DIVERSITY AND ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF PLANTS IN …

DIVERSITY AND ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF PLANTS IN PROPOSED APRA

HILLS FOREST RESERVE IN SOUTHERN GHANA

BY

ADEOYE ADENIYI

(10435562)

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

M.PHIL BOTANY DEGREE

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON

JULY, 2015

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh

i

DIVERSITY AND ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF PLANTS IN PROPOSED APRA

HILLS FOREST RESERVE IN SOUTHERN GHANA

BY

ADEOYE ADENIYI

(10435562)

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.PHIL

BOTANY DEGREE

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON

JULY, 2015


ii

DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, Adeoye Adeniyi, author of this thesis hereby declare that the work presented

in this thesis "DIVERSITY AND ETHNOBOTANICAL USES OF PLANTS IN PROPOSED

APRA HILLS FOREST RESERVE IN SOUTHERN GHANA" was done entirely by me under

the supervision of Prof. Alex Asase of the Department of Botany, University of Ghana, Legon,

from August 2014 to July 2015. This work has never been presented either in part or in whole, for

any degree of this University or elsewhere.

SIGN..........................................................

DATE.........................................................

ADEOYE ADENIYI (STUDENT)

SIGN............................................................

DATE...........................................................

PROF. ALEX ASASE (SUPERVISOR)


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DEDICATION

This work is first and foremost dedicated to Almighty God. Secondly to my parents, Alhaji M.A

Adeoye and Alhaja Taibat Adeoye.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe my supervisor, Prof. Alex Asase from the Department of Botany, University of Ghana,

gratitude for his guidance which led to the successful completion of this research work. I am also

indebted to Prof. Gabriel Ameka, Head of Botany Department, University of Legon, Ghana, Mr.

Wilson Owusu Asare, Mr. Boafo Ofei, Mr. Kwame Afeez (Forest Guard) of Forestry Commission

Winneba District and Chief's of Akrampa, Apra and Loye who hosted me throughout my visit to

the study area.

I am grateful to Mr. Patrick Ekpe (Department of Botany, University of Ghana) who assisted me

in identifying most of the plant species present at the proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve in

Southern Ghana. My sincere thanks to Mr. Bismarck Asitoakor, Mr. AnthonyAdu-Gyamfi, Mr.

Prosper Avekor who assisted me throughout my visit to the study site.

I also want to extend my sincere gratitude to Alhaji M.A Adeoye and Alhaja Taibat Adeoye who

financed this project work. My appreciation goes to Elizabeth Mariam Lamina, Nana Opuni, and

Janatu Veronica Sesay.

Finally, I am grateful to everyone whose prayers and support saw me through. I appreciate you

and God bless you all.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................1

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................1

1.1 Background .........................................................................................................................1

1.2 Problem Statement ..............................................................................................................2

1.3 Justification of the study .....................................................................................................3

1.4 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................3

CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................4

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................4

2.1 Biodiversity .........................................................................................................................4

2.2 Forest Biodiversity in Ghana...............................................................................................5

2.3 Deforestation .......................................................................................................................6

2.4 Land use change ..................................................................................................................8

2.5 Major causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana .........................................9

2.5.1 Agriculture .......................................................................................................................9

2.5.2 Logging and timber extraction .........................................................................................9

2.5.3 Bush burning ..................................................................................................................10

2.5.4 Fuelwood collection and charcoal production ...............................................................10

2.5.5 Mining ............................................................................................................................10

2.8 Ethnobotany ......................................................................................................................11


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2.8.1 Field interview................................................................................................................12

2.8.2 Household to household interview .................................................................................12

2.8.3 Focal group interview ....................................................................................................13

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................14

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................................................................14

3.1 Study Area .........................................................................................................................14

3.1.1 Vegetation ......................................................................................................................14

3.1.2 Land uses ........................................................................................................................17

3.1.3 History ............................................................................................................................17

3.1.4 Geology, soil and topography ........................................................................................18

3.1.5 Ethnography ...................................................................................................................18

3.2 Methods .............................................................................................................................20

3.2.1Field reconnaissance survey ............................................................................................20

3.2.2 Plant inventory ...............................................................................................................20

3.2.3 Ethnobotanical survey ....................................................................................................21

3.3. Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................23

3.3.1 Species accumulation curve and diversity index ............................................................23

3.3.2 Inventory completeness ..................................................................................................24

3.3.3 Family Importance Value index (FIV) ...........................................................................24

3.3.4 Species Importance Value index (IVI) ...........................................................................24

3.3.5 Use Value (UV) ..............................................................................................................26


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3.3.6 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) ...................................................................................26

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................28

4.0 RESULTS..........................................................................................................................28

4.1 General plant diversity ......................................................................................................28

4.2. Vegetation types and species composition .......................................................................40

4.2.1 Open Canopy Forest .......................................................................................................40

4.2.2 Closed Canopy Forest ....................................................................................................40

4.2.3 Seasonal Flooded Forest.................................................................................................41

4.2.4 Thicket forest..................................................................................................................41

4.3 Diversity, abundance and distribution of trees ..................................................................43

4.5 Ethnobotanical Studies ......................................................................................................48

4.5.1 Social-economic background of informants ..................................................................48

4.6 Use Categories, Use-Value (UV) and Informant Consensus factor (Fic) ..........................49

4.6.1 Medicinal uses of plants .................................................................................................55

4.6.2 Plant parts and use-categories ........................................................................................60

4.7 Relationships between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use .........................................62

CHAPTER FIVE .....................................................................................................................68

5.0 DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................68

5.1 Plant diversity ....................................................................................................................68

5.2Ethnobotanical use .............................................................................................................69

5.3 Relationship between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use ...........................................71


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CHAPTER SIX .......................................................................................................................72

6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................................................72

6.1 Conclusions .......................................................................................................................72

6.2 Recommendations.............................................................................................................73

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................75

APPENDICES .........................................................................................................................88


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Checklist of plants identified in the proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve in southern

Ghana...................................................................................................................................29

Table 2: Inventory Completeness ratio (C).....................................................................................36

Table 3: Family composition of plants in the study area................................................................37

Table 4: Family Importance Value Index of trees...........................................................................44

Table 5: Species abundance and Importance Value Index of Trees................................................45

Table 6: List of plants used in communities around proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve.............50

Table 7: Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) for commonly used plants.........................................54

Table 8: Medicinal plants used in communities around proposed Apra Hills Forest

Reserve..............................................................................................................................56

Table 9: Informant Consensus factor for medicinal plants.............................................................59

Table 10: Use categories and plant parts used................................................................................61

Table 11: Relationship between plant diversity study and ethnobotanical study using plots.........64

Table 12: Relationship between plant diversity study and ethnobotanical study using

vegetation types...............................................................................................................64

Table 13: Results of correlation analysis between plant diversity study and ethnobotanical

study within plots............................................................................................................65

Table 14: Results of correlation analysis between plant diversity study and ethnobotanical

study within different vegetation types..........................................................................65


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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1: Topography and contour map of the study area................................................................15

Fig. 1.2: Satellite image of the study area.......................................................................................16

Fig. 1.3: A paranomic view of proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve..............................................19

Fig. 1.4: An illustration to show line transect from bottom to top of proposed Apra Hills

Forest Reserve...................................................................................................................22

Fig. 1.5: Photograph taken during an interview with an informant...............................................23

Fig. 2 : Species accumulation curve................................................................................................35

Fig. 3: Growth form of plants in the sampled area..........................................................................36

Fig. 4: Vegetation types within proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve.............................................41

Fig.5 : DBH of tree species at different intervals............................................................................43

Fig. 6: Socio-economic background of informant in the study area...............................................47

Fig. 7: Plant use category in the study area.....................................................................................49

Fig. 8: Collection of fuelwood from the proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve...............................49

Fig. 9: Plant parts used by informant in the study area...................................................................60

Fig. 10: Harvesting of the stem bark of Swietenia macrophylla in the study area..........................60

Fig. 11: A relationship graph of plant diversity study and ethnobotanical study within plots........64

Fig. 12: Collection of plant resources by informants in the study area...........................................66

Fig. 13: Photograph showing evidence of illegal logging in proposed Apra Hills Forest

Reserve................................................................................................................................67


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ACRONYMS

CBD - Convention of Biological Diversity

DBH - Diameter at breast height

DID - Dermatological infections/diseases

FIVI - Family Importance Value Index

GH - General health

GIA - Gastro-intestinal ailment

GUA - Genio-urinary ailments

HEM - Hemorrhoids

ICF - Informant Consensus Factor

IPD - Infectious and parasitic diseases

IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature

IVI - Species Importance Value Index

MCT - Musculoskeletal and connective tissue

REDD - Reducing Emission for Deforestation and Forest Degradation

RSD - Respiratory system disease

SMSD - Skeleton-muscular system disorder

UV - Use Value


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ABSTRACT

The Southern Margin forest type in Ghana now occur in small forest fragments due to the

overharvesting of plant resources for purpose of food, medicine, construction and fuelwood. The

proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve is one of the remaining forest fragments of this forest type in

southern Ghana although there are no previous in depth studies to support effective forest

management of its plant resources. In order to achieve the objectives of this study, plant diversity

study and ethnobotanical study was carried out. Nine plots of 25 m x 25 m was established in four

vegetation types (Open canopy forest, closed canopy forest, seasonal flooded forest and thicket

forest) within the study area. A total of 296 individual plants belonging to 127 taxa were

identified. Of the 127 taxa, 114 were identified to species level belonging to 45 families, 10 were

identified to genus level, 4 were identified to the family level and 9 taxa were undetermined. Nine

of the 114 species identified have been assigned IUCN conservation rating. These species

included Afzelia africana, Alafia sp., Albizia ferruginea, Nesogordonia papaverifera rated as

vulnerable and Hunteria ghanensis was rated as an endangered species. Inventory completeness

ratio was 0.6 (SE ± 0.05) and mean Shannon-Weiner diversity index was 2.0 (SE ± 0.09) for trees,

the family sterculiaceae had the highest FIVI value and Hildergardia barteri had the highest IVI

value. The DBH distribution pattern of trees showed an inverted J shape. A semi-structured

questionnaire was used to interview 74 informants living in three communities around the

proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve to investigate the ethnobotanical use. Results obtained from

the ethnobotanical study showed that 35 plant species were reported being used by informants.

Nine species, namely were recorded both in the plant diversity and ethnobotanical studies,

whereas the following 12 species namely, Afraegle paniculata, Jatropha gossipifolia, Mangifera

indica, Milicia excelsa, Paulina pinnata, Senna siamea, Sida acuta Burm, Solanum torvum,

Spondias mombin, Strophantus hispidus, Swietenia macrophylla and Zanthoxylum xantholoides

were not observed in the plant diversity study but were mentioned by the informants during the


xiii

interview. In terms of use-values (UV) for the 35 species, Swietenia macrophylla had the highest

value of 2.0 whereas Momordica charantia had the least value of 0.1. In terms of use categories

medicine had the highest ICF value of 39.2 and 19.8. Leaves of plants had the highest use reports

and fruits had the least use reports. About 65 % of the indigenes collect plants from proposed

Apra Hills Forest Reserve on a weekly basis which account for the depletion of species in the

area. Bushfire was mostly cited that threaten plant diversity by the informants. Correlation

coefficient was positive and statistically significant (p < 0.05 for all analysis) between number of

useful plants and medicinal plants, against species richness and species abundance whereas the

relationships between the number of useful plants and vegetation types were insignificant (p >

0.05 for all analysis). Further studies in the proposed reserve should investigate carbon stocks as

well as soil characteristics.


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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In West Africa, biological diversity is an integral part of the rural economy, providing sources

of materials for food, construction, medicine, energy and goods such as mats, baskets, furniture

and dyes for many communities (Falconer, 1992; Banahene, 1997). In spite of the important

roles biological diversity plays in the life of mankind, anthropogenic activities such as logging,

bush burning, farming and mining has contributed significantly to loss of biodiversity (Veblen

and Lorenz, 1987; Terborgh, 1992). Losses of biodiversity has various impacts including

climate change, loss of ecosystem services, floods and disease introduction on human

population (Ahmed, 2008).

About 70 % of the world's plants are used for construction, furniture and medicine (FAO,

2001). The high use of plant resources for several purposes has led to the depletion of forest

biodiversity. For example, due to the domestic and industrial demand for plants, there has been

increased in logging activities both in Ghana and West Africa (ITTO and IUCN, 2005).

Logging action, overharvesting and exportation of biodiversity has caused deforestation and

forest degradation in Ghana (Benhin and Barbier, 2004).

Ghana has one of the highest rates of deforestation in West Africa (Damnya et al., 2011). The

rate of deforestation is estimated to be 2.19 % per annum between 2005 and 2010 for Ghana

(FAO, 2010). About 70 % of deforestation in Ghana is cause by farming activities (Ahmed,

2008). Empirical studies on the cost of deforestation in monetary terms are few despite the fact

that in the period of 1990– 2005, 1.9 million ha of Ghana's forest cover was lost (Damnya et

al., 2011).


2

Over the years, the Government of Ghana has been concerned about the extent of deforestation

and forest degradation in the country. For this reason, efforts are being made to combat

deforestation through sustainable management and rehabilitation measures, including tree

planting on degraded forestlands (FAO, 2012).

1.2 Problem Statement

Deforestation and forest degradation is a major environmental problem worldwide. The rate of

forest cover loss is estimated to be 16 million hectares in 1990, 5.2 million hectares per year

from 2000 to 2010 (FAO, 2010). Consequences of deforestation and forest degradation are

biodiversity loss and socio-economic implications. The forests of Ghana contribute

significantly both to rural and urban life, providing fodder, building materials, herbal

medicines, and household items, as well as intangible benefits, such as cultural symbols, ritual

artifacts and sacred sites (Appiah, 2003) but these forests continue to be degraded at a very

alarming rate.

The Ghana Forest and Wildlife Policy (2012) aims to manage and enhance the ecological

integrity of all forest types in Ghana. The forest vegetation types in Ghana include Wet

Evergreen; Moist Evergreen; Moist Semi-Deciduous; Dry Semi-Deciduous; Southern

marginal, South-east outlier; and Upland Evergreen (Hall and Swaine, 1981). In recent years

there has been an urgent need to rehabilitate deforested areas in Ghana as well as to restore the

original forest using native tree species (Ministry of Lands and Forestry, 1994). The Southern

Margin forest is one of the most degraded forest types in Ghana.


3

1.3 Justification of the study

The Southern Marginal forest is found in the south east of the country in areas with rainfall

between 1000-1250 mm. Most of the characteristic species are herbaceous, rather than woody

and less than 5 % of the species is deciduous. The forest canopy rarely exceeds 30 m whilst the

undergrowth is thick and characteristically has high densities of gregarious species. The

Southern Margin forest type in Ghana occurs mostly as small forest fragments largely in

reserves and sacred groves (Hall and Swaine,1981). These forest fragments are usually close

to most coastal towns and may have suffered from continuous anthropogenic pressure for

farmlands and collection of plants fuel wood and other uses for centuries.

There are very few forest reserves within Southern Margin forest type in Ghana. The proposed

Apra Hills Forest Reserve is one of best remaining forest patches of this forest type in Ghana.

The proposed reserved is being managed by traditional authorities. However, to the best of our

knowledge there are no previous studies on the biodiversity in the reserve in order to support

effective management of its forest resources. This study is about the plant diversity in the

proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve.

1.4 Research Objectives

The overall goal of this study was to investigate diversity and ethnobotanical uses of plants in

proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve towards sustainable management of its forest resources.

Specifically, the objectives of the study are to:

1. Determine floristic diversity and species composition in the proposed forest reserve.

2. Document traditional uses of plants by the communities living around the proposed

reserve and,

4. explore relationships between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use.


4

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Biodiversity

"Biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,

inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of

which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems

(CBD, 2006).Biological diversity is subdivided into three levels, namely, genetic diversity,

species diversity, and ecological diversity. Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genetic

information between species as well as variation between individuals of same species (Veblen

and Lorenz, 1987). Genetic diversity determines the extent to which a given population adapt

to environmental changes and diseases (Addo-Danso, 2010).Genes play a very important part

in the resilience of biodiversity to world changes, such as climate change (Assefa et al., 2007).

Genetic diversity is the ―raw material‖ that allow species to adapt to a changing world whether

these changes are caused naturally or by human (Maclaurin and Sterelny, 2008).

Species diversity is a measure of the number of species in a community (species richness) and

the evenness of species abundance. Therefore, a community with abundant species are

considered to be more diverse and undisturbed than a community with lesser species and can

be concluded to be less diverse or disturbed (Maclaurin and Sterelny, 2008).Ecosystem

diversity is a measure of various ecosystem types, diversity of habitats and ecosystem functions

within all of them (Addo-Danso, 2010). Ecosystem diversity refers to the conditions and

processes which natural ecosystems and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfill

human life (Laing, 2002).


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2.2 Forest Biodiversity in Ghana

The total land area of Ghana is estimated to be 23.9 million hectares of which 15.7 million

hectares lie within the Savannah zone while the remaining 8.2 million hectares lie within the

Tropical Rain Forest Zones. Only 2 million hectares of the original 8.22 million hectares

remain (Laing, 2002). A total of 2,974 indigenous plant species, 504 fishes, 728 birds, 225

mammals, 221 species of amphibians and reptiles have been recorded in Ghana. Three species

of frogs, lizard, and 23 species of butterflies have been reported to be endemic. (NBSAP,

2002). Both indigenous and introduced species have been considered in the assessments of the

Ghana’s biodiversity. Presently, export of forest-based products is ranked fourth in terms of

sources of foreign exchange earnings for Ghana (FAO, 2007).

Forest plant biodiversity in Ghana is distributed across vegetation types, namely, Wet

Evergreen; Moist Evergreen; Moist Semi-Deciduous; Dry Semi-Deciduous; Southern

marginal, South-east outlier; and Upland Evergreen. The Wet evergreen forest have the highest

annual rainfall and leached soil, followed by the Moist evergreen forest which has annual

rainfall of 1500 - 1700 mm (Hall and Swaine, 1986). The Moist Semi-deciduous has the richest

soil, annual rainfall of 1200 - 1800 mm and rich in timber supply of commercial species such

as Entandrophragma utile Sprague., Khaya ivorensis A. Chev. and Triplochiton scleroxylon

K. Schum. with height greater than 50 m. The Dry Semi-deciduous is found on the northern

side of the Wet Semi-deciduous forest with annual rainfall of 1500 mm. Southern marginal,

South-east outlier, and Upland Evergreen occur in patches with trees exceeding 60 m in height

(Hall and Swaine, 1986).


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2.3 Deforestation

Deforestation is the clearing or conversion of forest for other land use or the long-term

reduction of tree canopy cover below the 10 % threshold (FAO, 2001). Deforestation can result

from deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or urban development, or it can be an

unintentional consequence of uncontrolled grazing (which can prevent the natural regeneration

of young trees. Deforestation may cause many negative effects such as global warming,

biodiversity loss which form basis of traditional and cultural knowledge and soil degradation

are often identified (Mahapatra and Kant, 2003). In terms of global warming, about 20 % of

increased emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are responsible for global warming and

climate change (Owusu et al., 2011). There is a relationship between deforestation and global

warming because forests are major carbon sinks (Gorte and Sheikh, 2010). Therefore,

deforestation leads to the collapse of carbon sinks and increase of more carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere which is a serious threat to global climate.

Seventy percent of the world’s plants are found in forest and this species can be endangered or

become rare by deforestation (Knox and Marston, 1998). This loss does not only affect

biodiversity but also has negative effect on medicinal research and local people who rely on

plants in the forests for food, medicine and fuelwood(Chomitz, 1999).

Clearing of forestlands leads to soil erosion and makes the land infertile. Runoff from

deforested hillsides increased the amount of silt and impeded the flow of water into agricultural

areas. Eventually, due to the increased depletion of soil nutrients this has led to low agricultural

yields.


7

There are strategies to reduce deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana. These include

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) programme, Practice

of sustainable forest management, use of policies and laws, Indigenous knowledge systems and

use of protected areas(ITTO, 2004). REDD is an effort to create a financial value for the

carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from

forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable development. "REDD+" goes

beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation, sustainable

management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Reducing Emissions from

Deforestation and Forest REDD is a mechanism that has been under negotiation by the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) since 2005, with the objective

of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through

enhanced forest management in developing countries. This mechanism uses incentives to

encourage developing countries to reduce deforestation and forest degradation (Chomitz et al.,

2007).

Sustainable forest management is the use of forests and forest lands in a way that maintains

their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfill, now

and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national, and

global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems (FAO, 2012).

Policies and laws can be effective in controlling deforestation and forest degradation. This

approach should not be severe in order to encouraged local people and institutional

participation in forest management and conservation as well as to protect the local people’s

rights and ensure equal sharing of benefits. These approaches include negotiation, warnings,

cancelling work orders, charges and arrests (Chomitz et al., 2007).


8

Indigenous knowledge systems refer to a knowledge and benefits built by a group of local

people and handed over to generations (Breemer, 1995). Examples of this indigenous

knowledge systems are cultural beliefs, taboos, totems, indigenous agricultural practices and

these were used to conserve and manage natural resources. This indigenous knowledge will

help reduce the depletion and encourage sustainable management of plant resources which is

important for the present and future generations.

Protected areas safeguards biological and cultural diversity, it helps to improve the livelihood

of many local communities, provide homelands for indigenous people and brings countless

benefit to the society in general. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

defined a protected area as a geographical area, recognized and managed to conserve nature

and its resources (Dudley, 2008). Protected areas can be used as a strategy to manage and

conserve plants (Myers, 1994; Myers and Mittermeier, 2000; Nepstad et al., 2006).Creating

protected areas where human activity is limited is the best way to prevent deforestation and

exploitation of plant resources (Heywood, 1995).

2.4 Land use change

The pressure on land-use pose the greatest impact on biodiversity in tropical forests (Sala et al.,

2000).Forests in Ghana have suffered a serious decline because of over-exploitation to meet the

growing needs of the population (EPA, 2004).Land use is the frequent activity practiced on

land by humans for purposes such as farming practices of food with the use of fire, shifting

cultivation, mono cropping, land rotation and fallow etc (De Bie, 2000). This activities put

pressure on forest biodiversity. Also, the increasing human population needs to which the

forest is exposed in most tropical countries occur also in Ghana and serious problems have

arisen (Hawthorne and Jongkind, 2006).


9

2.5 Major causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana

2.5.1 Agriculture

Agriculture is a major cause of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana(FAO, 2007).

Over 60 % of Ghana's population use the forest land for large scale farming (Addo-Danso,

2010). There have been increased farming activities and shifting cultivation in different forest

communities due to increase in population size. The purpose of agriculture expansion is to

meet up with cash crop demands for both domestic consumption, local supply and exportation.

There has been pressure on forestlands since agriculture has become incorporated into the

global economy. These farming activities are usually established within the forest leading to

drastic increase of deforestation and threat to the sustainability of biodiversity (Adu et al.,

2012).

2.5.2 Logging and timber extraction

About 94 % of the forest in Ghana are disturbed due to unsustainable logging (De Laat, 2010).

Unsustainable logging is one of the main reasons for forest management in Ghana (Addo-

Danso, 2010). The scale of illegal exports of timber became clear to the Ghanaian authorities in

1987, when several shiploads of illegally harvested wood were halted and fraud involving

export documents were revealed (Glastra, 1999; Koen et al., 2010). Commercial logging and

timber extraction is majorly carried out to supply international companies (Addo-Danso, 2010).

In most cases, this forest lands are bought or rented in order to harvest timber for medicinal or

construction purpose. According to Laporte et al., (2007) commercial logging has become the

most extensive land use in West Africa and about 30 % of forest are currently disturbed. It is

expected that commercial logging will expand further due to their demands for them by local

and international industries.


10

2.5.3 Bush burning

The effect of bush burning on Ghana's forest has been estimated to be about US$24 million

annually (Archibald et al, 2010). Charcoal production and farming are major cause of

bushfires, threatening the sustainability of forests (Addo-Danso, 2010).Accidental causes of

wildfires involved cooking in the farms, palm wine tapping, charcoal burning, honey extraction

and cigarette smoking (Kusimi and Appati, 2012).

2.5.4 Fuelwood collection and charcoal production

Fuelwood provides the main energy source for both rural and urban households throughout the

entire Ghana. Fuelwood collection and charcoal production are in most cases the major

products of the forests in Ghana. The use and demand for these products keep increasing.

Fuelwood and charcoal account for more than 75 % of all energy consumed in the country. It is

estimated that about 91 % of total round wood produced is used for firewood and charcoal

production (Addo-Danso, 2010). Wood extraction for domestic fuel wood or charcoal

production remains a major issue in Africa, because most Africans still use wood and charcoal

for cooking, since there are no other affordable energy sources available. Only 7.5 % of the

rural population currently has access to electricity. Africa has shown a steady increase in wood

removals in recent years, reporting a rise from 49,900 hectares annually (1990) to 66,100

hectares 2005 (Koen, 2010).

2.5.5 Mining

A variety of minerals are known to exist in Ghana. Among these are manganese, iron, tin,

copper, lead and gold (UNEP, 1999). As these minerals remain in demand on an international

scale, mining companies and groups of individuals will continue to search for new sites and in


11

due process deplete the forest in order to carry out extraction of these minerals. The extraction

of minerals are the leading contributors to Ghana’s foreign exchange earnings. In 2009, gold

rose to 12 % with a production of 2.9 million ounces revenue of $2.8 billion to the economy.

Despite the important role these minerals play in the Ghanaian economy, mining has had

devastating effects on forests leading to several hectares of forest loss (Glastra, 1999).

2.8 Ethnobotany

"Ethnobotany is the study of the relationship between plants and people (Faruque and Uddin,

2014). The study of plants provides relevant and new information in development of medicines

and new uses of plant parts for household purposes. Ethnobotany plays a crucial role in the

study of traditional medicine (Pei, 2005). Plants are essential for human beings as they provide

food, fuel, fodder, timber, fruit and medicines (Amjad and Arshad, 2014).Indigenous

knowledge of traditional uses of plants as well as medicinal uses of plants for healing human

ailments is, however, in danger of gradually becoming extinct, because this knowledge is

passed on orally from generation to generation without the aid of a writing system and because

many traditional healers do not keep written records (Kaido et al., 1997).

Ethnobotanical study not only prevents misapprehension and misrepresentation of observed

facts, but is positively necessary in many instances to the correct diagnosis and explanation of

ethnological facts, of the symbolism of objects used, and the significance of allusions in the

text embodied in ceremonial ritual (Poole, 1995).Majority of wild plants can only be conserved

in their natural ecosystems (Martin, 1994). Therefore, the use of foods, medicines, and plant

materials from the forests can be managed sustainably if forests are properly managed

(Wightman, 1992). However, deforestation by humans are rapidly destroying the forest

ecosystem causing extinction of species as well (Cunningham, 1993). Ethnobotanical studies


12

conducted in different local communities have recorded that many forest communities are

aware of the usefulness of species occurring in the forest around them (Kotak, 1991). This

indigenous knowledge has been gained by trial and error over long periods of time, and in most

cases has been passed across generations through oral transmission (Philips, 1993a).

Indigenous knowledge is an extremely valuable cultural resource, because so many useful

plants and other organisms are known to local people (Poole, 1995). Unfortunately, this local,

traditional knowledge is often rapidly lost once indigenous people become integrated into

modern, materialistic society. It is important that local indigenous peoples be given the

opportunity to conserve their own culture (Martin, 1995). So therefore, ethnobotanical study

has been adopted over the years and used to document the traditional uses of plants among

different cultures with the use of questionnaires and interviews (Cunningham, 2001). Data

collection can be carried out by field interview, household to household interview, focal group

discussion or individual interview. Questionnaires is used in the collection of data from

informants in written form whereas Interviews are based on what the informant says orally.

The use of questionnaires can be either structured and semi-structured whereas the interview

could be a focal group discussion or individual based (Martin, 1995).

2.8.1 Field interview

Field based interviews are open ended. They are conducted person to person. They are

deliberately designed to produce specific kinds of information, information that portrays the

richness of individual experience on uses of plants. (Martin, 1995).

2.8.2 Household to household interview

Household to household interview is one of the most reliable type of surveys for collection of

data in ethnobotanical study (Lewis, 1994). The interview is conducted with each family


13

member of a household or a particular member and is designed in order to collect confidential

information on the traditional uses of plants (Philip, 1993a). As knowledge of the uses of plants

vary among households and among members of such household (Kotak, 1991).

2.8.3 Focal group interview

Focal group discussion is an open interview among certain members of the community, certain

age group with common knowledge about the traditional uses of plants (Cunningham, 2001).

This interview is usually allows informants to give information based on self-expression. This

type of survey is usually used to document the knowledge of certain cultural groups of

particular age or how certain ethnic group understand the use plants in their environment

(Tesfaye, 2005).


14

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study Area

The study area at proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve is located at Akrampa, a village in the

West Effutu Awutu Senya District of the Central Region of Ghana. It lies between latitude 5o

35’ N, and 5o 30’ and longitude 0

o 30’ and covers a total land area of 336 hectares. The area is

made up of two adjacent West and Eastern Apra Hills surrounded by towns and villages

including Apra, Loye, Buduburam, Kwaw Larbi and Ahentia (Fig 1.1).

3.1.1 Vegetation

The study area is made up of approximately three-fourth of coastal semi-deciduous forest and

intensively farmed savanna grassland (Fig. 2). These vegetation types run along the twin-hills

and covered larger parts of the low lands. Plant species commonly found in the area included

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn, Diospyros sanzaminika (Hiern) F. White and Blighia sapida

K.D. Koenig. are frequent in the area whereas Triplochiton scleroxylon K.Schum and Antiaris

africana (Pers.) Lesch. are less frequent but occur occasional (Forestry Section Report, 1989).

Species such as Ceiba pentandra(L.) Gaertn, Mansonia altissima A.Chev., Triplochiton

scleroxylon K.Schum, Nesogordonia papaverifera (A.Chev.) Capuron ex N.Hallé and Celtis

mildbraedii Engl. dominate the upper storey whereas Ficus sagitilfolia Mildbr. & Burret

Trichilia prieureana A. Juss., Albizia and Hymenostegia afezelii (Oliv.) Harms formed

majority of plants in the middle storey. The lower storey contains the regeneration of some of

the species in the upper stories and is mixed up with thorny thickets of Baphia nitida Lodd. and

Uvaria globusa Hook.f.(Forestry Section Report, 1989).


15

Fig. 1.1: Topography and contour map of the study area.


16

Fig. 1.2:Satellite image of the study area


17

3.1.2 Land uses

Shifting cultivation is practised in this area and most indigenes are predominantly subsistent

farmers who cultivate crops such as orange, maize, pepper, garden egg, cassava, yam,

pineapple. Minority of the indigenes in this area are petty traders and carpenters. These

indigenes depend on plant resources such as leaves, fruits, roots, bark, woods from the

proposed forest reserve for their sources of food, building, fuelwood, charcoal, medicine and

construction etc. Charcoal burning activities and firewood collection for domestic purposes in

the area threatens the conservation of plant resources in the proposed forest reserve (Forestry

Section Report, 1989).

3.1.3 History

The proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve is a sacred grove owned and managed by the Awutu

Traditional Council in Central Region of Ghana (Fig. 1.3). It is a taboo to farm, fall trees, visit

or collect plant parts from the grove on Mondays. This law was used to manage and conserve

plant resources in the grove. However, logging activities by unknown indigenes was noticed to

be rampant throughout the area. In order to cut down logging activity, the Awutu Breku State

Council made intruders buy a cow and one carton of schnapps. Despite this measure, the extent

of threat to plant resources within the grove increased tremendously. In order to manage the

grove sustainably, the Awutu State Council consulted the Forestry Department in 1959.

The process of making the area a forest reserve was suspended in 1961 with no particular

reason. According to some beliefs, the suspension was due to the fact that Apra Hills is a fetish

grove and its existence as a forest reserve can be hindered by taboos (Forestry Section Report,

1989).


18

3.1.4 Geology, soil and topography

In the study area, there are small pieces of flat rocks found on the ground having a parent rock

known as granite. The proposed forest reserve has a yellow-brown uppermost layer of what?

which is made up of a coarse sandy loam soil. The second and third layers are made of up of a

hard red-brown soil and an iron stone layer respectively. The valley and grounds in the area

have a 2:1 ratio of heavy black clayey soils, which isomer than 4 feet deep. The heavy black

clayey soil or montmorillionite is found in the north-eastern area of the reserve and are mostly

waterlogged throughout the year. The Western and Eastern Apra Hills are 800 feet and 600 feet

above sea level, respectively(Forestry Section Report, 1989).

3.1.5 Ethnography

The inhabitants of Akrampa, Kemor, Loye, Apra and Opeman are majorly farmers and are

located outside Northern area of the proposed forest reserve. The Apra and Kemor villages

were inhabited by the indigenous Awutu people whereas Opeman and Ahienta were inhabited

by the Ewes(Forestry Section Report, 1989).

Most of the people in Akrampa worship the Adoko, Wianda and Amaga. Adoko is a god

believed to provide barren women with children and Wianda is a god that protects the farmers

and hunters of the area. At the entrance of the Akrampa village is a god called the Amaga that

is believed to protect the village and its inhabitants.. According to the people it was brought

from the East and is a god that protect the entire village and its inhabitants(Ben, 2013).


19

Fig. 1.3: A paranomic view of proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve.


20

3.2 Methods

3.2.1Field reconnaissance survey

Sampling in the area began with a field reconnaissance survey to gather relevant information

on the local history, taboos, land tenure and ownership systems, boundaries and the uses of the

natural resources in the area. The land use types were identified by visual observations and

LANDSAT imageries.

3.2.2 Plant inventory

Plant inventory was carried out along a transect (Fig. 1.4). For purposes of convenience,

transect was a footpath used by the local people in the area and started from the lowland

through to the top of one of the Hills. Four broad vegetation / habitat types were identified

along transect. Sample plots of size 25 m x 25 m were demarcated in the different habitat types.

The choice of the 25 m x 25 m sized sample plots follows the work of Hall and Swaine (1976).

Sampling was stratified based on the size of habitat types. In total 9 sample plots were

established (2 plots in Open canopy forest; 5 plots in Closed canopy forest, 1 plot in seasonal

flooded forest; and 1 plot a thicket forest). Plots were established using a compass, measuring

tape and pegs. Geographical position of each plot was determined using a handheld Global

Position System [(GPS) Garmin 62S]. Data were recorded in a field sheet (Appendix 1)

Within each plot, all species of plants including trees, shrubs, climber and herbs were

identified. In most of the cases, plant identification was achieved in the field with the assistance

of an experienced parataxonomist (Mr. Patrick Ekpe) from the Ghana Herbarium at the

Department of Botany, University of Ghana. Voucher specimens were made of species

difficult to identify in the field and those species were later identified by comparison with

already identified specimens at the Ghana Herbarium to confirm the field plant identification.


21

The nomenclature of the species was checked using the International Plant Names Index (IPNI)

(www.ipni.org).

In order to determine the abundance and distribution of trees within the study area, all trees

found in the plot with diameter-at-Breast-Height (DBH) ≥ 10cm at 1.3 m above ground level

were individually identified and their DBH measured using diameter tape. For trees with large

buttress their DBH was taken above their buttresses following previous studies (Damnyag et

al., 2011; Asase et al. 2010). The data were recorded in a field data collection sheet (Appendix

2).

3.2.3 Ethnobotanical survey

This part of the study was carried out using semi-structured questionnaire interviewed

(Martins, 1995) in three communities, namely, Akrampa, Apra and Loye living around the

proposed reserve. A sample of the data questionnaire sheet is presented in Appendix 3. A total

of 74 households were interviewed. Before data collections the objectives of the ethnobotanical

study was explained to the chiefs and informants in order to obtain their prior-informed consent

(Cunningham, 2001).A Forest Guard assisted in interpretation of questions and interviews were

carried out on Mondays (taboo days)and weekends in order not to interfere with the indigenes

daily activities.

A household-to-household interview approach was used to collect information (Fig. 1.4)

because approach has been used to successfully collect ethnobotanical data in many

communities (Asase et al., 2005). Data collected were in four major areas; (1) bio-data on

informants; (2)Use of Forest Resources (3) Wild Medicines from forest and (4) Conservation

of plants. Voucher specimens were collected following standard ethnobotanical practice

(Martin, 1995).


22

Fig. 1.4: An illustration to show line transect from bottom to top of proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve


23

3.3. Data Analysis

3.3.1 Species accumulation curve and diversity index

The species accumulation curve shows increase in the species observed with sampling effort

and is an excellent graphical way to summarize the completeness of sampling effort

(Magurran, 2010). Data for plotting species accumulation curve was generated based on plot

inventory using EstimateSWin 9.10 (Colwell, 2005) software programme. Species

accumulation curve was plotted using Microsoft excel.

Shannon-Wiener index (H’).

𝐻′ = 𝑝𝑖I𝑛𝑝𝑖𝑠

𝑖=1

where s is the total number of species and p is the relative abundance of the i species

Fig. 1.5: Photograph taken during an interview with an informant


24

3.3.2 Inventory completeness

Inventory completeness (C) is a useful index to indicate whether an area was well sampled or

not. An inventory completeness (C) value closer to 1 indicate that a study area is well-

sampled while a value farther from 1 indicate that a study area is under-sampled (Colwell &

Coddington, 1994). Here, inventory completeness of the current study for the study area was

estimated using the formula,

C =Sobs

Sexp ,

where, C represent Completeness ratio, Sobs is number of species observed, and Sexp

represent number of species expected. The number of species expected was evaluated as

follows:

Sexp = Sobs + 𝑎2

2𝑏,

Where, a = singletons or number of species occurring once in the sampling, and

b = doubletons or number of species occurring more than once in the sampling (Colwell &

Coddington, 1994).

3.3.3 Family Importance Value index (FIV)

Family Importance Value index (FIV)is useful for determining the overall importance of each

taxonomic family in an area (Danquah, 2001).FIV was calculated as the sum of the family

relative frequency, family relative density and family relative dominance (Brower, 1997).

3.3.4 Species Importance Value index (IVI)

Species Importance Value index (IVI) was calculated as a sum of the relative density, relative

frequency and relative dominance for each species (Addo-Fordjour, 2010; Magurran, 1988).


25

Calculation of basal area of the different parameters of the index was achieved using the

following formulae (Magurran, 1988).

Basal area =πd2

4, where, d is the DBH of the tree.

Density = Total number of individuals of the species in all plots

Total number of plots sampled

Relative density = Total number of individual of species

Total number of individual of all the species x 100

Frequency =Number of plots in which species occurred

Total Number of plots sampled

Relative Frequency = Frequency of species

Total frequency of all species

Dominance =Basal area of species

Area sampled

Relative Dominance = Dominance of species

Total dominance of all species


26

3.3.5 Use Value (UV)

The relative importance of each plant species known locally to be used for food, fuelwood,

building, medicine or for making household items is reported as use value (UV) and it was

calculated using the formula (Phillips et al., 1994).

UV = 𝑼

𝒏

Where UV is the use value of the species, U is the number of use-reports cited by each

informant for a given plant species and n is the total number of informants interviewed for a

given plant. ∑ represent total sum. The UV is helpful in determining the plants with the

highest use (the most frequently indicated). UVs are high when there are many use-reports for

a plant and low when there are few reports related to its use.

3.3.6 Informant Consensus Factor (Fic)

The informant consensus factor (Fic) was used to determine if there was agreement in the use

of plants in the various use-categories between the plant users in the study area. The Fic was

calculated using the following formula (Heinrich et al., 1998).

Fic=𝑁𝑢𝑟 − 𝑁𝑡

𝑁𝑢𝑟 − 1,

Where, Nur refers to the number of use-reports for a particular use-category and Nt refers to

the number of taxa or species used for a particular use-category by all informants.


27

3.3.7 Relationships between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use

The relationship between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use were examined for plots and

vegetation types using correlation analysis. Correlation between species richness and

abundance per plot and vegetation type, and number of overall species cited used and

medicinal plant used were examined.


28

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 General plant diversity

A total of 296 individual plants belonging to 127 taxa were identified. Of the 127 taxa,

114were identified to species level, 10 were identified to genus level, 4 were identified to the

family level and 9 taxa were undetermined (Table 1). Nine of 114 species identified have

been assigned IUCN conservation rating. These included tree species and liana, namely;

Afzelia africana Sm., Alafia sp., Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth., Nesogordonia

papaverifera (A.Chev.) Capuron ex N.Hallérated rated as vulnerable and Albizia

adianthifolia W.F. Wight, Baphia nitida Lodd., Millettia zechiana Harms and Triplochiton

scleroxylon K.Schum. rated as Least Concern. The only species with conservation concern

was Hunteria ghanensis J.B.Hall & Leeuwenberg, which was rated as an endangered species.

The species accumulation curve (Fig. 2) did not flattened as a result of low sampling in the

study area. This is an indication that more species are likely to be present in the area. The

species observed ranged from 31.2 to 110.7, singletons ranged from 32.88 to 48.00,

doubletons ranged from 0 to 14.00; and number of species expected ranged from 31.2 to 193

(Table 2). Inventory completeness ratio was 0.6 (SE ± 0.05). A high completeness ratio

indicate that the area has been well-sampled or is a species-rich area, a lesser C value indicate

that the area has been under-sampled done or is a species-poor area.

The growth forms of the plants encountered in terms of number of individuals and species are

presented in Fig. 3. Trees had the highest number of 53 individuals and 49species followed

by shrubs with 30 individuals and 28 species. Only two individuals and two epiphytic species

were identified (Fig. 3).


29

A total number of 45families were identified in the inventory of which Fabaceae had the

highest number of 16 individuals and 11 species. The following 20 families namely;

Adiantaceae, Anacardiaceae, Asteraceae, Bombacaceae, Capparaceae, Caricaceae,

Combretaceae, Commelinaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Ethroxylaceae,

Flagellariaceae, Loganiaceae, Malpighiaceae, Myrtaceae, Passifloraceae, Phytolaccaceae,

Polygalaceae, Solanaceae and Tiliaceae had the lowest number of one individuals and one

species each (Table 3).


30

Table 1: Checklist of plants identified in the proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve in southern Ghana.

Species Family Growth

form

Conservation

Status

Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Climber Unknown

Acacia kamerunensis Gand. Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Achyranthes bidentata Blume Amaranthaceae Shrub Unknown

Acridocarpus longifolius (D.Don) Hook.f. Malpighiaceae Tree Unknown

Adenia lobata Engl. Passifloraceae Liana Unknown

Aerangis biloba Schltr. Orchidaceae Epiphyte Unknown

Afzelia africana Sm. Fabaceae Tree Vulnerable

Alafia sp. Apocynaceae Liana Vulnerable

Albizia adianthifolia W.F. Wight Fabaceae Tree Least concern

Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth. Fabaceae Tree Vulnerable

Albizia zygia J.F.Macbr. Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach.) Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae Tree Unknown

Aningeria altissima (A.Chev.) Aubrév. & Pellegr. Sapotaceae Tree Unknown

Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch. Moraceae Tree Unknown

Artabotrys insignis Engl. & Diels Annonaceae Liana Unknown

Asystacia sp. Acanthaceae Herb Unknown

Baissea multiflora A.DC. Apocynaceae Shrub Unknown

Baissea zygodioides (K. Schum.) Stapf Apocynaceae Liana Unknown

Baphia nitida Lodd. Fabaceae Shrub Least concern

Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig Sapindaceae Tree Unknown

Bulbophyllum phaeopogon Schltr. Orchidaceae Epiphyte Unknown


31

Table 1: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Growth

form

Conservation

Status

Callichilia subsessilis Stapf. Apocynaceae Shrub Unknown

Calycobolus sp. Convolvulaceae Liana Unknown

Calyptrochilum emarginatum Schltr. Orchidaceae Shrub Unknown

Canthium sarcocarpum Merr. Rubiaceae Herb Unknown

Canthium cornelia Cham. & Schltdl. Rubiaceae Shrub Unknown

Capparis sp. Rutaceae Tree Unknown

Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Tree Unknown

Carpolobia lutea G. Don Polygalaceae Shrub Unknown

Cassia tuhavalyana Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Ceiba pentandra(L.) Gaertn. Bombacaceae Tree Unknown

Celtis mildbraedii Engl. Ulmaceae Tree Unknown

Celtis wightii Planch. Ulmaceae Tree Unknown

Chaetacme aristata Planch. Ulmaceae Tree Unknown

Chassalia kolly (Schumach.) Hepper Rubiaceae Shrub Unknown

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob Asteraceae Herb Unknown

Cissus arguta Hoof.K Vitaceae Climber Unknown

Cissus diffusiflora (Baker) Planch. Vitaceae Climber Unknown

Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae Herb Unknown

Cissus sp. Vitaceae Liana Unknown

Clerodendrum capitatum Hook. Verbanaceae Shrub Unknown

Cola millenii K.Schum. Sterculiaceae Tree Unknown


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabaceae

32

Table 1: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Growth

form

Conservation

status

Combretum racemosum P. Beauv. Combretaceae Liana Unknown

Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae Herb Unknown

Cystostemma umbellatum E. Fourn Ascelpidaceae Climber Unknown

Deinbollia pinnata Schumach. & Thonn. Sapindaceae Tree Unknown

Dialium guineense Willd. Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Dichapetalum sp. Menispermaceae Liana Unknown

Digitaria insularis (L.) Mez ex Ekman Gramineae Herb Unknown

Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F.White Ebenaceae Tree Unknown

Diospyros kamerunensis Gürke Ebenaceae Tree Unknown

Dracaena arborea Hort.Angl. ex Link Dracaenaceae Tree Unknown

Dracaena surculosa Lindl. Dracaenaceae Tree Unknown

Drypetes parvifolia Pax & K.Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Unknown

Elaephorbia drupifera (Thonn.) Stapf Euphorbiaceae Tree Unknown

Elytaria marginata Vahl Acanthaceae Herb Unknown

Erythrococca anomala Prain. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Unknown

Erythroxylum emarginatum Thonn. Erythroxylaceae Tree Unknown

Eugenia coronata. Schumach. & Thonn. Myrtaceae Shrub Unknown

Ficus exasperata Vahl Moraceae Tree Unknown

Ficus sagitilfolia Mildbr. & Burret Moraceae Tree Unknown

Flagellaria guineensis Schumach Flagellariaceae Liana Unknown


http://www.ipni.org/ipni/idPlantNameSearch.do?id=534104-1&back_page=%2Fipni%2FeditSimplePlantNameSearch.do%3Ffind_wholeName%3DDracaena%2Barborea%26output_format%3Dnormal

33

Table 1: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Growth

form

Conservation

status

Floscopa sp. Commelinaceae Herb Unknown

Gardenia nitida Hook. Rubiaceae Tree Unknown

Graptophyllum pictum Griff. Acanthaceae Shrub Unknown

Grewia megalocarpa P.Beauv. Tiliaceae Shrub Unknown

Griffonia simiplicifolia (Vahl ex DC.) Baill. Fabaceae Shrub Unknown

Hildegardia barteri (Mast.) Kosterm. Sterculiaceae Tree Unknown

Hilleria latifolia H.Walter Phytolaccaceae Herb Unknown

Hunteria ghanensis J.B.Hall & Leeuwenberg Apocynaceae Tree Endangered

Hymenostygia afezelii (Oliv.) Harms Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Hypselodelphys violacea (Ridl.) Milne-Redh. Marantaceae Tree Unknown

Landolphia macratha (K. Schum) Pichon Apocynaceae Climber Unknown

Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae Herb Unknown

Lecaniodiscus cupaniodes Planch. Ex Benth. Sapindaceae Shrub Unknown

Mallotus opposifolius (Geisel.) Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae Shrub Unknown

Manilkara obovata (Sabine & G.Don) J.H.Hemsl. Sapotaceae Tree Unknown

Mansonia altissima A.Chev. Sterculiaceae Tree Unknown

Marantochloa leucantha (K.Schum.) Milne-Redh. Marantaceae Herb Unknown

Millettia chrysophylla Dunn Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Millettia thonningi (Schumach. & Thonn.) Baker Fabaceae Tree Unknown

Millettia zechiana Harms Fabaceae Tree Least concern


34

Table 1: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Growth

form

Conservation

status

Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae Herb Unknown

Monodora tenuifolia Benth. Annonaceae Tree Unknown

Nauclea pobeguinii (Pobég.) E.M.A.Petit Rubiaceae Tree Unknown

Nesogordonia papaverifera(A.Chev.) Capuron Sterculiaceae Tree Vulnerable

Olyra latifolia L. Gramineae Herb Unknown

Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) P.Beauv. Gramineae Herb Unknown

Panicum maximum Jacq. Gramineae Herb Unknown

Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel.) Bullock Ascelpidaceae Liana Unknown

Pellaea doniana (J.Sm.) Hook. Adiantaceae Shrub Unknown

Pouteria alnifolia (Baker) Roberty Sapotaceae Tree Unknown

Ritchiea reflexa (Thonn.) Gild & Benedict Capparaceae Shrub Unknown

Rothmannia longiflora Salisb. Rubiaceae Shrub Unknown

Rothmannia urcelliformis Bullock. ex Robyns Rubiaceae Tree Unknown

Salacia sp. Celastraceae Shrub Unknown

Salacighia letestuana (Pellegr.) Blakelock Celastraceae Liana Unknown

Sanseviera liberica Ger. & Labr. Dracaenaceae Herb Unknown

Solanum enriathum D. Don Solanaceae Shrub Unknown

Sorindeia jugladifolia (A.Rich.) Planch. ex Oliv. Anacardiaceae Shrub Unknown

Sterculia tragacantha Lindl. Sterculiaceae Tree Unknown

Strophantus gratus (Hook.) Franch. Apocynaceae Shrub Unknown


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucurbitaceae

35

Table 1: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Growth

form

Conservation

status

Strychnos icaja Baill. Loganiaceae Liana Unknown

Synsepalum sp. Sapotaceae Tree Unknown

Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Portulacaceae Herb Unknown

Teclea verdoorniana Exell & Mendonça Rutaceae Tree Unknown

Tiliacora dielsiana Hutch. & Dalziel Menispermaceae Shrub Unknown

Tragia sp. Euphorbiaceae Herb Unknown

Trichilia prieureana A. Juss. Meliaceae Tree Unknown

Triplochiton scleroxylon K.Schum. Sterculiaceae Tree Least Concern

Turraea heterophylla Sm. Meliaceae Shrub Unknown

Uvaria globusa Hook.f. Annonaceae Shrub Unknown

Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek Fabaceae Shrub Unknown

Undetermined Acanthaceae Herb Unknown

Undetermined Apocynaceae Tree Unknown

Undetermined Apocynaceae Climber Unknown

Undetermined Celastraceae Tree Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Tree Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Tree Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Shrub Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Herb Unknown


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphorbiaceae

36

Table 1: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Growth

form

Conservation

status

Undetermined Unidentified Shrub Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Liana Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Climber Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Herb Unknown

Undetermined Unidentified Climber Unknown

Fig. 2 : Species accumulation curve.


37

Table 2: Inventory Completeness ratio (C).

Plot Species

observed

Singletons

Mean (a)

Doubletons

Mean (b)

Unobserved

species

Species

expected

Completeness

ratio

1 31.2 32.88 0.000 0.00 31.2 1.0

2 51.4 41.12 12.35 68.5 120 0.4

3 65.6 41.66 19.08 45.5 111 0.6

4 76.3 41.54 20.89 41.3 118 0.6

5 85.0 42.03 20.44 43.2 128 0.7

6 92.5 42.30 19.37 46.2 139 0.7

7 99.1 44.01 17.89 54.1 153 0.6

8 105.1 45.49 15.97 64.8 170 0.6

9 110.7 48.00 14.00 82.3 193 0.6

Fig. 3: Growth form of plants in the sampled area.

Growth form

Nu

mb

er o

f sp

ecie

s/in

div

idu

als


38

Table 3: Family composition of plants in the study area

Families Individuals Percentage (%) Species Percentage (%)

Acanthaceae 4 3.39 4 3.88

Adiantaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Amaranthaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Anacardiaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Annonaceae 3 2.54 3 2.91

Apocynaceae 9 7.63 8 7.77

Ascelpidaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Asteraceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Bombacaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Capparaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Caricaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Celastraceae 3 2.54 3 2.91

Combretaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Commelinaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Convolvulaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Cucurbitaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Dracaenaceae 3 2.54 2 1.94

Ebenaceae 2 1.69 1 0.97

Erythroxylaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Euphorbiaceae 6 5.08 6 5.83

Fabaceae 16 13.6 11 10.7


39

Table 3: (Cont'd)

Species Number of

Individuals Percentage (%)

Number of

Species Percentage (%)

Flagellariaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Gramineae 4 3.39 4 3.88

Loganiaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Malpighiaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Marantaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Meliaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Menispermaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Moraceae 3 2.54 2 1.94

Myrtaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Orchidaceae 3 2.54 3 2.91

Passifloraceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Phytolaccaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Polygalaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Portulacaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Rubiaceae 7 5.93 5 4.85

Rutaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Sapindaceae 3 2.54 3 2.91

Sapotaceae 4 3.39 4 3.88

Solanaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Sterculiaceae 6 5.08 6 5.83

Tiliaceae 1 0.85 1 0.97

Ulmaceae 3 2.54 2 1.94

Verbanaceae 2 1.69 2 1.94

Vitaceae 4 3.39 1 0.97


40

4.2. Vegetation types and species composition

Four vegetation types were identified in proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve. These were

Open canopy forest, Closed canopy forest, Seasonal flooded forest and Thicket forest (Fig.

4). The species of plant identified in each of the plots inventorized in each vegetation type are

presented in Appendice 4 - 12.

4.2.1 Open Canopy Forest

The tree crowns in this vegetation type do not overlap to form a continuous canopy layer but

are more widely spaced, leaving open sunlight areas within the vegetation. A total number of

57 species were identified within this vegetation type and trees were the most dominant

species in this area. The density of plants was 200 m2

per 1 hectare. Species identified in this

vegetation included tree species such as Celtis wightii Planch., Cola millenii K.Schum.,

Dracaena arborea Hort.Angl. ex Link, Erythroxylum emarginatum Thonn, Lecaniodiscus

cupaniodes Planch. Ex Benth., Mallotus opposifolius (Geisel.) Müll. Arg., Pellaea doniana

(J.Sm.) Hook., Ritchiea reflexa (Thonn.) Gild & Benedict. Herb species included

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob, Elytaria marginata Vahl, Lantana camara L.

Marantochloa leucantha (K.Schum.) Milne-Redh., Momordica charantia L., Olyra latifolia

L., Panicum maximum Jacq. and Climbers were Abrus precatorius L., Cystostemma

umbellatum E. Fourn, Griffonia simiplicifolia (Vahl ex DC.) Baill., Landolphia macratha (K.

Schum) Pichon.

4.2.2 Closed Canopy Forest

This vegetation type has crowns or canopies of individual trees overlapping to form a

virtually continuous layer which prevent sunlight from reaching the surface of the ground. A

total number of 60 species were identified within this vegetation type and trees were the most

dominant. The density of plants sampled in this vegetation type was 80 m2

per 1 hectare.


41

Species identified in this vegetation included tree species such as Sorindeia jugladifolia

(A.Rich.) Planch. ex Oliv., Triplochiton scleroxylon K.Schum., Erythroxylum emarginatum

Thonn. while shrub species included Graptophyllum pictum Griff. Grewia megalocarpa

P.Beauv. and Griffonia simiplicifolia (Vahl ex DC.) Baill., Herbs were Chromolaena odorata

(L.) R.M.King & H.Rob and Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume.

4.2.3 Seasonal Flooded Forest

This vegetation type is seasonally flooded during the raining season. A total number of 43

species were identified within this vegetation type. The density of plants within this

vegetation was 40 m2

per 1 hectare. Example of species observed in this vegetation type

included trees Ceiba pentandra(L.) Gaertn, Celtis mildbraedii Engl. and Chaetacme aristata

Planch. Shrub species included Canthium cornelia Cham. & Schltdl. and Clerodendrum

capitatum Hook. while herbs included Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob and

Olyra latifolia L.

4.2.4 Thicket forest

This vegetation is a very dense stand of trees or tall shrubs, often dominated by only one or a

few species. Thirty species were identified within this vegetation and density of plants was 40

m2.

per 1 hectares. Trees were the most dominant species in this area as well and this

vegetation correspond to the dense shrub/herbaceous cover vegetation identified in the

satellite imaginary map. Species identified included trees Nesogordonia

papaverifera(A.Chev.) Capuron ex N.Hallé, Trichilia prieureana A. Juss. and Cola millenii

K.Schum. Shrub species included Clerodendrum capitatum Hook. and Ritchiea reflexa

(Thonn.) Gild & Benedict while herb species included Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King

& H.Rob.


42

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 4: Vegetation types within proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve showing (a) Open Canopy Forest, (b)

Closed Canopy Forest, (c) Seasonal Flooded Forest and (d) Thicket Vegetation.

(a) (b)


43

4.3 Diversity, abundance and distribution of trees

A total number of 165 individual trees with DBH ≥ 10 cm belonging to 23 species in 12

families were identified. The Shannon-Weiner diversity index ranged from 1.4 to 2.3 Mean

Shannon-Weiner diversity index was 2.0 (SE ± 0.09).

The families Sterculiaceae and Fabaceae had the highest number of 5 species each. In

contrast, the least number of one species each was recorded for Annonaceae, Apocynaceae,

Bombacaceae, Caricaceae, Ebenaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae and Ulmaceae. In terms of

relative frequency and density, Sterculiaceae had the highest values of 49.0 followed by

Fabaceae and Annonaceae, Caricaceae, Rubiaceae and Ulmaceae had the least values of 4.86.

Relative dominance was highest for Sterculiaceae and least in Ulmaceae. Overall, the family

with the highest FIVI value was Sterculiaceae followed by Fabaceae whereas Ulmaceae had

the least FIVI value (Table 4).

With respect to species, Dracaena aborea had the highest relative frequency whereas Albizia

adianthifolia, Carica papaya, Chaectame aristata, Dracaena perrottettii, Millettia

thonningii, Monodora tenuifolia, Rothmania longiflora and Triplochiton sclerexylon were

least frequently encountered. In terms of density, Ceiba pentandra, Cola millenii and

Dracaena aborea had the highest values. Hildegardia barteri was observed to have the

largest IVI value whereas Albizia adianthifolia, Carica papaya, Chaectame aristata,

Dracaena perrottettii, Millettia thonningii, Monodora tenuifolia, Rothmania longiflora and

Triplochiton sclerexylon was observed to have the lowest IVI of 3.6 each (Table 5).


44

The DBH distribution pattern of trees showed an inverted J shape because individual trees

with smaller DBH were greater than those with large DBH in the study. The DBH

distribution of trees is presented in Fig. 5.

Fig.5 : DBH of tree species at different intervals.


45

Table 4: Family Importance Value Index of trees.

Family Family

Richness

Frequency

(%)

Relative

Frequency

Density

(m2)

Relative

Density

Diameter

(cm)

Basal

area (m2)

Dominance Relative

Dominance

Family

Importance

Value Index

Annonaceae 1 11.1 2.44 0.001 2.42 23.00 415.2 0.074 0.001 4.86

Apocynaceae 1 22.2 4.88 0.003 4.85 57.00 2552 0.454 0.011 9.73

Bombacaceae 1 77.8 17.1 0.011 17.0 392.0 1207 21.45 0.310 34.3

Caricaceae 1 11.1 2.44 0.001 2.42 36.00 1018 0.181 0.003 4.86

Dracaenaceae 2 77.8 17.1 0.011 17.0 116.0 1057 1.879 0.030 34.0

Ebenaceae 1 22.2 4.88 0.003 4.85 157.0 1936 3.442 0.050 9.78

Euphorbiaceae 2 33.3 7.32 0.004 7.27 136.0 1461 2.598 0.040 14.6

Fabaceae 5 55.6 12.2 0.555 841 501.0 1971 35.05 0.500 29.6

Moraceae 1 22.2 4.88 0.003 4.85 150.0 1767 3.142 0.050 9.77

Rubiaceae 1 11.1 2.44 0.001 2.42 19.00 283.5 0.050 0.001 4.86

Sterculiaceae 5 55.6 12.2 0.555 841 2249 3973 706.3 10.10 49.0

Ulmaceae 1 11.1 2.44 0.001 2.42 13.00 132.7 0.024 0.001 4.86


46

Table 5: Species abundance and Importance Value Index of Trees.

Species Frequency

(%)

Relative

Frequency

Diameter

(cm)

Density

(m2)

Relative

Density

Basal area

(m2)

Dominance Relative

Dominance

Species

Importance

Value

Index

Afzelia africana 55.6 8.93 367 0.556 8.93 1055 18.75 4.36 22.2

Albizia adianthifolia 11.1 1.79 15.0 0.111 1.79 176.6 0.031 0.01 3.60

Antiaris toxicaria 22.2 3.57 129 0.222 3.57 1302 2.315 0.53 7.70

Carica papaya 11.1 1.79 36.0 0.111 1.79 1017 0.180 0.04 3.60

Ceiba pentandra 66.7 10.7 392 0.667 10.7 1203 21.38 4.97 26.4

Chaectame aristata 11.1 1.79 13.0 0.111 1.79 132.7 0.023 0.01 3.60

Cola millenii 66.7 10.7 1024 0.667 10.7 8229 146.3 34.0 55.4

Crotun aubrevillei 11.1 1.79 19.2 0.111 1.79 289.4 0.051 0.01 3.60

Dialium guineense 22.2 3.57 102 0.222 3.57 8151 1.449 0.33 7.50

Diospyros abyssinica 33.3 5.36 157 0.333 5.36 1934 3.439 0.80 11.5


47

Table 5: (Cont'd)

Species Frequency

(%)

Relative

Frequency

Diameter

(cm)

Density

(m2)

Relative

Density

Basal area

(m2)

Dominance Relative

Dominance

Species

Importance

Value

Index

Dracaena aborea 66.7 10.7 71.8 0.667 10.71 4046 0.719 0.167 21.6

Dracaena perrottettii 11.1 1.79 44.4 0.111 1.79 1547 0.275 0.064 3.60

Drypetes parvifolia 22.2 3.57 26.8 0.222 3.57 563.8 0.100 0.023 7.20

Elaeophobia drupifera 22.2 3.57 90.6 0.222 3.57 6443 1.145 0.266 7.40

Hildegardia barteri 55.6 8.93 1195 0.556 8.93 1120 199.2 46.33 64.2

Hunteria ghanensis 22.2 3.57 56.5 0.222 3.57 2505 0.445 0.104 7.20

Hymenostygia afezelii 22.2 3.57 492 0.222 3.57 1900 33.79 7.858 15.0

Mansonia altissima 22.2 3.57 13.7 0.222 3.57 147.3 0.026 0.006 7.10

Millettia thonningii 11.1 1.79 32.0 0.111 1.79 803.8 0.142 0.033 3.60

Monodora tenuifolia 11.1 1.79 22.5 0.111 1.79 397.4 0.070 0.016 3.60

Rothmania longiflora 11.1 1.79 19.0 0.111 1.79 283.4 0.050 0.012 3.60

Sterculia tragacantha 22.2 3.57 20.0 0.222 3.57 314.0 0.055 0.013 7.20

Triplochiton sclerexylon 11.1 1.79 19.0 0.111 1.79 283.4 0.050 0.012 3.60


48

4.5 Ethnobotanical Studies

4.5.1 Social-economic background of informants

The 74 informants interviewed were between the ages of 20 to 80 years, 49were males and

25were females. The age categories, sex ratio, primary occupation of the informants are

presented in Fig. 6. A total number of 60 informants were married, 9 were single, 3 widows

and 2 were divorced.

(a)

Fig. 6: Socio-economic background shows (a) age categories; (b) sex

distribution and (c) primary occupation of informants in the study

area.

(b) (c)


49

4.6 Use Categories, Use-Value (UV) and Informant Consensus factor (Fic)

A total of 35 plant species were reported being used by informants. Nine species, namely,

Baphia nitida, Ceiba pentandra, Chassalia kolly, Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara,

Nauclea latifolia, Ritchiea reflexa, Teclea verdoorniana and Triplochiton scleroxylon were

recorded both in the plant diversity and ethnobotanical studies. On the other hand, the

following 12 species namely, Afraegle paniculata (Schumach. & Thonn.), Jatropha

gossipifolia L., Mangifera indica L., Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg, Paulina pinnataL.,

Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby, Sida acuta Burm.f., Solanum torvum Sw.,

Spondias mombin Jacq., Strophantus hispidus D.C., Swietenia macrophylla King and

Zanthoxylum xantholoides L. were not observed in the plant diversity study but were

mentioned by the informants during the interview.

The uses of the plants was grouped into five use-categories, namely; agricultural tools,

furniture, construction materials, food, fuelwood and medicine. The use category with the

highest number of taxa recorded was medicine whereas categories with the least number of

taxa mentioned was food and agriculture tool (Fig. 7). In terms of use-values (UV) for the 35

species, Swietenia macrophylla UV (2.0) has the highest value whereas Momordica

charantia UV (0.1) had the least value (Table 6).

The use of plant for medicine was observed to have the highest use report and ICF value,

followed by construction , fuelwood (Fig.8) furniture whereas food and agricultural tool had

the lowest use reports and ICF values. A high Fic value indicate a high use reports for a

particular use category while a low Fic value indicate low use reports for a use category

(Table 7).


50

Fig. 8: Plant parts collect for use in the proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve.

Fig. 7: Plant use category in the study area.


51

Table 6: List of plants used in communities around proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve

Species Family Local

names

Growth

form

Use

Category

Use

value

Part

used Uses

Afraegle paniculata

Rutaceae

Atimpo

Tree

M

1.0

Le

To treat pile and back pain

Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Kolebu Tree M 0.2 Ba, Le, Ro To treat malaria and fever

Baphia nitida Fabaceae Joun Climber M, Fd, A 0.4 Le, St To treat waist pain, for fuelwood, farm handles

Capparis erythrocarpus Cappparaceae Peti-peti Herb M 0.5 Le, Ro Pile and back pain

Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae Sepa Tree C 1.0 St For making of doors and windows

Chassalia kolly Rubiaceae Ekodibe Shrub M 0.5 Le, Ro For fever

Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Acheampong Herb M 0.2 Le To treat fatigue, measles and stomach ache

Gymnema sylvestres Apocynaceae Asamon Shrub M 1.0 Le, Ro To treat measles

Holarrhena floribunda Apocynaceae Osese Tree M, Fu 0.3 Le, Ro For waist pain, infertility in women, mortar and

pestle

Jatropha gossipifolia Euphorbiaceae Adatin Tree M 1.0 Le To treat fatigue

Lantana camara Verbenaceae Nbili-nbili Herb M 1.0 Le To treat swollen eyes

Keys: M - Medicine, Fd - Fuelwood, Fu - Furnitures, A - Agricultural tool, C - Construction, Le- Leaves, Ba - Stem bark, Ro-roots and St-Stem.


52

Table 6: (Cont'd)


names

Growth

form

Use

Category

Use

value

Part

used Uses

Lecaniodiscus cupaniodes Sapindaceae Ojujumaba Climber M 1.0 Le To treat broken bones

Mallotus oppositifolius Euphorbiaceae Satidua (male) Tree M 0.2 Ba, Ro, Le To treat menstrual pain and stomach ache

Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae - Tree M, F 0.5 Ba, Le To treat measles, fever and Food

Mezoneuron benthamianun Fabaceae Krokonso Herb M 1.0 Le For chest pain

Milicia excelsa Moraceae Odum Tree Fu, C 1.0 St For roofing, doors, windows, chairs and table

Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Yenye Herb M, Fu 0.1 Le, Ro, Ba To treat fever, stomach ache, roofing of

houses and for furnitures

Nauclea latifolia Rubiaceae Odanta Tree Fd, C 0.4 St For fuelwood and for roofing

Paulina pinnata Sapindaceae Twintin Herb M 0.3 Le, Ro To treat waist pain and fatigue

Ricinus cumminis Euphorbiaceae Adidankruma Tree M 0.5 Le To treat hiccups, measles

Ritchiea reflexa Cappparaceae Oputi nado Shrub M 0.3 Le, Ro For headache

Keys: M - Medicine, F - Food, Fd - Fuelwood, Fu - Furnitures, C - Construction, Le- Leaves, Ba - Stem bark, Ro-roots and St-Stem.



53

Keys: M - Medicine. Parts used: Le- Leaves, Ba - Stem Bark, Ro-roots and Fr-Fruits.

Table 6: (Cont'd)


names

Growth

form

Use

Category

Use

value

Part

used Uses

Securinega virosa Euphorbiaceae Kokobro Shrub M 0.3 Le To treat pile, back pain and fatigue

Senna siamea Caesalpinioideae Cassia Tree M 0.2 Le, Ba To pile, back pain, swollen eyes and malaria

Sida acuta Malvaceae Mofesan Herb M 0.2 Le, Ro For waist pain

Solanum erianthum Solanaceae Boyun Shrub M 1.0 Le, Ro For malaria

Solanum torvum Solanaceae Amajuradi Shrub M 0.5 Ro, Fr, Le To treat measles and back pain

Spondias mombin Anacardiaceae Afaba Tree M 0.2 Le To treat fatigue

Strophantus hispidus Apocynaceae Edupeyin Liana M 0.5 Le To treat headache

Swietenia macrophylla Meliaceae Mahogany Tree M 2.0 Fr, Ba, Le To treat fatigue

Teclea verdoorniana Rutaceae Osu punapu Tree M 0.5 Le, Ba For cold and fever

Tiliacora dielsiana Menispermaceae Oprofe Shrub M 0.2 Ro To treat stomach ache


54

Keys: M - Medicine, F - Food, A - Agricultural tool and C - Construction. Parts used: Le- Leaves, Ba - Stem bark, Ro-roots and St-Stem.

Table 6: (Cont'd)

Species Family

Local

names

Growth

form

Use

Category

Use

value

Part

used Uses

Triplochiton scleroxylon Sterculiaceae Wawa Tree A, F, C 0.3 St For roofing, doors, windows, chairs and table

Uvaria sp. Annonaceae Apotompo Shrub M 0.5 Le For waist pain

Vernonia cinerea Asteraceae - Herb M 1.0 Le To treat swollen eyes

Zanthoxylum xantholoides Rutaceae Cantum Tree M 0.3 Le, Ba, Ro To treat headache


55

4.6.1 Medicinal uses of plants

A total number of 31 species were recorded to treat seven ailment categories namely; Gastro-

intestinal ailment (5 species), Respiratory system disease (2 species), Skeleton-muscular

system disorders (3 species), Hemorrhoids (9 species), Genio-urinary ailments (2 species),

Infectious and parasitic diseases (5 species), Dermatological infections/diseases (6 species),

General health (2 species) and Musculoskeletal and connective tissue (1 species).

Afraegle paniculata, Baphia nitida, Capparis erythrocarpus, Chromolaena odorata,

Jatropha gossipifolia and Swietenia macrophylla and Paulina pinnata were used to treat

hermorrhoids (pile, back and waist pain), Azadirachta indica, Chassalia kolly and Mangifera

indica were used to treat infectious and parasitic disease (fever and malaria). Mallotus

opposifolius, Tiliacora dielsiana and Momordica charantia were used to treat Gastro-

intestinal ailment (Stomach ache and ulcer), Ritchiea reflexa, Zanthoxylum xantholoides and

Strophantus hispidus were used to treat skeleton-muscular system disorders (headache).

Ricinus cumminis, Chromolaena odorata and Solanum torvum were used to treat

Table 7: Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) for commonly used plants.

Use category Number of use

reports (Nur) % all species

Number of

taxa (Nt)

Informant Consensus

factor (Fic)

Agricultural tool 2 3.51 1 0.5

Food 2 3.51 1 0.5

Furniture 3 5.26 2 1.3

Fuelwood 7 12.3 2 5.7

Construction 9 15.8 3 7.7

Medicine 41 61.4 31 39.2


56

dermatological infections/diseases (measles). Mallotus oppositifolius was the only species

used to treat genio-urinary ailments (menustral pain and infertility). Mezoneuron

benthamianun and Teclea verdoorniana are used to treat respiratory system disease (cold).

Azadirachta indica and carica papaya was used to treat general health (Table 9).


57

Table 8: Medicinal plants used in communities around proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve

Species

Local names Habit Use value Part used Use

Afraegle paniculata

Atimpo Tree 1.0 Leaves To treat pile and back pain

Azadirachta indica

Kolebu Tree 0.2 Stem bark, leaves and roots To treat malaria and fever

Baphia nitida

Joun Climber 0.4 Leaves and Stem To treat waist pain and fatigue

Capparis erythrocarpus

Peti-peti Herb 0.5 Leaves and roots Pile and back pain

Chassalia kolly

Ekodibe Shrub 0.5 Leaves and roots For fever

Chromolaena odorata

Acheampong Herb 0.2 Leaves To treat fatigue, measles and stomach ache

Gymnema sylvestres

Asamon Shrub 1.0 Leaves and roots To treat measles

Holarrhena floribunda

Osese Tree 0.3 Leaves and roots For waist pain, infertility in women

Jatropha gossipifolia

Adatin Tree 1.0 Leaves To treat fatigue

Lantana camara

Nbili-nbili Herb 1.0 Leaves To treat swollen eyes

Lecaniodiscus cupaniodes

Ojujumaba Climber 1.0 Leaves To treat broken bones

Mallotus oppositifolius

Satidua (male) Tree 0.2 Stem bark, roots and leaves To treat menstrual pain and stomach ache


58

Table 8: (Cont'd)

Species

Local names Habit Use value Part used Use

Mangifera indica

Mango Tree 0.5 Stem bark and leaves To treat measles and fever

Mezoneuron benthamianun

Krokonso Herb 1.0 Leaves For chest pain

Momordica charantia

Yenye Herb 0.1 Leaves, roots and stem bark To treat fever, stomach ache, measles,

Paulina pinnata

Twintin Herb 0.3 Leaves and root To treat waist pain and fatigue

Ricinus cumminis

Adidankruma Tree 0.5 Leaves To treat hiccups, measles

Ritchiea reflexa

Oputi nado Shrub 0.3 Leaves and roots For headache

Securinega virosa

Kokobro Shrub 0.3 Leaves To treat pile, back pain and fatigue

Senna siamea

Cassia Tree 0.2 Leaves and stem bark To pile, back pain, swollen eyes and malaria

Sida acuta

Mofesan Herb 0.2 Leaves and roots For waist pain

Solanum erianthum

Boyun Shrub 1.0 Leaves and roots For malaria

Solanum torvum

Amajuradi Shrub 0.5 Roots, fruits and leaves To treat measles and back pain

Spondias mombin

Afaba Tree 0.2 Leaves To treat fatigue


59

Table 8: (Cont'd)

Species

Local names Habit Use Category Use value Part used Use

Strophantus hispidus

Edupeyin Liana Medicine 0.5 Leaves To treat headache

Swietenia macrophylla

Mahogany Tree Medicine 2.0 Fruit, stem bark, leaves For strength

Teclea verdoorniana

Osu punapu Tree Medicine 0.5 Leaves and stem bark For cold and fever

Tiliacora dielsiana

Oprofe Shrub Medicine 0.2 Roots To treat stomach ache

Uvaria sp.

Apotompo Shrub Medicine 0.5 Leaves For waist pain

Vernonia cinerea

- Herb Medicine 1.0 Leaves To treat swollen eyes

Zanthoxylum xantholoides

Cantum Tree Medicine 0.3 Leaves, Stem bark and roots To treat headache


60

Table 9: Informant Consensus factor for medicinal plants

Ailment Categories Number of

reports

Number of taxa

(Nt)

Informant Consensus

factor (Fic)

Gastro-intestinal ailment (GIA) 21 5 19.8

Respiratory system disease (RSD) 3 2 1.33

Skeleton-muscular system disorders (SMSD) 10 3 8.7

Hemorrhoids (HEM) 13 9 11.3

Genio-urinary ailments(GUA) 4 2 2.5

Infectious and parasitic disease 9 5 7.44

Dermatological infections/diseases(DID) 5 6 2.8

General health(GH) 9 2 7.78

Musculoskeletal and connective tissue 4 1 2.75

4.6.2 Plant parts and use-categories

Generally, leaves were the most common plant part used , followed by roots then stem bark,

stem and fruit ( Fig. 9). Plant parts and the relationships with use-categories are presented in

Table 10. In terms of plant parts used for medicine, leaves had the highest use report followed

by roots and then stems, barks (Fig.10) and fruits were the least reported for construction and

fuelwood purposes stem were used. In terms of agricultural tool, 2 use report was recorded

for Stem. The least use report was recorded for food.


61

Fig. 10 : Harvesting of the stem bark of Swietenia macrophylla in the study area.

Fig. 9: Plant parts used by informant in the study area.


62

4.7 Relationships between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use

Data on useful plant species per plot and vegetation types in relation to species abundance

and richness are presented in Tables 11 and 12. The results of the correlation analysis showed

significant relationship (p > 0.05) between plant diversity and number of overall useful plants

as well as medicinal plants (Fig. 11). However, there were no significant relationships

between vegetation type and plant use (Table 13).

Table 10: Relationship between use categories and plant parts used

Use category Leaves Root Stem Bark Stem Fruit

Food 0 0 0 0 1

Medicine 30 14 8 0 1

Construction 0 0 0 3 0

Fuelwood 0 0 0 3 0

Furniture 0 0 0 0 0

Agricultural tool 0 0 0 2 0


63

Table 11: Relationship between plant diversity and ethnobotanical uses per plot

Plant diversity Ethnobotanical use

Plot Species richness Species abundance Number of

useful plant

Number of

medicinal plants

1 43 46 8 6

2 46 50 7 6

3 43 45 8 6

4 30 30 7 5

5 34 37 6 6

6 24 25 2 2

7 25 26 6 6

8 26 27 5 4

9 10 11 1 1

Table 12: Relationship between plant diversity and ethnobotanical uses per vegetation type

Plant diversity Ethnobotanical use

Vegetation types Species

richness

Species

abundance

Number of

useful plant

Number of

medicinal plants

Open canopy forest 46 57 9 8

Closed canopy forest 69 164 9 7

Seasonal flooded forest 43 45 8 6

Thicket 30 30 7 6


64

Table 13: Results of correlation analysis between plant diversity study and ethnobotanical use

Plant diversity Ethnobotanical use Correlation (r, p-value)

Species richness Number of useful plants r = 0.82, p = 0.1847

Species richness Number of medicinal plants r = 0.43, p = 0.5709

Species abundance Number of useful plants r = 0.67, p = 0.3323

Species abundance Number of medicinal plants r = 0.32, p = 0.6804


65

Fig. 11: A relationship graph of plant diversity and useful plant within plots

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

r = 0.87

p = 0.002 r = 0.82

p = 0.007

r = 0.84

p = 0.004

r = 0.81

p = 0.008

Spe

cie

s ri

chn

ess

pe

r p

lot

Spe

cie

s ri

chn

ess

pe

r p

lot

Spe

cie

s ab

un

dan

ce p

er p

lot

Spe

cie

s ab

un

dan

ce p

er p

lot


66

A high percentage of informants collected plant resources from the proposed Apra Hills

Forest Reserve once per week, followed by informants who visited monthly. Others collected

plant resources on daily and irregularly basis while very few collect plant parts once per year

(Fig. 12). Informant also collected plant materials for use from other areas outside the

proposed reserve.

In terms of threats to plants, several informants mentioned bushfire (18.9 %), inadequate rain

(10.8 %) and application of excess agrochemicals (2.7 %), other factors were illegal logging

(Fig. 13) overharvesting and climate change.

Fig. 12: Collection of plant resources by informants in the study area.


67

Fig. 13 : Photograph showing evidence of illegal logging in proposed Apra Hills

Forest Reserve.


68

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 DISCUSSION

5.1 Plant diversity

The proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve falls within the Southern Marginal (SM) forest type

in Ghana (Hall and Swaine, 1981). This forest type has suffered from continuous

anthropogenic pressure such as illegal logging, collection of plant part for medicinal uses and

fuelwood. Conservation wise, most of the plant species in the study area were not of priority.

. Hunteria ghanensis which was rated as an endangered species. These species needs special

protection in the reserve. Other species including Afzelia africana, Alafia sp., Albizia

ferruginea, Nesogordonia papaverifera rated as vulnerable should also be protected.

In this study, Hildergardia barteri and Cola millenii were the most predominant species

recorded. According to Hall and Swaine (1981) these tree species are mostly predominant

species in the Southern Marginal forest Ghana. In contrast, compared to the Moist semi-

deciduous forest species such as Celtis mildbraedii, Triplochiton scleroxylon and

Nesogordonia papaverifera are most predominant (Obeng et al. 2009).

Species accumulation curve did not flattened and this indicates that more species would have

been discovered with increased sampling. Indeed the number of species expected was 1163

(S.E ± 15.1) showing that more could have been discovered with increased sampling. In

relation to families, Fabaceae had the highest number of individuals and species as

documented for forest ecosystem. According to Powers et al. (2009), four families namely,

Apocynaceae, Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae are the most species rich families in all the forest

blocks.


69

The inventory of plants showed that tree species had the highest population, which is a

typical feature of a forest vegetation. Shrubs and herbaceous species including grasses are

uncommon in forests. The current study confirms the work of other authors that trees

constitute the predominant growth forms in forests (Vordzogbe et al., 2005; Anning et al.,

2008; Addo-Fordjour et al., 2009b).

In relation to trees diversity, abundance and distribution, mean Shannon-Weiner diversity

index was low compared to those recorded for other forest areas. For example Murali et al.

(1996) recorded mean Shannon diversity value of 2.0 in the tropics and Lucky et al. (2010),

recorded Shannon-Weiner index value of 2.2 in dry semi-deciduous forest. The commonest

genera recorded in the area was Hildergardia belonging to Sterculiaceae was recorded with

the highest FIVI value and Ulmaceae had the least value. This result is similar to Lucky et al.

(2010), who found Euphorbiaceae and Sterculiaceae with the highest number of species.

The results of study in terms of DBH distribution pattern showed resemblance with

observation made by Okali and Ola-Adams (1987). Both studies showed that greater number

of trees are of smaller DBH than trees of larger DBH.

5.2 Ethnobotanical use

Documentation of plant diversity and preserving indigenous knowledge are fundamental

urgent issues to be accomplished due to the huge loss of plant diversity (Cunningham, 1996)

According to Haimanot (2010), the usage of plants usually relate to peoples conceptualization

of the importance of plants.


70

With respect to plant use value in this study, Swietenia macrophylla was highly used

especially for medicine, whereas Momordica charantia was least used by the local people.

Abbiw (1990), recorded that Swietenia macrophylla is an important species used for building

purposes and for making furniture. Thus, Swietenia macrophylla could be highly exploited

besides its medicinal values, and thus need to be protected.

In terms of ICF of use categories, medicine had the highest value, followed by construction,

fuelwood, furniture while food and agricultural tool had the least values. High ICF indicate

consistency of the informant knowledge in the plants being used (Heinrich, 1998). This result

is in agreement with previous studies (Mohammed, 2014; Prod, 2014), in medicine had a

high ICF value of 0.95 and 0.60, respectively. For medicinal use, gastro-intestinal ailments

had the highest ICF value whereas Respiratory system disease had the least ICF value. The

high ICF value for gastro-intestinal ailment could be that this ailment category is common in

the study area and there is a good knowledge among informants about plants for treating

ailments in this category. A study by Frei et al., (1998) showed gastro-intestinal ailment

category to have a low ICF value of 0.15. In another study, Gondar et al. (2012) found that

infectious and parasitic disease had the highest ICF value.

Result obtained in terms of plant parts used in this study showed that leaves of trees had the

highest use reports whereas fruits had the least use report. According to Magurran (1988),

leaves had the highest use report by the informants in Southern Ghana. Similarly, Asase et al.

(2010) and Lulekal et al. (2008), reported that fresh leaves were the most common plant part

used in studies. In a study in Uganda, harvesting leaves for use has less impact on plant

species (Ssegawa and Kasenene, 2007).


71

5.3 Relationship between plant diversity and ethnobotanical use

The results of the correlation analysis showed that plant diversity was related to

ethnobotanical use. This results is similiar to that of Reyes-garcía et al. (2005) that found a

statistically significant relation between individual ethnobotanical knowledge and

consumption of plants. Despite the fact that the closed canopy forest contained more plants

than the seasonal flooded forest and thicket vegetation number of useful plants was not

related to the vegetation types. This means that the entire vegetation in the study area is

useful ethnobotanicaly to the people.

The high frequencies indicated that the people collect plants from the proposed reserve and

this means that the proposed reserve is an important source of their livelihood. In a study

carried out in Wechian Hippotamus Sanctuary of Ghana a similar result was found Asase

and Oteng-Yeboah, (2012). There is a need to regulate collection of plants materials from the

reserve in order to ensure that plants are not overharvested.

The factors cited which threatens plant conservation in this study are similar to the work of

Pereira et al. (2001) and Lulekal et al. (2008), which showed that agricultural expansion,

overgrazing, drought, collection of charcoal and fuelwood, bush burning, illegal logging and

are directly responsible for poor conservation of plants in the area. Darko (2012), also

recorded that illegal logging, wild fire and urbanization were mentioned as the major sources

of threats to plant availability. According to Afua (2011), threats to forests in Ghana is due to

population density of the communities located around the area.


72

CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusions

The following conclusions may be drawn from the study;

i. The proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve contain high diversity of plants. Although the

majority of the species of plant are of little conservation concern, few of the species

have been categorized as endangered and vulnerable and needs special protection.

ii. The proposed reserve contain significant number of species characteristics of the

Southern outliner vegetation type in Ghana and the establishment of the area as a

formal Forest Reserve will ensure that the species are protected.

iii. The communties living around the proposed reserve depends on the plants in the area

for the sources of livelihood especially their primary health care. The local people

should therefore be given regulated permits to continue to use the resources when the

place is formally established as a reserve.

iv. The study has showed that significant relationship exist between plant diversity and

ethnobotanical use. However, plant use and vegetation type are not related.

v. The plant resources in the proposed reserve are threatened by a number of factors

such as bushfires, fuelwood collection, charcoal production and other anthropogenic

activities.


73

6.2 Recommendations

i. Further inventory of plants should be carried out in the area in order to eventually

capture all species present there. In doing so, new or endangered species maybe

identified which might be relevant to conservation of proposed Apra Hills Forest

Reserve.

ii. Carbon stock of the trees and soil characteristics present in the proposed Apra Hills

Forest Reserve should be studied. This will increase the value of the reserve in terms

of the need for conservation of its species.

iii. Communities around the proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve should be encouraged to

use gas and electricity instead of fuelwood which causes depletion of the forest.

iv. There is a need to raise public awareness about the importance of plant diversity in

the proposed Forest Reserve. Such awareness can be created through teaching in

communities, schools, rural and urban events and documentaries.

v. The Forestry Commission Winneba District, Ghana should take necessary steps to

ensure sustainably forest management of proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve in order

to avoid loss of biodiversity.

vi. The local people should be granted access into proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve

for collection of plants on specific periods for regulated quantities only. The local

people should be encouraged to cultivate plants such as Azadirachta indica,

Chromolaena odorata, Baphia nitida, Momordica charantia, Lecaniodiscus


74

cupaniodes, Swietenia macrophylla and Zanthoxylum xantholoides that are commonly

used in their home gardens and farms. This measure will help control the exploitation

of plant resources in proposed Apra Hills Forest Reserve in southern Ghana.


75

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88

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Data collection sheet for plant inventory

Date : ........../........../.............

dd / mm / yyyy

Data Collectors:.....................................

..............................................................

..............................................................

..............................................................

Plot Code: .............................................

GPS Coordinates :.................................

Geology:………………………………......

Slope:……………………………………...

Aspect:………………………………….....

Altitude:……………………………….......

Other:...........................................................

....................................................................

S/N VOUCHER

NO.

SPECIES NOTES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.


89

APPENDIX 2

Appendix 2: Data collection sheet for tree enumeration

Date : ........../........../.............

dd / mm / yyyy

Data Collectors:.....................................

..............................................................

..............................................................

..............................................................

Plot Code: .............................................

GPS Coordinates :.................................

Geology:………………………………….

Slope:…………………………………......

Aspect:…………………………………....

Altitude:………………………………......

Other:.........................................................

...................................................................

S/N SPECIES DBH (cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.


90

APPENDIX 3

Appendix 3: Diversity and Ethnobotanical Uses of Plants in Apra Hills Proposed Forest

Reserve in Southern Ghana

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Botany,

University of Legon, Ghana. Please tick the appropriate box and fill in the gaps where

necessary

Name of Student: Adeoye Adeniyi Date:___________________

Bio-data of informant

1. Name of informant:

2. Age (years):

3. Sex: Male [ ], Female [ ]

4. Marital status: Married [ ], Divorced [ ], Separated [ ], Single [ ]

5. Educational background: None [ ], Primary school [ ], Secondary [ ],

Tertiary [ ], Others (Specify) __________________

6. Primary Occupation: __________________________

7. Name of Community: _________________________

8. Household number: ___________________________

Use of Forest Resources

9. Do you collect plants from Apra forest reserve: Yes [ ], No [ ]

10. How often do you collect plants from the forest? Daily [ ], Once per week [ ],

Monthly [ ], Once per year; [ ] Irregular / as and when ___________________

11. Mention the plants you collect and their uses/economic importance

A. Timber [ ], B. Medicine [ ], C. Firewood [ ], D. Furniture [ ], E. Craft [ ],

F. Fodder [ ], G. Food [ ], H. Construction [ ], I. Oil. Dye and spices [ ],

J. Fencing [ ], K. Tools [ ], L. Magic [ ] M. For other purposes (specify below)

_____________________


91

12. Specify names of plants, parts and how used

Species Parts How used Frequency of

Collection Once?

weekly? or

monthly?

Species/ Voucher # Local Name Uses


92

Wild Medicines from forest

13. Which do you prefer: Herbal medicine [ ], Orthodox [ ]

14. Do you know how to prepare any herbal medicine: Yes [ ], No [ ]

15. What diseases can you treat with your knowledge of herbal medicine? A. Headache [ ],

B. Fever [ ], C. Malaria [ ], D. Impotency [ ], E. Infertility [ ], F. Pile and

Back pain [ ], G. insomnia [ ], H. Stomach ache [ ], I. Ulcer [ ] J. Fatigue [ ]

16. Specify name of plants used for the above

Ailments Names of plant

Parts How used

Headache

Fever

Malaria

Impotency

Infertility

Pile and

back pain

Insomnia

Stomach

ache

Ulcer

Fatigue

19. What volume of plant parts do you collect?

A. Low [ ], B. Moderate [ ], C. A lot [ ]


93

Conservation of plants

20. Names of plants that you use that is becoming rare / threatened in the area

21. List factors that threaten plants e.g. bush fires, overharvesting etc

22. Do you also collect the same plants from elsewhere? List plants and other places you

collect from?


94

APPENDIX 4

Appendix 4: Species, families and Growth form sampled in plot 1

Altitude = 81m, Aspect = East-North, Vegetation type = Open canopy and GPS Coordinate =

N05.53202°, W000.50760°

Species Family Growth form

Acridocarpus longifolius Malpighiaceae Tree

Aerangis biloba Orchidaceae Epiphyte

Alafia sp. Apocynaceae Liana

Antiaris toxicaria Moraceae Tree

Artabotrys insignis Annonaceae Liana

Asystacia sp. Acanthaceae Herb

Baissea zygodioides Apocynaceae Liana

Carpolobia lutea Polygalaceae Shrub

Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae Tree

Celtis wightii Ulmaceae Tree

Chassalia kolly Rubiaceae Shrub

Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Herb

Cissus arguta Vitaceae Climber

Cissus sp. Vitaceae Liana

Cola millenii Sterculiaceae Tree

Dialium guineensis Fabaceae Tree

Dichapetalum sp. Menispermaceae Liana

Digitaria insularis Gramineae Herb

Dracaena aborea Dracaenaceae Tree


95

Appendix 4: (Cont'd)


N05.53202°, W000.50760°


Drypetes parvifolia Euphorbiaceae Shrub

Elaephorbia drupifera Euphorbiaceae Tree

Elytaria marginata Acanthaceae Herb

Erythrococca anomala Euphorbiaceae Shrub

Erythroxylum emarginatum Erythroxylaceae Tree

Ficus exasperata Moraceae Tree

Graptophyllum pictum Acanthaceae Shrub

Grewia megalocarpa Tiliaceae Shrub

Griffonia simiplicifolia Fabaceae Shrub

Hildegardia barteri Sterculiaceae Tree

Hypselodelphys violacea Marantaceae Tree

Landolphia macratha Apocynaceae Climber

Lantana camara Verbenaceae Herb

Mallotus opposifolius Euphorbiaceae Shrub

Millettia thonningi Fabaceae Tree

Millettia zechiana Fabaceae Tree

Monodora tenuifolia Annonaceae Tree

Pellaea doniana Adiantaceae Shrub

Ritchiea reflexa Capparaceae Shrub

Salacia sp. Celastraceae Shrub

Sanseviera liberica Dracaenaceae Herb


96

Appendix 4: (Cont'd):


N05.53202°, W000.50760°.


Strophantus gratus Apocynaceae Shrub

Talinum triangularis Talinaceae Herb

Teclea verdoorniana Rutaceae Tree

Tiliacora dielsiana Menispermaceae Shrub

Tragia sp. Euphorbiaceae Tree

Uvaria globusa Annonaceae Shrub

Undetermined Unidentified Tree


97

APPENDIX 5


Altitude = 67m, Aspect = None, Vegetation type = Open canopy and GPS

Coordinate = N05.53414°, W000.50574°.


Abrus precatorius Fabaceae Climber

Achyranthes bidentata Amaranthaceae Tree


Afzelia africana Fabaceae Tree

Alafia sp. Apocynaceae Shrub

Albizia adianthifolia Mimosaceae Shrub

Albizia zygia Mimosaceae Tree

Artabotrys insignis Annonaceae Tree

Baissea zygodioides Apocynaceae Shrub

Baphia nitida Fabaceae Climber

Bulbophyllum phaeopogon Orchidaceae Shrub

Callichilia subsessilis Apocynaceae Tree

Calyptrochilum emarginatum Orchidaceae Herb

Capparis sp. Rutaceae Tree

Carpolobia lutea Polygalaceae Tree

Celtis mildbraedii Ulmaceae Tree


Chassalia kolly Rubiaceae Tree

Chromolaena odorata Compositae Shrub

Cissus arguta Vitaceae Tree



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commelinaceae

98


Altitude = 67m, Aspect = None, Vegetation type = Open canopy and GPS Coordinate =

N05.53414°, W000.50574°.


Clerodendrum capitatum Verbanaceae Shrub

Cola millenii Sterculiaceae Shrub

Cyathula prostrata Amaranthaceae Herb


Diospyros abyssinica Ebenaceae Tree

Diospyros kamerunensis Ebenaceae Shrub

Dracaena arborea Dracaenaceae Shrub

Dracaena surculosa Dracaenaceae Tree

Drypetes parvifolia Euphorbiaceae Tree

Floscopa sp. Commelinaceae Shrub

Gardenia nitida Rubiaceae Tree


Griffonia simplicifolia Fabaceae Tree

Hunteria ghanensis Apocynaceae Shrub

Hypselodelphys violacea Marantaceae Herb

Lecaniodiscus cupaniodes Sapindaceae Climber

Mallotus opposifolius Euphorbiaceae Tree

Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Shrub


Nesogordonia papaverifera Sterculiaceae Liana



99


Altitude = 67m, Aspect = None, Vegetation type = Open canopy and GPS Coordinate =

N05.53414°, W000.50574°.


Oplismenus hirtellus Gramineae Shrub

Pouteria alnifolia Sapotaceae Liana

Ritchiea reflexa Capparaceae Tree

Rothmannia longiflora Rubiaceae Epiphyte

Rothmannia urcelliformis Rubiaceae Tree

Sorindeia jugladifolia Anacardiaceae Shrub

Sterculia tragacantha Sterculiaceae Herb

Tragia sp. Euphorbiaceae Shrub

Trichilia prieureana Meliaceae Herb

Vigna radiata Fabaceae Shrub

Undetermined Celastraceae Liana

Undetermined Apocynaceae Climber

Undetermined Acanthaceae Shrub

Undetermined Celastraceae Herb


Undetermined Unidentified Shrub

Undetermined Unidentified Liana

Undetermined Unidentified Herb

Undetermined Unidentified Herb


100

APPENDIX 6


Altitude = 51m, Aspect = South-East, Vegetation type = Seasonal flooded forest and GPS

Coordinate = N05.53867°, W000.50567°.





Albizia adianthifolia Mimosaceae Tree

Albizia zygia Mimosaceae Tree



Baissea multiflora Apocynaceae Shrub

Baphia nitida Fabaceae Shrub

Blighia sapida Sapindaceae Tree

Canthium cornelia Rubiaceae Shrub

Carpolobia lutea Polygalaceae Shrub




Chaetacme aristata Ulmaceae Tree


Undetermined Apocynaceae Tree




101



Coordinate = N05.53867°, W000.50567°.




Deinbollia pinnata Sapindaceae Tree


Dicapetallum sp. Dichapetalaceae Liana





Flagelaria guineense Flagellariaceae Liana



Lecaniodiscus cupaniodes Sapindaceae Shrub


Mansonia altissima Sterculiaceae Tree

Millettia chrysophylla Fabaceae Tree


Nesogordonia papaverifera Sterculiaceae Tree

Olyra latifolia Gramineae Herb

Rothmannia longiflora Rubiaceae Shrub


102



Coordinate = N05.53867°, W000.50567°.


Sorindeia jugladifolia Sapindaceae Shrub

Strychnos icaja Loganiaceae Liana

Synsepalum sp. Sapotaceae Tree


Trichilia prieureana Meliaceae Tree

Triplochiton scleroxylon Sterculiaceaae Tree

Turraea heterophylla Meliaceae Shrub


103

APPENDIX 7


Altitude = 79m, Aspect = West-South, Vegetation type = Thicket

and GPS Coordinate = N05.54188°,W000.50384°.


Adenia lobata Passifloraceae Liana

Albizia zygia Fabaceae Tree

Alchornea cordifolia Euphorbiaceae Tree



Carica papaya Caricaceae Tree




Deinbollia pinnata Sapindaceae Tree




Griffonia simplicifolia Fabaceae Shrub


Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Sapindaceae Shrub

Marantochloa leucantha Marantaceae Herb


104


Altitude = 79m, Aspect = West-South, Vegetation type = Thicket

and GPS Coordinate = N05.54188°,W000.50384°.


Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Herb

Nauclea pobeguinii Rubiaceae Tree



Panicum maximum Gramineae Herb

Parquetina nigrescens Ascelpidaceae Liana


Solanium erianthum Solanaceae Shrub


Triplochiton scleroxylon Sterculiaceae Tree


105

APPENDIX 8


Altitude = 79m, Aspect = West-South, vegetation type = Closed canopy

forest and GPS Coordinate = N05.54188°,W000.50384°.


Acacia kamerunensis Mimosaceae Tree


Aninigeria altissima Sapotaceae Tree





Blighia sapida Sapindaceae Tree



Cissus diffusiflora Vitaceae Climber











106


Altitude = 79m, Aspect = West-South, vegetation type = Closed canopy forest and GPS

Coordinate = N05.54188°,W000.50384°.


Hilleria latifolia Phytolaccaceae Herb

Hunteria ghanansis Apocynaceae Tree

Hymenostygia afezelii Fabaceae Tree






Salacighia letestuana Celastraceae Liana

Solanum enriathum Solanaceae Shrub

Sterculia tragacantha Sterculiaceae Tree



Triplochiton scleroxylon Sterculiaceae Tree

Uvaria globusa Annonoceae Shrub

Vigna radiata Fabaceae Shrub

Undetermined Fabaceae Climber


107

APPENDIX 9


Altitude = 80m, Aspect = South-West, vegetation type = Closed canopy forest and GPS

Coordinate = N05.541589°, W000.50192°.



Acacia pennata Mimosaceae Tree










Drypetes parvifolia Euphorbiaceae Tree



Ficus exasperata Myrtaceae Tree





Manilkara obovata Sapotaceae Tree


108

Appendix 9: (Cont'd):

Altitude = 80m, Aspect = South-West, vegetation type = Closed canopy forest and GPS

Coordinate = N05.541589°, W000.50192°.








109

APPENDIX 10


Altitude = 93m, Aspect = North-East, Vegetation type = Closed canopy and

GPS Co. = N05.54714°, W000.50080°.






Chaetacme aristata Ulmaceae Tree






Drypetis parvifolia Euphorbiaceae Shrub




Hunteria ghanensis Apocynaceae Tree



Manilkara obovata Sapotaceae Tree




110

Appendix 10: `(Cont'd)

Altitude = 93m, Aspect = North-East, Vegetation type = Closed canopy and GPS Co. =

N05.54714°, W000.50080°.



Pouteria alnifolia Sapotaceae Tree


Sterculia tragacantha Sterculiaceae Tree




111

APPENDIX 11


Altitude = 80m, Aspect = North-East, Vegetation type = Closed canopy and

GPS Coordinate = N05.54642°, W000.54643°.




Bassia multiflora Apocynaceae Shrub




Cissus quadrangularis Vitaceae Herb









Hymenostygia afezelii Fabaceae Tree



112


Altitude = 80m, Aspect = North-East, Vegetation type = Closed canopy and GPS Coordinate

= N05.54642°, W000.54643°.






Sorindeia jugladifolia Anacardiaceae Shrub

Tragia sp. Euphorbiaceae Tree

Uvaria globusa Annonaceae Tree


113

APPENDIX 12


Altitude = 125m, Aspect = North-West, Open canopy veg. type and GPS

Coordinate = N05.54570°, W000.50084°.



Canthium sarcocarpum Rubiaceae Herb

Cissus arguta Vitaceae Shrub



Hildergadia barteri Sterculiaceae Tree


Millettia chrysophylla Fabaceae Tree



Uvaria globusa Annonaceae Tree


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