate areas and

even extend to alpine and artic regions. The plants of various forms produce many

pretty and attractive flowers that have enjoyed world wide fame (Horng, 1975) .The

third largest island in the world, Borneo, is a center of diversity of orchid, which

consists of 10% of the world’s orchids, equivalent to 2500-3000 orchid species.

However, only 30-40% is endemic to Borneo Island (Lamb, 1991).

The word “orchid” is a derivation of the Greek orchis, meaning testis, in reference to

the testiculate bulbs or tubers with which the particular plants of those Mediterranean

regions were furnished (Reinikka, 1972). Orchids are commonly divided into only two

groups, despite all their apparent differences. Those that grow on the ground are called

“terrestrials.” They are earth dwellers, which sink their roots into the soil and shoot up

like ordinary plants (Martin, 1974). About half of the world’s total species are

terrestrial, but most of the remainder, all tropical or subtropical, is “epiphyte”.

Epiphytes grow in elevated positions on trees and rock cliffs. They do not take food

from the tree on which they grow, but merely use it as a platform for exposure to the

sun.

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Sarawak is one of the most important centers of plant diversity in the world and also the

largest state in Malaysia with an area of approximately 124,449sq km, which accounts

for about 37.5% of Malaysia in terms of size. Limestone areas in Sarawak are

widespread and rich in orchid species. There are only 40 genera of orchids endemic to

limestone although 150 genera and around 901 species are found in Sabah and Sarawak

(Wood and Cribb, 1994). However, not many specific studies have been carried out on

limestone orchids especially in Padawan, Kuching, Sarawak. In addition, no specimens

had been collected before this study, even though there are many rare and endemic

orchids in the limestone areas at Padawan. The main factors hindering botanizing in

these areas are the dangers of rock climbing, poisonous insects and snakes, as well as

difficulties of assessment in limestone forests. Furthermore, the numbers of plant

taxonomists in Malaysia are extremely inadequate as we are now having less than 10

taxonomists actively working on our mega biodiversity (The News Strait Times, 2002).

Hence, this study aims to acquire more knowledge and baseline species data on the

diversity of limestone orchids in Padawan.

Limestone habitats have been rapidly disturbed due to the uncontrolled human activities

such as traditional farming system and agriculture practices, uncontrolled logging

activities, non-stop quarrying activities and illegal collections of orchids. These will

bring negative impacts and finally may cause extinction of the orchids. As a precaution,

conservation on limestone orchids must be emphasized continuously.

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To date, less than 10% of the total limestone hills in Padawan have been botanized (area

where botanical work has been carried out) and studied comprehensively.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this study are:

1. To investigate diversity of limestone orchids in selected hills in Padawan

Limestone, Sarawak, in terms of species number, towards proper and

scientific documentation.

2. To reevaluate macro-morphological characters of the collected limestone

orchids, adding to the existing taxonomic data and identification keys.

3. To investigate diversity of limestone endemic species and Sarawak

endemic and endangered species in Padawan Limestone Area.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Sarawak, Kuching and Padawan

Sarawak is situated in the north-west of Borneo, between 0°50’ to 5°10’N latitude and

109°35’ to 115°40’E longitude, borders Brunei, Sabah and Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is

the largest state of Malaysia covering an area of 124,450 sq km with a coastline 720 km

in length which accounts for about 37.5% of the area of Malaysia. Its highest point is

Gunung Murud, 2,438 m, and it also has the longest river in Malaysia, Batang Rajang,

which stretches over 640 km (Chin, 1997).

Sarawak is a tropical area with an equatorial climate. It is hot and humid throughout the

year with mean daily temperatures ranging from 23oC during the early hours of the

morning to 32oC during the day. It experiences two monsoonal changes. The West

Coast East Monsoon, which usually occurs between November to February, brings with

it heavy rainfall. The South West Monsoon is usually less wet. Except for monsoonal

changes, the climate remains fairly stable throughout the year. Sarawak, with an

average rainfall varying between 330 cm to 460 cm for the greater part of the country, is

an expansive network of rivers, rainforests, mangroves, swamp forests, mountains and

has the world’s oldest limestone caves (Burgers et al., 1991; Julaihi, 2001).

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