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Diversification Gains and Systematic Risk Exposure in International Public Real Estate Markets Marielle Apisara Chuangdomrongsomsuk and Colin Lizieri (*) Department of Land Economy University of Cambridge 19 Silver Street Cambridge CB25 9AD Paper for the European Real Estate Society Conference, Vienna Version of 26 June 2013 Please contact authors for latest version (*) contact author: [email protected]

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Page 1: Diversification Gains and Systematic Risk International ...library.eres.org/eres2013/paperupload/298.pdf · 1 Diversification Gains and Systematic Risk Exposure in International Public

  

   

Diversification Gains and Systematic Risk Exposure in International Public Real Estate Markets 

  

Marielle Apisara Chuangdomrongsomsuk and Colin Lizieri (*)  

Department of Land Economy University of Cambridge 

19 Silver Street Cambridge CB25 9AD 

 Paper for the European Real Estate Society Conference, Vienna 

 Version of 26 June 2013 

 Please contact authors for latest version 

   

 

(*) contact author: [email protected] 

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Diversification Gains and Systematic Risk Exposure in International Public Real Estate Markets  

Abstract We test whether the diversification benefits of international real estate securities depend on how  integrated  or  independent  the  firms  and  countries  are  at  global  or  regional  level. Applying  a  variety  of  techniques,  we  separate  property  securities  into  cointegrated  and independent portfolios and test the performance and factor sensitivities of these groups, first at  national  level  and  then  separately  at  individual  sector  level  and  for  firms  with  high exposure  to  global  cities.  The  results  confirm  the  importance  of  cointegration,  but  also demonstrate that there are sharp differences across sectors. Investors should fine tune their portfolio selection strategies to account for these differences.   Keywords:  International Real Estate Securities, Portfolio Risk Management, Regional 

Cointegration, Sector Effects.  1. Diversification and Cointegration in Real Estate Markets: An Introduction  

In this paper, we re‐examine the benefits of holding a portfolio of  international real estate securities  in  the  light  of  evidence  of  growing  co‐movement  of  securitised  asset  returns across markets. Do diversification benefits depend on how  integrated or  independent  the firms and countries are at global or regional  level? Specifically, can more risk reduction be achieved  through  holding  international  diversified  investments  in markets  that  are  less dominated by global  real estate  factors?  If  so,  is  it possible  to  identify  the extent of  this effect,  hence  informing  global  investor  strategy,  particularly  in  the  light  of  a  growing integration within global  securities markets? This  task  is given  further  significance by  the events of the global financial crisis, where correlation between markets (and asset classes) appeared to increase rapidly precisely when diversification would have been most valuable.  The  paper  adopts  a  long  run  focus  and  develops  studies  such  as  those  of  Wilson  & Zurbruegg  (2003b),  Gerlach  et  al.  (2006)  and  Gallo  &  Zhang  (2010)  in  focussing  on  the cointegration between markets. Utilising data from GPR’s international real estate company database,  we  extend  that  work  in  seeking  to  identify  the  sources  of  difference  and  in investigating  the  impact of cointegration on  the sensitivity of asset returns  to  factor risks. We aggregate  individual company returns  to produce value weighted national  indices and then disaggregate the data to focus on individual sectors and on companies that have a high exposure to international gateway cities and financial centres to test whether such firms are more influenced by global capital market factors.    We capture cointegration using a variety of techniques, taking into account the possibility of structural breaks in the data. From these tests, we produce two portfolios of “cointegrated” and “independent”  indices and assess whether they differ  in terms of risk‐adjusted return. We examine Sharpe  ratios and  sensitivity  to  systematic  risk, using a  range of multi‐factor models,  and  decompose  portfolio  risk  using  a  Fama‐Macbeth  approach  testing  for differences  in  risk  sensitivity  and  volatility.  The  results  indicate  substantial  differences  in factor  sensitivity  and  risk between  the  cointegrated  and  independent portfolios  although benefits from risk sensitivity may be offset by lower aggregate performance. We re‐examine 

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the  results  for different  time periods and  for  sector‐specific  company  indices and,  finally, examine  the  results  for  companies  focussed  in global  financial centres. Differences  in  the results shed light on the sources of integration and systematic risk.   We begin with a brief review of the literature on the long run integration of real estate securities. We then outline our modelling approach and set out the data series used. We report results, first in aggregate and then separately by sector and for companies with high exposure to global cities. Finally, we discuss our results and point to policy implications.     2. International Real Estate Diversification: A Review of the Literature  Since  the  seminal papers of Grubel  (1968) and Solnik  (1974), academic  research provides evidence  of  diversification  gains  from  the  creation  of  international  equity  investment portfolios.  Correlation  analysis  between  different  international  asset  classes  became  an important  tool  for  making  inferences  about  the  presence  of  diversification  benefits. However, subsequent studies pointed to the limitations of correlation coefficients since the degree of correlation between any  two markets can be associated with either country or industry  factors. Accordingly,  researchers developed methods  to decompose  international equity returns  to examine  the most  important  factors. Earlier papers generally  found  that country  effects  had  greater  impacts  on  returns  than  industry  effects.  Heston  and Rouwenhorst (1994)  implemented a multi‐factor approach to  isolate and measure country and  industry  effects,  and  found  country  effects  to  be more  important  drivers  of  return volatility.  They  thus  suggest  that more  risk  reduction  can  be  achieved  through  investing across different countries. These findings were supported by Griffin and Karolyi (1998), who extend  the HR model  to  include a weighting  for  the  relative market value of equity  for a country and industry.  Since  the  late 1990s, however,  a number of  studies  report  the  industry‐sector  factors  to have overtaken the country‐region factors in explaining many major equity returns. Van Dijk and Keijzer (2004) decomposed region, industry‐sector, size and value or growth factors for global equities, and argued  that  region and  industry‐sector  factors   more  important  than other  factors  between  1987  and  2002,  They  also  found  evidence  of  the  increasing importance of  industry‐sector effects  relative  to  country effects, especially  in  the  second half  of  the  sample  period.1  However,  these  results  have  recently  been  disputed  by,  for example,  Bekaert  et  al.  (2009), who  find  country  factors  still  dominate  industry  factors, using  the  APT  and  a  Fama  and  French  (1998)‐type  model  to  examine  time‐varying correlations across country and industry portfolio returns. They also suggest that, although there is some evidence of globalisation effects, international diversification benefits are still obtainable  since  they  find  no  significant  correlation  trend  for  country  returns  in  North America and Asia. They  conclude  that US and European  investors  can benefit more  from investments in the Asian region relative to investing in each other’s regions.  Public  listed real estate markets are generally perceived to be somewhat segmented  from other  financial asset classes. Many  studies have  reported  that property  securities provide 

                                                            1 Similar findings have also been reported in, for example, Baca et al. (2000); Cavaglia et al. (2000).

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diversification benefits to global mixed‐asset portfolios.2 These studies seem to suggest that the extent of such diversification gains  is  likely to decrease due to  increased  integration of real estate and equity markets at national level. Furthermore, a substantial body of research has  reported  that, within  real  estate‐only  portfolios  there  is  evidence  of  global  property diversification benefits at country and regional levels.3 The consensus emerging from these papers  is  that,  because  property  markets  tend  to  converge  regionally,  integrating relationships  are  much  stronger  between  national  markets  within  one  economic  or geographic  region  than  between  national  markets  located  in  different  regions.4  These results  are  appealing  as  they  suggest  dissimilarities  in  drivers  of  property  returns  across regions.  Therefore  investors  can  achieve  diversification  benefits  from  broadening  their investment from domestic or continental‐focused to other regional markets. The magnitude of  such gains,  though,  is  still unclear because different  statistical methodologies generate conflicting outcomes (Wilson and Zurbruegg, 2003a). This evidence of country and regional factors  needs  to  be  set  in  the  context  of  studies  pointing  to  growing  international integration and evidence of a global real estate factor5.  As in equity market research, early studies on real estate often relied upon modern portfolio theory  (MPT)  based  on  correlation  coefficients  between  different  asset  classes  or international markets and on mean‐variance analyses. Using these methods to examine the inclusion  of US  securitised  property  in  Canadian  property  portfolios, Hudson‐Wilson  and Stimpson (1996) found that Canadian investors would have achieved diversification benefits by including US real estate in their portfolios in 1980‐94. Asabere et al. (1991) investigated the  role of  listed property vehicles within a mixed‐asset portfolio  in 1980‐99,  finding  low positive  correlations  between US  REITs  and  other  international  property  securities.  They therefore  concluded  that  more  benefits  could  be  achieved  from  diversifying  across international real estate assets than equity and bond markets. These results were supported by Eichholtz (1996), who found correlations between  international property markets to be lower  than  equities  and  bonds.  Gordon  and  Canter  (1999)  investigated  the  correlations between  property  and  equity markets  in  relation  to  type  of  investment  vehicle  and  the international  nature  of  property  companies.  They  generally  found mixed  results  –  some markets exhibiting return convergence, while others having divergent returns. Both of these latter  studies  reported  unstable  correlation  matrices  between  international  real  estate assets,  casting  further  doubts  on  the  application  of  the  correlation  coefficient  and  the mean‐variance framework for assessing long‐term diversification benefits.   Later  studies  suggest  that  temporal  covariance  instability  is  attributable  to differences  in return volatility that can understate global real estate diversification gains (e.g., Forbes and Rigobon,  2002).  Accordingly,  researchers  shifted  their  focus  to  study  longer‐run cointegrating relationships  in  international real estate markets. Cointegration methods are 

                                                            2 e.g., Okunev and Wilson (1997); Chaudhry et al. (1999); Liow and Yang (2005); Bond and Glascock (2006).

3 e.g., Giliberto (1990); Liu and Mei (1992, 1994, 1998); Mei and Liu (1994); Newell and Webb (1996); Quan and Titman (1997); Karolyi and Sanders (1998); Stevenson (2000); Conover et al. (2002); Worzala and Sirmans (2003);  Bond et al. (2003).

4 e.g., Eichholtz et al. (1993); Worzala and Bernasek, (1996); Myer et al. (1997); Wilson and Zurbruegg (2001); Kleimann et al. (2002).

5 e.g. Ling and Naranjo (2002); Bond et al. (2003); Lizieri et al. (2003); Hamelink and Hoesli (2004);

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regarded as more reliable measurement tools of diversification gains than other approaches because,  not  only  do  they  account  for  time‐varying  long‐term  integration  processes,  but they  can  also  detect  patterns  or  stages  of market  integration  (Gallo  and  Zhang,  2010). Cointegration  tests  have  been  implemented  by Wilson  and  Zurbruegg  (2003b)  amongst others. Specifically, from an Australian perspective they used a number of different methods to decompose the factors driving listed property security performance into permanent and transitory  components,  accounting  for  structural  breaks.  They  then  applied  various restrictions on the  long‐run cointegration matrix  in order to  identify variables that may be considered  as  drivers  of  real  estate markets.  They  found  that  six  international  indirect property markets were  interlinked, with  large, major  economies  (i.e.  Japan  and  the US) having  a  significant  influence  on  smaller markets.  However,  the  results  on  international property market diversification benefits were mixed.    A recent paper, Gallo and Zhang (2010) investigates regional and country real estate market diversification benefits for US  investors over the period 1992‐2007. They find that markets are  integrated by  common  trends  that erode  the diversification benefits of  assembling  a portfolio  of  international  real  estate  securities.  Specifically,  a  portfolio  consisting  of cointegrated  property  markets  consistently  underperforms  a  portfolio  encompassing  of “independent”  property  markets.  They  conclude  that  independent  real  estate  markets account for the majority of global property diversification gains, but cointegrated markets, particularly  from  North  America  and  Asia‐Pacific,  still  retain  some  ability  to  enhance portfolio risk reduction. Consistent with earlier studies, they find evidence of cointegration relationships within a region, but limited evidence between regional indices.  The  majority  of  real  estate  studies  focus  their  attention  on  national  REIT  or  property securities  indices  or,  if  dealing with  individual  firms,  treat  companies  as  in  some  sense homogenous. Yet REITs and property companies typically have a sector focus and very often have  a  specific  geographical  focus  (e.g.  investing  in  a  particular  city  or  region  within  a country). Given  the equity market evidence of  the  importance of  industry  factors and  the evidence from private real estate markets of the importance of sector factors, this suggests that a more disaggregated approach is necessary to ensure that diversification benefits are maximised.  This  need  is  emphasised  by  the  concentration  of  investment  at  city  level, particularly  in office markets. As Lizieri  (2009) has  suggested,  the office markets of major global  cities  and  international  financial  centres may  be more  closely  linked  across  space than to their domestic markets, given  functional specialisation  in the occupier market and globalisation  in  the  investment  and  financing  markets.  If  larger  REITs  and  property companies –  the  type  that  are  likely  to be heavily weighted  in  global property  securities funds  –  are  similarly  concentrated  in  those  markets  then  this  might  affect  delivered diversification. It is these issues that this paper addresses.   3. Research Methods  The underlying principle of international diversification is that the average covariance in an international portfolio is lower than for a domestic portfolio (and, hence, potential exposure to  specific  risk  is  also  lower)  since  priced  national  risk  factors  are  less  than  perfectly correlated  across  countries.  However,  reliance  on  contemporaneous  measures  of  risk, return and correlation may be misleading as they may disguise lags in transmission of shocks 

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across  countries  or may  be  artefacts  of  differing  institutional  structures  or  information processes.  Hence,  it  seems  preferable  to  examine  the  long‐run  co‐movement  of  asset returns to assess diversification potential.   Following the general approach in Gallo and Zhang (2010), we use cointegration, the linear combination of non‐stationary variables, to separate country  indices by the nature of their cointegration.  To  test  stationarity  in  data  series,  four  unit  root  tests  are  applied:  the Augmented  Dickey  &  Fuller  (1981);  the  Phillips  &  Perron  (1988)  test;  the  approach  of Kwiatkowski et al. (KPSS) (1992) and Zivot and Andrews (1992), which allows for structural breaks.  Cointegration  rank  and  exclusion  tests  are  subsequently warranted  if  any  vector indices have a unit root representation in price level (nonstationarity).6   We  then  perform  cointegration  tests  on  property market  index  returns  to  test  for  the presence  long run co‐movement of property returns. Non‐stationary national and regional indices  in  our  sample  are  subject  to  cointegration  rank  tests  to  establish  the  number  of cointegrating vectors (CIVs) as an indication of long‐run equilibrium relationships. 7   Initially, we utilise the standard Johansen cointegration test (Johansen 1988; Johansen and Juselius 1990) which computes the   statistic for the null hypothesis of at most   CIVs as in (1).  

1 . 1  

 where   is an eigenvalue. Cointegrated indices are identified by significant    statistics, with others assumed independent.  To  test  for  common  linear  trends  among  any  of  the  indices,  specification  tests  are  run which, conditional on   CIVs, calculate the G(r) statistics, asymptotically distributed as   (Johansen 1994; Johansen et al. 2000; Gallo & Zhang, 2010):  

ln 1 ln 1 . 2  

 

where   and   are the vector autoregressive (VAR) eigenvalues for CIVs with and without linear  trends,  respectively. Market  independence  would  be  indicated  by  non‐significant exclusion  test  results.8 We  test  for  the presence of  structural breaks  in  the vectors using likelihood‐ratio (L‐R) tests and, where necessary, control for large shocks with dummies.                                                              6 Previous literature (e.g. Chen et al. 2002) provides consistent evidence that real estate index series are non‐stationary. 

7 We convert the indices to natural logarithms: this makes the first differences of index returns, the percentage change or return, conceptually more meaningful in the vector autoregressive representation than the absolute changes of index returns. 8  If  property  indices  exhibit  non‐linear  dependencies,  the  linear  autoregressive  Johansen  results  can  be questioned. We transform all data series to logarithm (linear) to mitigate any non‐linearity in the data series, include structural break and linear trend components in the model.  

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The  presence  of  cointegration  implies  a  common movement  between  assets which may have  an  impact  on  diversification  benefits  (Kleiman  et  al.  2002).  Accordingly, we  create portfolios  separated  based  on  their  cointegration  results  and  test  for  differences  in performance. We  differ  from  Gallo &  Zhang  (2010) who  characterise  their  portfolios  as simply “cointegrated” and “independent”. Given  the presence of  regional  integration, our results and,  consequently,  the description of  the portfolios,  is more nuanced. We discuss this  further  below.  Relative  performance  of  the  portfolios  is  measured  using  standard methods.   First, we compute Sharpe ratios to measure total risk‐adjusted portfolio performance:  

, 3  

 

where,  for portfolio  ,    is  the average monthly  style portfolio  return,    is  the  standard deviation of monthly returns, and   is the monthly average monthly Treasury bill yield.  

 We then run a series of factor models. The first, again following Gallo and Zhang, is a three factor model incorporating global property returns, a size factor and a momentum factor:   

4  

  

where    is  the  monthly  portfolio  excess  return9,    is  the  value‐weighted  global 

property  index  excess  return.  GSMB  is  a  global  property  size  risk  factor,  created  by subtracting the returns of the large cap property market proxy from those of the small cap property market  index  (Gallo  et  al.  2006)  and GMOM  is  a momentum  factor  (Stevenson 2002; Chui et al. 2003; Marcato and Key 2005) estimated as the return on a portfolio that is long on  the prior  year’s upper quartile property  indices and  short on  the previous  year’s lower quartile indices by return performance. The GSMB and GMOM factors are rebalanced annually.   Fama  and  French  (1998)  identified  a  global  valuation  factor, HML,  in  international  stock returns. We computed a global HML by differencing the average returns of two high book‐to market  ration  (BE/ME)  stock  indices  and  those  of  two  low‐BE/ME  stock  indices.  These factors are  then used  to measure portfolio  systematic  risk‐adjusted performance. Returns for the Fama‐French factors were obtained from the Kenneth French data library.    

5  

  

Finally, we combine equations  3  and  4  to provide a measure of systematic risk‐adjusted portfolio performance with a four‐factor model:                                                                9  Excess returns are measured relative to the US one month Treasury bill rate, since the analysis reported here is in US$.

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6  

  The  slope  parameter,  ,  ,    and   measure  the  portfolio market  risk,  size  and 

momentum  effects,  respectively, while  the  intercept,  , measures  the  incremental  risk adjusted  performance  relative  to  the  global  property  index  (GPI)  benchmark.  Equations 4 6  examines performance with the hypothesis  : 0 versus  : 0.  Finally,  portfolio  risk  is  separated  using  the  Fama  and  MacBeth  (1973)  two‐pass methodology. Using  a  rolling  five  year window, we  run  the  factor models  and  retain  the coefficients and the mean square error (MSE), the latter representing unsystematic or non‐factor risk. The subsequent time series of MSEs and other risk metrics for the two portfolios can be tested  for statistical difference using standard procedures. This allows us to assess the  impact  of  cointegration  on  the  diversification  benefits  of  international  real  estate portfolios.    Initially,  these  tests are  run  for all our  sample property  companies, aggregating  company performance to national  level  irrespective of sector or geographical focus at firm  level. We then  identify  those  companies  that  do  have  a  specific  sector  focus  and  re‐run  the  tests within sector (for example, focussing only on companies that predominantly acquire office buildings). Finally, we retest our results using only companies that have a strong exposure to globally integrated cities (or international financial centres). This allows us to test the extent to which  investors  need  to  consider  company  focus  in  order  that  they  obtain  the  global diversification they seek.   4. Data Employed  The  empirical  research  for  this paper uses  company data  from Global Property Research (GPR). Monthly total return series from 1994 to 2011 are utilised with returns calculated in log difference  form. Value weighted  indices of  the performance of nineteen countries are created  and  then  aggregated  to  regional  level  (North America, Asia, Oceania  and Europe with, after examination of correlation structures and mindful of the size of the market, the UK considered as a separate quasi‐region. We also utilise  the GPR and EPRA‐FTSE‐NAREIT global  indices as benchmarks.  In this paper, we report US$ denominated returns; separate analyses using domestic currency have also been  run but are not  reported  for  reasons of space.  At sector level, SNL Financial is used to help identify indirect property companies that have a significant proportion of  their  investments  in  a particular property  sector  (i.e. more  than 50% of  total property asset portfolio  is  invested  in office,  retail,  residential or  industrial). Similarly, at city level, SNL Financial is used to find companies that focus their investments in one of  the global  cities  (i.e. more  than 50% of  total  real estate  investment  is  invested  in Tokyo,  Singapore, Hong Kong,  London, New  York,  Sydney, Paris,  Frankfurt or  Zurich).  For example, SL Green Realty Corporation  invests approximately 81%  in office properties and about 68% of those offices are located in New York. Thus, SL Green Realty is considered as a company  that  has  significant  exposure  to New  York  office markets.  Such  firms  are  then 

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aggregated at national and regional level to produce value‐weighed sector‐specific or global city exposure indices.   Although  performance  in  the  public  real  estate  securities  market  is  easier  to  measure because such information is more readily available than private property market data, there are  some  issues  with  indirect  property  data.  First,  using  a  benchmark  currency  raises concerns regarding currency effects, e.g., markets may appear to be  integrated because of co‐movements  in  exchange  rates.  Also,  currency  risk  can  have  an  impact  on  the diversification potential of international real estate investment (Liu and Mei, 1998). Second, many REITs and property companies have relatively small market capitalisation and  larger bid‐ask  spreads  than  large  cap  stocks,  suggesting  that  significant  illiquidity problems may occur  in  difficult  market  conditions.  Third,  care  must  be  taken  in  using  sector  indices because very dissimilar types of firms may be  included. Fourth, there are  issues of market regulation and composition changes, survivorship bias and the changing nature of the listed market (for example the introduction of a REIT regime in a country altering the tax status of listed  firms or other changes  to REIT  regulation and  taxation). Lastly, small sample size of data,  especially  at  sector  and  city  levels, may  affect  some  of  the  cointegration  analysis. Nonetheless,  the  data  permit  a  quantitative  analysis  of  the  risk‐return  characteristics  of international real estate and the factors influencing diversification potential.  Table  1  shows  descriptive  statistics  for  the  aggregated  national  indices  over  the  full  216 month analysis period. We show the mean and standard deviation as measures of risk and return, the Sharpe ratio (based on the US three month Treasury Bill rate) and the beta from a single  index model regression of the country  index on the global real estate  index.  In all cases, the betas are positively signed and statistically significant, other than those of Canada and Japan10.  In terms of risk‐adjusted return, the best performing region  is Europe (ex‐UK) while  Asian  markets  underperformed  relative  to  the  world  index.  Pairwise  Pearson correlations of the property market  indices range  from 0.29  (Asia and United Kingdom) to 0.93  (North  America  and  Oceania)  at  the  regional  level,  and  from  ‐0.19  (Hong  Kong  to Switzerland and to Germany) to 0.98 (United States and Netherlands) at the country  level. Although  these  low  pairwise  correlations  imply  strong  property  market  diversification potential,  inter‐temporal  instability  and  lagging  effects  may  distort  and  deflate  the correlations, misrepresenting which markets produce the strongest diversification gains.    <Table 1 about here>  5. Real Estate Cointegration: Empirical Results  5.1 Aggregate Regional and National Results  Table 2 shows the results of unit root tests on the aggregate regional and country property indices.  Almost  all  Augmented  Dickey‐Fuller  (ADF),  Philips‐Perron  (PP)  and  Zivot  and Andrews  (ZA)  test  statistics,  at  both  the  regional  and  country  levels,  are  statistically insignificant.  Combined  with  consistently  significant  Kwiatkowski,  Phillips,  Schmidt,  Shin (KPSS)  test  statistics,  non‐stationarity  and  unit  root  representation  is  indicated  in  each regional  and  country  property  index.  Unit  root  tests  merit  the  implementation  of  the                                                             10 The former result is somewhat surprising, given the high correlation between the US and Canadian returns.

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cointegration  methodology  to  detect  long‐run  equilibrium  among  the  non‐stationary indices.   <Table 2 about here>  The procedure continues with vector rank  tests conducted  initially on  the regional  indices and secondly, on the country indices within each region. The rank test results for the regions and the countries are shown in Table 3. Regional cointegration tests results indicate at least two  cointegration  relations  among  the  regional  indices.  Asia,  Europe,  North  America, Oceania and United Kingdom are, therefore, inter‐regionally dependent. Intra‐regional tests also  indicate cointegrating  relationships within each  region. Specifically, one cointegrating relationship is implied within the North America, Oceania and Asia regions, while either one or, more strongly by  the G(r) criterion,  three cointegrating  relations are  found among  the European markets. We conduct a cointegration test for the twelve countries with the largest market  capitalisation  and  the  results  suggest  at  least  four  cointegration  relations.  These results, then, corroborate regional patterns in global property returns (Eichholtz et al. 1993; Worzala  and  Bernasek  1996;  Eichholtz  et  al.  1998;  Bond  et  al.  2003)  but  suggest  that Europe, even excluding the UK, is less coherent than the other world regions.    <Table 3 about here>  The  intra‐regional  country  market  exclusion  tests,  presented  in  Table  4,  identify cointegrated  and  independent  markets  in  each  region.  Countries  with  significant (insignificant)  likelihood‐ratio (L‐R) test statistics are cointegrated (independent) regionally.  Results  indicate  New  Zealand  shares  a  cointegrating  relationship  within  Oceania,  while Australia,  is  independent  (perhaps more  linked  to  global  or  Asian markets).  In  Europe, cointegrating relations are found among the Austrian, Finnish, Norwegian, Spanish, Swedish and Swiss markets. However, France, Germany and the Netherlands markets appear to be independent of European cointegration. Within  the Asia  region, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Philippines share a cointegrating relationship, while Japan and Singapore are  independent. The United States and Canada are cointegrated  in North America, and all  the  regions are generally  cointegrated  globally.  Amongst  the  12  countries  with  the  largest  market capitalisation, only Singapore is found to be an independent market. In sum, there are there are 12 cointegrated country markets and six country markets independent of cointegrating relations.  As shown in Table 1, the cointegrated (independent) countries account for 78 (22) percent of the market value weighted global property index. Interestingly, the cointegration and  MPT  procedures  produce  similar  country  portfolio  allocations.  The  mean  pairwise correlation  of  independent markets  selected  by  the  cointegration  test  (ρ  =  0.461)  is,  as expected, lower than the mean of the cointegrated markets (ρ = 0.576).  <Table 4 about here>  Tables  5  and  6  reports  portfolio  performance  tests with  separate  results  shown  for  the independent  (INDE,  n  =  6)  and  cointegrated  (COINT,  n  =  12) market  portfolios.  Table  5 summarises  the  Sharpe  performance  of  the  portfolios.  The  independent  markets outperform both the cointegrated markets and the global property index during the sample period. The three‐factor and four‐factor models performance results are shown  in Table 6.  The sample period performance could be an artefact of a particular period exerting undue 

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influence  of  a  particular  period  exerting  undue  influence.  Therefore, we  examine  three‐factor and four‐factor performance in equal, 1994‐2002 and 2002‐2011. <Table 5 about here> <Table 6 about here>  There is some evidence of superior performance by the cointegrated portfolio as measured by alpha: although α coefficients are only significant in the second sub‐sample for the three‐factor  and  four‐factor models.  In  all  the models,  the  beta  coefficients  are  positive  and significant, indicating that the markets are driven by a global real estate market factor. The betas  are  stronger  and more  significant  for  the  independent  portfolio.  The  three‐factor model highlights the significance of momentum coefficients for both portfolios (positive for the  independent portfolio, negative  for  the  cointegrated portfolio), although  the effect  is confined  to  the  second  half  of  the  sample  period.  The  Fama‐French  three  factor model identifies  the  positive  significance  of  a  global  valuation  factor, HML,  in  the  cointegrated market portfolio. The overall results  from  the  three‐factor and  four‐factor models suggest that  the  independent  markets,  which  represented  by  major  economies  (i.e.  Australia, France, Germany, Netherlands, Japan and Singapore) of various regions, appear to be more statistically  indistinguishable  from market  benchmark  characteristics,  and  therefore,  less attractive portfolio candidates  in  terms of diversification –  that  is  that  they are  regionally independent but more influenced by global factors.    Table 7 confirms this result, employing the two‐pass tests of Fama and MacBeth (1973) to decompose  the portfolio  risk. Using 60 month  rolling  regressions of  the portfolios against the three‐ and four factor models, a cross‐sectional time series of  intercepts, market, size, momentum and valuation slope coefficients  is created along with mean square errors and standard  deviations.  The  table  shows  clearly  that  there  are  statistical  differences  in  the behaviour  of  the  regionally  cointegrated  and  independent  portfolios.  The  independent portfolio has a  significantly higher beta  than  the  (regionally) cointegrated portfolio and  is positively sensitive to global momentum effects. The average mean square error  is smaller for  the  independent portfolio  than  the  cointegrated portfolio which  suggests  that overall performance  is  explained more by  global  real  estate  factors  –  although  the  independent portfolio  has  a  lower  aggregate  average  standard  deviation.  These  results  suggest  that regional effects work against global  real estate  factors and provide additional diversifying properties.  <Table 7 about here>  Summarising  the  results  for  the  aggregate  analysis,  there  is  evidence  of  regional cointegration in listed real estate securities. However, within each region, there are country indices which appear to be somewhat  independent of that regional convergence. Many of these countries are  larger countries that are driven more by global real estate factors than local  or  regional  factors.  A  portfolio  strategy  that  focussed  on  countries with  a  stronger regional dimension would  thus offer  some additional diversification benefits  in protecting investors  from  global market movements  and momentum effects –  the  relevance of  this being  most  evident  in  the  second  half  of  the  sample  period,  incorporating  the  global financial crisis, when the regionally cointegrated portfolio offers statistically superior alpha.  Key to our study, however, is whether those results apply over all real estate sectors. Thus 

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we  reanalyse  performance  for  reconstructed  indices  that  separate  out  companies  that specialise in particular sectors or have significant exposure to global cities.  5.2 Disaggregated Sector Results  The analyses in the preceding section are repeated for specially constructed country indices comprised  of  firms  specialising  in  particular  sectors  (retail,  residential,  office,  industrial) along with a separate analysis of diversified firms and firms with a high exposure to global cities and  international  financial  centres.  In  focussing on  sector  specialists,  it  is  inevitable that  the number of  firms  in  any one  country  can be  small  and, hence,  the  country  level indices may  be  subject  to  specific  risk. We  do  not  report  the  results  for  residential  or industrial sector specialists given the  low number of country  indices that can be analysed. Space precludes  full  reporting of all  results  in  this paper11. Rather, we  focus on  the main differences observed between the aggregate and the disaggregated analyses.   For retail specialist firms12, the number of countries that can be analysed falls from 19 to 13. By  contrast  to  the aggregate  results,  the best performing  region by Sharpe  ratio  is North America and the best performing country is Canada. Fewer country indices have significant betas with  respect  to  the global  index and  the magnitudes are generally  lower. However average inter‐country correlation is slightly higher at 0.679. The unit root tests suggest that cointegration  analysis  is  appropriate  (although  Germany’s  KPSS  score  is marginally  non‐significant).  There  is  inter‐regional  cointegration;  within  regions,  one  cointegrating relationship  is  favoured  for North America  and Asia while  Europe  appears  to  have  three (possibly two) relationships. Within Europe, France and Germany appear to be independent.   Splitting  the  results  into  independent  and  cointegrated  portfolios  (the  latter  containing Canada, the US, Finland, Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands) the results differ from those of  the aggregated analysis. The cointegrated group has a higher Sharpe  ratio and a lower standard deviation but a negative alpha for the first half of the analysis period; market beta is positive and significant and the momentum factor is positive in some models. In the Fama‐Macbeth  tests,  the  independent  group  have  a  significantly  higher  alpha while  the cointegrated  group  have  a  significantly  higher  and  positive  beta.  By  implication,  the cointegrated  group  is more  driven  by  a  common  set  of  factors,  confirmed  in  that  the independent group has a larger mean square error.    For office markets13, eleven country  indices may be analysed. Best performing markets are Oceania as a  region and France as a country. There appears  to be a  strong general office factor with a clear of the countries and regions exhibiting significant betas (with Japan and Switzerland exceptions). As with retail, the office correlations are on average higher than for the  aggregate  analysis,  emphasising  the  importance  of  sector  in  understanding performance. The unit root  tests are well behaved, permitting cointegration analysis. At a regional  level,  there  is  evidence  of  cointegration,  in  particular  locking  Europe  and North America  together. Within  regions,  there  are  generally  single  cointegrating  relationships. Within  Europe,  Switzerland  stands  as  independent  with  France  and  Sweden  having independent characteristics. Analysing only the larger markets, the results are less clear but 

                                                            11 Full results for all sectors may be obtained from the authors. 12 Results are shown in Appendix 1. 13 Results are shown in Appendix 2.

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there  seem  to  be  a  number  of  relations.  Assuming  a  single  relationship,  Japan  and Switzerland  appear  most  independent;  Swiss  independence  persists  as  the  number  of relationships analysed increases.   In  the  models  for  cointegrated  and  independent  portfolios  (with  France,  Sweden  and Switzerland  forming  the  latter),  the  independent group exhibits a  larger Sharpe  ratio;  the cointegrated  group  has  positive  betas  on  the  market  index  in  all  models  with  the coefficients being close to one and substantially  larger than for the  independent portfolio; the  R‐squared  values  for  the  cointegrated  group  are  consistently  larger  than  for  the independent  group.  It  seems  that  although  there  are  regional  factors,  there  is  a  strong common movement reflected in the cointegrated portfolio. The independent group exhibits higher relative risk, whether measured by total risk (standard deviation) or unsystematic risk (mean  square error  from  the  factor models) and  lower market  risk  than  the cointegrated group. Evidence of a separate portfolio risk factor analysis (not reported here for reasons of space)  suggest  that  the  cointegrated  group  are much more  strongly  influenced  by  risk premia,  term  structure  and  institutional  capital  flows,  consistent with  the  idea  that  the these offices markets are more generally influenced by the capital markets.   For the diversified group of indices, we can analyse 16 countries. As might be expected, the average correlation between countries  is  lower, at 0.522; betas with  the global  index are lower  too.  Best  performing  region  is  Oceania,  with  Canada  again  the  best  performing country. The unit root tests are satisfactory  (although the results  for Austria and Malaysia are marginal). Again, we see regional cointegration and, within regions a single cointegrating vector  in Asia, North America and Oceania and a more  complex  situation  in Europe with three or  four  relationships detected. Countries  that appear  to be  independent are  Japan, Malaysia  and  Switzerland:  given  the  small  size  of  the  independent  group,  the  portfolio results may be  less  robust. The cointegrated group  is more strongly  influenced by market returns, with higher R2 and larger betas: there is some evidence of sensitivity to momentum in the second half of the time series. However, these results may be an artefact of the size of the cointegrated group and, hence, the weight of these firms in the global index.   Finally, we  examine  those  firms with  a  high  exposure  to  global  cities  and  international financial centres14: given the definition of cities and the  localised  focus of most  firms, this restricted analysis  to  just eight countries. The best performing  region was North America; the  best  performing  country  was  Sweden.  The  beta  coefficients  from  the  single  index market model were  significant but of varying  size – with  that of  Japan being  significantly negative. Mean  correlations between  countries were  lower  than  for  the aggregate  index, with much of that difference attributable to low Australian correlations with other markets. The  KPSS  tests were more mixed  than  for  other  analyses with  some  question  about  the status of Australia and Singapore.   Once again, there is evidence of cointegration across regions. Within regions, North America and Asia exhibited a  single  cointegrating  relationship, while an analysis of all  the  country indices together suggested three or four relationships. The results pointed to separation of Switzerland, Hong Kong and Singapore as the independent market portfolio, Sweden, Japan, US, UK and Australia as the cointegrated group. The cointegrated group outperformed the                                                             14 Results are shown in Appendix 3

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independent group  in  terms of Sharpe  ratios;  further,  they had higher betas  in  the  factor models than the independent group (which had non‐significant betas in the first half of the time series). Evidence for a common global financial influence on the cointegrated group is provided  by  the  separate  portfolio  risk  factor  analysis  which  shows  sensitivity  to  risk premium, term structure and institutional investment flows.   Summing up, the disaggregated results for the sector specialists and firms exposed to global cities presents a rather different picture to the aggregate analysis. In the aggregate analysis, cointegration  implied regional cointegration with the  independent portfolio showing more sensitivity  to market  factors.  By  contrast,  in  the  sector  analyses,  while  cointegration  is defined regionally,  it  is the cointegrated  firm  indices that show most sensitivity to general risk  factors and converging more  to  their sectoral benchmark. This  implies  that a detailed understanding of  these  sectoral  relationships  is critical  in assembling a global portfolio of real estate securities that optimises risk diversification.   6. Summary and Conclusions  The  literature  on  international  real  estate  investment  strategies  has  emphasised  the importance  of  analysing  long  run  relationships  between  returns  in  different  countries  in devising  optimal  risk  diversification  strategies.  In  general,  research  has  shown  that  real estate  is  influenced by global,  regional  and  local  factors;  and  that  constructing portfolios that  have  different  exposure  to  regional  and  country  level  factors  provides  superior  risk adjusted  returns. Applying  such  strategies  to  listed  real estate  securities provides a  liquid and relatively low cost route to global property market exposure.   The majority of such analyses, however, have focussed their attention on national aggregate indices of property company performance. While these are investible, they are composed of individual  firms  that have  specialised  focus on particular  sectors or physical markets  and locations.  That  a  national  index  is  independent  from,  or  cointegrated  with,  its  regional market  or  the  global  market  is  no  guarantee  that  the  firm’s  performance  is  similarly independent or cointegrated. The contribution  in this paper  is to disaggregate the analysis to sector level, and to separately analyse those firms with high exposure to global cities, to see if differences emerge below the national level of analysis. We use cointegration analysis and a variety of factor models to test this proposition, using real estate securities data from 1994‐2011.   The  results  demonstrate  clearly  that  the  relationships  that  are  observed  at  national aggregate level do not hold at sector level. Regional and national cointegration relationships differ across  sectors; countries  that are  regionally cointegrated at aggregate  level may be independent  at  a  sector  level.  Further,  the  results  suggest  that  the  impact  of  regional location in determining diversification benefits varies by sector. At aggregate level, regional cointegration  seems  to  offer  some  diversification  from  common  global  factors:  it  is  the “independent” portfolio  that  is most exposed  to overall property market  risk, with higher market betas and R2s  in  factor models. At sector  level, this seems not to be the case. The cointegrated office,  retail and  international  financial  centre portfolios are more driven by the common global factors – and the level of inter‐regional cointegration is stronger.   

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One of the key benefits, then, of breaking the data down to different sectors and cities  is that international investors can gain a better understanding of the interrelationships within real estate markets, helping them to optimally construct their portfolios. Our analysis also provides valued‐adding  information for  international  investors with a mandate to  invest  in particular countries as part of their portfolio. From our findings, investors/managers would realise  that, although  the performance of  that  country may be globally driven at a broad level,  particular  sectors may  be  independent while  other  sectors  or  cities may  be more cointegrated with  other  countries  and  converge with  the  global market  benchmark.  This knowledge can assist investors and fund managers in optimising their portfolios to maximise risk diversification.  

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Table 1 Regional/Country Descriptive Statistics, Aggregate Indices Index Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio bpi WGT (%)

United States 0.63% 7.12% 0.052 0.189*** 36.18% Canada 2.85% 32.65% 0.079 0.079 5.33% Great Britain 0.24% 6.33% -0.004 0.314*** 5.70% Australia 1.34% 10.55% 0.102 0.766*** 8.59% New Zealand 0.68% 6.03% 0.070 0.164*** 0.32% Austria -0.11% 8.25% -0.046 0.231*** 0.96% Finland 0.80% 9.91% 0.054 0.225*** 0.29% France 1.40% 8.86% 0.128 0.232*** 5.39% Germany -0.32% 11.80% -0.050 0.229*** 1.26% Norway 0.97% 8.38% 0.084 0.099* 0.26% Spain -1.80% 15.10% -0.137 0.217** 0.09% Sweden 0.71% 8.73% 0.051 0.155** 1.52% Switzerland 0.49% 5.15% 0.044 0.107*** 3.82% Netherlands 0.56% 5.93% 0.050 0.224*** 1.10% Hong Kong 0.45% 9.98% 0.019 0.320*** 10.61% Japan 0.53% 11.54% 0.023 -0.014 12.74% Malaysia -0.42% 14.25% -0.048 0.248** 0.75% Philippines 0.65% 9.44% 0.040 0.181*** 0.67% Singapore -0.14% 11.62% -0.035 0.290*** 4.43% North America 0.69% 6.76% 0.063 0.190*** 41.51% United Kingdom 0.24% 6.33% -0.004 0.314*** 5.70% Oceania 1.34% 10.65% 0.101 0.778*** 8.91% Europe 1.48% 9.67% 0.126 0.254*** 14.68% Asia 0.23% 13.46% -0.002 0.470*** 29.20% World property index 1.16% 9.54% 0.094 - 100.00% 3-month T-bill 0.26% 0.17% 0.000 - -

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Table 2 Unit Root Tests: Aggregate Indices Region ADF PP KPSS (mu) ZA (Break) North America -0.867 -0.275 1.630*** -3.152 (11/2008) United Kingdom -1.649 -1.446 1.120*** -3.245 (05/2008) Oceania -2.876 -2.26 1.550*** -3.299 (04/2004) Europe -0.125 -0.053 1.680*** -3.097 (11/2001) Asia -0.915 -1.635 1.120*** -5.090** (11/1997) Country United States -1.024 -0.455 1.620*** -3.272 (11/2008) Canada -1.315 -2.592 1.520*** -4.856 (08/1999) Great Britain -1.649 -1.446 1.120*** -3.245 (05/2008) Australia -2.888 -2.28 1.550*** -3.507 (04/2008) New Zealand -0.824 -0.801 1.470*** -3.547 (10/2002) Austria -2.035 -2.079 1.185*** -6.898*** (10/2008) Finland -1.251 -1.128 1.520*** -2.925 (10/2003) France -0.147 -0.119 1.730*** -4.525 (01/2006) Germany -1.388 -1.485 1.280*** -3.884 (04/2008) Norway -0.981 -0.82 1.560*** -3.020 (11/2003) Spain -1.087 -0.919 1.213*** -3.806 (12/2005) Sweden -0.464 -0.373 1.320*** -3.331 (04/1997) Switzerland 0.146 0.191 1.640*** -5.088** (11/1999) Netherlands -0.871 -0.934 1.570*** -3.043 (10/2003) Hong Kong -0.461 -0.859 1.390*** -4.795 (11/1997) Japan -1.122 -1.566 0.836*** -3.531 (09/2003) Malaysia -2.582 -2.761 0.282*** -5.318** (09/1997) Philippines -1.005 -1.066 0.739*** -3.841 (02/2000) Singapore -1.872 -1.932 1.292*** -3.369 (09/1997)

    

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Table 3 Cointegration Rank Tests: Aggregate IndicesI(1) - Analysis G(r) p-r r Eigen Value Trace Regional (5 regions) - 5 0 0.131 77.165***

0.945*** 4 1 0.095 47.494** 11.291*** 3 2 0.067 26.436

North America (2 countries) - 2 0 0.055 14.385*** 0.023*** 1 1 0.012 2.478

Oceania (2 countries) - 2 0 0.042 11.418*** 0.472*** 1 1 0.010 2.163

Europe (9 countries) - 9 0 0.274 260.867 1.929*** 8 1 0.238 194.312 5.327*** 7 2 0.182 137.824***

23.687*** 6 3 0.130 96.009** Asia (5 countries) - 5 0 0.088 52.280***

2.129*** 4 1 0.070 33.120 Largest Market Cap (12 countries) - 12 0 0.381 411.462***

0.016*** 11 1 0.260 310.332 5.180*** 10 2 0.256 246.874

16.870*** 9 3 0.182 184.501 35.610*** 8 4 0.138 142.061

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Table 4 Cointegration Exclusion Tests: Aggregate Indices Regional (n=5) r North America United Kingdom Oceania Europe Asia L-R statistic 1 14.000 17.000 14.000 5.800 9.100 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.016** 0.003*** L-R statistic 2 18.000 19.000 14.000 6.100 12.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.001*** 0.048** 0.002*** North America (n=2 countries) r United States Canada L-R statistic 1 10.000 6.100 p-value 0.001*** 0.014** Oceania (n=2) r Australia New Zealand L-R statistic 1 0.660 17.000 p-value 0.417 0.000*** Europe (n=9) r Austria Finland France Germany Norway Spain Sweden Switzerland Netherlands L-R statistic 1 11.000 7.200 0.240 0.670 3.300 3.100 0.024 7.300 0.006 p-value 0.001*** 0.007*** 0.626 0.413 0.067* 0.078* 0.877 0.007*** 0.940 L-R statistic 2 26.000 16.000 1.300 1.700 17.000 5.200 4.100 7.700 1.200 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.515 0.429 0.000*** 0.074* 0.127 0.022** 0.559 L-R statistic 3 30.000 18.000 4.500 1.700 17.000 10.000 7.900 7.700 1.200 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.211 0.638 0.001*** 0.018** 0.048** 0.054** 0.762 Asia (n=5) r Hong Kong Japan Malaysia Philippines Singapore L-R statistic 1 11.000 1.300 6.800 5.700 1.500 p-value 0.001*** 0.257 0.009*** 0.017** 0.220 The largest market-cap (n=12) r United States Canada Great Britain Australia France Germany Sweden Switzerland Netherlands Hong Kong Japan Singapore L-R statistic 1 2.900 21.000 0.420 0.690 6.300 7.100 0.770 1.900 0.400 0.120 3.400 1.000 p-value 0.088* 0.000*** 0.519 0.406 0.012** 0.008*** 0.380 0.168 0.530 0.734 0.067* 0.317 L-R statistic 2 13.000 42.000 22.000 11.000 10.000 11.000 16.000 6.000 24.000 20.000 23.000 3.600 p-value 0.002*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.005*** 0.006*** 0.004*** 0.000*** 0.049** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.168 L-R statistic 3 13.000 46.000 26.000 12.000 17.000 14.000 22.000 11.000 25.000 21.000 29.000 5.400 p-value 0.006*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.008*** 0.001*** 0.003*** 0.000*** 0.010*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.145 L-R statistic 4 21.000 49.000 35.000 18.000 24.000 14.000 30.000 12.000 30.000 21.000 37.000 6.500 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.009*** 0.000*** 0.015** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.166

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Table 5 Property Portfolio Performance Summary Portfolio Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio Global property index 0.50% 10.61% 0.022 INDE 0.56% 10.05% 0.030 COINT 0.47% 10.87% 0.019 3-month T-bill 0.26% 0.17% - Table 6 Property Portfolio Performance Portfolio αp αp (t-stat) βp1 βp1 (t-stat) γp2 γp2 (t-stat) λp3 λp3 (t-stat) ζp4 ζp4 (t-stat) R2 Panel 1A Three-factor performance model INDE -0.015 -1.270 1.451 29.420*** 0.003 0.400 0.152 1.790* 0.805 COINT 0.019 1.590 0.398 8.110*** 0.003 0.450 -0.171 -2.030* 0.267 Panel 1B Three-factor performance model 1994-2002 INDE -0.033 -0.980 1.605 18.010*** -0.025 -0.920 0.383 1.320 0.763 COINT 0.009 0.390 0.466 7.520*** 0.025 1.310 -0.150 -0.740 0.366 Panel 1C Three-factor performance model 2003-2011 INDE -0.014 -1.910* 1.275 37.030*** 0.003 0.980 0.091 1.940* 0.933 COINT 0.036 2.140** 0.309 3.980*** 0.001 0.190 -0.250 -2.370** 0.219 Panel 2A Fama-French three-factor performance model INDE -0.005 1.140 1.442 29.640*** -0.246 -1.740* -0.189 0.118 0.806 COINT -0.004 -0.940 0.400 8.330*** 0.197 1.410 0.324 2.790*** 0.219 Panel 2B Fama-French three-factor performance model 1994-2002 INDE -0.010 1.160 1.614 18.300*** -0.296 -1.320 -0.265 -1.320 0.764 COINT -0.008 -1.310 0.466 7.680*** 0.188 1.220 0.294 2.120** 0.382 Panel 2C Fama-French three-factor performance model 2003-2011 INDE -0.001 -0.200 1.257 36.960*** -0.210 -1.540 -0.007 -0.070 0.932 COINT -0.001 -0.190 0.331 4.350*** 0.150 0.490 0.413 1.880* 0.214 Panel 3A Four-factor performance model INDE -0.015 -1.260 1.458 29.740*** -2.543 -1.800* 0.156 1.870* -0.185 -1.570 0.809 COINT 0.017 1.480 0.385 7.980*** 0.206 1.480 -0.167 -2.020** 0.320 2.770*** 0.297 Panel 3B Four-factor performance model 1994-2002 INDE -0.036 -1.090 1.599 18.100*** -0.325 -1.450 0.413 1.430 -0.300 -1.480 0.769 COINT 0.012 0.500 0.472 7.720*** 0.200 1.290 -0.172 -0.860 0.308 2.210** 0.387 Panel 3C Four-factor performance model 2003-2011 INDE -0.014 -1.950 1.276 36.710*** -0.221 -1.640 0.097 2.070** 0.008 0.080* 0.934 COINT 0.032 1.970* 0.284 3.670*** 0.175 0.580 -0.236 -2.270** 0.375 1.740* 0.251

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Table 7 Portfolio Risk Decompositions Coefficient INDE COINT H0 t-stat Mean Mean Three-factor performance model Intercept -0.051 0.042 αINDE=αCOINT 17.329*** Rmt 1.516 0.330 βINDE=βCOINT 31.713*** SMB -0.022 0.037 γINDE=γCOINT 71.837*** GMOM 0.417 -0.345 λINDE=λCOINT 15.021*** MSE 0.004 0.004 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 11.896*** SD 0.053 0.060 SDINDE=SDCOINT 50.949*** Fama-French three-factor performance model Intercept -0.001 -0.001 αINDE=αCOINT 39.944*** Rmt 1.523 0.310 βINDE=βCOINT 28.203*** SMB -0.230 0.146 γINDE=γCOINT 20.914*** HML -0.205 0.404 ζINDE=ζCOINT 69.401*** MSE 0.004 0.004 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 75.939*** SD 0.054 0.061 SDINDE=SDCOINT 32.919*** Four-factor performance model Intercept -0.056 0.042 αINDE=αCOINT 19.772*** Rmt 1.519 0.297 βINDE=βCOINT 28.560*** SMB -0.244 0.157 γINDE=γCOINT 30.379*** GMOM 0.467 -0.365 λINDE=λCOINT 21.527*** HML -0.218 0.390 ζINDE=ζCOINT 74.946*** MSE 0.003 0.004 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 71.705*** SD 0.053 0.060 SDINDE=SDCOINT 31.609***

    

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Appendix A1: Retail Specialist Firms Table A1.1 Retail Property Regional/Country Descriptive StatisticsIndex Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio bpi WGT (%) United States 0.87% 6.85% 0.093 0.068 44.29% Canada 2.46% 11.22% 0.198 0.209*** 6.47% Great Britain 0.32% 9.33% 0.009 0.212*** 7.86% Australia 1.12% 9.37% 0.094 0.794*** 17.31% New Zealand 0.42% 6.72% 0.028 0.137*** 0.03% Finland 0.76% 9.58% 0.055 0.056 0.38% France 1.48% 8.64% 0.144 0.107* 11.39% Germany -0.11% 9.12% -0.038 0.062 0.93% Norway 1.10% 7.83% 0.111 0.114* 0.62% Switzerland 0.50% 8.01% 0.033 -0.017 0.95% Netherlands 0.71% 6.47% 0.074 0.167*** 2.75% Hong Kong 0.00% 13.87% -0.017 0.042 5.17% Philippines 0.41% 9.43% 0.018 0.160** 1.87% North America 1.00% 6.70% 0.115 0.078** 50.75% United Kingdom 0.32% 9.33% 0.009 0.212*** 7.86% Oceania 1.12% 9.38% 0.094 0.795*** 17.33% Europe 1.76% 9.44% 0.161 0.104 17.02% Asia 0.24% 14.83% 0.000 0.058 7.03% World property index 1.10% 10.91% 0.080 - 100.00% 3-month T-bill 0.23% 0.17% 0.000 - -

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Table A1.2 Retail: Unit root tests Region ADF PP KPSS (mu) ZA (Break) North America -0.684 -0.105 1.370*** -3.216 (11/2008) United Kingdom -1.319 -1.533 0.776*** -3.679 (09/2008) Oceania -2.225 -2.237 1.340*** -4.014 (08/2004) Europe -1.046 -0.802 1.460*** -4.263 (01/2006) Asia -0.688 -0.993 1.040*** -4.011 (08/2003) Country United States -0.753 -0.310 1.360*** -3.136 (11/2008) Canada -0.561 -0.488 1.390*** -3.443 (12/2003) Great Britain -1.319 -1.533 0.776*** -3.679 (09/2008) Australia -2.228 -2.238 1.340*** -4.012 (08/2004) New Zealand -1.462 -1.311 0.906*** -3.789 (11/2002) Finland -0.834 -0.833 1.180*** -2.739 (06/2008) France -0.771 -0.681 1.450*** -4.178 (01/2006) Germany -1.869 -2.042 0.231 -6.795*** (01/2001) Norway -0.238 -0.584 1.320*** -3.041 (06/2004) Switzerland -0.064 -0.227 1.170*** -4.164 (04/1999) Netherlands -1.061 -1.041 1.380*** -2.777 (07/2008) Hong Kong -0.873 -1.387 0.920*** -3.699 (08/2003) Philippines -0.0425 -0.614 0.890*** -3.829 (02/2000) Table A1.3 Retail: Cointegration rank tests I(1) Analysis G(r) p-r r Eigen Value Trace Regional (5 regions) - 5 0 0.139 71.784***

3.212*** 4 1 0.114 45.173

North America (2 countries) - 2 0 0.079 21.969*** 1.873*** 1 1 0.042 7.529**

Europe (6 countries) - 6 0 0.309 144.311 2.547*** 5 1 0.142 81.117***

15.065*** 4 2 0.111 54.866 33.324 3 3 0.094 34.663**

Asia (2 countries) - 2 0 0.033 6.913*** 5.377*** 1 1 0.005 0.865

The largest market-cap (9 countries) - 9 0 0.389 338.929 0.995*** 8 1 0.306 254.242

14.704*** 7 2 0.247 191.474 30.658*** 6 3 0.222 142.752

60.855 5 4 0.178 99.525 93.007 4 5 0.155 65.890

134.897 3 6 0.097 36.864*** 191.625 2 7 0.085 19.306**

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Table A1.4 Retail: Cointegration Exclusion Tests Regional (n=5) r North America United Kingdom Oceania Europe Asia L-R statistic 1 3.300 4.100 1.600 11.000 4.400 p-value 0.068* 0.044** 0.201 0.001*** 0.037** North America (n=2 countries) r United States Canada L-R statistic 1 12.000 13.000 p-value 0.001*** 0.000*** Europe (n=6) r Finland France Germany Norway Switzerland Netherlands L-R statistic 1 37.000 0.520 0.650 19.000 7.500 23.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.473 0.420 0.000*** 0.006*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 2 47.000 2.600 2.700 22.000 9.100 24.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.277 0.266 0.000*** 0.011** 0.000*** L-R statistic 3 48.000 3.900 4.100 23.000 9.200 24.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.274 0.249 0.000*** 0.027** 0.000*** Asia (n=2) r Hong Kong Philippines L-R statistic 1 1.900 0.530 p-value 0.170 0.468 The largest market-cap (n=9) r United States Canada Great Britain Australia France Germany Switzerland Netherlands Hong Kong L-R statistic 1 2.500 15.000 11.000 22.000 17.000 18.000 25.000 1.600 0.700 p-value 0.987 0.000*** 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.211 0.403 L-R statistic 2 5.800 24.000 16.000 30.000 19.000 22.000 29.000 10.000 5.400 p-value 0.056* 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.005*** 0.069* L-R statistic 3 17.000 29.000 29.000 43.000 30.000 26.000 36.000 13.000 20.000 p-value 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.005*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 4 26.000 37.000 38.000 47.000 33.000 36.000 38.000 21.000 23.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 5 28.000 38.000 40.000 47.000 34.000 38.000 40.000 21.000 25.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.001*** 0.000***

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Table A1.5 Retail Property portfolio performance summary Portfolio Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio Z-stat (INDE vs. COINT) Global property index 1.105% 10.913% 0.080 INDE 0.44% 10.26% 0.020 4.206** COINT 0.98% 8.58% 0.087 3-month T-bill 0.23% 0.17% - Table A1.6 Retail Property portfolio performance Portfolio αp αp (t-stat) βp1 βp1 (t-stat) γp2 γp2 (t-stat) λp3 λp3 (t-stat) ζp4 ζp4 (t-stat) R2 Panel 1A Three-factor performance model INDE 0.042 2.050** 0.087 1.180 0.001 0.070 -0.192 -1.360 0.221 COINT -0.004 -2.220** 1.022 14.090*** 0.000 -0.230 0.027 2.010** 0.902 Panel 1B Intertemporal three-factor performance model 1997-2004 INDE -0.028 -0.980 -0.047 -0.450 -0.005 -2.000* 0.414 0.670 0.153 COINT -0.004 -0.580 1.025 18.490*** 0.000 0.530 0.018 0.340 0.906 Panel 1C Intertemporal three-factor performance model 2004-2011 INDE 0.047 1.560 0.236 1.600 0.118 2.090 -0.250 -1.200** 0.117 COINT -0.005 -0.940 1.017 14.760*** -0.014 -1.540 0.031 0.830 0.910 Panel 2A Fama-French three-factor performance model INDE 0.016 1.940* 0.103 1.410 0.126 0.540 0.198 1.050 0.019 COINT -0.001 -0.810 1.020 15.060*** 0.004 0.020 -0.032 -1.820* 0.902 Panel 2B Intertemporal Fama-French three-factor performance model 1997-2004 INDE 0.022 0.043** -0.049 -0.460 0.055 0.220 0.078 0.410 0.146 COINT -0.001 -2.010** 1.025 18.790 0.015 0.730 0.005 0.280 0.906 Panel 2C Intertemporal Fama-French three-factor performance model 2004-2011 INDE 0.010 0.840 0.231 1.680* 0.193 0.400 0.266 0.730 0.167 COINT 0.010 0.010 1.020 10.780*** 0.020 0.350 -0.089 -1.980* 0.909 Panel 3A Four-factor performance model INDE 0.040 1.960* 0.085 1.150 0.128 0.550* -0.185 -1.310 0.186 0.980 0.029 COINT -0.004 -2.090** 1.023 14.950*** 0.002 0.010 0.025 1.930* -0.031 -1.740* 0.902 Panel 3B Intertemporal Four-factor performance model 1997-2004 INDE -0.023 -0.320 -0.045 -0.430 0.060 0.240 0.371 0.600 0.064 0.320 0.129 COINT -0.004 -0.660 1.025 17.420*** 0.015 0.740 0.020 0.390 0.004 0.230 0.906 Panel 3C Intertemporal Four-factor performance model 2004-2011 INDE 0.038 1.020 0.201 1.560 0.243 0.510 -0.188 -0.710 0.224 0.580 0.181 COINT -0.003 -0.530 1.023 14.080*** 0.014 0.260 0.021 0.460** -0.084 -1.790* 0.910

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Table A1.7 Retail Portfolio risk decompositions Coefficient INDE COINT H0 t-stat MeanINDE MeanCOINT Three-factor performance model Intercept 0.072 -0.006 αINDE=αCOINT 21.099*** Rmt 0.114 1.019 βINDE=βCOINT 2.150*** SMB 0.040 -0.004 γINDE=γCOINT 48.826*** GMOM -0.455 0.045 λINDE=λCOINT 20.208*** MSE 0.009 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 35.720*** SD 0.096 0.008 SDINDE=SDCOINT 1.380*** Fama-French three-factor performance model Intercept 0.016 0.001 αINDE=αCOINT 52.004*** Rmt 0.090 1.023 βINDE=βCOINT 2.800*** SMB 0.208 0.018 γINDE=γCOINT 39.518*** HML 0.275 -0.041 ζINDE=ζCOINT 80.540*** MSE 0.010 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 31.364*** SD 0.098 0.008 SDINDE=SDCOINT 1.150*** Four-factor performance model Intercept 0.070 -0.005 αINDE=αCOINT 17.951*** Rmt 0.069 1.026 βINDE=βCOINT 1.910*** SMB 0.226 0.015 γINDE=γCOINT 29.690*** GMOM -0.467 0.042 λINDE=λCOINT 15.125*** HML 0.236 -0.040 ζINDE=ζCOINT 67.094*** MSE 0.010 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 34.725*** SD 0.097 0.008 SDINDE=SDCOINT 1.360***

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Appendix A2: Office Specialist Firms Table A2.1 Office Property Regional/Country Descriptive StatisticsIndex Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio bpi WGT (%) United States 0.93% 9.78% 0.068 0.662*** 40.88% Canada 1.25% 17.15% 0.057 0.333*** 7.73% Great Britain 0.37% 8.38% 0.013 0.542*** 4.59% Australia 1.19% 11.95% 0.077 0.237*** 4.46% Austria -0.16% 8.79% -0.048 0.435*** 0.62% France 1.27% 10.53% 0.096 0.401*** 4.22% Germany -0.39% 13.11% -0.050 0.623*** 1.45% Spain -1.95% 14.81% -0.149 0.298** 0.50% Sweden 0.48% 12.17% 0.017 0.503** 0.87% Switzerland 0.69% 30.12% 0.014 0.252 2.76% Japan 0.27% 11.18% 0.000 0.073 31.90% North America 0.95% 9.89% 0.070 0.670*** 48.62% United Kingdom 0.37% 8.38% 0.013 0.542*** 4.59% Oceania 1.19% 11.95% 0.077 0.237*** 4.46% Europe 0.66% 9.69% 0.041 0.416*** 10.43% Asia 0.27% 11.18% 0.000 0.073 31.90% World property index 0.98% 10.73% 0.066 - 100.00% 3-month T-bill 0.26% 0.17% 0.000 - -

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Table A2.2 Office: Unit root tests Region ADF PP KPSS (mu) ZA (Break) North America -0.703 -1.57 1.750*** -3.671 (06/2004) United Kingdom -2.105 -2.541 0.949*** -3.676 (05/2008) Oceania -3.069 -2.562 1.410*** -3.783 (11/2008) Europe -0.835 -1.149 1.710*** -3.894 (05/2003) Asia -1.805 -2.306 0.739*** -4.585 (09/2005) Country United States -0.753 -1.327 1.760*** -3.568 (06/2004) Canada -1.241 -0.546 1.620*** -3.972 (11/1996) Great Britain -2.105 -2.541 0.949*** -3.676 (05/2008) Australia -3.069 -2.562 1.410*** -3.783 (11/2008) Austria -2.501 -2.312 1.970*** -6.428*** (07/2008) France -0.912 -1.04 1.810*** -3.474 (05/2003) Germany -1.202 -1.389 1.400*** -3.737 (01/2006) Spain -1.108 -1.067 1.160*** -3.431 (12/2005) Sweden -0.866 -0.818 1.420*** -3.487 (05/2003) Switzerland -1.483 -1.716 0.895*** -7.874*** (04/2000) Japan -1.805 -2.306 0.739*** -4.585 (09/2005) Table A2.3 Office: Cointegration rank tests I(1) Analysis G(r) p-r r Eigen Value Trace Regional (5 regions) - 5 0 0.112 69.592***

3.985*** 4 1 0.078 42.861 North America (2 countries) - 2 0 0.039 10.964***

8.781*** 1 1 0.009 2.117 Europe (6 countries) - 6 0 0.109 82.462***

1.562*** 5 1 0.097 56.386 The largest market-cap (9 countries) - 9 0 0.000 270.453

43.129 8 1 0.000 194.050 22.089*** 7 2 0.000 135.660*** 7.517*** 6 3 0.000 95.754**

0.530*** 5 4 0.000 62.082

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Table A2.4 Office: Cointegration Exclusion Tests Regional (n=5) r North America United Kingdom Oceania Europe Asia Regional (n=5) L-R statistic 1 4.800 1.500 0.220 7.600 0.760 L-R statistic p-value 0.028** 0.227 0.642 0.006** 0.382 p-value North America (n=2 countries) r United States Canada L-R statistic 1 5.000 4.800 p-value 0.026** 0.028** Europe (n=6) r Austria France Germany Spain Sweden Switzerland L-R statistic 1 30.000 5.000 15.000 12.000 3.800 1.700 p-value 0.000*** 0.025** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.050** 0.186 The largest market-cap (n=9) r United States Canada Great Britain Australia France Germany Sweden Switzerland Japan L-R statistic 1 19.000 13.000 3.600 3.300 3.300 15.000 11.000 0.610 1.700 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.059* 0.068* 0.070* 0.000*** 0.001*** 0.433 0.190 L-R statistic 2 33.000 17.000 16.000 9.800 4.900 24.000 18.000 2.100 16.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.007*** 0.086* 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.354 0.000*** L-R statistic 3 43.000 33.000 33.000 10.000 8.800 40.000 19.000 15.000 29.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.016*** 0.032*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.002*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 4 49.000 41.000 37.000 14.000 9.900 40.000 21.000 20.000 33.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.009*** 0.042*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.001** 0.000***

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Table A1.5 Retail Property portfolio performance summary Portfolio Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio Z-stat (INDE vs. COINT) Global property index 0.975% 10.727% 0.066 INDE 0.81% 17.61% 0.031 2.371** COINT 0.18% 12.00% -0.007 3-month T-bill 0.26% 0.17% - Table A2.6 Retail Property portfolio performance Portfolio αp αp (t-stat) βp1 βp1 (t-stat) γp2 γp2 (t-stat) λp3 λp3 (t-stat) ζp4 ζp4 (t-stat) R2 Panel 1A Three-factor performance model INDE 0.015 0.810 0.442 6.580*** -0.010 -0.970 -0.080 -0.610 0.166 COINT 0.000 0.020 1.024 29.690*** 0.000 0.730 -0.009 -0.130 0.907 Panel 1B Three-factor performance model 1992-2002 INDE -0.028 -0.730 0.159 1.320 0.028 0.446 0.250 0.780 0.034 COINT 0.007 0.600 1.009 29.810*** 0.000 0.400 -0.005 -0.530 0.909 Panel 1C Three-factor performance model 2002-2011 INDE 0.025 1.170 0.577 7.450*** -0.012 -1.280 -0.116 -0.840 0.356 COINT -0.001 -0.550 1.033 18.860*** 0.000 0.500 0.005 0.500 0.907 Panel 2A Fama-French three-factor performance model INDE 0.005 0.670 0.444 6.610*** 0.069 0.310 -0.099 -0.530 0.162 COINT 0.000 -0.320 1.023 29.150*** -0.011 -0.940 0.192 1.990** 0.907 Panel 2B Fama-French three-factor performance model 1992-2002 INDE 0.002 0.170 0.190 1.610 -0.038 -0.120 0.054 0.200 0.024 COINT 0.000 0.430 1.009 30.480*** -0.010 -1.160 0.003 0.360 0.909 Panel 2C Fama-French three-factor performance model 2002-2011 INDE 0.009 0.950 0.605 7.960*** 0.658 1.730* -0.547 -1.970* 0.370 COINT 0.000 -0.240 1.030 18.640*** -0.040 -1.450 0.048 2.420** 0.907 Panel 3A Four-factor performance model INDE 0.017 0.920 0.439 6.510*** 0.076 0.340 -0.094 -0.710 -0.101 -0.540 0.164 COINT 0.000 -0.130 1.023 29.220*** -0.011 -0.940 0.007 0.010 0.019 1.990** 0.907 Panel 3B Four-factor performance model 1992-2002 INDE -0.030 -0.760 0.174 1.450 -0.070 -0.230 0.273 0.840 0.022 0.080 0.030 COINT 0.001 0.550 1.009 30.500*** -0.009 -1.090 -0.004 -0.450 0.003 0.420** 0.909 Panel 3C Four-factor performance model 2002-2011 INDE 0.032 1.500 0.589 7.650*** 0.680 1.790* -0.164 0.231 -0.577 -2.080** 0.378 COINT -0.001 -0.820 1.031 18.610*** -0.041 -1.480 0.008 0.800 0.050 2.420** 0.907

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Table A2.7 Office Portfolio risk decompositions Coefficient INDE COINT H0 t-stat Mean Mean Three-factor performance model Intercept -0.007 0.000 αINDE=αCOINT 51.295*** Rmt 0.293 1.021 βINDE=βCOINT 4.080*** SMB 0.004 -0.001 γINDE=γCOINT 11.301*** GMOM 0.166 0.002 λINDE=λCOINT 96.703*** MSE 0.013 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 39.310*** SD 0.110 0.005 SDINDE=SDCOINT 12.590*** Fama-French three-factor performance model Intercept 0.011 0.000 αINDE=αCOINT 69.489*** Rmt 0.336 1.019 βINDE=βCOINT 5.770*** SMB 0.151 -0.023 γINDE=γCOINT 17.880*** HML -0.250 0.016 ζINDE=ζCOINT 79.610*** MSE 0.013 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 40.105*** SD 0.110 0.005 SDINDE=SDCOINT 12.608*** Four-factor performance model Intercept -0.006 -0.001 αINDE=αCOINT 63.373*** Rmt 0.308 1.020 βINDE=βCOINT 4.900*** SMB 0.139 -0.023 γINDE=γCOINT 17.132*** GMOM 0.158 0.003 λINDE=λCOINT 17.359*** HML -0.300 0.018 ζINDE=ζCOINT 12.511*** MSE 0.013 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 38.084*** SD 0.110 0.005 SDINDE=SDCOINT 12.830***

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Appendix A3: Firms with Exposure to International Financial Centres Table A3.1 IFC Property Regional/Country Descriptive Statistics Index Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio bpi WGT (%) United States 0.88% 13.57% 0.048 0.688*** 3.65% Great Britain 0.20% 7.43% -0.003 0.587*** 5.05% Australia -0.27% 10.74% -0.046 0.430*** 14.00% Sweden 0.77% 8.11% 0.067 0.308** 2.04% Switzerland 0.38% 5.06% 0.031 0.150*** 6.44% Hong Kong 0.60% 11.32% 0.033 0.187** 8.15% Japan 0.12% 10.99% -0.009 -0.166** 47.81% Singapore -0.40% 11.60% -0.054 0.210** 12.85% North America 0.88% 13.57% 0.048 0.688*** 3.65% United Kingdom 0.20% 7.43% -0.003 0.587*** 5.05% Oceania -0.27% 10.74% -0.046 0.430*** 14.00% Europe 0.42% 4.97% 0.040 0.138*** 8.48% Asia 0.37% 16.91% 0.009 0.472*** 68.81% World property index 0.29% 9.81% 0.007 - 100.00% 3-month T-bill 0.23% 0.17% 0.000 - -

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Table A3.2 IFC: Unit root tests Region ADF PP KPSS (mu) ZA (Break) North America -1.895 -1.637 0.960*** -5.281** (10/2008) United Kingdom -2.154 -2.050 0.489** -4.290 (05/2008) Oceania -1.761 -1.865 0.241 -4.794 (07/2008) Europe -0.701 -0.551 0.522** -5.308** (09/2000) Asia -0.987 -1.623 1.010*** -4.113 (03/2002) Country United States -1.895 -1.637 0.960*** -5.281** (10/2008) Great Britain -2.154 -2.05 0.489** -4.290 (05/2008) Australia -1.761 -1.865 0.241 -4.794 (07/2008) Sweden -0.546 -0.281 1.270*** -3.397 (09/2008) Switzerland -0.832 -0.800 0.464** -5.432** (09/2000) Hong Kong -1.122 -0.969 1.220*** -4.890 (07/2008) Japan -1.57 -1.747 0.776*** -4.265 (09/2005) Singapore -1.847 -3.875 0.153 -4.275 (08/2002) Table A3.3 IFC: Cointegration rank tests I(1) Analysis G(r) p-r r Eigen Value Trace Regional (5 regions) - 5 0 0.233 84.710 1.410*** 4 1 0.107 41.641*** 10.827*** 3 2 0.067 23.250 Europe (2 countries) - 2 0 0.038 8.947*** 1.698*** 1 1 0.016 2.642 Asia (3 countries) - 5 0 0.088 24.441*** 1.210*** 4 1 0.034 8.857 The largest market-cap (8 countries) - 8 0 0.324 209.242 2.338*** 7 1 0.237 145.089 11.357*** 6 2 0.186 100.814*** 24.351*** 5 3 0.137 66.982 37.968*** 4 4 0.100 42.768

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Table A3.4 IFC: Cointegration Exclusion Tests Regional (n=5) r North America United Kingdom Oceania Europe Asia L-R statistic 1 9.700 9.300 1.600 9.300 9.100 p-value 0.002*** 0.002*** 0.210 0.002** 0.003*** L-R statistic 2 14.000 15.000 4.300 20.000 18.000 p-value 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.119 0.000** 0.000*** Europe (n=2) r Sweden Switzerland L-R statistic 1 15.000 0.820 p-value 0.000*** 0.364 Asia (n=3) r Hong Kong Japan Singapore L-R statistic 1 0.070 2.900 2.400 p-value 0.791 0.087* 0.118 The largest market-cap (n=8) r United States Great Britain Australia Sweden Switzerland Hong Kong Japan Singapore L-R statistic 1 0.710 13.000 13.000 6.400 4.600 4.400 14.000 14.000 p-value 0.399 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.011** 0.033** 0.036** 0.000*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 2 14.000 38.000 36.000 30.000 11.000 16.000 21.000 22.000 p-value 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.004*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 3 16.000 45.000 43.000 30.000 16.000 17.000 23.000 24.000 p-value 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.001*** 0.001*** 0.000*** 0.000*** L-R statistic 4 24.000 52.000 50.000 35.000 23.000 24.000 29.000 30.000 p-value 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000***

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Table A3.5 IFC Property portfolio performance summary Portfolio Returns (%) SD (%) Sharpe ratio Z-stat (INDE vs. COINT) Glboal property index 0.291% 9.812% 0.007 INDE 0.19% 9.32% -0.003 2.762** COINT 0.34% 10.17% 0.011 3-month T-bill 0.23% 0.17% - Table A1.6 IFC Property portfolio performance Portfolio αp αp (t-stat) βp1 βp1 (t-stat) γp2 γp2 (t-stat) λp3 λp3 (t-stat) ζp4 ζp4 (t-stat) R2 Panel 1A Three-factor performance model INDE 0.002 0.090 0.211 2.760*** -0.008 -0.830 -0.019 -0.150* 0.048 COINT -0.002 -0.560 1.128 9.580*** 0.001 0.560 0.015 0.720 0.900 Panel 1B Three-factor performance model 1997-2004 INDE -0.102 -1.960 -0.097 -0.850*** -0.008 -0.930 0.782 1.850 0.050 COINT -0.008 -1.100 1.152 7.110*** 0.001 0.500 0.073 1.220 0.905 Panel 1C Three-factor performance model 2004-2011 INDE 0.012 0.540 0.425 4.270*** -0.040 -0.860 -0.031 -0.220 0.200 COINT -0.001 -0.200 1.107 5.840*** 0.001 0.130 0.004 0.160 0.907 Panel 2A Fama-French three-factor performance model INDE 0.002 0.230 0.188 2.390** 0.251 1.150 0.124 0.690 0.053 COINT 0.000 0.350 1.128 8.010*** -0.050 -1.380 0.003 0.100 0.900 Panel 2B Fama-French three-factor performance model 1997-2004 INDE -0.011 -1.090 -0.144 -1.240 0.405 1.590 0.441 1.930* 0.061 COINT 0.001 0.760 1.162 7.170*** -0.062 -1.730* -0.039 -1.200 0.905 Panel 2C Fama-French three-factor performance model 2004-2011 INDE 0.007 0.680 0.455 4.500*** 0.386 0.890 -0.344 -1.120 0.206 COINT 0.000 -0.030 1.100 5.060*** -0.092 -1.090 0.076 1.290 0.908 Panel 3A Four-factor performance model INDE 0.002 0.130 0.186 2.320** 0.252 1.150 -0.031 -0.240 0.124 0.680 0.054 COINT -0.002 -0.600 1.130 8.090*** -0.050 -1.390 0.017 0.810 0.003 0.110 0.900 Panel 3B Four-factor performance model 1997-2004 INDE -0.098 -1.920* -0.166 -1.440 0.419 1.660* 0.716 1.740* 0.426 1.890* 0.095 COINT -0.008 -1.130 1.159 7.890*** -0.061 -1.700* 0.076 1.310 -0.040 -1.250 0.905 Panel 3C Four-factor performance model 2004-2011 INDE 0.018 0.780 0.442 4.250*** 0.406 0.930 -0.072 -0.530 -0.352 -1.150 0.209 COINT -0.001 -0.290 1.101 5.430*** -0.095 -1.110 0.008 0.310 0.077 1.300 0.908

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Table A3.7 IFC Portfolio risk decompositions Coefficient INDE COINT H0 t-stat MeanINDE MeanCOINT Three-factor performance model Intercept -0.006 -0.006 αINDE=αCOINT 21.452*** Rmt 0.154 1.130 βINDE=βCOINT 5.770*** SMB -0.011 0.000 γINDE=γCOINT 39.828*** GMOM 0.077 0.044 λINDE=λCOINT 15.532*** MSE 0.007 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 26.580*** SD 0.085 0.011 SDINDE=SDCOINT 1.080*** Fama-French three-factor performance model Intercept 0.002 0.000 αINDE=αCOINT 5.458*** Rmt 0.177 1.129 βINDE=βCOINT 3.980*** SMB 0.178 -0.056 γINDE=γCOINT 12.892*** HML -0.019 0.006 ζINDE=ζCOINT 12.068*** MSE 0.007 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 27.590*** SD 0.086 0.011 SDINDE=SDCOINT 1.110*** Four-factor performance model Intercept 0.003 -0.006 αINDE=αCOINT 21.422*** Rmt 0.151 1.131 βINDE=βCOINT 4.980*** SMB 0.166 -0.057 γINDE=γCOINT 15.160*** GMOM -0.002 0.053 λINDE=λCOINT 15.123*** HML -0.060 0.007 ζINDE=ζCOINT 3.433*** MSE 0.007 0.000 MSEINDE=MSECOINT 25.677*** SD 0.085 0.011 SDINDE=SDCOINT 11.020***