Distributing Silent Film Serials: Local Practices, Changing Forms, Cultural Transformation

DistributingSilent Film Serials

Routledge Advances in Film Studies

1 Nation and Identity in the New German CinemaHomeless at HomeInga Scharf

2 Lesbianism Cinema SpaceThe Sexual Life of ApartmentsLee Wallace

3 Post-War Italian CinemaAmerican Intervention Vatican InterestsDaniela Treveri Gennari

4 Latsploitation Exploitation Cinemas and Latin AmericaEdited by Victoria Rueacutetalo and Dolores Tierney

5 Cinematic Emotion in Horror Films and ThrillersThe Aesthetic Paradox of Pleasurable FearJulian Hanich

6 Cinema Memory ModernityThe Representation of Memory from the Art Film to Transnational CinemaRussell JA Kilbourn

7 Distributing Silent Film SerialsLocal Practices Changing Forms Cultural TransformationsRudmer Canjels

Local Practices Changing FormsCultural Transformation

Rudmer Canjels

New York London

First published 2011by Routledge270 Madison Avenue New York NY 10016

Simultaneously published in the UKby Routledge2 Park Square Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group an informa business

copy 2011 Taylor amp Francis

The right of Rudmer Canjels to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means now known or hereaf-ter invented including photocopying and recording or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publishers

Trademark Notice Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade-marks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Canjels Rudmer 1974ndash Distributing silent film serials local practices changing forms cultural transformation Rudmer Canjels p cm mdash (Routledge advances in film studies) Includes bibliographical references and index 1 Film serialsmdashEuropemdashHistory and criticism 2 Film serialsmdashUnited StatesmdashHistory and criticism 3 Silent filmsmdashEuropemdashHistory and criticism 4 Silent filmsmdashUnited StatesmdashHistory and criticism 5 Motion picturesmdashDistribution I Title PN19959S3C365 2011 791433mdashdc22 2010030555

ISBN13 978-0-415-87714-5 (hbk)ISBN13 978-0-203-83258-5 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2011

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor amp Francis or Routledgersquoscollection of thousands of eBooks please go to wwweBookstoretandfcouk

ISBN 0-203-83258-2 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

List of Figures viiAcknowledgments ixIntroduction xi

PART I

Film Seriality and Its Serial Uses Transition and Beyond

Introduction to Part I 3

1 Seriality Unbound 5

2 Monopolizing Episodic Adventures 24

PART II

Localizing Serials Translating Spectacle and Daily Life

Introduction to Part II 39

3 American Mysteries in France 41

4 German Spectacle From Within 63

5 Adjusting Seriality in the Netherlands 76

PART III

Confronting Seriality in Europe and America

Introduction to Part III 97

6 Consuming New World Views American Serials in Germany 99

vi Contents

7 Minds That Cannot Condense European Serials in America 124

PART IV

Another Time

Introduction to Part IV 147

8 Overshooting in America 149

9 Adjusting Forms and Diminishing Uses 156

CONCLUSION Beyond the Cliffhanger 180

Appendix Overview of Imported Serial Films 185Notes 209Bibliography 243Index 253

Figures

I1 Cartoon by J Heacutemard Almanach du Cineacutema 1922 (Paris) xxii

11 Advertisement for The Vampires in Moving Picture World December 2 1916 1270 20

21 Advertisement announcing the possession of the Monopol rights of Homunculus by the Dekage fi lm company Lichtbild-Buumlhne July 15 1916 46 29

22 In October Joe May reminded everybody that he had kept his promise distributing the eight episodes of Die Herrin der Welt in eight weeks Erste Internationale Filmzeitung October 11 1919 18ndash19 32ndash33

23 Excerpt of advertisement Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn Lichtbild-Buuml hne November 27 1920 69 34

24 Cartoon by J Heacutemard Almanach du Cineacutema 1922 (Paris) 36

31 A foldout booklet of Les Mystegraveres de New-York was given away as an appetizer by the newspaper Le Matin It told part of the storyline of the fi rst episode 50

32 Production still from the Les Mystegraveres de New-York book in which Clarel shows Elaine a miniature version of his torpedo invention 55

41 Mia May points at fi lm posters with the image of Maud Gregaards during the premiere of the fi rst episode 69

51 A clutching hand is used to announce the tie-in arrival of De Geheimen van New-York in the newspaper De Courant 78

52 A similar clutching hand this time from the Amsterdam cinema Theater Patheacute announcing both the tie-in and the second fi lm episode of De Geheimen van New-York 79

viii Figures

53 A crowd of people is waiting outside the Rembrandt Theater in Amsterdam to see the third episode of De Koningin der Aarde 89

61 Advertisement for the six-part Goliath Armstrong Lichtbild-Buuml hne April 23 1921 51 102

62 Images of the Wild West were important in advertisments for the six-part Karo Ass Lichtbild-Buuml hne July 16 1921 7 111

63 Speed was also emphasized in a two-page promotion for Karo Ass Lichtbild-Buuml hne May 14 1921 54ndash55 112

64 The Phantom liked to perform dangerous stunts with his motorcycle in Goliath Armstrong Der Film April 16 1921 110ndash111 118

71 Even Marcus Loew claimed The Mistress of the World was ldquoa worldbeaterrdquo Moving Picture World February 25 1922 128

72 A promotional suggestion for exhibitors who showed Milady Exhibitors could promote Milady as a continuation of Douglas Fairbanksrsquo The Three Musketeers (1921) 140

91 In France Dr Mabuse was structured into a serial of seven episodes shown as Le Docteur Mabuse 164

92 ldquoToday the second and last part of Metropolisrdquo A two-part version of Metropolis was screened in the Rembrandt theater in Amsterdam 172

C1 Cartoon by J Heacutemard Almanach du Cineacutema 1922 (Paris) 183

Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without the help and support of a number of people First I wish to thank William Uricchio and Frank Kes-sler at Utrecht University During my research both Williamsrsquo and Franksrsquo valuable critical feedback and probing questions stimulated me to refi ne my research and goals Eggo Muumlller especially helped me to tackle the set-up of my comparative research I am very grateful for their enduring support

I would like to thank the Netherlands Organization for Scientifi c Research (NWO) for making my research possible I am also grateful to the facilities and generous staff of the following libraries and archives EYE Film Institute Netherlands (especially Nico de Klerk) CineGraph Ham-burgisches Centrum fuumlr Filmforschung (Hans-Michael Bock) Motion Picture Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division Library of Congress (Madeline Matz) Das Deutsche Filminstitut Frankfurt am Main (San-dra Klefenz and Simon Ofenloch) Bundesarchiv-Filmarchiv Berlin (Kris-tin Hartisch) Bibliothegraveque du Film Paris (Valdo Kneubuumlhler) Schriftgut Archiv of the Filmmuseum Berlin (Regina Hoffmann) Cineacutemathegraveque Roy-ale Brussels Deacutepartement des Arts du Spectacle Bibliothegraveque nationale de France Paris

The discussions I had with and the advice received from those some of whom have become close friends I met at fi lm festivals and conferences are very much appreciated Richard Abel Ivo Blom Serge Bromberg Monica DallrsquoAsta Karel Dibbets Vinzenz Hediger Amy Sargeant and Ben Singer I am also grateful for the advice of Paul van Yperen who keenly dissected fi lm-related details and Eric Jarosinski for helping translating German quotations

Alex my love was always there with me supporting and helping me to get past cliffhangers

Introduction

SERIALITY IN MANY FORMS

In June 1911 French artist Eacutedouard Vuillard fi nished for the young Ameri-can expatriate Marguerite Chapin a painted view of Place Vintimille in springtime Vuillard had made previous paintings of this lovely Parisian square that could be seen from Vuillardrsquos fi fth fl oor apartment window and would produce more of these views for many years to come1 However this one was rather unique as it was a fi ve-panel decorative screen whose image would change with each movement or different reconfi guration as it took on a different function in a different setting The square itself shown from a birdrsquos-eye view covers four of the fi ve panels of the screen while at the bottom and on the left-most panel the rue de Calais can be seen with carts a horse tram and many passers-by At the end of the street the shops on the Rue de Bruxelles can be seen In the park that covers more than half the work the trees are glimmering with spring freshness while children are playing on the lawn Vuillard only produced three such decorative screens and Place Vintimille was his last Nowadays these folding screens no lon-ger function in the same way as they have become precious works of arts and as a result are rarely reconfi gured2

The phenomenon witnessed here is characteristic for a very specifi c fi lm form that is researched in this study This example demonstrates that an object is always connected to its surroundings and that the object itself and thus the way it is viewed can be transformed when it is placed in a differ-ent setting or given a different function Films are also consumed in specifi c locally developed contexts and conditions something that becomes most clear when fi lms are imported and ldquotranslatedrdquo into a countryrsquos fi lm culture Most commonly when reviewing such local appropriations only one or a few fi lms are researched in their different surroundings However as I am researching a unique and important fi lm form one that was different from the feature I will go beyond the scope of the singular fi lm product In order to research this fi lm form however a specifi c research method is needed

Like the decorative screen this fi lm form is constantly adapted and restructured in response to local fi lm cultures as well as cultural contexts

xii Introduction

This special transformative quality can only be unearthed if it is viewed in a comparative framework thus not from any one countryrsquos perspective but from a transnational one It is through distribution (call it the act of movement of Vuillardrsquos screen) that this unique fi lm form is transformed in a complex process of translation and reconfi guration As the fi lm form that will be discussed constituted itself in several countries that also produced their own versions which were subsequently exported to other countries as well an underlying pattern becomes clear that is not suffi ciently taken into account in fi lm historical research Of course here also the analogy with Vuillardrsquos screen breaks down because the fi lms of this research are much stronger reworked recut reconfi gured and imitated

The fi lm form from which all these reactions can be seen emanating is still known today but this study will focus on the silent fi lm period as it was in the period of the 1910s and 1920s that this fi lm form was most infl u-ential and widespread though little researched until now the fi lm serial

SERIAL FORMS AND DISCOURSES

Seriality when a work appears in successive parts is a phenomenon that has been around for centuries in oral form and in writing However a mass form of seriality only could come into being within an industrial society and a mass culture through which production and distribution of serial narrations could be regularized on a large scale In the 19th century when the mechanical printing press new ink and new paper had made production easier many monthly weekly and daily periodicals appeared Serial novels soon became regular features and proved immensely effective as a means of attracting and keeping readers Serialization was adapted for several fi ctional genres and eventually crossed media boundaries The serial novel in newspapers and magazines is nowadays less visible but it is still used in many countries For instance it still pops up every now then in America with Tom Wolfersquos Bonfi re of the Vanities (1987) in Rolling Stone magazine or John Grishamrsquos A Painted House (2000) in Oxford American or in the United Kingdom with Michel Faberrsquos The Crimson Petal and the White (2002) in The Guardian Other forms are still used as well Stephen Kingrsquos The Green Mile (1996) consisted of six short novels each released a month apart in the supermarket Independently released novels that use seriality in continuing form are not to be forgotten either witness Stephen Kingrsquos The Dark Tower (1982ndash) JK Rowlingrsquos Harry Potter (1997ndash2007) or Stieg Larssonrsquos Millennium Trilogy (2005ndash2007) Comics (appearing in newspa-pers and separately) with ongoing storylines are also still popular

Serial structures are also found in other media Some toes are dipped in the digital water often with very mixed results like serial novels on the internet or serialized Twitter literature by Rick Moody3 But more popu-lar on television soaps series and miniseries all exhibit serial traits suc-cessfully attracting and keeping an audiences witness Lost (2005ndash2010)

Introduction xiii

or 24 (2001ndash2010) Lately a new spurt of fi lms with a serial structure have come out new episodes of Star Wars (1977ndash2005) of Harry Potterrsquos life at Hogwart (2001ndash2011) or the Twilight saga (2008ndash2010) trilogies like The Lord of the Rings (2001ndash2003) and The Matrix (1999ndash2003) the two-part Kill Bill (2003ndash2004) and Chi Bi (Red Cliff 2008ndash2009) or in a media-combination like La Meglio Gioventugrave (The Best of Youth 2003) the six-hour Italian television miniseries that internationally was screened in cinemas in two parts

Besides functioning as fi lms and television series several of these serial productions are part of a transmedia experience that is consumed in large numbers Through interconnected texts the extending story realm can be followed for instance from novels fi lm and television into websites com-puter games comics or alternate reality games Consumers of these sto-ryworlds can be confronted more than ever at any time during their daily life with different connected media as recent research by Henry Jenkins or Jonathan Gray shows us4 With it the private viewing and consump-tion practice is extended into a more public one where also diegetic and non-diegtic distinctions can become blurred Such differences in serial structures and the various adjustments as well as proliferating transmedia circulations and consumption that responded to daily life were also pres-ent in the silent-fi lm era as will become clear with this research

It should not cause any surprise that seriality since the advent of mass reproduction especially has provoked resentment for its economically cal-culated form Fear of cultural shallowness caused by standardization and production in series is rather old and can already be found in the 19th cen-tury in discussions by cultural critics on the printing of serial novels and cheap dime novels Seriality has been seen as part of the culture industry where products according to Theodor W Adorno ldquoare tailored for con-sumption by masses and which to a great extent determine the nature of that consumption are manufactured more or less according to planrdquo5 Its standardization was not only part of production but can be explained as an effect of distribution6 Serials seem to perfectly fi t this angst of mass cul-ture in the debate on high versus low culture Can an intellectually stimu-lating product ever be produced if a serial and repetitive structure is at its base According to Antonio Gramsci this was possible as the popular cul-tural form could be ldquoraisedrdquo to ldquoartisticrdquo literature again7 He saw Fyodor Dostoyevsky using forms of the serial in order to write artistic fi ction and thought more such authors were needed to create a large audience drawn from those who were once serial readers8 Such different appreciations can also be seen in fi lm where serial forms connect to rather negative cultural opinions on seriality whereas some thought the form could also function to connect to a larger audience while maintaining artistic worth

As Gramsci correctly indicated there indeed was seriality not only in popular culture but also in different forms for the cultural elite This can also be seen in the present day where serialism can be found in visual artist Sol LeWittrsquos Serial Project 1 and his Incomplete Open Cubes projects9

xiv Introduction

Or perhaps more appealing to onersquos serial imagination are the already mentioned views of Place Vintimille in Paris (1909ndash1928) by Vuillard or Claude Monetrsquos series of haystacks (1891) his faccedilades of the Rouen Cathe-dral (1892ndash1894) or his water lilies (1900ndash1919) that create a story of the passing of time Though Adorno might think that seriality was part of a well-structured mechanism of mass production seriality was not just a simple form that is used universally in the same way audiences are not captivated passively just because there is a serial structure Roger Hage-dorn seems to suggest this when he claims that ldquoas new media technology is introduced commercial exploiters have consistently turned to the serial form of narra tive presentation precisely in order to cultivate a dependable audience of consumersrdquo10 Hagedorn sums up various examples that support his point seri alized novels fi lm serials comic strips and soap operas all appeared at or near the launch of their respective medium and all were used explicitly to increase its consumption However in his study there is no space for the different national practices surrounding distribution and consumption of serial texts The different media are not compared to each other nor the different forms within one medium

Seriality in other words is not a fi xed form within one medium as there appear to have been many different forms of seriality some more successful than others Unfortunately in research that has been conducted on serial forms in different media the advantages of comparative research have not been applied Research on serial literature in England has for instance resulted in many studies focusing on 18th-century book series or the Victorian serial publishing schemes of Charles Dickens William Makepeace Thackeray and Anthony Trollope11 Nevertheless there has been little comparison of serial texts from different cultural and national backgrounds Thus although it is often stated that passengers arriving in New York from Europe in January 1841 were asked whether little Nell was still alive or had passed away this fact is only cited as an example of the success of Dickensrsquo The Old Curiosity Shop but not for instance as an example of how Dickensrsquos worldwide suc-cess in using the serial had shaped international publishing methods While the novel in installments was very popular in England in France serial novels (feuilletons) were the craze Stories of Honoreacute de Balzac (La Vieille Fille) and Eugegravene Sue (Les Mystegraveres de Paris and Le Juif Errant) were fi rst published as daily serial novels in the newspapers12 As a result the circulation of these newspapers skyrocketed Different serial patterns distribution methods and local transformations from other countries have not however been studied comparatively with the result that the cultural and economic logics of these serial forms remain hidden13

The fi eld where it seems at least a view on local serial productions can be had is in the research on television soap operas that has been going on since the mid-1980s At fi rst the research focused on American day-time and prime-time soap operas like As the World Turns (1956ndash2010) and Dallas (1978ndash1991) at home and abroad later interest refocused on forms of domestically produced soaps British soaps Latin American

Introduction xv

Telenovelas French Canadian Teacuteleacuteromans and European re-soapings of Australian formats were researched and added to a view of a successful global soap structure while at the same time unsuccessful soap exports were also mapped14 However what is often still missing in this research mostly focused on textual analysis and cultural infl uences is an interna-tional comparative view on distribution patterns of both imported and locally produced soaps as here also both the serial form and the reception are likely to be infl uenced by these patterns

In fi lm studies a refocusing on the different local productions of serial-ity has not yet taken place In addition to being discussed as a side note in relation to the feature in whose shadow it is placed the serial fi lm form is usually seen as conforming to the standard of the American two-reel serial Recent studies treat fi lm serials and their audiences with the complexity they deserve but mostly remain centered on the American use of the seri-al15 Ben Singer connects the American silent serial to forms of stage melo-drama and discusses audiencesrsquo reactions to these forms and Shelley Stamp discusses economic relations and the female audience infatuation with the plucky heroines of the silent serials16 Film seriality includes however not only action-packed American serials with their serial queens Seriality was present in a range of heterogeneous forms If one looks closely this can be seen in America but it is in Europe that a varied palette of seriality existed on a large scale used in several genres in several lengths Additionally by comparing serials across different countries the transformative character of seriality in a local setting is directly connected with distribution This research thus proposes through a comparative study a new interpretation within the international fi lm industry of the silent-fi lm period seriality was infl uenced by distribution as this was the most important factor in creating fi lm forms and local serial transformations

SOURCES OF SERIALITY

Since the advent of the revisionist paradigm in fi lm historiography the so-called ldquonew fi lm historyrdquo interest has grown in locally customized fi lms Films are seen not as a constant product fi t for each country but also as a product that can be manipulated for a local market17 As Andrew Hig-son writes ldquowhen fi lms do travel there is no certainty that audiences will receive them in the same way in different cultural context Some fi lms of course are physically altered for different export markets whether in terms of subtitling dubbing re-editing or censorship But even where they are not altered audiences can still take them up in novel waysrdquo18 Indeed fi lms are often changed for export reasons and there are even more ways of altera-tion than Higson quickly sums up such as adjusting the length ending or music19

A vital and important part of fi lm seriality is that through cultural cir-culation it is transformed into a different form This phenomenon is hardly

xvi Introduction

noticeable when one researches seriality from the viewpoint of a single country it can only become clear by looking at several countries Com-parison of how national and international serial fi lms were distributed in several different countries reveals how seriality functioned on an inter-national level as well as on national and local levels corresponding with differences in regulation taste and tradition Through its comparative approach this study goes beyond the already well-known forms of seriality such as the American two-reel form and presents a much larger and more varied palette It also provides a new focus on international fi lm develop-ment especially on distribution20

For this study on fi lm seriality I will compare how the two biggest European producers of serials France and Germany both developed and transformed seriality in their distribution patterns As a comparison where different sets of needs and views can be seen I have also chosen to research seriality in the Netherlands a country with only a very small fi lm produc-tion (only one serial was produced) thus having a fi lm culture mostly con-sisting of imported productions I will also research the impact of American serials on the European countries as well as how European serial produc-tions were released in America This will exemplify the differences between American and European seriality and show the different viewpoints on seriality the importance of alternating fi lm forms as well as cultural dis-courses The four countries in this study have been chosen with specifi c reasons but to the exclusion of several other serial-producing countries for two reasons each of these four countries is important in the history of European serial production andor offers crucial evidence of distribution and exhibition networks

During the period of the 1910s and 1920s of the silent-fi lm period various other European countries also produced fi lm serials including Italy Den-mark England and Spain Apart from Italy these countries however never maintained serial productions as a signifi cant part of their fi lm production for more than a few years in the 1910s and none of them to the extent that France or Germany did However because several of their products were released in the countries of my main focus some of these productions will be noted as well to avoid an unbalanced view of European fi lm seriality

Studying fi lm seriality in various countries is not an easy task as there was an abundance of seriality in the silent period For instance in America around 280 serials (each with around 12 to 15 two-reel episodes) were produced in France around 100 serials of both short and long length and in Germany around 35 feature serials (not counting the around 100 feature serial productions of only two parts) Because each of these countriesrsquo pro-ductions are exported the number of serials or episodes and the number of meters or feet that were present in a country can be even many times greater than national production fi gures would suggest Apart from the laborious task of identifying the original production of these serial prod-ucts in each country one also has to be aware of the fact that serial produc-tions often appeared in different (serial) forms and sometimes their seriality

Introduction xvii

was no longer present Additionally there are though indeed rarely those productions that originally did not have any seriality at all but were given it upon local showing

It quickly became clear during this international comparative research on serial products that the opportunity to analyze and research the serial productions on a fi lmic textual level is rarely available21 This also points to a fundamental issue the problem of the text Local versions of fi lm pro-ductions (serial or not) are often not preserved by archives especially if an original version has already been restored by an archive in the country of origin Some archives such as the EYE Film Institute Netherlands have decided to preserve elements of local adjustments In the EYE fi lm col-lection are for instance sound serials not only in their original form but also in their cut-up localized versions the leftovers as well as screening clips that were shown for exhibitors that contained an accumulation of cliffhangers However more could be done to preserve these local adjust-ments while more archives should become more aware that local adjust-ments formed an important part not only in their own fi lm culture but are linked internationally as well Each time the serial form came in contact with different fi lm practices and cultural contexts through local adaptation a different fi lm was created Thus even if there luckily still is an original silent serial version left (and most of them are gone) fi nding a localized version of it is an almost impossible venture22 The few ldquolocalrdquo episodes of a serial I have been able to see no longer have a corresponding ldquooriginalrdquo version This also raises the question of what an ldquooriginalrdquo exactly is As also becomes clear in this study changes and differences not only appear in an international setting but also can differ region to region theatre to theatre as well as over time with recuts and re-releases

From the preceding it can be deduced that it is through a comparative study of distribution that the patterns of seriality can be seen as active and changing products that are not merely passively distributed upon import As distribution is not just an autonomous realm in the fi lm industry and the local serial forms cannot be torn loose from their surrounding local prac-tices specifi c cultural conditions and contexts that infl uenced reception and further production are also examined in this research My research will show that even if the localized fi lm serials had been abundantly pre-served and could be analyzed distribution patterns would have remained a more important factor to research as it was through distribution that the serial texts were constantly changed

My primary sources to view seriality and its distribution patterns are mostly fi lm trade journals and major newspapers supplemented with (non-fi lm trade-related) cultural magazines all from the various countries that I have studied Reviews as well as distributor and exhibitor promotions were used to examine and extract distribution patterns that show the trans-formative nature of seriality Additionally as serials were one of the most heavily advertised fi lm productions other sources that are important in this research are the various publicity materials such as press books and posters

xviii Introduction

that give an indication as to how the serial productions were intended to be appreciated by audiences The tie-in promotions of the serial narrative that appeared in newspapers cheap booklets and novels also will be studied to defi ne local uses of serials as well as to give an impression of how they touched daily life Censorship records shall also be used especially as seri-als could cause national concern about sensation

Reception and various discourses that surrounded the serial forms can be taken from reviews articles and industry opinions though one has to be careful with these at times problematic sources As Ben Singer points out ldquotrade journals articles and editorial usually are valuable as historical evidence less for their ostensible content than for the wishful thinking and underlying discursive agendas they betrayrdquo23 This is indeed a fair warning as especially with serials there often was the feeling of invasion and being overrun by the massive numbers However it remains important to unearth these surrounding discourses as otherwise the impact of the transformations one can observe cannot be understood I thus carefully and critically try to be aware of continually changing contexts in which reception occurred in the different countries and the approach of these sources that often served their reading public with opinions from a specifi c view and desire while the interests of the fi lm industry itself was often not far away

DEFINING THE SERIAL FORM

In the English language there is rather a loose use of the terms serial and series Film productions like Harry Potter or The Lord of the Rings are often in reviews called series but so are the James Bond fi lms that clearly follow a rather different pattern while Star Wars is a production that is often called a serial Episodic television programs that feature returning characters are mostly called series (with the exception of soap operas) even though since the 1980s soaps mini-series and series have increasingly appeared in hybrid forms making more use of seriality This vagueness of the use of the serial form and the differences between the series forms was also present during the silent-fi lm period24

In America in the early 1910s the terms series and serial were used not very specifi cally even as what today would be a fi ne example of a ldquoproperrdquo American serial could be advertised as a series or even as ldquoa picturized romantic novelrdquo or ldquofi lm novelrdquo25 It was after 1915 that most cliffhanger productions were called a serial In France there were with the passing of time increasingly more names and distinctions used for the serial produc-tion such as cineacute-roman fi lm en seacuterie fi lm agrave eacutepisodes fi lm agrave eacutepoques fi lm agrave chapitres and sometimes serial (then there are also later uses of cineacute-feuilleton or roman-cineacute) However though some classifi cation system of the different terms is made it still was not used very strictly In the Neth-erlands the most common term covering nearly everything was seriefi lm (though it was once suggested to distinguish the American serial by using

Introduction xix

the potentially confusing tag fi lm-serie)26 In Germany serial productions were called Episodenfi lm Serienfi lm or Fortsetzungsfi lm while they also could be classifi ed as the less specifi c Groszligfi lm or Monumentalfi lm

To complicate matters even more there are the differences in length and use of seriality not only between American serials and European but also between for instance French and German serials as well as on a national level An important part of this study is the transformative aspect of seriality series could become serials serials could change into features and features into serials With all these different changing and overlapping uses of seriality it becomes clear that it is necessary to use a very basic defi nition of a serial one that would include very loose forms of seriality by which it would be possible to grasp the inter-cultural changes and transformations of seriality

In his research on American serials Kalton C Lahue makes the fol-lowing distinction between series and serials ldquoa serial contained the same leading fi gures in the cast and it had a plot which interconnected each episode whether these divisions were complete in themselves or were lsquocliff-hangersrsquo A series although it might contain the same cast had no broad connecting plot between chaptersrdquo27 In defi ning seriality it is indeed useful to look at the defi nition of the series as this will be a fi lm form I will not be dealing with (unless it was changed into a serial form) Raymond Stedman sees a series as having ldquo[c]haracters and sometimes locales [that] continued yet the individual motion pictures appeared in random and never-specifi ed fashion Audiences did not go to the theater with the idea that they were seeing part of a whole nor did they know with certainty that there would be another such fi lmrdquo28 Umberto Eco explains the series (that is Super-man) as each time having a sort of virtual beginning that ignores where the preceding events had left off29 Because of this lack of a past and memory it is almost virtually impossible for a character to develop or to change (as does James Bond) The episodes have except for a superfi cial theme such as the adventures of a reporter or detective no connection with each other The story stands on its own and is self-contained30

This series form as I thus see it can clearly be seen in the well-known production of The Hazards of Helen (1914ndash1917) The production consti-tuted 119 episodes of one reel that were tied together by the return of the Helen character (the fi rst 48 were played by Helen Holmes the remain-ing 71 by Helen Gibson) and the often recurrent theme of railroad action However each time a different event happens that does not connect with any of the previous episodes Episodes could be seen in any order as Helen does not have any evolving memory or sense of history Theatres thus could and did pick each episode themselves and show the episodes out of order With a serial it was usually known how many episodes would be made and they had a pre-designed beginning and ending Episodes of a series are produced as long as they are popular Because of their non-connected structure series will not form a part of this research as it was through the inter-connectedness that seriality could be used fl exibly and have major infl uences on the fi lm industry Film series such as The Hazards of Helen

xx Introduction

and structural equivalents in other popular genres of comic western detec-tive or crime series such as those belonging to characters as Beacutebeacute Broncho Billy Nick Carter Zigomar Maciste or Lieutenant Daring will however in this research not be the focus and will only be dealt with when the structure was changed That this focus can easily cause diffi culty shows the fi ve-part French production of Fantocircmas (1913ndash1914) Most Fantocircmas chapters are more like episodes from a series where each time the villain escapes in the end and episodes can be viewed in any order However in the second episode the fi lm ends with a cliffhanger and the exciting storyline is continued in the next chapter That seriality is present in the narrative but not used as an overall structure is seen when at the beginning of episode fi ve Fantocircmas is suddenly in jail in Belgium while at the end of the previous episode he of course had escaped (all of this is caused by the adaptation of the equivalent novels sometimes skipping a few editions)

In this study the defi nition of a ldquoserialrdquo is restricted to a series of epi-sodes (not necessarily released at fi xed intervals) with the same main char-acters and an overarching or a continuing narrative31 The episodes could end with a cliffhanger but also with a more self-contained ending where one situation might have been resolved but the ultimate goal had not been achieved yet as long as the episodes are not interchangeable and a pre-determined sequence is present But given that this research is all about shifting forms I shall refrain as much as possible from using labelling

ORGANIZING SERIALITY

Seriality in the silent-fi lm period will be researched through a comparative study of the forms of serial distribution in the United States Germany France and the Netherlands The study will make clear the importance development and adaptive nature of this unique fi lm form This research consists of a total of nine chapters organized into four sections each of which explores a specifi c aspect of fi lm seriality The nine chapters will more or less follow a chronological order beginning with the fi rst serial uses in America in the early 1910s and ending with its disappearing into the shadows in Europe in the late 1920s though the focus is mostly on the period during the First World War until the early 1920s when seriality was most present in the fi lm industry

This study begins with an examination of seriality and how the form was fi rst used in various fi lm productions and fi lm forms By looking at the various uses of seriality I will argue for a different way of seeing seri-als and seriality not as a transitional fi lm form on its way to feature form but especially from an international viewpoint as an autonomous form In the fi rst chapter I will look at how in America seriality and serials were transformed through distribution The serial fi lm was not only used by the still well-known serial producers Universal or Patheacute but was in fact developed by Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC) members Edison

Introduction xxi

Kalem Lubin and Selig while seriality also can be seen in the quality pro-ductions by Vitagraph as well as DW Griffi thrsquos early works at Biograph Seriality developed into a fi lm form that functioned for several years as the feature in the fi lm program while the multiple-reel feature was not yet the common standard Chapter 2 will focus on a different way in which serial-ity was initiated in Germany it was linked to the Monopolfi lm distribution practice whereas foreign fi lm productions became harder to get during the war Thus by examining and comparing both national as well as interna-tional distribution practices it becomes clear that the serial and seriality served different functions as a fi lm form alongside the feature

In the second part of this study it will be shown that the object of this research is constantly fl uid and in change as the serials were localized I will explore in three chapters the fl exibility of seriality as it could appear in several forms and was able to transcend itself by absorbing and integrating locality Chapter 3 will discuss how through the use of complementary information released through different media the narrative could be inter-woven with the fabric of daily public experience (in a way similar to todayrsquos long-running narratives like soaps) I will look especially at how in France in 1915ndash1916 an American serial trilogy with Pearl White was released with a tie-in as Les Mystegraveres de New-York and how it functioned in that country in wartime as it took part in a national discourse trying to accom-modate and appeal to national sensibilities In Chapter 4 I will deal with the contribution of Die Herrin der Welt (1919) at that time Germanyrsquos largest and costliest serial with its feature-size episodes to the German establishment of modern advertizing strategies Seriality turned the fi lm into a nationalistic star-celebrity gigantic spectacle event This will lead me to Chapter 5 which looks at the effect of local practices of distribution on Les Mystegraveres de New-York as well as Die Herrin der Welt as these pro-ductions were both distributed in the Netherlands in 1920

Continuing the discussion on changing fi lm forms begun in earlier chapters it will become clear in the two chapters of part three that serial productions were not only adaptable to local discourses but also could stimulate and interact with these cultural contexts and discourses They were consumed in locally specifi c cultural conditions that infl uenced recep-tion and further production as they for instance connected with national views on America or Europe confl icts between high and low culture or the (international) fi lm industry Chapter 6 will focus on the arrival of the American serial in Germany in 1921 when Germany was confronted with an abundance of cheaply made American products of a mass medium that provoked strong negative reactions in many fi lm journals and newspapers but also imitation and praise In Chapter 7 I will reverse this view and deal with how the European serial functioned in the perceived invasion of Euro-pean productions into America around the same time even though there usually was no serial form left

The fi nal part four deals with seriality at a time when both in America and Europe hegemonic structures of both serial and feature productions

xxii Introduction

were questioned and struggled with Chapter 8 starts with an examina-tion of the relationship between the production and distribution of several American productions of Erich von Stroheim This focus on von Stroheim illustrates the dictation of standardized format uses as well as apparently the only way to attain possibilities for American feature seriality It was with the arrival of European feature serials that seriality was noticed for the fi rst time in America Finally part four will conclude with Chapter 9 that deals with the changing effects of serial appreciation and usages as from the early 1920s it was becoming an increasingly less-used fi lm form in France and Germany until it all but disappeared at the end of the 1920s However it will become clear that the diminished use of seriality in Europe was not a process of a transitional form leading up to the feature The decline in the use of seriality especially in France was accompanied by the presence of different forms and uses as pressures for change some emanat-ing from local discourses grew

In the end with the arrival of sound seriality did not disappear from the cinema though at times it would become less visible Its principle remained as it was adapted in different contexts and different production and distri-bution strategies that can still be seen today in different media as well (such as radio television and computer games) This research on seriality from the silent-fi lm period can help us see how present-day serial fi lm and televi-sion forms are still being shaped by local distribution practices as serial forms are still being adapted to specifi c local practices and contexts with different results

Figure I1 Cartoon by J Heacutemard Almanach du Cineacutema 1922 (Paris)

Part I

Film Seriality and Its Serial UsesTransition and Beyond

Introduction to Part I

Serials have long been ignored in fi lm history and have only recently become the focus of research In the broader works on fi lm history serials have been presented in relation to the development of the feature and remain because of this in its shadow For instance Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell maintain that ldquo[s]erial episodes can be seen as a kind of transi-tional form between the one-reeler and the feature fi lmsrdquo whereas Richard Koszarski sees the serials as ldquoa useful bridge between the short fi lm and the feature during the crucial 1913ndash1915 periodrdquo1 The term ldquotransitionalrdquo implies a temporary period of time whereas in fact the serial held a unique position that was not gone within a couple of years Koszarskirsquos bridge concept could have been made more useful had he developed it further In Koszarskirsquos use it remains a bridge for one-way traffi c an inadequate char-acterization of the role seriality played in fi lm history

The serial though was indeed used in a period when American exhi-bition and distribution practices were undergoing rapid transformation propelled by the changing role of the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC) and the start of the First World War Alongside and interacting with these changes was the transition from short to feature One should not however automatically assume that the serial functioned only as a transitional form in this complicated web of transformations As Ben Singer and Shelley Stamp point out the serial was not some kind of nursery for the development of the feature fi lm ldquocontinuing chapter plays offered a wholly unique narrative form one whose openness and intertextuality explicitly contravened the codes of classical narrative so enshrined in early featuresrdquo2 In addition to often being discussed only as a side note in relation to the feature the serial form is usually seen as conforming to the standard of the American two-reel serial However seriality was present in a range of heterogeneous forms

This fi rst part looks at the development of the serial in America and Ger-many and will demonstrate that the serial was present in various lengths and forms The serial functioned not in opposition to the feature but acted more in correspondence and mostly as an autonomous form infl uenced as it was by distribution practices

1 Seriality Unbound

Because seriality was important not only for the development of the serial but also for the feature I will in this chapter not immediately go to what in fi lm literature could be recognized as safer havens of seriality to titles like What Happened to Mary (1912) The Adventures of Kathlyn (1913) The Perils of Pauline (1914) or outside America to Les Vampires (1915ndash1916) in France or Homunculus (1916) in Germany Before but also during the development of the feature seriality was already present in various non-serial fi lm forms that were fl uid and depended on innovations in production and distribution There are many points of departure when delving into the seriality of non-serials Interesting starting points could for instance include the seriality of numbers and order in early fi lm catalogues and fi lm programs the succession of views and the mapping of space in travelogues the cut-up narrative of 60-second Kinetoscope fi lms like the episodes of a boxing match the order of tableaux vivant scenes in Passion Plays like Lumiegraverersquos La Vie et la Passion de Jeacutesus-Christ (1898) or the use of the bricolage narrative mode that is reminiscent of a vaudeville program or variety show However I will examine in this chapter the coming of fi lms longer than one reel a development that took place from around 1908 to the mid-1910s It is here that we can see the power struggles and problems of regularization in America that will also be important for the serial fi lm I will discuss the use of the reel-break within a multiple-reel feature as well as the episodic feature The positioning of the feature and the serial is not straightforward but shifts and takes place on different levels vari-ous interests were at stake while within several groups different directions were taken

CONSISTENT CONVENTIONS

Seriality is connected strongly with and dependent on production and dis-tribution possibilities and conventions that are often directly linked with the perceptions of the fi lm industry itself on how a feature could func-tion best It was thus the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC) that

6 Distributing Silent Film Serials

played an important role in the development of the American serial The MPPC was an American monopoly trust formed at the end of 1909 by the leading fi lm companies Edison Vitagraph Biograph Kalem Lubin Selig Essanay Patheacute Fregraveres and Meacuteliegraves along with the distribution company of George Kleine This consortium also often referred to as the ldquoTrustrdquo was organized to control and impose a monopoly over fi lm production distri-bution and exhibition in America All members had become successful through the production of one-reelers

Though MPPC members were allegedly less progressive in creating and applying new industry practices than the independent (non-MPPC) fi lm companies the fact is that members of the MPPC did promote stars and did experiment with feature forms However as Michael Quinn writes in his study on distribution and the transition to the feature fi lm MPPCrsquos fi lms were mostly conceived marketed and sold as indistinguishable products with little attempt to differentiate

In production the Trustrsquos emphasis was on releasing a variety of fi lms of different genres rather than on structuring narratives around stars or complex stories Although a fi lm was occasionally noteworthy this was not the norm In distribution the MPPCrsquos one- and two-reelers were rented in a group rather than individually and at most MPPC theatres the program was changed daily1

In this way an audience was created and maintained that went to the cinema no matter what was on the bill rather than coming to see a specifi c produc-tion The producers belonging to the MPPC were not the only ones who were obstinate in their preference for one-reelers as the independent and MPPC-related distributors and exhibitors were also reluctant to change2

Before 1915 the term feature in America was not always connected to a fi lm of a certain length3 The term borrowed from the variety theater tradition was used when a fi lm was distinctly different from the others and special advertising and billing could be brought into play The anticipated added value through differentiation was more important than the fi lmrsquos length However because these special fi lms were usually longer length and differentiation soon came to mean the same thing The exhibition of a feature fi rst usually took place in legitimate theaters and opera houses thus outside the established distribution system These new exhibition strategies can be seen as part of a general trend toward longer prestige and quality fi lms4 Feature fi lms stayed longer in these establishments enabling dis-tributors and exhibitors to make more use of advertising than was possible with a daily program of changing shorts Until 1912 no regular production schedule or schedule of release for these features existed making it hard for exhibitors to rely on a steady output The development of the longer feature required changes not only in production but also in distribution and exhibition5

Seriality Unbound 7

It is perhaps no surprise that the fi rst American serials were released by MPPC members including Edison Kalem Lubin Selig and Patheacute-Fregraveres For these members the serial could serve as a compromise between their own model of cinema and the competing model of the feature that was being released by other MPPC members such as Vitagraph as well as the foreign imports via George Kleine The serial was also of interest to the exhibitor guaranteeing with a standard length a steady clientele while experimenting with longer and more developed narratives6

Seriality thus stimulated consistency and regulation on the fi lm market something the feature could not yet provide and it offered a different con-cept of feature qualities Producers frequently stressed to theater owners the consistent release schedule of the many serials Capitalizing on repeat atten-dance publicity expert Epes Winthrop Sargent for instance also endorsed the purchasing of advance tickets7 Because of the longer run of a serial in the theaters usually around four months much more advertising could be made While the serial functioned in a program of shorts as the centerpiece and the order of the episodes created differentiation the one- and two-reel length fi t the short-reel variety program Thus in advertisements the serial was labeled as the feature in a fi lm program whereas the repetition and redundancy of episodes over a long period of several months made the serial not that much more important than the overall program structure

The arrival of serials and features shows a complex network moving in a variety of directions It was not a simple question of a transitional movement from short to feature confl icting interests were creating a whole sphere of infl uences Developments did not occur at the same time dis-torted relationships among producers distributors and exhibitors existed some of them were trying to catch up whereas others were purposely hold-ing back or were too far ahead However the fi nal outcome does not justify enshrining the ideal of the feature and portraying the serial as an anomaly or relic from the past We can get an understanding of the various sides of seriality by looking at the production of D W Griffi th an important direc-tor who not only made shorts and features but also one of the best-known multi-episode feature fi lms of the silent fi lm period Intolerance (1916)

INTOLERANCES OF CONTINUITY

In his famous production Intolerance Griffi th uses four thematically linked stories of intolerance that are situated in different time periods the Judean the Babylonian the Huguenot and the Modern Each story stands on its own and has apart from its theme no connection with the others Because the stories of the various periods are inter-cut with each other a blend of dialogues is nevertheless created For instance when the two main stories (the Babylonian and the Modern) come to a climatic end both featuring a rescue attempt the images follow each other with

great rapidity using mini-climaxes The action of one story ends in a cliffhanger situation creating a feeling of forward motion as the obtru-sively interrupting story continues where it had ended earlier

Thus while in Intolerance Griffi th used a mode of narration associated with the Classical Hollywood style he violated this style by inter-cutting the different stories Unobtrusive and linear narration indirect address with character-centered motivation and compositional unity had been developed to create a fi ctional world and had been propagated from 1910 onward By the time Intolerance was released in 1916 the Classical Hol-lywood style had become a standardized convention Griffi th knew the advantages as well as the consequences of his choices

the greatest value of the picture will be in its suggestive value to the audience in the manner in which it will force it to create and work out the idea that I am trying to get over I have made little or no at-tempt to tell a story but I have made an attempt to suggest a story and to my mind it is a mighty big story Whether or not it will suc-ceed in its object remains to be seen8

In Griffi thrsquos work both non-continuity as well as discontinuity can be seen As defi ned by Tom Gunning in his essay providing a theory of genres in early cinema a series of tableaux narratives that function semi-indepen-dently or micro-narratives of dream or fantasy fi lms are examples of the non-continuity genre9 The disruption that is caused by the cuts between shots becomes naturalized through use of theme or can become part of the story However the disruption of non-continuity still bursts through the story in quite obtrusive ways10 The genre of discontinuity in contrast does heighten the disruption of the cut with a sudden juxtaposition of different spatial and temporal zones as can be seen in Griffi thrsquos last-minute rescues that use crosscutting in order to create tension and suspense11

Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker see the use of non-continuity not as a sign of backwardness or primitivism but as a reflection of a power struggle within the emerging film industry Continuity becomes a weapon in a struggle over control ldquoin which textual authority is the expression of authorship as product control and the ability to impose standards and standardisationrdquo12 Once the drive for the multiple-reel feature and nar-rative continuity had been stabilized non-continuity could according to Elsaesser and Barker develop further and even assume different narrative functions as they claim happened with Intolerance The fi lm makes use of a form of seriality that is focused on the repetition of the same idea and disrupts the linear narrative fl ow with obtrusive markers Pedantic inter-titles address the viewer actively separating the various periods and sto-rylines giving historical facts and even details on the construction of the fi lm set Griffi th crosscuts within each epoch to depict simultaneous action while obtrusive parallel editing creates abstract analogies among the four

Seriality Unbound 9

epochs It is partly because of what Elsaesser and Barker call the Janus-faced character of Griffi thrsquos fi lmmaking that ldquohis work could be (and has been) inherited by very different traditions of fi lm-making from continuity cinema to art cinema from the Russian montage school to the French avant-garde in each case for very different ideological reasonsrdquo13

Though Gunning approaches the genre of non-continuity as an articu-lation between shots (though such fi lms should not be seen as anomalies or failed attempts on the road towards the ideal of continuity) the theory can perhaps also be transposed to fi lms forms wherein seriality can be seen as using a form of non-continuity A serial narrative does not function independently its jarring beginning and ending were naturalized through its use of a repetitive episodic pattern that was known to the audience Because of this form of episodic non-continuity the fi lm form was fl exible to change even to the point of losing its non-continuity

TRUSTING DISTRIBUTION

According to Lillian Gish at one point in the editing process Intolerance originally lasted eight hours and Griffi th planned for it to be shown on two separate nights in two parts of four hours each with a dinner intermis-sion each night14 After the consolidation of exhibitors due to distribution economics it became clear that Griffi th had to cut Intolerance to less than four hours15 If Gishrsquos assertion is true this is exactly what Biograph had done to some of Griffi thrsquos pictures when he still worked there In January 1911 Biograph released against Griffi thrsquos wishes a two-reel picture serially in two installments of one reel each as His Trust and His Trust Fulfi lled At a time when fi lm programs were mostly being fi lled with one-reelers that changed and were refreshed several times a week multiple-reel pictures had problems fi tting into this one-reel system of distribution and exhibi-tion Exhibitors needed the standard length of one-reel to construct their programs and producers did not have the resources to develop features on a regular basis The constant need for one-reelers made it hard for pro-ducer and exhibitor to deviate from that format The standardization of the single-reel format also had given exhibitors a large measure of control over how and when fi lms were consumed a form of control exhibitors were not eagerly giving away With the long feature it meant there would be less opportunity for the showman to intervene perhaps with non-fi lmic ele-ments but also less chance to safe a show when an unsuccessful production took up most of the programming16

The General Film Company the national distribution network of the MPPC released Biograph fi lms with two separate reels a week The Gen-eral Film Company had the habit of breaking down multiple-reel fi lms into single reels in order to fi t the one-reel distribution pattern of the program His Trust and His Trust Fulfi lled were thus fi rst shown on 16 January and

on 19 January 1911 respectively Griffi th had wanted to release it as a single fi lm but anticipating a rejection he had purposely made each fi lm a complete story17 The fi lm was announced in the Biograph Bulletin as ldquoHis Trust is the fi rst part of a life story the second part being His Trust Ful-fi lled and while the second is the sequel to the fi rst each part is a complete story in itselfrdquo18 The two reels are rather different with a narrative gap of four years between the two parts and with different types of stories one containing much heroic action the other consisting of a self-sacrifi ce rela-tionship drama But as Kristin Thompson also suggests the ending of the fi rst episode (which ends with the image of the trusty black servant sleep-ing outside after having offered his house to the widow of his deceased master) hardly offers enough closure to make it a satisfying unity ldquoIt is no wonder that some exhibitors ran the two fi lms together and that Biograph re-released them as a two-reeler in 1916rdquo19

Griffi th desperately wanted to make a two-reel fi lm and tried again with Enoch Arden (1911) but Biograph again initially released it serially with one reel on 12 June and the other on 15 June 1911 though this time the fi lm was allowed to be advertised as Part One and Part Two20 However Moving Picture World now complained that the second reel was not imme-diately available and recommended that exhibitors show both reels at the same performance

Just as the absorption of the audience is complete the fi rst reel comes to an end It is to be greatly regretted that upon the fi rst run the second reel cannot be seen by the audience until June 15th three days after the run of the fi rst reel but this is a disadvantage which can of course be overcome later

Moving Picture World even pushed towards new exhibition strategies ldquoWe urge upon the exhibitor to demand all two and three reel subjects together It is utter profl igacy for the exhibitor to treat many of the photoplays now being issued as daily changesrdquo21 As the single title indicates Enoch Arden used very actively a continued narrative The fi rst reel ends when Enoch who left on a ship in search of a better fortune is washed ashore alive on a deserted island while at home his wife Annie and her children wait anxiously on the beach for his return It is especially because of Enochrsquos unresolved misfortune that the ending of the fi rst reel does not satisfy The second reel does not begin with an explanation of what happened previously (perhaps not needed because it was based on a well-known poem) but shows Annie years later still waiting faithfully on the beach for her husband

Independent production companies would beat Griffi th by succeeding in making a simultaneous showing of multiple reels For instance Paul Pan-zerrsquos three-reeler The Life of Buffalo Bill was shown in 1912 (a fi lm that featured serial queen Pearl White in one of her fi rst roles she also played with Panzer in The Perils of Pauline) Griffi th made his fi rst big four-reel

Seriality Unbound 11

spectacle Judith of Bethulia in the summer of 1913 reportedly without permission of Biograph executives22 It was however held back until March 1914 and by that time Griffi th had already left Biograph Griffi thrsquos attempt to tell a story longer than a single reel did however not represent the fi rst time such a fi lm had been produced in America His troubles with the one-reel distribution pattern can be seen in relation to multiple-reel series that had been produced years earlier by Vitagraph as quality fi lms

The Vitagraph productions were based on well-known literature his-tory or biblical events using a tableau vivant style such as the four-reel Les Miseacuterables (1909) the fi ve-reel The Life of Moses (1909) or the two-reel The Life of George Washington (1909) These fi lms were linked to the industryrsquos efforts to represent itself as respectable and also to attract a middle-class audience23 The Vitagraph quality fi lms were among the fi rst feature productions of the MPPC and were made in the same year that standardization of the one-reel length had been achieved in the industry As was the practice with Biographrsquos two-reelers the Vitagraph multi-reel productions were distributed over a period of weeks and were divided into reel-long partly self-contained episodes

Vitagraphrsquos episodes usually had a clear temporal and narrative divide that set them apart from other episodes Because intertextuality overcame the lack of psychologization typical of this period the audience was not left with a question regarding how the story would end24 The structure of for instance The Life of Moses recalls earlier cinematic Passion Plays and presents well-known biblical scenes each one reel in length as the episode titles indicate Moses and Pharaohrsquos Daughter 40 Years in the Wilderness The Seven Plagues of Egypt The Crossing of the Red Sea and In Sight of the Promised Land25 During all this the one-reel form was maintained and could function within existing production and distribution schemes Seriality was not propagated internally through the use of a ldquoto be contin-uedrdquo announcement Another multiple-reel fi lm that was not in fact set up in tableau vivant style and formed one whole that had to be seen in a single session did cause diffi culties on the market26 When Patheacute experimented with marketing and released Drink (LrsquoAssomoir based on the well-known novel of Emile Zola) as two reels in America in October 1909 exhibitors resisted and showed it in two weekly parts anyway LrsquoAssomoir was made specifi cally for the European market a market that was less tied to the one-reel module

Even though Vitagraph re-offered The Life of Moses during Lent in 1910 and announced that it could also be shown in a single session Vitagraphrsquos new production the three-reel Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin was not distributed as one unit but on three different days in 1910 However while the reels of The Life of Moses or Les Miseacuterables were distributed very irregularly and it took almost three months for the series to be com-pleted the release dates of the three reels of Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin were in the same week making easier a possible later viewing in a single session

As can be seen with older Vitagraph productions Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin has a clear separation of space and time by reel There is one reel for the Shelby plantation one for the St Clair plantation and one for the Lagree plantation and apart from two very brief appearances Uncle Tom is the only character who can be seen in more than one reel27 The reel struc-ture however follows the basic organization of the novel that was fi rst printed serially and retains the narrative forward thrust28

The New York Dramatic Mirror saw the continuation of the story as an important factor for changing the distribution scheme and made a sugges-tion that later would be used in serials ldquoThere should be a caption at the end of reel one and two stating that there would be a continuation of the drama in other reelsrdquo The New York Dramatic Mirror also wrote about the various multi-reel pictures that so far had been released in America and concluded that Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin was different because of its genre drama

The idea of presenting this ever-popular drama in motion pictures is not new but the idea of dividing it into three parts of one reel each is a decided innovation In fact it is the fi rst time an American company has attempted anything of the kind in drama and in this respect the produc-tion must be considered as something of an experiment [ ] The Vita-graph took two reels to give the life of Napoleon two for Washington and fi ve for Moses but these are not dramas 29

Because it was dramatic in nature the story was apparently considered to have a stronger narrative forward push aided by the structuring of the storyline over several reels It is unfortunately not clear whether theaters combined Vitagraphrsquos three-reel Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin into one longer fi lm or showed the reels over different days

An abundance of melodramatic impulses created a stimulus to continue a story that could not be told in the short time span of a single reel a con-tinuation that had diffi culty succeeding because of conventions of distribu-tion and exhibition Some producers actively used seriality in order to fi t a longer narrative into the one-reel system while at the same time offering a choice for exhibitors Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin perfectly fi ts into this form so much so that the New York Dramatic Mirror even doubted a little whether the process of episodic narration could be reproduced successfully with other sources Though the continuation of the storyline was not invoked by way of announcing its next episode through the dramatic presentation and the knowledge of continuation seriality was nevertheless obtained This form of indirect seriality worked also with Griffi thrsquos productions In these melodramatic storylines narrative inconclusiveness pushed forward beyond the one-reel story leaving not so much a cliffhanger with its hooks and elisions but a more drawn-out moment of stillness

Though comparatively Enoch Arden has more need for continuation than His Trust has (the fate of Enoch versus the trust that in a way is already fulfi lled) it is mostly in His Trust that the evolving of serial nar-rative can be seen Enoch Arden benefi ted because it was based on a well-known poem by Alfred Tennyson thereby having an extra stimulus for demand for continuation while His Trust had to create such demand on its own Thus whereas some historians write that the American serial of later date functioned as an in-between phase between short and feature seriality was already present in the basic creation of the feature Seriality was used as part of the multi-reel feature through an abundance of melodrama that burst at the one-reel seam a condition caused by distribution and exhibi-tion practices

SHARDS OF SERIALITY

Though Vitagraphrsquos and Biographrsquos offerings created a form to tell longer stories the question remained whether the longer fi lm would become the norm of the future Most longer fi lm structures came from Europe and it was especially from 1911 onward that the different fi lm industries of Italy France and Denmark were independently of each other producing longer fi lms with an increasing number of reels In France big historical fi lms were made not only because of a demand for new and clearly different European fi lms in reaction to the dominance of American one-reel fi lms (Vitagraph fi lms were for instance widely distributed in France) but also to give the cinema more status Many of these very successful historical fi lms such as Albert Capellanirsquos Le Courrier de Lyon (1911) or his Notre Dame de Paris (1911) were screened in a single program but were structured into quasi-autonomous segments that corresponded to the reel break30 One of the big successes of 1911 that used a slightly different structure was not an histori-cal fi lm but a crime fi lm the three-reel Zigomar Victorin Jassetrsquos Zigomar was loosely based on Leacuteon Saziersquos popular novel that had appeared as a weekly feuilleton in the newspaper Le Matin from 7 December 1909 to 22 June 1910 According to Eacuteclairrsquos own publicity Jasset (an admirer of Vitagraph productions) condensed Saziersquos narrative into a series of confrontations between criminal Zigomar and the detective Broquet Richard Abel describes how the now incomplete Zigomar fi lm used a reel-break in ldquoa strategy similar to that of the original newspaper feuilleton by concluding each reel with a moment of anticipation or suspenserdquo31 Other multi-reel productions from that time on also made use of the cliffhanger reel-ending Autonomous and cliffhanger reel-endings thus produced an episodic feeling when shown as a feature in the program creating a similar feeling as when today American television series are viewed without their original commercial breaks

Even though French fi lms from 1911 like Zigomar La Tare or Le Courrier de Lyon (all using a suspenseful reel-ending) were hardly seen or noticed in America such breaks were known in America32 Trade critic and former press agent of the Lubin Company Epes Winthrop Sargent for instance still advised screenwriters in 1912 that ldquoas a rule in writing a two-reel script you make a defi nite break between two-parts winding up the fi rst with a minor climax as is generally done at the end of each chapter in a novelrdquo33 Suspense between reels provided a clear difference as well as a hook leading to the next reel as a critic describes the differ-ence between one-reel and multiple-reel features

The scenes are curtailed always at a point of keenest interest in just such a manner as are the different portions of a serial story- just when the suspense is greatest and the imaginative system is keyed up to the highest the vision is cut off leaving the onlooker at a tension of irre-sistible curiosity34

Theaters probably welcomed such a transitional moment when they did not have a second projector to make a smooth transition between the reels whereas others used the time between reels to make announcements or present live acts35

The introduction of the longer feature fi lm and its further develop-ment would change the American fi lm industry radically It was especially with the introduction of Italian prestigious pictures from 1911 that fea-tures became successful high-class products Productions like the fi ve-reel Dantersquos Inferno (LrsquoInferno) two-reel The Fall of Troy (La Caduta di Troia) and four-reel The Crusaders or Jerusalem Delivered (La Gerusalemme Liberata) were shown in legitimate theaters with high admission prices thus outside the established distribution system This transition was helped at the same time by the change of its specifi c environment Nickelodeons improved as legitimate theaters increasingly picked up fi lm productions while across America there emerged in the early 1910s the fi rst early ornate mini-palaces with ushers and a small orchestra36

Though the exhibition practice of screening foreign multi-reel productions in a single session still evoked protest in America it was becoming standard by the end of 1913 Italian imports made up over half of the multi-reel fi lms distributed in the United States in the early 1910s37 Different screen practices nevertheless still existed for instance the nine-reel Quo Vadis (1913) was presented in one program in three parts with intervals38 In the meantime in France another solution for long multi-reel fi lms was tried out with even longer pictures Capellanirsquos 12-reel Les Miseacuterables (1912) had already been divided by the production company into four three-reel episodes to be dis-tributed in a weekly schedule The structure was changed again when the fi lm was re-released later or released in other countries in America Les Mis-eacuterables was reduced by a quarter in length and shown in one sitting39

Not until recently has research been done on national differences in nar-rative structures Ben Brewster convincingly describes the rejection of the ldquonickelodeon multi-reelersrdquo (as he classifi es the productions from Bio-graph or Vitagraph) and the European models of narrative construction when compared with an early American-produced feature-length fi lm the six-reel Traffi c in Souls (1913) This fi lm became an important model for later productions and foreshadows classical Hollywood narrational practices While the ldquonickelodeon multi-reelersrdquo and European produc-tions used reel breaks that coincided with a moment of suspense or self-containment none of the reel breaks in Traffi c in Souls coincide with a narrative pause The narrative fl owed more naturally and the episodic quality of the viewing experience declined Still more research needs to be done on this subject within the limits of physical possibility many fi lms are lost incomplete or have been re-edited too often40 The con-nection between seriality in features and the different national structures nevertheless might be an important factor to take into account when con-ducting further research on American and European differences As with American productions from Vitagraph and Biograph multiple-reel produc-tions from Europe were tied in heavily with shards of seriality visible at the seams Once these material units of seriality disappeared as can be seen with Traffi c in Souls a part of the relationship with European and older American production forms vanished

AMERICAN SERIAL VARIATIONS

It was at the end of July 1912 that in America a different bundle of fi lms was released Edisonrsquos What Happened to Mary What Happened to Mary often seen as the forerunner of the serial consisted of 12 episodes of one reel each that were released in strict monthly fashion (in con-junction with a publicized tie-in but more on this in Chapter 3)41 Now purposely the conclusion was distributed separately and not shown in the same program thereby making the narrative break into a spectacle Moving Picture World noted that the second episode was ldquocut short at an intensely interesting pointrdquo that gave ldquoa very strong invitation to the spec-tators to call at the theater [ ] to see what will followrdquo42 The audience was thus left in suspense about Mary and what she might do in the next episode Mary Fuller played Mary who had been abandoned as a child and had to prove who she really was in order to secure an inheritance In this effort she had all sorts of adventures The serial was billed as the centerpiece of a short-reel variety program What Happened to Mary was very successful and a year later Edison returned to the same routine with Who Will Marry Mary this time in six episodes The production thus boosted the mechanism of seriality as has been seen with Vitagraphrsquos and Biographrsquos individually released multi-reel productions

The French production Fantocircmas by Louis Feuillade that is often seen as the French precursor of the serial was also present in America at the time of Who Will Marry Mary When at the end of episode two Juve Contre Fan-tocircmas the evil Fantocircmas blows up a house with police inspector Juve and reporter Fandor in it the question appears on the screen asking whether Juve and Fandor are among the dead When this episode was released in America in 1913 as The Man in Black fi lm critic W Stephan Bush noted in November 1913 that ldquoThe end of the feature leaves the spectator in pro-found suspense It was the exact psychological moment for the lsquoContinued in Our Nextrsquo effectrdquo43 Eileen Bowser thinks that this statement indicates that Juve Contre Fantocircmas could have functioned in America as an encour-agement to make use of the cliffhanger something that in December 1913 indeed happened with Seligrsquos serial The Adventures of Kathlyn44 However as has been noted above open-ended endings had already been used in multiple-reel productions Also as Tom Gunning suggests endings where the main character dies were not so unusual in other French crime-series Nick Carter Nat Pinkerton and Zigomar were all thought to be dead while in the next episode it turned out they were still alive and everything could start all over again45 Of course none of these fi lms used its ending in such a stimulating way by explicitly asking the viewer whether it indeed was the end

Juve Contre Fantocircmas was however not a one-reel picture but consisted in America of four reels that sometimes had action continuing over the reel-break and at other times a clear cliffhanger reel-break46 The fi ve episodes of Fantomas (Fantocircmas) were in America as when released in France of irreg-ular length and were released in an irregular release pattern over a period of one year47 Apart from Juve Contre Fantocircmas the episodes ended in the same way each time Fantomas escaped and a new search could begin Thus while What Happened to Mary functioned both in the program and in the distribution pattern as a constant marker of seriality (and therefore as a ques-tion mark) Fantomas only once used its seriality Overall the serial narrative was not used as spectacle Its irregular distribution patterns may also have contributed to the lack of success of Fantomas in America

With the arrival of the serial The Adventures of Kathlyn Selig approached seriality even more as a spectacle by changing the one-reel monthly format into a weekly two-reel session of 13 episodes (save the fi rst episode which like a television pilot was a bit longer) and adding even more suspense at the end The serial narrative whetted the appetite for subsequent adven-tures while perhaps the broken-up narrative with its hooks and elision also gave some form of pleasure48 Hanford C Judson noted in his review for the next serial that was released Patheacutersquos The Perils of Pauline with Pearl White that when a serial was vivid and left a clear-cut impression ldquothe period of waiting between instalments is rather a pleasant experiencerdquo49 The structure of what today is considered a proper American serial was however not yet adopted Some serials had neither introductory narrative

at the beginning of each episode nor an exciting cliffhanger According to Frank Leon Smith who was a screenwriter for many Patheacute-serials an epi-sode could end for instance with ldquoKathlyn against her will being crowned lsquoqueenrsquo by the natives and Umballah being brought forward as the man chosen for her husband That was a lsquosituationrsquo ending but other episodes wound up sensational action or stunts broken for holdover suspenserdquo50 Thus not only in distribution but also in narrative patterns was seriality used in a fl exible manner The Perils of Pauline had no cliffhangers and was released in a bi-weekly schedule

These fi rst serials were so popular that rental exchanges circulated an unusually high volume of prints With The Perils of Pauline up to 30 prints of each installment were sent to New York many more prints than was cus-tomary at the time51 The huge success of these new fi lm structures stimu-lated companies like Patheacute (The Exploits of Elaine) Universal (Lucille Love Girl of Mystery The Master Key The Trey orsquo Hearts) and Thanhouser (The Million Dollar Mystery and Zudora) to release and produce in 1914 more similar two-reel productions Edison (The Active Life of Dolly of the Dailies and The Man Who Disappeared) Kalem (The Hazards of Helen and The Ventures of Marguerite) and Lubin (The Beloved Adventurer and Road orsquo Strife) produced more a melange of series and serial formats while sticking to the one-reel format

Though it is assumed that the MPPC was not very progressive in fi nding new promotional schemes or producing different fi lm forms it did make an effort with serials As will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3 serials were one of the fi rst fi lm forms to use a nationwide publicity scheme major star capability and advertisement inundation things not regularly associated with MPPC members Certainly other companies would make much more use of these innovations but the ground rules of national dis-tribution and exploitative promotions were laid out by MPPC members Edison and Selig The view of MPPC as old and cumbersome certainly was not true with regard to its serial productions of 1912 and 1913 However even if these innovations can be viewed as a sign of struggle for renewal within the dying MPPC unfortunately they were not widely adopted as the members (except for Patheacute) remained wedded to a looser one-reel series structure whereas the independent fi lm companies were able to catapult serials to much higher levels of popularity

While many in the industry slowly moved towards a length of fi ve and six reels distribution and exhibition practices remained diverse Edison announced in early 1914 in a self-advertising manner that it would not make longer fi lms but would rely on more serials like the successful What Happened to Mary Selig and Kalem were predicting in the trade papers that the trend towards making longer fi lms would end with fi lms of two or three reels52 Some theaters were beginning to play features daily around 1914 but many continued to use short fi lms for fi lling out the daily chang-ing program except on Sunday evening when often a feature was booked

separately53 Serials were not necessarily booked for the whole week but often were screened on a special serial day Sometimes several serials could thus be seen in a week creating a blend of action and serial narra-tives It even was possible to screen several episodes of different serials in one program54 Because of its short form and its adjustable non-con-tinuity different patterns of distribution could be used to create a con-siderably variety

Though still supplied by the producers local exhibitors could retain sig-nifi cant control over programming formats Lubin created a production of 15 single reels called The Beloved Adventurer and presented it as ldquoa series of 15 single reel dramatic pictures which might be run singly as released or used in threes and fives as special featuresrdquo55 Stamp reports in her research that Edison also promoted creative programming among exhibitors When What Happened to Mary was approaching its end the company reported hearing from ldquodelighted exhibitors who are running the series singly in pairs and in a few instances devoting an entire per-formance to the lsquoMaryrsquo picturesrdquo When the follow-up Who Will Marry Mary was released Edison advised exhibitors to repeat the showing of the 12 episodes of What Happened to Mary in a condensed period of time Stamp also reports that an exhibitor may have shown the second and fi rst reels of two successive two-reel episodes to create a cliffhanger effect in the originally cliffhanger-less The Perils of Pauline56

The studios could also repackage installments of popular serials though this was done some time later and usually by a different com-pany For instance The Adventures of Kathlyn was released three years later by Selig as a feature of around eight reels while Thanhouserrsquos The Million Dollar Mystery (1914) was released by Randolph Film Corpo-ration in 1918 edited down from 46 reels to a mere 657 Thanhouserrsquos other serial Zudora was edited down from 20 to 10 episodes in 1919 and released by states rights distribution by the Arrow Film Corporation as The Demon Shadow58 It was particularly in the mid-1920s that Patheacute-Exchange adopted the habit of releasing the production as a feature after its initial serial run59

The audience fi nally perhaps also had some form of freedom As Stamp shows the abundance of copies of The Adventures of Kathlyn fl oating about in Chicago and the fact that not all theaters would start running the serial at the same time offered audiences the chance to see an episode out of the designated order While exhibitors needed to screen the correct sequence audiences did not per se need to follow the sequence or did not need to visit the same theater to follow the story as long as they were will-ing to go to different theaters in town60

Even in America where serial production is often seen as having only the standard of a two-reel weekly various modes were possible Not all serial productions used a standardized method of distribution and exhibi-tion in the same way Nevertheless serials employed a standardized system

of repetition more than any other fi lm form and soon like the whole fi lm industry they would become even more standardized with less control for the exhibitor

RESHAPING EUROPEAN SERIALITY

At the end of August 1916 Gaumont-Mutual announced the release of Fantomas with much publicity It was they claimed the fi rst ldquothree-reel seriesrdquo ever shown in America61 Unlike with its 1913 release Fantomasrsquo episodes were with its re-release issued at a weekly rate while they all had the same length Fantomas had thus adopted the American serial pattern though in three-reel style The Mutual company probably had some role in this having much experience in the distribution of short fi lms that included serials such as Thanhouserrsquos successful Million Dollar Mystery the less successful Zudora or Americanrsquos soon to be released The Sequel to The Diamond From the Sky (1916) and Mutualrsquos own The Secret of the Submarine (1916)

The fi ve episodes of Fantomas though recut correspond (judging from descriptions in fi lm journals) with the original story content Helped a lot by Mutualrsquos promotion that included a serial novel publication during the summer the seriality of the production was marketed as part of the spec-tacle Quoting unacknowledged Bushrsquos review of almost three years ago ldquoEach is lsquoa perfect cloud of sensationsrsquo while the end lsquoleaves the specta-tor in profound suspensersquo rdquo marketing it just like American serials at that time62 According to information on bookings provided by Moving Picture World (or perhaps promotional material directly from GaumontMutual) the streamlined seriality seems to have made Fantomas more popular in re-release than during its fi rst American release in 191363 As welcome extra publicity the edited version got the approval of Marcel Allain (one of the writers of the original novels) who had come to America and had seen it prior to its re-release64

However the main purpose of the re-release and restructuring of Fan-tomas seems to have been to effectively introduce Gaumontrsquos next release in the Mutual programming The Vampires (Figure 11) Originally Feuil-ladersquos Les Vampires had consisted of ten episodes of various lengths (from 350 to 1430 meters) that were released at very irregular intervals65 The episodes had to be seen in a specifi c order and often ended in a situation ending Just like the re-released Fantomas The Vampires was released in America more according to a serial distribution pattern It now consisted of nine episodes that were released at the rate of one episode per week and were of the same three-reel length66 Again if we can believe notices in fi lm journals The Vampires did very well and was praised by exhibitors67 In ldquoserial advertisingrdquo style as Moving Picture World wrote Mutual man-aged to attract attention and publicity by having men wearing Vampire

costumes (that exhibitors could obtain from Mutual) and handing out four-page tabloid newspapers with Vampiresrsquo crimes written in them similar to the writings of Mazamette in the serial68

Figure 11 Advertisement for The Vampires in Moving Picture World December 2 1916 1270

While Fantomas and The Vampires had been retooled only a little bit to fi t better into a serial profi le two British series got the full treatment While Gaumont was still releasing through the Mutual program around June 1917 the British Ultus series was released in seven weekly three-reel epi-sodes Originally the Ultus series had spanned four multiple-reel features that were released irregularly in England between 1916 and 1917 but as Gaumont announced ldquoexperts cutters have gone over the fi lm several times and with the deletions thus far made there is not an inch of superfl uous matter containedrdquo69 Ultus was conceived by the Gaumont-British studios in response to Leacuteon Gaumontrsquos request for a British character to rival the popularity of the super-criminal Fantocircmas70 Ultus as the main character was called might have been on the run from the police but he was no Fan-tocircmas or Vampire gang member In each episode he would avenge someone who had been wronged thereby also making the structure of the series very loose Moving Picture World described the episodes as ldquothe most exciting kind of melodramardquo ldquothrillingrdquo ldquovery excellentrdquo or ldquounusually interest-ingrdquo but Ultus does not seem to have received much other attention71

Mutualrsquos fortunes were however declining with the growing impor-tance of the feature and this became more rapid and visible with the move of DW Griffi th to Triangle in 1915 and Charlie Chaplin to First National in 1917 Probably as a result of this decline and imminent fail-ure Gaumont left Mutual and went over to a state rights system of dis-tribution licensing the fi lm for a particular territory With this change Ultus was re-released After some hesitation regarding the title (the title The Man from the Dead was thought to be too gruesome) Gaumont presented it as The Hand of Vengeance72 The production was now with its ten two-reel episodes even more geared towards the American mode of serial distribution Episodes had been specifi cally constructed ldquowith the idea of carrying the suspense from one episode to another so that no one who sees one episode will want to miss the othersrdquo73 According to copyright descriptions the American re-release indeed was recut in such a way that each episode ended either in an exciting moment (like a chase) or an interesting situation In America the feature series had thus become a serial

Gaumont specifi cally promoted the serial in America as something dif-ferent something not like a melodramatic American serial It was a serial that was always probable and did not depend ldquoupon the usual claptrap mysteries and improbabilities of cheap sensationalismrdquo74 Its difference lay in the fact that it did ldquonot rely on fi ghts wild beasts or unreal improb-able situations to make it interestingrdquo75 In spite of Gaumontrsquos precautions against following the pattern of the usual melodrama and its efforts to wel-come family viewings Margaret I MacDonald of Moving Picture World still saw the production as a serial that was ldquopurely melodramaticrdquo one that ldquorushes along carrying the interest of the lover of pure melodrama with itrdquo76

As a fi nal example Boy Scouts to the Rescue was another British series that would take the adaptive route77 Boy Scouts-Be Prepared as it origi-nally was called was released in England in October 1917 by Universalrsquos European brand Trans-Atlantic In America it was released in April 1918 also by Universal a studio that with Lucille Love Girl of Mystery (1914) had moved into the serial game Originally Boy Scouts-Be Prepared con-sisted of eight episodes of one reel each but in America it had fi ve two-reel episodes so some padding must have taken place Universal used Boy Scouts to the Rescue in what the fi lmrsquos publicity called an experiment ldquoto reestablish the popularity of one and two-reel subject as drawing box offi ce attractionrdquo78 Together with a serial episode of Eddie Polorsquos The Bullrsquos Eye (1918) and Marie Walcamprsquos The Lionrsquos Claw (1918) Universal released a program consisting of only short subjects Every now and then in fi lm jour-nals voices appeared claiming that features were not as interesting anymore to audiences that variety programs would return or that the production of shorts would rise again thereby showing a still present desire for a diverse landscape79 It seems this was Universalrsquos way of offering different ways of distribution while hanging on to the production of shorts However Boy Scouts to the Rescue did not receive much notice after its release Moving Picture World wrote that the story told in the episodes was not intense but rather natural and quite pleasing ldquothere is not the impetuous rush of incident that might be found in an American production but the plot is suffi cient to hold interestrdquo80 The lsquorush of incidentrsquo is something that would be missed in future European serial productions as well (Chapter 7) while in Europe it was seen as something typical American (Chapter 5 and 6) Although The Vampires seems according to fi lm journals to have been rea-sonably popular the two British productions received very little publicity

The shaping and restructuring of the European productions show the strict form episodic seriality had taken by that time (as will be shown in Chapter 7 this strict use would become a problem for future European serial productions) The tinkering and adjustments of seriality can however also be seen with an already mentioned American product though in this case it worked in the opposite direction When Intolerance had initially fl opped badly the non-continuity allowed a further manipulation of the form Griffi th re-released Intolerance in 1919 as two separate and non-inter-cut stories of the Babylonian and the Modern age called The Fall of Babylon and The Mother and the Law81 The smaller stories of the Judean and the Huguenot periods were left out and the multi-episode structure was destroyed82 Non-continuity of the serial had thus allowed further tinkering and adjustment of European products to American distribution standards while it also worked in a reverse way for Intolerance when audi-ences did not respond well to the episodic feature structure

The transition from a program fi lled with shorts to one dominated by a feature was one of the most signifi cant in fi lm history affecting all aspects

of the industry New models of production and distribution had to be devel-oped and were competing with each other while vaudeville houses changed into luxurious theaters and audiences were adapting and changing too When trying to tell a longer story the regularized one-reel distribution sys-tem as used by Vitagraph and Biograph led to broken-up narratives that used seriality The fi rst episodic serials offered exhibitors a continuation of the experience that had been offered by Vitagraph and Biograph while it also offered an alternative in addition to the short and the feature Thus through local contexts and distribution practices the format of seriality was created and developed further

The serial was not just a transitional mode of production but a sepa-rate fi lm form that was very important in the fl ux of changing fi lm habits It has been more infl uential than many fi lm studies have recognized as it functioned autonomously alongside the feature The use of seriality and the serial in this period complements the more recent viewpoints of the term ldquotransitional erardquo not only to see it as a way to pave the way for classi-cal Hollywood practice but as a more complex process of overlapping and interacting heterogeneous forces and practices83 Seriality had been a way to enable longer narratives while the need for regulated release dates and program schedules grew Seriality could through its non-continuity defy the standardized interchangeability of the feature commodity where every feature fi tted more or less in the same way into a program Serials can be seen as having multiple forms that could be shaped to certain wishes An exhibitor could as has been shown make a one-reeler into a fi ve-reel feature Such unbounded freedom would however soon become less with the growing power of the studios and the propagation of the feature The motion picture industry was moving towards a relationship in which the exhibitor simply presented the products as they were delivered Also as can be seen with the adjustments of various European episodic products in America the serial moved towards a static fi lm form where specifi c struc-tures had to be rigorously in place While in America the feature changed further and adjusted to different modes the serial once it had developed and become successful remained more or less in stasis in its two-reel form and did not further evolve

As will become clearer in following chapters of this study the serial retained a transformative character one that is however not always noticed when looked at from a single national perspective The fl exibility and adap-tive nature of the serial can be foregrounded when looked at from an inter-national point of view Nevertheless it is worthwhile to fi rst focus on the distribution patterns of a country that due to the world war was barely present on the international market Germany Precisely because of the countryrsquos isolation can the effect that distribution schemes had on the fi lm industry be clearly seen Unlike in America seriality was in Germany more bound to the feature form that already had been developed Seriality was created through a different model on its own

2 Monopolizing Episodic Adventures

In German fi lm journals of August 1914 advertisements appeared claiming a new world record had been set an 8000-meter fi lm that had cost one million Marks to produce The fi lm would be released soon and in it audi-ences could see elephants tigers and buffalos all creating much excitement and danger for the main actress The German fi lm journal Lichtbild-Buumlhne described it as the latest interesting innovation in cinema and welcomed the fi lm with the words ldquoWillkommen schoumlne Kathlynrdquo1 It was the American serial The Adventures of Kathlyn released in Germany with the title Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn

With The Adventures of Kathlyn a new fi lm structure arrived on the Ger-man fi lm market2 However the serial structure with its continuous storyline did not fare well in Germany Originally in America it was released in a strict pre-planned schedule of one two-reel episode per week and episodes had to be seen in order as they often ended with an exciting cliffhanger This rhythm could however not immediately be translated into the German system of distribution and exhibition3 This chapter will focus on a different way of initiating seriality While in America the serial could at fi rst also function as an alternative fi lm form alongside the short and the long feature in Germany there was less need for this the feature model of the Monopolfi lm was already fi rmly in place As will be explored serials and seriality served in Germany during the war different functions as a fi lm form next to the feature

VANISHING ADVENTURES

At the time of The Adventures of Kathlynrsquos release the Monopol distri-bution system was already well established Monopol is a term that has nothing to do with the subject matter of a fi lm just with how a produc-tion company wants to release a fi lm It was a trading practice within the distribution system designed for fi lms that were to be handled by exclusive regional contracts and to be rented instead of bought (much like the Amer-ican zoning distribution system) A distributor obtained exclusive rights from the producer in order to exploit a fi lm in a specifi c region Exhibitors of that region then had to acquire from the distributor the right to exhibit

Monopolizing Episodic Adventures 25

the fi lm The transference of the screening rights to a theater is in a way the essence of the Monopol agreement The transfer of the fi lm copy itself is merely secondary however important the copy might be for showing4

The Monopolfi lm system focused on expensive multiple-reel feature fi lms featuring well-known stars As Corinna Muumlllerrsquos research has shown it was because of the introduction of fi lms focused around a star persona like Asta Nielsen that Monopolfi lms were used more often from 1911 onward5 The aura of exclusiveness had been much harder to create with previous distribution systems The Terminfi lm (introduced in 1909) for instance relied with its limited release date on newness rather than exclu-siveness The fi lm had to be sold in the short time between announcement and release afterwards the fi lm devalued too rapidly With the Terminfi lm it was however still possible that a fi lm could be seen in several theaters at the same time in the same city or that the premiere would take place in a small town in the countryside6 With a Monopolfi lm the appearance of a star the length and scope of the fi lm could all be marketed as something special and something worthwhile for audiences exhibitor and distributor alike As a result distribution exhibition and ticket prices could be raised production companies could invest in more expensive pictures distribu-tors could afford more publicity and higher purchase prices and exhibi-tors could make use of exclusive premieres obtain fresher prints and build more luxurious theaters In September 1913 the fi lm journal Der Kinemato-graph often focusing on the exhibitor called the Monopolfi lm an unfore-seen breakthrough that quickly had become naturalized and that would in the new season be even more in the foreground According to Der Kine-matograph the Monopolfi lm had by that time already played an impor-tant part in providing fi lms for ldquothe better fi lmtheater attending audiencerdquo while artistic and big budget fi lms as well as fi lms based on the works of a renowned literary author (either an adaptation or original screenplay) were hardly possible without the Monopol-system7 Lichtbild-Buumlhnersquos editor-in-chief Arthur Mellini complained however in 1914 that with the new system one almost needed to have a manager or an impresario and the welcome disconnectedness of producer distributor and exhibitor was lost8

Along with the Monopolfi lm Monopol-series were also used Asta Nielsen fi lms could be booked separately or as a bundle these bundled fi lms were called series and consisted of a whole seasonal output usually of around six fi lms that still had to be produced for instance the Asta Nielsen series 19121913 The term series has nothing to do with a con-tinuing storyline it is a framework of production and distribution at fi rst usually centered on an actor or actress It was at the time still possible to book fi lms from a series separately though this would change quickly within the next years Then the exhibitor was obliged to rent all the fi lms in a series even the lesser ones This specifi c form of block-booking gave the exhibitor the insurance of a yearrsquos worth of the starrsquos output Though of course these fi lms could very well disappoint in quality a star persona usually had the power to generate some interest with an audience

Seligrsquos The Adventures of Kathlyn was very likely one of the fi rst Ameri-can serials to be released in Germany According to the Lichtbild-Buumlhne article Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn had 13 episodes and was on its way from England to Germany9 The fi rst episode measured around 900 meters the other parts around 600 meters thereby having approximately the same length as when it was shown in America In the United States the chap-ters could not be seen in random order and episodes were released in a strict pre-planned schedule This new cinematic structure was noted by Lichtbild-Buumlhne It was announced as a self-contained organic unity like an exciting novel that viewers could not put down and which created a forceful necessity to see the next episode10 The tagline ldquoself-contained storylinerdquo was used in advertisements of American and European serials and multi-part fi lms (with or without cliffhanger endings) of later date as well if only to assure the audi-ence it could understand the story without having to have seen the previous parts With the arrival of the serial in Germany it was also noted that instead of having only a limited time interest in the theater was held now much longer ldquoDie Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn will not only provide daily talk on the street and in the salon but will supply talk for a quarter of the yearrdquo11 Promotional materials became therefore even more important for exhibitors and in advertisements meant for exhibitors the posters were announced as being able to astonish and excite to new heights

Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn never seems to have made it from England in its original form When the Eclipse Company Seligrsquos representa-tive in Berlin advertised the serial again three months after the fi rst promo-tions it had eight episodes of 1000 meters12 Perhaps one speculates the 13-week release schedule was found too long and it was decided that the episodes should be longer Or perhaps it was cheaper to fi ll out a program with serial episodes than with separate fi lms The adjustment from 600 to 1000 meters could perhaps in Germany also have been made to match the length of a Monopolfi lm German feature fi lms of the early 1910s usually lasted around an hour13

Unfortunately not much is known about what happened to Die Aben-teuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn when it was released in Germany Eclipse had sold the distribution rights to two companies as a result of which Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn popped up at the end of 1915 as part of the Philantropische Lichtbilder Gesellschaftrsquos output It was now advertised as a fi lm of ldquo3 Akterdquo not as an episode serial series or multipart fi lm14 The scheme of distributing it in a distinct rhythm clearly had evaporated From the other distribution company the Dekage Film Gesellschaft from Cologne no announcements have been found

Though American serials were popular all over the world at this time no other foreign serial production apart from Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn seems to have been released in Germany during the war German distributors were cut off from dealing directly with distributors in France and Britain but this meant no immediate stop of foreign products15 For-eign companies in Germany were not immediately taken over or closed

down products could also still enter via the Danish production and dis-tribution company Nordisk or until 1916ndash1917 via Italian and American companies while the fi lms that already had been imported would also con-tinue to circulate in German theaters (even if as in the case of French fi lms they were actually prohibited)16 The lack of serials might be explained by the fact that in Germany serials like Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn would be confronted with a different environment than in America The total length and scope of the serial made it attractive as a Monopolfi lm but the distribution model of the Monopolfi lm made it diffi cult for an episodic production to succeed

Distributors had advertised Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn as a Monopolfi lm not specifi cally as a Monopol-series17 Around 1914 only the very well-known stars were distributed and bundled as a series Kathlyn Williams who played Kathlyn was not a star in Germany If Die Aben-teuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn had been released as a Monopol-series there would have been some snags The Monopol-series were not designed to be released like serials and were not shown in a regularized time slot of for instance one episode per week Monopol-series were released in a rather jumbled and irregular way It was not known before signing on to a series exactly when the pictures would be released The release would be made as soon as the fi lm was fi nished Advertisements by exhibitors made the audi-ence aware of the fact it was a series for instance a number three from the Mia May series The repetitiveness of a series might have stimulated the audience to see every fi lm from a series However a viewer could not form the habit of going every week or month to the particular theater in order to see the next part from the series

The repetitiveness of a series had been tried earlier by Joe May with his Preisraumltselfi lme (prize puzzle fi lms) in autumn of 1913 May constructed with his Preisraumltselfi lme an eventful feeling that Karen Pehla has labeled as Kinoerlebnis (a cinematic experience) a spectacle that was repeatable that met public demand and could guarantee profi tability18 This Kinoerlebnis was especially fruitful in a time when short fi lms were released in abun-dance and it was diffi cult to construct a special exciting feeling around them The fi rst Preisraumltselfi lm Das Verschleierte Bild von Groszlig-Kleindorf (1913) dealt with a female statue that aroused many men but when the statue was covered up after some incidents it suddenly disappeared The fi lm stopped there and asked the audience the question ldquowho might have stolen the statuerdquo The moviegoer had to guess the outcome Answers could be sent to the Berliner Tageblatt and other local newspapers and for each fi lm there was prize money of 8500 Marks The following week the solution could be seen in the cinemas According to advertisements there were to be seven fi lms one fi lm per week The fi lms were not all constructed around a detective plot some had a more dramatic or romantic storyline19

The repetitive fi lm structure and interest created by withholding a solu-tion to a story resembled the serial format that was being tried out in Amer-ica at the same time Joe May even advertised that probably the cinemagoer

would see the picture more than once just to get the answer right However the formula did not work in Germany May could not deliver the fl ow of Preisraumltselfi lme and the advantages of a centralized advertising scheme vanished Exhibition dates were changed and no rhythm to bind an audi-ence to a theater could be created Also the repetition itself the need to have to go at a certain time to the theater was not viewed favorably by Der Kinematograph20 Only four episodes and two solutions to them were made none of which unfortunately has survived

From 1915 on more and more Monopol-series were put on the market By that time there was a Suzanne Grandais series a Maria Carmi series a Mia May series a Valdemar Psilander series a Hedda Vernon series but also series existed for directors like the Ernst Lubitsch series or the Richard Oswald series or for fi ctional characters like the Joe Deebs series Famous names were exploited as brands in order to secure a whole produc-tion line With the Monopolfi lm thus also a star and genre system emerged helping to consolidate the German fi lmmarket before and during the war21 A couple of times a year a segment of that brand was released to exhibi-tors who often had not known any details about the fi lms before signing on Separate fi lms could usually no longer be obtained it was only possible to rent a whole series The fi lms in the series did not have a continuing storyline each fi lm had a different story With returning characters like the extremely popular detective sleuths each time a new murder or mys-tery had to be solved or a criminal had to be caught22 Apart from series fi lms that stimulated a regularization of viewing stars and characters there were also sequels Only in retrospect did sequels form a series and only in name and not as a distribution practice Director Richard Oswald had a special talent for recognizing a franchise many of his fi lms would later get a sequel These fi lms were distributed separately as a Monopolfi lm not as a series There was no real strategic distribution scheme new episodes were only announced after the previous one had been successful thus forming an irregular release schedule For instance a total of six fi lms of Der Hund von Baskerville were made by several producers between 1914 and 1920 but more than fi ve years passed between episodes four and fi ve23

Thus as with Preisraumltselfi lme Monopol-series and a serial like Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn diffi culties in production and different distribution patterns prevented a rhythmic release of products that could have functioned as a repetitive marker for the audience In order to create a rhythm with a more addictive impact a serial needed to be released as a Monopol-series but with a much stricter production and release format

THE CREATION OF SERIAL LIFE

According to distributor Wilhelm Graf from the Dekage-Film-Gesellschaft at the beginning of 1916 Monopol-series were becoming rather irritating Film distributors as well as theater owners were obligated to buy a pig in

a poke ldquoBefore it had not mattered that much because it would only con-cern audience favorites A weaker picture of these favorites would still draw enough peoplerdquo24 Now Graf complained that there were also series-fi lms with unknown artists that were only sold through unjustifi ed big advertisements ldquoIt is already too late when the fl op is noticed and it is getting harder to fi nd the good seriesrdquo Another problem was censorship which caused irritations when only three of the six fi lms could be shown Wilhelm Graf proclaimed that only series with really fi rst-class stars and directors should be made the rest should

Figure 21 Advertisement announcing the possession of the Monopol rights of Homunculus by the Dekage fi lm company Lichtbild-Buumlhne July 15 1916 46

disappear as soon as possible It was not the producer but the distributor and the exhibitor that suffered Graf himself had until that time not ventured much on Monopol-series but he had experience with the distribution of Die Aben-teuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn back in 1914 Soon after his statement he would sign up for a few series himself that year the Emilie Sannom Sensation Series 191617 a Stuart Webbs detective series as well as Homunculus

Homunculus directed by Otto Rippert was the fi rst German Monopol-series that clearly did have a continuing storyline and a production schedule of several episodes (Figure 21) The production company Deutsche Bioscop announced in advertisements that each episode had a self-contained sto-ryline it was through the character of Homunculus that the episodes would be connected25 Lichtbild-Buumlhne praised the fact that director Otto Rippert had succeeded in the hardest part ldquocreating each part as a fi lm unto itself without altering or upsetting the structure of the entire cyclerdquo26 Homun-culus tells the story of an artifi cial man created in a test-tube by a scientist who wants to make a perfect creature of pure reason Homunculus himself resents the fact that he is not a real human being has no soul and cannot feel or give any love as result of which he vows to take revenge on human-ity itself The six episodes each of around 1500 meters in length had to be seen in order and were part of an overarching and continuing story begin-ning with the birth and ending with the death of Homunculus27

The block-booking scheme of the Monopol-series fi tted the serial fea-ture quite well Rippert only had to adjust the freestanding Monopol-series into a connected storyline Like other Monopol-series there was no clear release schedule beforehand From episode descriptions it seems no cliff-hangers were used In this way there existed less pressure for the viewer but still enough interest could be created to encourage viewers to see the next chapter Homunculus thus provided a structure that was able to work inside a Monopol system a system with a seemingly constantly fl exible schedule When the fi rst two episodes of Homunculus had been fi nished earlier than announced they were also distributed earlier This surprised Lichtbild-Buumlhne who reminded readers that often series contracts had to be rearranged but usually it meant a later release instead of an earlier one28

In Berlinrsquos prestigious theater Marmorhaus Homunculus was released in 1916ndash1917 over a period of almost fi ve months with two weeks to one month between episodes When released in Hamburg there was a different irregular schedule altogether Interestingly about half a year later in the Netherlands instead of a somewhat unclear release schedule Homunculus was screened at the rate of one episode per week just as had been done with two previously released American serials Because of this strict distribution system Homunculusrsquo revenge ended in the Netherlands in six weeks29 The rhythm of exhibition and possibly the heightened addiction of the audience that was gained meant however the loss of fl exibility When there was a need to hold an episode over for a second week this could be done in Ger-many but not in the Netherlands

Thus with Homunculus fi nally a serial production was released in Ger-many one that fi tted perfectly within the Monopol-series distribution struc-ture thus as a special production of feature length that had a rounded-off storyline instead of a hard-edge cliffhanger to function within the fl exible distribution schedule

THE MISTRESS OF THE WORLD

To release a Monopol-series without a strict schedule was not without its dangers The changing release dates irritated exhibitors as well as distribu-tors from 1916 on30 The many series (not only of famous actors or direc-tors) constrained theaters limiting them in their ability to change schedules easily to take up another series or even to show all fi lms that were rented31 Then there were allegations of block booking extra fi lms with a Monopol-series making the features as cheaply as possible after a series had been signed and taking possible successful features out of the series reducing the value of the series as a whole It resulted in protests against the Monopol-series and even a boycott was tried32 In 1917 Lichtbild-Buumlhne had men-tioned in a reaction to the series protest that perhaps block booking was not a good or fair system but it was partly caused by the war-induced situation of having only a small distribution area33

Indeed immediately after the war fewer Monopol-series fi lms were offered even though trade was still not possible with other countries However according to ldquoTbrdquo who wrote to the speakerrsquos corner of the fi lm journal Die Filmwelt Ufa was one of the culprits who in February 1919 still acted rather aggressively towards exhibitors ldquoTbrdquo felt that the fear of foreign imports was the reason some distributors advanced their 1919ndash1920 season in order to clog the cinemas with German fi lms so that later in the year there would be no room left for any foreign fi lms that might be imported He advised exhibitors not to sign up for a new series whose fi lms would not be delivered until autumn anyway34 Ufarsquos trump card in this matter was Die Graumlfi n von Monte Christo soon renamed Die Herrin der Welt which was conspicuously not advertised as a series but as one elaborate and big spectacle of a fi lm with eight episodes made by the well-known directorproducer Joe May May was certainly no stranger to a massive production After many detective sleuths of Stuart Webbs he made the large scale Veritas Vincit (1918) that had elabo-rate sets and impressive crowd scenes35 As would become standard with later Monumentalfi lms considerable promotion was generated probably master-minded by Joe May to announce the high production values of Veritas Vin-cit36 Veritas Vincit was an enormous success and showed Germany what it could do and how a spectacle could be created while it also would infl uence the production of other Monumentalfi lms both serial and feature37

The titles and length of Die Herrin der Weltrsquos episodes were already printed in advertisements of February 1919 though the fi lm still had to be shot The

release dates were also set and May clearly noted that eight weeks after the premiere the fi nal episode would be shown As a reassurance May claimed that the fi lms were also understandable for audiences who had not seen the fi rst episodes and that an advance notice at the end of the fi lms was used to focus on the next chapter38 So in November 1919 fi ve years after the failure of Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn there fi nally was a serial fi lm with a precise rhythm of consumption (Figure 22)39 An enormous undertaking of a

Figure 22 In October Joe May reminded everybody that he had kept his promise distributing the eight episodes of Die Herrin der Welt in eight weeks Erste Interna-tionale Filmzeitung October 11 1919 18ndash19

serial like Die Herrin der Welt was not within every producerrsquos means Eight features of around 2000 meters had to be lined up and the producer had to wait to make a profi t until they could be distributed according to schedule Costs were claimed to be around eight million Marks No serials of this size were made afterwards It was rather the seriality of the two- to four-part fea-ture fi lms that would be used in the years to come even Mayrsquos next fi lm Das Indische Grabmal (1921) consisted of two episodes

Figure 22 continued

After the blockade had been lifted in 1921 adjusted American serials also fi lled the screens It was however at the end of 1920 that probably one of the fi rst American serials was released after the war or to be pre-cise re-released Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn This time individual episode titles were announced in exciting advertisements featuring explo-sions animals and of course Kathlyn (see Figure 23) The further develop-ment of the Monopol-series the success of Die Herrin der Welt as well as the introduction of the Groszligfi lm (the large budget fi lm) had helped to make a ldquoproperrdquo feature serial release possible Not only was a rhythm of distri-bution found but also a striking advertising scheme was taken up (more on American serials in Germany in Chapter 4) Incidentally the length of the American serial was adjusted again Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn

Figure 23 Excerpt of advertisement Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn Lichtbild-Buuml hne November 27 1920 69

had this time become a serial of fi ve episodes thus again corresponding closely to the longer feature productions that were available

The Monopol distribution pattern had plunged the market into a series frenzy that only subsided with the end of the war Monopol-series created at one point an almost endless supply of features that exhibitors were forced to take Serials fi tted perfectly in this block-booking scheme of pushed releases However an American two-reel serial did not fi t the Monopol-series form that used features and a very unclear release schedule For a serial structure to work at its best a strict production and release form had to be in place one which permitted few deviations The Monopol-series had made distribution of a bundle of fi lms possible but they also delayed the advent of seriality with a designed release rhythm Of course one should not forget that during the war there were restrictions on raw fi lm stock caused by wartime shortages which certainly would have obstructed a punctual production When after the war German serials did grow out of Monopol-series they thus used a feature form a more rounded storyline instead of a clear-cut cliffhanger style and many fewer episodes The pro-ductions also did function more on the level of prestige with well-known respectable actors artistic direction and higher budgets Thus Joe May probably having learned the use of structure and spectacle from Veritas Vincit (as well as from a French serial as will be shown in Chapter 4) opted for making Die Herrin der Welt a Monumentalfi lm or Groszligfi lm in serial form though It nevertheless still was a Monopol-series

CONCLUSION PART ONE

By examining and comparing the importance and the distribution practices of the serial on national as well as international levels it becomes clear that the serial production is not a transitional fi lm form but an important and adaptable fi lm form growing autonomously alongside the feature one that has been infl uenced by distribution practices In America by trying to convey longer stories while remaining in the distribution pattern of the one-reel system multiple-reel features were released in separate parts resulting in shards of seriality visible at the seams The serial would follow this line and functioned from the beginning as part of the daily program change as it often was shown only on a specifi c day in the week It would remain for a long time a profi table and important fi lm form though it eventually would through changing exhibition and viewing practices be placed beside the feature instead of being the central (feature) act it once was In the program it nevertheless remained a noticeable and sometimes fl exible fi lm form though much less prestigious

In Germany on the other hand serials functioned differently as they were used within the Monopol distribution system Restricted by the dis-tribution pattern of the Monopol system the feature serial functioned at

least for a week in the cinema as the main event in a program as did other longer multiple-reel features Seriality was thus in Germany through exist-ing distribution patterns more bound to the feature form but more bound and important to the theater as well The German feature serial form did however mean that it was less inclined to change Episodes could not as easily be turned into shorter episodes or mixed together by exhibitors them-selves as was possible with short episodes in America Because feature seri-als needed to cater to local forms of seriality in order to attain success and market presence in foreign countries as will be discussed in Chapters 7 and 9 changes could and would be made nonetheless

Neither the American nor the German serial form was created in a transi-tional process that ultimately would lead to the feature form It was through different distribution practices that they were enabled in different forms of seriality which continued to serve as a fi lm form alongside the feature

Readers will assuredly wonder about the outcome of all those exciting adventures exploits perils and mysteries of Kathlyn Elaine Pauline or Myra in short what happened to Mary and her female compatriots Did they survive a dangerous voyage across the ocean and how did they fare in other countries Would their already tormented bodies be even more stretched or cut into pieces to accommodate certain wishes Also what was exactly Joe Mayrsquos next super production Would Die Herrin der Welt indeed grab power and rule Germany as well as the world The next part will perhaps give you some answers

Figure 24 Cartoon by J Heacutemard Almanach du Cineacutema 1922 (Paris)

Part II

Introduction to Part II

Near the end of 1915 French Surrealist writer Philippe Soupault witnessed an unprecedented force of cinematic inundation that fl ooded Paris and left distinctive markers in daily life

One day you saw huge posters as long as snakes stretching out along the walls At each streetcorner a man his face covered with a red handkerchief was pointing a revolver at the unconcerned passersby You thought you heard galloping a motor kicking over screams of death We descended on the cinemas and understood that everything had changed Pearl Whitersquos smile appeared on the screen this almost ferocious smile announced the upheavals of the new world We fi nally understood that the cinema was not a perfected toy but the terrible and magnifi cent fl ag of life1

The fi lm to which Soupault was referring was an American serial that in France was called Les Mystegraveres de New-York The menacing revolver and the red handkerchief belonged to a criminal who terrorized the actress Pearl White for many episodes However this serial was as will be discussed not the same as the one previously released in America This serial version was positioned quite fi rmly in its new French setting not only obtaining a different structure but also an adjusted content An important tool to accomplish this was the tie-in a novelization that appeared alongside the fi lm a tool that most likely was also noticed by Soupault Namely printed on the posters of Les Mystegraveres de New-York that have survived we fi nd the words ldquoGrand Roman Cineacutema Ameacutericain adapteacute par Pierre Decourcelle publieacute par Le Matinrdquo2

The serial especially American was released on a global fi lm market that never before had seen such opportunities for high levels of promotional and distributional inundation However instead of discussing the fi lm serial as part of the mythology of globalization with the triumph of culturally homogenizing forces that obliterate locality in a culturally imperialistic way (also a discussion of that time one that will be taken up in Chapter 6 of Part Three) I will show that serial structures in different countries could temper

40 Introduction to Part II

the effects of global pressures by making a local version of seriality by rear-rangement addition or copying The use of seriality thus marks a different use of a global fi lm form one that is more closely related to the concept of ldquoglocalizationrdquo American sociologist Roland Robertson sees ldquoglocalizationrdquo as a simultaneous and spontaneous mixture of globalization and localization that maintains a relationship between culture and economy Homogeneity and heterogeneity as well as global and local are thus not necessarily each otherrsquos opposites3 In this second part of the study such dynamics come to the surface when certain elements that are used in combination with seriality are studied and compared in several European countries Seriality was fl ex-ible and its non-continuity (the emphasized and broken junctions between episodes) enabled it to appear in several forms In this way it was able to transcend itself and to absorb and integrate locality

Locality with regard to fi lms could come into play in various ways As early as 1897 separate shots of one continuous non-fi ctional event a boxing match for instance could be selected and bought by the exhibitor4 Thus the exhibitor performed a creative role in the presentation of the fi lm (in a way editing the fi lm) he was the creator of a singular local version5 Local versions of fi lms were also produced as a result of censorship with different versions of fi lms in different sections of a country However the locality this part will focus on is a fi lm form that retained the relationship between culture and economics Censorship on a national level appeared in most countries in the 1910s and 1920s but though often concerned with cultural elements (espe-cially during wartime) these locally censored versions lacked an economic incentive6 Instances of local versions of non-serial fi lms that were created by cultural and economic incentives include Danish fi lms from the early 1910s that were tailored specifi cally for various national markets by producing dif-ferent endings (such as a sad ending for the Russian market and a happy end-ing for the European one)7 However these versions were created at the level of production and could not be altered upon import Furthermore only a few productions were subject to such treatment

Using three case studies of local variations of American and European seriality this second part will deal with how a serial had the capacity to appear in several forms (not only in the form of the short American serial) while at the same time it could absorb and integrate locality The serial fi lm the serial tie-in that appeared simultaneously in newspapers as well as other important advertising possibilities of France Germany and The Netherlands will be explored to see how this abundance of voices that clamored for audience participation and attention could be used to adjust to a local context

3 American Mysteries in France

In August 1912 on the cover of the womenrsquos monthly The Ladiesrsquo World appeared a portrait of someone called Mary At the bottom of the page one could read ldquoOne hundred dollars for you if you can tell What Happened to Maryrdquo On page three of the magazine began the fi rst episode of this new serial novel which told the story of Mary who tried to uncover the secret of her adoption despite the opposition of her stepfather At the end of the episode she takes one hundred dollars and leaves the house and her adventure begins

It came upon her heavily the seriousness of her act A girl of nineteen going to a life of which she knew nothing into a world of which she knew nothing How long would the hundred dollars last What would she do when it was gone She drew a deep sigh Then resolutely she turned her face toward town and walked down the dock and up the street toward the railroad station1

As has been indicated in the fi rst part of this study American serials in the early 1910s were an autonomous and regular fi lm form (even before features were a regularized practice) not a transitional form as has sometimes been suggested Seriality had been important for the development of the feature while the serial itself was for the fi lm industry a successful money-making form that could stimulate a return audience Marketing played an impor-tant role in the success of serials and the tie-in was among the most effec-tive marketing strategies The tie-in created a resonating vibe of seriality that helped push fi lm distribution and consumption in a rhythmic manner In the fi rst chapter of this part of the study after examining the American origins of the tie-in I will look at how in particular two Pearl White seri-als were released with a tie-in in France during wartime I will examine how French customs speech and views were used to create a connection between America and France how patriotic undertones and anti-German slurs were used in a war-related context to accommodate and appeal to national sensibilities as well as how the American serial stimulated the cre-ation of French serial models Present past and future episodes of a serial not only referred to and interacted with one another but were transformed to a new national context outside the cinematic space ie daily life

AMERICAN ORIGINS SATURATING THE MARKET

The rules for the What Happened to Mary contest stipulated that no more than 300 words could be used for giving a description of what would hap-pen to Mary in the next episode A hint was given that this event would happen within 20 minutes after her departure More important than the fact that Mary indeed escaped her stepfather bought an expensive dress and was on her way to New York was the fact that in the next episode pho-tographs from a fi lm were printed alongside the magazine text2 Horace G Plimpton production department head of the Edison Company had con-tacted upon hearing of the upcoming Mary stories Edward A McManus of the McClure company that published The Ladiesrsquo World with the idea of the tie-in3 Each month a new adventure of Mary could be seen in the cinema while one could read it at the same time in the magazine A total of 12 one-reel episodes would appear The reader of The Ladiesrsquo World was encouraged to see the episodes of the Edison serial while the cinemagoer was stimulated to read the story in The Ladiesrsquo World

A so-called tie-in between the fi lm industry and the press had existed in America before 1912 What Happened to Mary however marked the fi rst time that in America a serial novel was published and screened at the same time whereas the print medium was not owned by or directly related to the fi lm production company4 Through the tie-in of What Happened to Mary a much larger reading public than ever before was obtained The Ladiesrsquo World a mass-market womanrsquos magazine with a primarily work-ing-class readership had a circulation of three quarters of a million and was Americarsquos third largest monthly5 In combination with the publicity and screenings by the fi lm company Edison the potential range for Maryrsquos adventures was enormous Additionally as was also propagated in the The Ladiesrsquo World Mary quickly got her own song puzzle game and stage production6 For both Edison and The Ladiesrsquo World the new strategy worked like a charm Trans-media cooperation was thus present from the fi rst use of serials

Serials were used to expand and secure the subscription base for pub-lishers whereas for the studios the tie-in offered additional advertising possibilities that opened up a new way of reaching more and different patrons Thus McManus of The Ladiesrsquo World attested in a typical pro-motional piece not only to the qualities of Edisonrsquos production but also to the ldquohigh literary qualityrdquo of the screenplay by Bannister Merwin Edi-sonrsquos screenwriter and director7 Or Moving Picture World gushed ldquoThe high character of The Ladiesrsquo World will insure the introduction of the picture to some of the very best people in this countryrdquo These promotions were seen as a means to attract ldquoa class of people who are interested in the pictures and who do not have an opportunity to scan the pages of the many journals devoted to the entertainment in which they are interestedrdquo8 After What Happened to Mary and its quick successor Who Will Marry Mary

American Mysteries in France 43

(1913) the tie-in moved onto an even bigger platform from monthly peri-odical to daily newspaper This process started in Chicago where newspa-pers competed to outdo each other in the struggle for readers

Probably motivated by the two successful tie-ins of The Ladiesrsquo World the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago-based Selig Polyscope Company decided to form an alliance Five years earlier the Chicago Tribune had called for the total abolition of the nickelodeon and had up to that point refused to accept advertisements from movie theaters But when caught in a competitive struggle for survival the paper abandoned its anti-fi lm stance and paid $12000 for syndication9 On 29 December 1913 the Selig com-pany released the fi rst episode of the 13-part biweekly The Adventures of Kathlyn and six days later the Tribune published the fi rst episode that would continue for six months10 Allegedly the serial gained the paper a ten percent increase of new readers11 The Hearst syndicate that had entered the daily newspaper market of Chicago with The Evening American could not wait too long An agreement was initiated by McManus to syndicate Patheacute serials in the Hearst papers12 At the end of March 1914 The Perils of Pauline appeared and would continue weekly for 20 episodes while prior to each new episode on Sunday in several Hearst newspapers the concerned episode of the serial novel appeared The Universal fi lm studio was respon-sible for the next serial novel that appeared in a Chicago daily The serial Lucille Love Girl of Mystery could be read from April in the Chicago Record-Herald whereas the 15 episodes could be seen in the cinemas

Thus around 1914 at least three different Chicago newspapers (with sub-sequent syndication across the country) had a tie-in while many fi lm episodes could be seen around town In the next few years almost every American serial was released with a tie-in This scheme greatly increased public aware-ness of fi lm serials Any given serial tie-in would appear in about 50 to 100 newspapers across the country Thanhouser claimed that over 500 of the nationrsquos leading papers were featuring the stories of The Million Dollar Mys-tery According to Patheacute 20 million people read each week The Perils of Pauline a fi gure which Ben Singer considering the vast Hearst network does not even fi nd too gross an exaggeration13 However claims of newspaper serialization soon became ridiculous with Universal boasting that 50 mil-lion people would read Lucille Love or that 2000 magazines were printing episodes of The Black Box (1915)14 The promotional tool of the serial tie-in could inundate the market and create awareness for a product at an incred-ibly fast and broad rate Readers who could not immediately see the fi lm were often reminded in the newspapers to cut out the tie-in episode and save it15 They were thus encouraged to postpone their reading of the serial and only continue once the fi lm had arrived thereby creating a much longer shelf life for the tie-in and the fi lm The reminder however implies also that there was no real control on what actually was done with the tie-in Indeed it is far from clear that those who read the serial novel also went to see the fi lmic episodes (or vice versa for that matter)

In addition to the episodic serial tie-in in newspapers and magazines the studios usually released after the serial had run its course a book version that could be bought in bookshops In 1915 no fewer than two book ver-sions of The Exploits of Elaine were released Harper amp Brothers published a straightforward novel while the edition from the Hearst International Library contained 20 photographs from the serial As we have seen with What Happened to Mary serials in the fi rst years of their existence were also often linked to cash prizes With Patheacute-Eclecticrsquos The Perils of Pauline prize money of $25000 was involved and Thanhouser offered $10000 for the person who wrote the most acceptable solution for the fi nal episode of The Million Dollar Mystery16 Thousands of entries poured into the studios from readers hoping to win these prizes The handing out of free premiums was another way to focus audience attention on a fi lm Special brass keys could be obtained with The Master Key one-inch black cubes were handed out in theaters to promote the release of The Black Box and puzzles pin-cushions and badges were given away with The Red Ace (1917) while songs about the serial queens engaged the audience17

Serials were highly successful with audiences who were enticed by the massive promotions Their quick release and widespread promotion created a known brand name that returned regularly to the theaters over several months Because of this the serial could earn a very high gross in a short time For instance within four months of its release The Perils of Pauline had grossed $1 million The serial also made a serial queen star out of Pearl White who soon was earning the astronomical sum of $3000 a week and would up to 1920 be competing with Mary Pickford for audience popu-larity18 In Pearl Whitersquos wake though not quite as successful other serial heroines like Grace Cunard Marie Walcamp Helen Holmes Eileen Sedg-wick and Juanita Hansen also became celebrities The serials were thus not just a side-note to feature production but could compete with them while bringing in considerable revenue and creating stars as well Also one has to remember that Edison and Selig members of the MPPC were the ones who instigated the ground rules of serial exploitation back in 1912ndash1913 Despite the serialrsquos success it was not further exploited by MPPC members Rather independents like Universal and Thanhouser as well as Patheacute Cin-ematograph after it left the MPPC and became Patheacute Exchange were the ones who continued producing and distributing serials

Apart from the huge product familiarity the serial could create another remarkable aspect about the serial in America is that serials marked a shift from localized exhibitor-based promotions to more nationwide standard-ized publicity campaigns that were designed by the production companies Until that time a national advertising scheme had been diffi cult to set up because short fi lms were diffi cult to distinguish from other shorts and they played only for a few days in the theaters The production and distribution of feature-length fi lms had not yet become routine and thus the time and place where the advertised product could be viewed was not yet known

beforehand As Janet Staiger points out in her overview of advertisement schemes of the silent period it was the serial which pioneered and tried out on a national level multi-media promotional campaigns that fi lm features would adopt later19 Indeed as often happens today with features national publicity campaigns for serials could at that time cost more than the prod-uct advertised In 1914 for instance Thanhouser spent an estimated quar-ter of a million dollars to promote the serial The Million Dollar Mystery by buying full-page advertisements in 200 daily newspapers across the coun-try and erecting large painted billboards in major cities20

Predictable distribution patterns had to be in place in order for a national setup to work Exhibitors had to know not only when they would receive the fi lm but also what selling points they could use Because of the long run and returning stars serials were one of the fi rst products to make extensive use of such a prepared routine With serials a stricter regime could be used to control how a product was advertised and promoted on a national level Like most trade publications the New York Dramatic Mirror applauded the move towards standardized nationally coordinated publicity Thanks to a uniform campaign any serial could be ldquoas big a puller in the smallest town as it is in the largest cityrdquo21 On the other hand according to Staiger many local exhibitors expressed ldquoresentment toward national campaign believing that the national fi rms were infringing on their own preroga-tives and knowledge of local preferencesmdashwith possible harm to their own profi tsrdquo22 Local exhibitors had until that time controlled their own adver-tising they had to pay the production company extra to supply advertising materials For the fi rst time with the serial exhibitors had the opportunity to use publicity for a very long time A local publicity scheme could now in the guise of for instance a song or look-alike contest be linked to a con-tinuous and returning promotion When interest in serials started to wane local publicity stepped in to sell the serial on a local rather than a national level The distributing studio created pressbooks that were meant only for the exhibitors and contained materials and ideas for possible marketing campaigns The pressbook functioned as an intermediary between the local and the national markets

The tie-in and its promotional force did not last that long Once the seri-als had caught on and popularity was assured most fi lm studios quickly abandoned the large money prizes while free premiums also became less common23 As early as 1917 fi lm studios began to question the use of the tie-in It was argued that in fact the exclusivity of the product was being bargained away whereas newspapers began to ask higher prices and per-centages from the studios24 Additionally serials were shown less in fi rst-run houses but more in the smaller urban and rural neighborhood theaters25 From that time on fewer tie-ins were made though they did not disap-pear altogether still popping up in the early 1920s26 Instead of the serial it was the feature that had become the main attraction in the program as the fi lm serial did not adapt by becoming longer but continued to be

shown alongside the feature as extra attraction27 Though serials initiated the large-scale use of the national advertising scheme such schemes nev-ertheless remained something special even for features and only became normal practice for all major fi rms in the early 1930s28

Film promotion could with the help of seriality be pushed to higher lev-els of stimulation and distribution than ever before Serials could create an inundative form of mass media that was often accompanied by outside texts that resonated the seriality of the fi lm text The serial products stimu-lated consumption as the serial brand became well known in a short time especially when prizes and free premiums were offered This changed when serials were exported Not many production companies directly released their own fi lms in both America and Europe on a large scale usually a dif-ferent agent was used to distribute the product in different markets It was only in 1915 when in America serials had already been popular for sev-eral years and were widely publicized that the European fi lm market was introduced on a large scale to the serial As in America the serial in Europe brought new marketing schemes though like the European serial form itself these were not all the same As with promotions on a national level an international advertising scheme became more worthwhile once vertical integration was available whereby the production company was the same as the international distribution company One company that could release its products in massive quantities on both sides of the Atlantic was Patheacute

TRANSMEDIA EXPOSITIONS

The most successful star of the American serial was without question Pearl White not only in America but in many other countries as well Pearl White was not known in Europe before the release of her serials but massive mar-keting campaigns soon remedied that29 Her early serials were produced by Patheacute Exchange the American arm of the French Patheacute and directed by the Frenchman Louis Gasnier who had left France in 1910 It was thus through a boomerang effect that the fi rst American serial was released on a large scale in France by the French Patheacute Les Mystegraveres de New-York30

As we have seen in America the tie-in provided a new way to maxi-mize publicity and make the serial widely known (whether or not readers would actually go to the theater after reading a tie-in remains unclear) It had become an important marketing tool to inundate and create rhythm in the fi lm market The tie-in could however also function as a written supplement to the fi lmrsquos narrative It is in this perspective that Ben Singer argues that the practice of handing out extra plot information through tie-ins was important for the understanding of the fi lmic episodes According to Singer the coherent self-sustained classical narrative was not entirely in place when the fi rst serials were produced and tie-ins were a welcome way to help compensate for this

[When] one looks at particular examples of fi lms with tie-ins it seems almost inconceivable that spectators could have made any sense of the fi lm without an elucidating intertext and perhaps fi lmmakers assumed their audience would have the benefi t of such a supplementary guide31

Singerrsquos comparison of Thanhouserrsquos third episode of the Zudora (1914) serial with its corresponding tie-in supports this claim The fi lmrsquos unclear character and plot motivation indeed seem to be using a baffl ing kind of logic However as was already remarked at the time Zudora was not a very good fi lm serial Audiences found the plots of many of the episodes confusing and disconnected while exhibitors complained and declined fur-ther service it was Thanhouserrsquos last serial32 Even though Singerrsquos view of the tie-in as a necessary tool for comprehension of the fi lm serial cannot be accepted his notion of the tie-in as more than an extra method of promo-tion is worthwhile to take up33 I will not use this concept only to make clear that the tie-in provided supplemental storylines something that is quickly obvious but I will argue that it also functioned as a steering mecha-nism in constructing local meanings when there fi rst was none It is in this respect that I would like to take a closer look at the process of releasing two tie-ins of Pearl White serials in France

Les Mystegraveres de New-York was not originally one Pearl White serial but a combination of three Patheacute-Exchange serials that in America had followed each other in succession in 1914 and 1915 Each starred the famous serial queen Pearl White the 14-part The Exploits of Elaine (1914) the 10-part The New Exploits of Elaine (1915) and the 12-part The Romance of Elaine (1915) The original episodes were in France re-cut and re-arranged into a serial of 22 episodes Each episode still had more or less the same length as the original around 600 meters As the French episodes followed the origi-nal order of the three American serials Elaine Dodge (Pearl White) with the help of Craig Kennedy (Arnold Daly) now successively had to deal with The Clutching Hand (Sheldon Lewis) the evil Wu Fang (Edwin Arden) and the international spy Marcus Del Mar (Lionel Barrymore) Patheacute released the serial in at least 49 Parisian cinemas in France on 3 December 191534 Up until early May 1916 an episode could be seen in the Parisian cinemas while during the previous week the corresponding storyline written by Pierre Decourcelle could be read in the Paris newspaper Le Matin

Even though it is not mentioned in the advertisements or in the serial novel Decourcelle did not start from scratch but relied heavily on the three American serial novels that were written especially for the fi lm serial by the well-known American detective writer Arthur B Reeve Reeve had already introduced the character Craig Kennedy in the December 1910 issue of the Hearst-owned Cosmopolitan Kennedy a professor at Columbia University as well as a scientifi c detective quickly became known in America as the American Sherlock Holmes Kennedy used his knowledge of chemistry to solve cases but he also invented numerous devices like a wireless telephone

a wireless fax machine or a portable seismograph that could differentiate among the footsteps of various individuals Advanced technology could how-ever be used both for crime and detection so it was up to him to continuously invent and innovate Walter Jameson Kennedyrsquos roommate and reporter for the Star newspaper chronicles his adventures In the three Elaine stories the character of Elaine obviously also gets a great deal of attention She does not so much function as a sidekick but more as an individualistic young woman whose doings and happenings assist and endanger Kennedy while the two fall in love with each other The serial novels that were connected to the Patheacute fi lms appeared in the Sunday editions of Hearst syndicated press and were later published as a novel also by Hearst

The Exploits of Elaine (like Zudora) did not have an introductory sequence to explain what happened before this feature would along with the cliffhanger which was also missing from the Elaine fi lms become more standard later on Therefore in order to quickly and fully make sense of the story the previous episodes had to have been seen35 The fi lm is however easy to follow and one does not really need the tie-in to understand what is going on the story is mostly concerned with moving from action scene to action scene Stereotypes and a sometimes staggering degree of coincidence are used to quickly get down to the action-packed sequences Like other American serials (including those of a later date) the Elaine fi lm serials cared little for developing character or deepen-ing dramatic complexity Sensation and shock were more important than psychological drama Compared with several fi lm episodes that have sur-vived the novelization of The Exploits of Elaine adds more insight into the relationship between Kennedy and Elaine Their refl ections on some of the dangerous situations are elaborated on while the various scientifi c experiments and gadgets Kennedy uses are more fully explained and the coincidental happenings that often happen in these kinds of serials are given more connection

This higher degree of exposition and character motivation probably did offer readers a more satisfying storyline than the fi lmic one Perhaps simi-larly to 1920s fan magazines that through its circulation of extra-textual biographical information shifted the gaze of the fan towards an invisible realm hidden from the screen the refi nements made in these tie-ins pointed to a more complex story realm as well36 As LP Bonvillain vice-president of Patheacute Fregraveres told Moving Picture World

We can now through the medium of all these newspapers which cover so large a portion of the more thickly settled sections of the country tell the story of the picture in a satisfactorily complete form We can do fully what the subtitles try to do we can make more intelligible all the happenings of the play we can analyze character explain motivesmdashwe can if you will amplify the action and set forth those things which can-not be shown on the screen37

The serial novel could indeed be used perhaps not primarily as a necessary or essential tool for comprehension but for enriching and contextualizing the fi lm The American tie-in nevertheless did not provide a very detailed story when compared with the elaborate French version

AMERICAN AND FRENCH CRIMES CHANGING AND CREATING A NARRATIVE

Each week for 22 weeks an episode from Les Mystegraveres de New-York could be seen in Paris while the story by Decourcelle could be read daily in Le Matin as well as in French provincial newspapers (see Figure 31) From that moment on a fi lm serial was because of its close ties to the serial novel in France called a cineacute-roman38 Additionally the publishing house La Renaissance du Livre released some time later a weekly booklet of Les Mystegraveres de New-York for 25 centimes The booklet corresponded to one fi lm episode later these could also be bought bound together as a book

Pierre Decourcelle was a popular fi ction writer who had written the successful novel Les Deux Gosses and in 1908 he together with Eugegravene Guggenheim founded the literary adaptation company SCAGL39 Les Mystegraveres de New-York probably benefi ted from Decourcellersquos writing skills as well as his ability to translate a story from one medium into another Compared with Reeversquos novel Decourcellersquos Les Mystegraveres de New-York elaborates much more on the story and its characters Sometimes Decourcelle directly translates parts of Reeversquos text but often he developed and expanded the story This expansion can be seen for instance with the minor secondary character of the gunman Limpy Red one of the fi rst char-acters introduced in the fi lm and novel In Reeversquos novel of The Exploits of Elaine he is only described as ldquoa red-headed lame partly paralyzed crookrdquo40 When Limpy Red pressed by Elainersquos father snitches on his evil boss and gives the father an envelope with directions to The Clutching Handrsquos whereabouts Reeve writes

When Limpy Red still trembling left the offi ce of Dodge earlier in the evening he had repaired as fast as his shambling feet would take him to his favourite dive upon Park Row There he might have been seen drinking with any one who came along for Limpy had moneymdashblood moneymdashand the recollection of his treachery and revenge must both be forgotten and celebrated41

When Limpy continues to another venue for more drinks he gets killed by means of a lead pipe held by one of The Clutching Handrsquos associates

In Les Mystegraveres de New-York Le Bancal Rouge (as Limpy Red is called) is a more interesting character receiving an extended background Le Ban-cal Rouge used to be a rifl eman in music halls and circuses but became

addicted to alcohol and as a result came under the infl uence of La Main Qui Eacutetreint (The Clutching Hand) In Les Mystegraveres de New-York after revealing the whereabouts of the evil gang Le Bancal Rouge goes to the pub not to drink away his blood money but to be around people for safety

Figure 31 A foldout booklet of Les Mystegraveres de New-York was given away as an appetizer by the newspaper Le Matin It told part of the storyline of the fi rst episode

and wait to be accompanied to the port In exchange for information on the whereabouts of the evil La Main Qui Eacutetreint the uncle of Elaine (origi-nally it was her father) had promised him a safe passage on the ship La Lorraine that would take him to France Le Bancal Rouge had received enough money to build a new existence perhaps opening a bar in Paris While waiting he has a drink and asks explicitly for the extra dry Pommery champagne instead of some German label42 After several hours of waiting in vain for his transport to arrive (Elainersquos uncle in the meantime has been murdered) a rather slatternly strong-armed red-haired woman of German descent with a glass eye starts fl irting with him trying to profi t from his apparent wealth Getting restless and drunk he tries to perform a Wilhelm Tell trick on her but she refuses When the bar closes Le Bancal Rouge leaves scared and full of doubt Outside he gets murdered with a cloth fi lled with sand by an accomplice of La Main Qui Eacutetreint

Through the expansion and eye for detail Decourcelle succeeds in mak-ing a more compelling story than the rather stilted and very basic version by Reeve that had very few details Decourcelle takes in many instances many more words to describe a setting (that when compared with the fi lm version fi ts rather well) and to relate that setting to the history of the char-acters Decourcelle also included small snippets that had a strong relation to the troubled world outside the fi lm theater La Lorraine for instance was an actual ship that had run between Le Havre and New York between 1900 and 1914 During the war the ship was used as an armed merchant cruiser and renamed Lorraine II43 Lorraine was of course also a province of France that together with Alsace had been lost during the Franco-Prussian war in 1871 and which France wished to recover during the First World War Similarly the reference to Pommery champagne can be linked to the Franco-Prussian war as well as to World War I Champagne was a region in France that had often been invaded and ravaged perhaps more than any other French province At the time the German front line was not very far from the soon-to-be-blown-up Pommery Chateau44

As we shall see the overall tie-in was Frenchifi ed and made explicitly anti-German Le Bancal Rougersquos rejection of German champagne was only the fi rst and small sign of these changes Snippets refer to a common French history but also to French clicheacutes and habits It is possible that the tie-in could have made the transition from French products to American imports easier for the audience to accept French fi lm production had received a very hard blow with the start of the First World War Many experts actors and workers left for the front and fi lm factories were abandoned Patheacute (as well as others) had already begun restructuring the company to act more like a distribution company at the expense of regularized production In 1915 American fi lms were imported on a large scale to meet the product demand of exhibitors creating an invasion of American products45 Les Mystegraveres de New-York is judging from advertisements and articles in fi lm jour-nals probably the most well known of the new American productions that

arrived at that time on the French market except for the shorts by Charlie Chaplin (known in France as Charlot) By adjusting the serial more to a French reality and history the American invasion was perhaps softened for the viewers who could still see something French in the fi lms At the same time the serial could as we shall see function explicitly as anti-German propaganda while conveying French views on America

SERIALIZED WAR RELATIONS INVADING THE FABRIC OF LIFE

It is fair to say that Le Bancal Rougersquos extended exploits probably are due to the adjustment to a different tradition Whereas in America most novel-ized serials as well as fi lm serial tie-ins were only published once a week (usually on Sunday) in France the very popular serial novel scheme was a daily one Thus to achieve a proper adjustment with regard to the fi lm release pattern a much longer story was needed It is also possible that like many other serial novel writers Decourcelle was paid by the word which might have made him more verbose The richer world obtained displayed not only opposition to Germany but also the contrasts between France and America between the Old World and the New World The biggest adapta-tion that was made in the story the change that was needed to bring such opposition into the serial involved changing the American character Craig Kennedy into the Frenchman Justin Clarel46 The story remained situated in America There is no mention of France in any of the original novels

In the serial novel Justin Clarel is quickly introduced as a famous fearless Frenchman holding a double job as Professor at Columbia University and as crime detective (though in neither version is he seen teaching or carrying out any other duties at the University) Taylor Dodge had contacted Clarel to ask for his help in catching the villain La Main Qui Eacutetreint When Tay-lor is found dead Justin Clarel looks after Elaine and falls in love with her A fl ashback early in the tie-in explains to the reader why Clarel went to America When Clarel tells his mentor Alphonse Bertillon that he wants to be part of the private Parisian police task force Bertillon answers him

Between you and me the private police service in Paris and in the whole of France generally does not have a good press It consists for the most part of former inspectors who left their job because of some bother-some affair or disagreement with their chief Consequently we do not hold the profession in the high regard that you rightly aspire to47

Apart from Decourcellersquos obvious critique of the Parisian police force other snippets place the story in a realistic French contemporary setting For instance Clarelrsquos mentor Alphonse Bertillon had really existed and had died a year prior to the start of the tie-in He had been part of the Parisian police force and had developed the fi rst scientifi c method of criminal identifi cation48

Given his stature and his death it is very likely the reading audience knew who Bertillon was In the tie-in Justin Clarel follows his advice and within two years he is famous in America as his mentor had predicted

Though this instance of adding layers of connections that at the same time make statements about America and France is presented in a fl ashback scene most connections and differences between the two countries that pop up every now and then can be found in the dialogue between Clarel and Elaine Mutual relations between man and woman (such as the clicheacute of the courteous passionate Frenchman who easily can turn a womanrsquos head) extensive comments on the deadening dispiriting French bureau-cracy French expressions (ldquoas one says in Francerdquo) as well as other snippets of Parisian or French habits are sprinkled throughout49 America is often presented as the land of opportunity and progress where one can make a career easily though sometimes also less positive sides of American culture are discussed For instance Elaine likes to spend large sums of money and often goes on a shopping spree especially in search of antiques that ldquomany young American ladiesrdquo fi nd irresistible (even though Elaine already pos-sesses ldquomany of those useless things with which the rich fi ll their lives and drawersrdquo)50 The serial tie-in thus gives us a French view of French reality a typical French perspective on America and a rather conventional Ameri-can perspective on France However the strongest connection to the world outside the serial was the allusion to the World War that was going on outside the theater threatening Parisian life

The Romance of Elaine the third serial instalment of the Elaine adven-tures was one of the fi rst fi lm serials in America to extensively deal with a foreign threat (most so-called American ldquopreparedness serialsrdquo would be made from 1916 on) In this serial foreign spies have a secret subma-rine base in America and Craig Kennedyrsquos wireless torpedoes are stolen In Reeversquos serial novel the spiesrsquo nationality was never mentioned they remained ldquoforeignrdquo51 Only when the international spy Marcus del Mar (who is the head of the Anti-American League) gets torpedoed to the bot-tom of the sea in the last episode whereupon he writes a note ldquoTell my emperor I failed only because Craig Kennedy was against me Del Marrdquo does it become clear he probably was German52 At the time of the release of The Romance of Elaine in the summer of 1915 American entry into the war was still nearly two years away Reeversquos account recorded a growing sense of uneasiness never mentioning France or Germany only that a war was going on in Europe53

Thus while the action of the American serial takes place during the war the action in Les Mystegraveres de New-York is situated almost entirely before the war This becomes most clear when in the last episode the outbreak of the war is built into the plot In it the devious spies try to cut the Atlantic Cable in order to block the knowledge of Francersquos declaration of war (in Reeversquos version the spies try to cut it without any explanation of the objec-tive except that it would be a good idea) References to the war that was

at hand were included in the French serial from episode 16 onward At that point Clarelrsquos Frenchness is also brought to a higher level Because in the fi rst episode it had been suggested that Clarel had left France in search of fortune and fame the question remained whether he was a true Frenchman or an assimilated American At the time but also well before immigration to America had not been viewed favorably in France It was considered a source of weakness as the French did not need to emigrate Immigration numbers confi rm this while between 1870 and 1914 more than 20 million immigrants from all over the world went to America only a few tens of thousands of them were French54 With the addition of war to the story the rupture between Clarel and France that perhaps raised questions among readers and viewers was healed

In episode 16 it was made very clear that Clarel had remained French and it was because of his Frenchness that he was successful in his work and life

In all of his aspirations hopes and dreams he had remained deeply a son of French soil And everything that harmed France no matter how small the affront struck his heart The ups and downs of life had forced him to seek happiness abroad but he had long wondered how in exile he could serve the country that had nurtured him and from which he was temporarily separated55

The reader is told that Clarelrsquos knowledge and skilled deductive techniques had made him search for ways to counteract the German force that he felt was at hand

Years ago he had realized the insatiable desires of Germany and un-derstood that despite a peaceful faccedilade the predatory Kaiser was only waiting for the opportunity to unsheathe his concealed sword and throw himself on his enemies lulled in a false sense of security56

Thus by going to America where he could fi nd more opportunities to counteract Germany Clarel could save France Clarel started to work on a radio-controlled torpedo (see Figure 32) He shared his invention with the government of America (in gratitude for its hospitality) under the sole condition that upon completion America would immediately share Clarelrsquos invention with France but only with them ldquoOnly the two sister repub-lics would have the monopoly over the remarkable machine which would ensure them from a maritime point of view an incomparable advance and an uncontested superiorityrdquo57

The last episodes of Les Mystegraveres de New-York concern the search for Clarelrsquos torpedoes that had been stolen by Julius Del Mar In the end every-thing goes well and together with the US Navy he defeats the German enemy who wanted to sink ships carrying reinforcements to France As in the original Clarel and Elaine reunite after these adventures but where

the American novel and fi lm stop the serial novel of Les Mystegraveres de New-York continues58 Decourcelle has Clarel and Elaine leave for France on 9 August 1914 on La Lorraine ldquoexactly seven days after the declaration of warrdquo59 In France Clarel would offer his torpedo invention to the gov-ernment and Elaine would nurse the wounded until with the victory the moment of their marriage arrived The brilliant son of France thus returned to the country that needed him most immediately upon the outbreak of the war Clarel brought with him the help of America not only in the guise of Elaine but also through the US Navy that together with Clarel had tested and perfected the wireless torpedo However it was not a truly happy end-ing The audience of the serial was at the end plunged back into reality or reality had invaded their pleasurable visions of heroics The happy ending of marriage (an event that in the original novel is never mentioned) could only be fulfi lled after the war with Germany had been won

The war-related texts of Les Mystegraveres de New-York (as well as other serials that would follow) fi tted cruelly into daily life in France Episodes were announced in newspapers and fi lm journals next to obituaries remembrances and funds for widows while at the moving picture theatres episodes were being screened right after special War Bulletins According to an unidentifi ed American source from June 1916 many French soldiers read Elainersquos adventures in Le Matin (a fi gure of two million was cited) and were eager to see her exploits on the screen while on a six-day leave As it would

Figure 32 Production still from the Les Mystegraveres de New-York book in which Clarel shows Elaine a miniature version of his torpedo invention

normally have been impossible to see all the episodes in such a short time (indeed there were 22 episodes in circulation)

The War Offi ce has asked Patheacute-Fregraveres to make arrangements to show the entire serial each week for the benefi t of the soldier fans on furlough Ac-cordingly a circuit of screenings has been arranged and Pearl White now plays to vast audiences of bearded uniformed men fresh from the shock of war who fi nd in the great Pathe serial a much needed diversion60

Although America had not yet joined the war and specifi c anti-German fi lms (such as The Kaiser the Beast from Berlin 1918) had yet to be made the serial was actively retrofi tted to fall in line with an overall growing opinion61 The French press such as Le Matin which ran many serial tie-ins began creat-ing a false image of the United States that held France close to its bosom A set of motives and views of the war comparable to those of France was projected onto the United States While before the war the relationship had been a non-issue now the bond with its ldquosister republicrdquo was made closer than it really was From 1916 until the end of the war the French press launched a deifi cation of President Wilson published many articles on Americarsquos love for France (including stories about female American vol-unteers at the front) and indulged in an overall pro-Americanism62

GERMANY AND FRANCE IN THE HOUSE OF HATE

Between Pearl Whitersquos fi rst serial in France Les Mystegraveres de New-York and her last war time one La Maison de la Haine (The House of Hate 1918) there had been others that also made use of propagandistic exten-sions Their French novelizations added plenty of anti-German propa-ganda that were absent in the original American story In Marc Mariorsquos Les Exploits drsquoElaine (The Perils of Pauline 1914) Karl Summers sacri-fi ces his life for Germany in an attempt to sink an American submarine in Jean Petithugueninrsquos Le Masque aux Dents Blanches (The Iron Claw 1916) Karl Legar pledges allegiance to the DUA group (standing for Deutschland Uber Alles) and in Marcel Allainrsquos Le Courrier de Washing-ton (Pearl of the Army 1916) Major Brent kills himself after Pearl learns he was a German spy who tried to steal the defense plans of the Panama Canal63 References to French life were less present in these productions perhaps because in these instances Pearl Whitersquos character had no French companion Her concern for the war in France as well as the love for the country often nearly as strong as the love for America thus expressed even more an American point of view

Almost eight weeks after the armistice with Germany that put an end to the actual fi ghting the fi rst episode of La Maison de la Haine was released in Paris on 27 December 1918 It was Pearl Whitersquos sixth serial

that was released in France Pearl White plays Pearl Waldon who is heir to the Waldon arms factory after her father has been murdered She is con-tinuously confronted and hampered by the evil deeds of the Hooded Ter-ror a German spy trying to get information about the factoryrsquos products The adjusted 12 fi lm episodes (the original American version had 20 epi-sodes) were novelized by Guy de Teramond The story takes place before Americarsquos involvement in the war Unfortunately in the United States no tie-in of The House of Hate seems to have been made nor was it published as a novel even though the script was partly written by Arthur B Reeve American fi lm studios were at that time starting to question the use of the tie-in The French novelization seems to be the only tie-in of The House of Hate that was made

The confrontation between France and Germany one that in Les Mystegraveres de New-York took some time to get into gear was made evi-dent from episode fi ve Then Pearl as head of the factory of arms has to decide which party will acquire the supplies of a newly designed grenade launcher the French or the Germans She fi rst meets French Captain De Kargueacutezec who approaches her elegantly having a ldquovery French courtesyrdquo64 It is also stated that Pearl like her father loves France as it was ldquothe land of freedom where the conception of sacred science and dazzling art had infl uenced the whole world for several centuriesrdquo65 Pearl immediately dis-likes baron Von Ratheim when he arrives to persuade her to accept his higher offer Needless to say Pearl accepts the lower offer of Captain De Kargueacutezec Confronted with her non-commercial thinking by other family members she explains herself ldquoFrom now on the Waldon factory will only work for the defence of freedom justice and civilizationrdquo66 Pearlrsquos cause is very similar to the incentives the French have given the United States to join the war stressing the importance of the French democracy and civilization in the world In fact in the press the United Statesrsquo entry into the war had been made a tribute to France a misreading that brushed aside the United Statesrsquo own national interest or the help offered to England and Belgium67

The young chemist Harvey Gresham (Antonio Moreno) who Pearl really loves also exclaims in the fi fth episode his love for France

I like your country captain [ ] if I was not an American citizen I would have liked to have been French [ ] My most precious dream will be that in this appalling war where the laws most sacred to hu-manity are violated we will return the support that you brought to us in the past for the conquest of our liberty [ ] Have confi dence answered the offi cer with an assured tone [ ] soon I do not doubt it your people will understand that to fi ght at our sides is to defend the just and abused civilization and they will rise as one man to help us68

While the French captain responds along earlier mentioned sentiments Gresham adds another As what could be read in the French press at the

time the American Gresham expresses here the French idea that America was also coming to the aid as gratitude for Francersquos help in the Revolution-ary War when France assisted in Americarsquos independence from Britain69

This misconstrued motive was also articulated by French Prime Minister Alexandre Ribot in 1917 who implied as well that as the Declaration of Independence was inspired by French philosophers America derived its morality from France70

Unfortunately as no American tie-in could be found and no American or French fi lm episodes seem to have survived it is impossible to fi nd out if this level of national bonding and admiration was also present in the origi-nal The short episode descriptions in American fi lm journals do not hint at it71 As The House of Hate was made after the United Statesrsquo entry into the war positive French characteristics probably were present in the original narrative It nevertheless seems likely that the French version pushed this further and aligned it with even more French sentiments However the last chapter of the French serial when after many adventures the sabotaging Hooded Terror is fi nally defeated does describe events that had not taken place at the time of its American release At the end of the serial the story continues in fi lm what Les Mystegraveres de New-York as well as La Reine srsquoEnnuie (The Fatal Ring 1917) had only told in words72 Unlike these serials the story did not end with the couplersquos promise to join the Allied forces and marry when peace came Both in the original and French ver-sions at the end (thus respectfully Chapter 20 or Chapter 12) Gresham goes fi ghting in France When he gets hit by a shell he is taken to an Ameri-can ambulance Much to Greshamrsquos surprise he gets attended to by his wife Pearl who unbeknownst to him had also come to France to work for the Red Cross This fi nal episode premiered in France on 14 March 1919 fi fteen weeks before the Treaty of Versailles that offi cially ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers

The reader of the French tie-in learns that Gresham who had arrived in France with one of the fi rst American troops in May 1917 (in accordance with his request) unfortunately had to suppress his impatience and wait some time until he could fi ght for the cause The American General John J Pershing indeed had insisted that his soldiers would not be used merely to fi ll gaps in the French and British armies which in effect caused a delay until the troops were suffi ciently trained Novelist de Teramond thus situ-ated the battle of the tie-in during the St Mihiel offensive of 12 September 1918 when Pershing launched the fi rst major American offensive in Europe as an independent army The offensive receives an extensive description with many references to French regions and towns while putting Gresham heroically on the frontline73 ldquoGresham marched in front of his soldiers full with enthusiasm giving an example and encouraging all of his forces Forward boys he shouted to them In front of them he crossed the net-works of barbed wire jumped the holes fi lled with water slipped along the craters of deep minesrdquo74 When he is injured and cannot move forward he

continues to encourage the passing troops Then when Pearl appears and affi rms that she is taking care of him the novel suddenly ends

Luckily there is an epilogue though the author de Teramond asks the reader ldquoIs it absolutely necessary now to give a conclusion to this storyrdquo75 De Teramond does so and duly sums up that Gresham recovers quickly supported by his wife However he continues on a more personal note

As for readers perhaps they have found that the adventures of the two young people were remarkably complicated and that sometimes even the believability was not always respected but the author will say that one should not take seriously a story written solely to distract for a moment Living is fortunately much more simple To be happy it is not necessary for lovers to have escaped a series of a thousand of pitfalls and to have risked twelve times death in order to rescue that what one loves It is enough to experience one day to be satisfi ed [ ] to lean on the arm of another and have confi dence in the future76

The serial released just after the armistice thus reiterated with the help of the novelization the French ideas on the American involvement and cel-ebrated the French feeling of justice democracy and civilization that had been so much proclaimed in the past years With de Teramondrsquos epilogue there also was the recognition and celebration of normal French life lives that were not up to the hectic standard of Pearl White Through her smile and many serial adventures audiences had been distracted for many weeks during diffi cult wartime The novelizations had made this terrible and mag-nifi cent fl ag of life even more intense

How much of the nationally specifi c storylines ended up in the fi lm seri-als themselves or what effect these adaptations had on helping Pearl Whitersquos extreme popularity in France remains unclear77 It is of course likely that dur-ing and also after the war the French admiration of Pearl White was helped by the fact that in these serials her love for France was made often part of her character struggle However with the Treaty of Versailles the unequivocal praising of America would come to an end and severe critique on Wilsonrsquos and America could be read in the French press78 France however contin-ued to love Pearl White and Pearl White loved France back79 In 1923 she left America for France There she gave revue shows in Paris and made her last fi lm Terreur (1924) She died in 1938 in the American hospital in Neuilly and was buried in the Passy cemetery in Paris

Thus while in the United States the content of the tie-in was only used to extend and elaborate somewhat on the screen image in France it was used as an active way of fi tting the fi lm into a different culture while at the same time making it a mouthpiece for French views of America The importance of the tie-in was felt beyond a commercial and propagandistic connectiveness of Frenchness The seriality and rhythm lay a foundation for consumption that would be used by French products as well

INFLUENCES AND FRENCH ADJUSTMENTS

Les Mystegraveres de New-York was the fi rst extensively distributed American serial in France but not the fi rst serial Patheacute and Gaumont had been com-peting to release the fi rst one on a wide scale80 While Patheacute restructured an already existing American serial Gaumont asked director Louis Feuillade to make a new one which was to become Les Vampires (1915ndash1916) As with his Fantocircmas Les Vampires deals with a group of criminals (this time called the Vampires) that terrorizes Paris Investigative reporter Philippe Gueacuterande (Eacutedouard Matheacute) and ex-Vampire gang member Mazamette (Marcel Leacutevesque) try to stop them but they (just like Juve and Fandor in Fantocircmas) often miss out on catching the criminals The ten episodes have a rounded story frame but form in contrast to Fantocircmas a reason-ably connected whole the episodes cannot be watched out of order On 12 November 1915 thus three weeks before the premiere of the fi rst epi-sode of Les Mystegraveres de New-York the fi rst two episodes of Les Vampires were screened together Episode one had a length of 815 meters whereas the second measured only 350 meters81 Later episodes were longer again but fl uctuated from around 800 to over 1400 meters The third episode was not released a week later but probably not coincidentally on the date of the premiere of Les Mystegraveres de New-York Thus both the length and the release dates fl uctuated at times there even could be as much as two months between episodes The last episode was released on 30 June 1916 by then Les Mystegraveres de New-York had already fi nished and Pearl White would soon be seen again in a new serial

The competition between the American and French serial products made their differences quite noticeable Perhaps the fact that Pearl White was fea-tured prominently in the advertisements led Gaumont to foreground Musi-dora as Irma Vep even though her presence in the serial is especially in the beginning not noteworthy Irma Vep the female villain of Les Vampires was presented in advertisements as a black-haired mysterious and mor-ally depraved woman while Les Mystegraveres de New-York was represented by the loving blond innocent and high-spirited Elaine The episodes of Les Vampires were also overall more deadly gruesome and disturbing than Les Mystegraveres de New-York a quality visible in Les Vampiresrsquos blood-drenched advertisements as well as in the vitriolic episode titles Neverthe-less in spite of Les Vampiresrsquo exciting forms of crime (which the French did enjoy with Fantocircmas) Les Mystegraveres de New-York overshadowed Les Vampires in popularity82 One of the reasons might be the American fi lmrsquos massive advertising scheme using the serial tie-in Les Vampires had (prob-ably because of its hastened production and its rather improvised structure) failed to create a similar form of continuous marker only when Les Vam-pires had almost disappeared out of the cinemas did a cineacute-roman appear

Though no signs of irritation on the part of critics or exhibitors because of Les Vampiresrsquo irregular length and release form could be found Feuillade

did change the construction of his next serials to make them more similar to the American ones With Judex (1917) La Nouvelle Mission de Judex (1918) and Tih Minh (1919) all released by Gaumont episodes were released in a rhythmic and rather strict regime The fi rst episode of these serials was of a longer length to present the setting better (as was also done with American serials) while the subsequent 11 episodes were usually around 800 meters and were released weekly (American serials were around 600 meters) Also very important was the fact that with the serials daily tie-ins written in collaboration with a novelist (such as the very successful Judex by Arthur Bernegravede) were published in newspapers Similar to Patheacutersquos scheme the tie-in was also released in weekly episodic booklets costing 25 centimes that could be bought in a bound edition later on In addition to the daily and weekly rhythm that lasted several months there also existed a yearly pattern For several years a Feuillade serial would be released in January creating the ultimate form of seriality whereby audiences had a permanent incentive to be looking out for the next installment

Francis Lacassin calls Feuillade ldquothe general in chiefrdquo in the ldquoFrench-American warrdquo who almost single-handedly fought the American invasion of imported fi lm products83 Perhaps this is a somewhat overly romanticized image Of course Feuillade was not the only French serial player other productions such as Henri Pouctalrsquos eight-part Le Comte de Monte-Cristo (Film drsquoArt released by Patheacute 1918) or Abel Gancersquos three-part anti-war fi lm JrsquoAccuse (1919) were also important However until Serge Sandberg and Louis Nalpas (along with such creative minds as writer Arthur Bernegravede and actordirector Reneacute Navarre) created in September 1919 the Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans whose objective was to produce several serials per year to be published by the daily newspaper Le Matin Feuillade would indeed be the only consistent producer84 Feuillade had used seriality from Les Vampires on in order to achieve a stronger resonance for the fi lms and to create a fol-lowing while being able to block-book many screens in advance In this way his plans were similar to the American structure for serial release Feuillade and others would continue this scheme well into the 1920s thus long after in America the tie-in had lost its charm In France seriality also remained in fl ux being employed for different genres and audiences whereas some parts of its structure were changed to better fi t the market The serial was thus not only adaptable to local contexts and discourses as Les Mystegraveres de New-York and La Maison de la Haine show but as witnessed with Feuilladersquos productions serials also could interact across borders and infl u-ence national production (a characteristic that will be researched more in part three of this study)

The introduction of American seriality in France shows how local adjust-ments to this fi lm form were an important tool for the global dissemina-tion of the serial format where serial content and format could be made to respond to national sensibilities and where seriality could infl uence local

production and distribution as well as promotional techniques The trans-formation of a fi lm serial in concurrence with a tie-in was a way to adjust to local discourses

The tie-in could function as a steering mechanism in constructing local meanings when there fi rst was none By adding anti-German and pro-Amer-ican views and adjusting the serial more to a French reality and history the serial integrated with daily public experience while perhaps also softening the differences of the imported American product The adaptation thereby went far beyond the more common aligning of promotional material or changing intertitles to accommodate viewership creating a local version of a globally inundating fi lm form

However American serials were not available in every European coun-try While in France by 1920 seriality was used to inundate the market to assist French fi lm-makers trying to protect their market share from foreign productions and to adapt the fi lms in accord with national feelings in Ger-many such diversities of seriality were not yet in operation When one looks at the presentation of an epic serial from probably one of the least fi lm-serialized markets of Europe a different view of seriality and marketing can be obtained Seriality was a form that especially in the 1920s would be used both by Germany and France to withstand the pressure from foreign feature imports

4 German Spectacle From Within

Pay attention ladies and gentlemen We want you to believe if only for a couple of hours And prepare for a journey Because today we are going to kidnap you We will travel far across the earth in fl ight through this entire strangely fantastic human world to the forgotten lands of biblical legend And almost to the gods [ ] Are you ready ladies and gentlemen Okay Irsquoll give the signal Curtain up Today we are in China1

Guests attending the Berlin premiere of the serial Die Herrin der Welt on 5 December 1919 could read this introduction written by Karl Figdor the fi lmrsquos story writer in their programs Several elements can be seen in this short text that had been important in the promotion of Die Herrin der Welt such as the fostered high expectations of the audience the collective entering of an event and the transporting of the audience to an exotic far away world

In 1919 Joe May constructed as producer and director of Die Herrin der Welt a cinematic experience of enormous size Die Herrin der Welt was an epic adventure fi lm serial of eight episodes each around six reels in length (thus unlike American two-reel serials every episode was of feature length) The story centered on Maud Gregaards (played by Mayrsquos wife Mia May) who wants to take revenge on a powerful man who betrayed her and caused the suicide of her father and the insanity of her mother In order to obtain the money for her revenge she goes in search of the treasure of the Queen of Saba (Sheba) As she struggles through many dangerous situations her adventures take her around the world to exotic places like China Africa and America Joe May possibly infl uenced by American serials and certainly by a French serial used seriality not to pose the ques-tion ldquoWho did itrdquo (as in his Preisraumltselfi lms) but to ask ldquoWhat happens nextrdquo Episodes of Die Herrin der Welt used a self-contained ending where one situation might have been resolved but the ultimate goal had not been achieved yet This situation ending kept the audience wondering about the fate of the characters and stimulated them to return to see how the story continued while creating a less abrupt ending than a cliffhanger (this more subtle type of ending was the dominant pattern in French serials as well)

In this chapter the development of advertising strategies that resulted in an inundative presence while that country remained cut off from the international market will be dealt with as seriality turned Die Herrin der Welt into a nationalistic star-celebrity gigantic spectacle event Compared with American and French promotional tactics at fi rst hand the schemes of

Die Herrin der Welt might seem rather meager The audience could win no prizes and no serial tie-in was immediately available Nevertheless the audi-ence was actively drawn into the world of the fi lm While in America and France inundation was created through repetitive serializations in different media May created an inundation out of what was emanating from the fi lm Instead of serializing and localizing the related fi lm text local inher-ently fi lmic practices were exploited Facts about the production process set design and actors were serialized creating huge expectation on the part of the audience Thus another form of paratext was used different from the tie-ins but stimulating a specifi c reading of the serial nonetheless

As has been noted in Chapter 2 Mayrsquos particular contribution to the development of cinema was the creation of Kinoerlebnis May constructed with his Preisraumltselfi lms and detective series in the early to mid-1910s an event that was repeatable met public demand and guaranteed profi tability This Kinoerlebnis was especially fruitful at a time when short fi lms were released in abundance and it was diffi cult to construct a special exciting feeling around them In order for a Kinoerlebnis to work the fi lm indus-try had to actively address the audience and there had to be a platform to make these announcements With Die Herrin der Welt May again used this Kinoerlebnis But in order to create the much bigger and exciting experi-ence that was needed for the serial rhythm to work promotional tactics were used that blended the reading of fi lm text and promotional mate-rial while relying on forms of nationalism consumerism and references to reality to create an event-driven product After Die Herrin der Welt this structure of heightened stimulation would be used to promote other serials as well as features The term Monumentalfi lm or Groszligfi lm that was used to classify a production like Veritas Vincit or Die Herrin der Welt stuck and was used for all sorts of epic productions serial or not

ALIVE AND KICKING FETISHIZING NUMBERS AND REALITY

ldquoThis looks to be the greatest cinematic event of the yearrdquo wrote Olimsky in Die Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung ldquofor weeks now magazines have printed col-umn-length articles about this monumental fi lm Together with their accom-panying images they seem to justify the most audacious expectationsrdquo2 It is clear that from the beginning May actively fed the fi lm journals his pro-motional material in order to create a feeling of importance around the fi lm For instance at the end of June 1919 various fi lm journals used almost the same blurb stating that the new production of Mayrsquos Die Herrin der Welt exploited the serial fi lm form that had been very popular in England France Denmark and America3 In a similar scheme almost with each article that was written before the premiere the gigantic proportions of the project were fetishized contributing to the build-up of audience expectations The manu-script had 2000 pages 30000 persons were working on the Woltersdorf

German Spectacle From Within 65

site 100 cooks fed them many Germans Asians and Africans who were used as extras were living in camps that constituted a city itself a 22-meter-high temple was built with realistic architectural details the building of the sets cost 14 million Marks there were 200 days of exterior and 150 days of interior fi lming and the fi lm had 5000 different scenes was 20 kilometres in length and weighed 150 kilos And fi nally it cost about 6 million Marks to produce4 So before much was really known about the storyline impressive fi gures served to create a feeling of excitement and importance With such fi gures it was indeed hard not to report Die Herrin der Welt as ldquoa completely new fi lm experiencerdquo one that would allow spectators to ldquosee the world as they had never seen it beforerdquo5

This world was actually created stone by stone (and a lot of concrete) just outside Berlin in Woltersdorf It was a world fi lled with luxury and exoticness Articles in the fi lm press described Woltersdorf as a Filmstadt in which many people were working in order to create a fi ctive world and into which millions of Marks had been poured Die Illustrierte Filmwoche a very popular fi lm journal for cinemagoers described a trip to Woltersdorf There Mia May seemed to be occupying the world that would be similar to the picture

Mia May [is] not just the Mistress of the World [Die Herrin der Welt] but also of the movie-town Woltersdorf Through her blond beauty and at-times childlike charm she gives a bit of her herself to all of Ophir and its surroundings She is everywhere Here she offers lodging to the Negro there she nurtures small emaciated wild rabbits with milk Then she does a quick scene at the end of which she hops onto a horse like a cowboy and gallops across the landscape In the evening we fi nd her playing host to close friends we hear her sing one of her operetta pieces which reminds us that not long ago Mia May was an extremely well-known operetta singer Then she works as the director the next day 6

Thus an image is created of Mia May who lived in this exotic world not only as an actress in front of a camera and on a set but also as a person Mia May had become the character Maud Gregaards or vice versa

The intrusion of the fi lmic world into the real world of the fi lm spectator did however not stop there In the fi lm journal Der Film the article ldquoMit der Stadtbahn um die Weltrdquo (with the city railway around the world) re-created a traveling experience

We have really advanced wonderfully far The Hamburg-America Line the North German Lloyd the zeppelin and the airplane are once again trumped The cross-city train can take you across the entire world in just a few hours You buy a ticket to Erkner for example at the Zoo Train Station at 9 am and by 1030 you are in Africa [ ]7

The geographical locations could become a bit confusing To the left of Africa was China and underneath China there was ldquovery Berlinrdquo a lunch-room with beer and soft drinks The structures were similar in size to their existing originals in exotic countries guests could even visit and enter the buildings Woltersdorf situated amid forests and lakes was at the time (and still is today) a popular weekend destination in the countryside where Berliners can get away for a while from the hectic city life Though it is unlikely that tourists would have been able to wander around the huge sets while fi lming was taking place many townspeople were working on the fi lm and the exotic world of fi lming did invade the town as well8 After the fi lming had been fi nished Woltersdorf quickly became a site for people to go to and wander around and look in awe at the structures still standing9 It was as the Ufa ldquofi lm-cityrdquo Babelsberg would quickly become later a cinematic fetish for the public imagination

Only one and a half hours from Berlin an imagined exotic world had thus been created Journalists of various fi lm journals had been invited to the sets while fi lming was going on thereby assuring Mayrsquos production plenty of press coverage Journalists not only focused on the technical aspects of the May fi lm but they also stressed the sociological and geographical curiosities of housing transportation and daily life in the fi lm city The many Chinese and blacks who had been attracted to the fi lm as extras added according to reporters to the feeling of reality (or at least the feeling of reality when it aligned with idealized and clicheacute images of exoticness)10 The serial was presented not only with a feeling of admiration but also of German pride and invention Die Illustrierte Filmwoche wrote that it brought to mind another world calling Woltersdorf the German Los Angeles11 An anonymous author in the Lichtbild-Buumlhne summed up these feelings of awe and pride He saw the production of Die Herrin der Welt as offering hope in a somewhat bleak situation Now that the war was over and Germany was poor the fi lm indus-try should react to that situation either by producing fi lms on a limited scale or preparing its fi lm productions to compete on the world fi lm market by creating big productions as it already had with Veritas Vincit and Madame Dubarry (Ernst Lubitsch 1919) ldquoIt will be a symbol for the German econ-omy It will serve as indisputable proof that the German fi lm industry is good enough to export and will remain a force to be reckoned with on the global marketplacerdquo12 Olimsky from the Berliner-Boumlrsen-Zeitung picked up on this but placed it specifi cally in the context of competition with America who still had not entered the German fi eld but who like everybody knew was just outside waiting to come in

In our German fi lm industry we must arm ourselves for the extremely bitter battle that is about to break out with the American cinematic super-power We do not need to fear the competition from any other country but America is just so superior that if we are not on guard it can simply crush us13

These articles show the anxiety and sense of competition that the Ger-man fi lm industry must have felt However it does not seem that critics understood the differences in serial form and content between Die Herrin der Welt and foreign serials a fact not so surprising because offi cially fi lm imports could not yet be seen in Germany While American serials were short and exhilarating they were nowhere in the league of this feature serial spectacle and they were also very different from Feuilladersquos crime serials Die Herrin der Welt was in fact most similar to Henri Pouctalrsquos eight-part serial Le Comte de Monte-Cristo that had become the most popular French fi lm of the 1918ndash1919 season14 When May made the fi rst announcements of the serial in January 1919 he mentioned he had seen Pouctalrsquos serial and had decided to make something similar with his pro-duction of Die Graumlfi n von Monte Christo as Die Herrin der Welt was then still called15

As had been the case with Le Comte de Monte-Cristo in France Die Herrin der Welt had to entertain while functioning on a level of prestige a feat beyond the reach of American or Feuilladersquos serials of the time How-ever whereas Le Comte de Monte-Cristo could rely on having a French historical subject (that had known many newspaper serializations) and on having been written by the famous writer Dumas Die Herrin der Welt could only generate importance and prestige by its realistic massive sets as they were publicized in advertisements set visits promotional material and press releases

PREMIERING AND CONQUERING OTHER WORLDS

With all the exoticness taking place on the sets and soon on the screen the contrast with the dire state of Germany itself is notable Indeed Die Herrin der Welt as well as the other serials that were made shortly after the war often took place in Africa China Japan or the Middle East Die Herrin der Welt indeed seems to offer a nostalgic and colonial view as a foreign journalist bluntly noted when visiting Woltersdorf ldquoThe Germans have lost all of their colonies every last negro village [Negerdorf] and because of the weak exchange rate they cannot fi lm in any Indian cities cannot travel to Japan or China or to England Africa or America And yet we fi nd all of these places in their fi lmsrdquo16 This nostalgic view could be easily connected with Kracauerrsquos famous vision of Germanyrsquos re-annexing desires that were fi nding an outlet in these and other fi lms of the Weimar period Siegfried Kracauer (briefl y) discusses Die Herrin der Welt and several other German serials (such as Die Spinnen [1919] Der Mann Ohne Namen [1921] and Das Indische Grabmal [1921]) in relation to exotic prison day-dreaming ldquoThese space-devouring fi lms reveal how bitterly the average German resented his involuntary seclusion They functioned as substitutes they naively satisfi ed his suppressed desire for expansion through pictures

that enabled his imagination to reannex the world including Ophirrdquo17 One however has to realize that the storyline of Die Herrin der Welt is more complicated than merely supplying German expansionist fantasies It indeed offers racist and very stereotypical images of black and Chinese characters But it offers also much more than the title of the serial suggests the character of Maud Gregaard is not German but Danish she is accompanied by the Jewish Danish consul Madsen and after fi nding the treasure of Sheba (with the help of descendants of the Jewish King Salomon in Africa) she becomes the richest woman in the world sets up an Academy of Humankind for the education of young men and sponsors the construction of a world peace-making machine by an American scientist with whom she falls in love

The international and space devouring scope of these fi lms is however more likely linked with the idea of international marketability than that of imperialistic aspirations18 Die Herrin der Welt was on the one hand cater-ing to a domestic audience probably hungry for images (perhaps mixed with nostalgia) still cut off from travel and luxurious items longing for exotic visions On the other hand an international audience was incorpo-rated as well Thomas Saunders observes it was in the immediate postwar period that the question was posed to the German fi lm industry ldquowhether to pursue a national or international motion picture identityrdquo19 During the fi rst few years after the war fi lm production in Germany was due to a low Mark and high unemployment relatively cheap Big budget fi lms with high production values could thus be offered for a reasonable price to foreign distributers earning back money in a much-desired foreign currency

The location where with Die Herrin der Welt German expansionist views were clearly present was in the reviews and articles that appeared with the approaching premiere Even though no one had yet seen the fi lm itself (only photographs were available) the vision of becoming a player on the world fi lm market was by some directly connected with the loss of the war and became a vision of an imaginary victory As an anonymous critic wrote ldquoNow that the war is over and we are poor the great question confronting the fi lm industry and others is how to deal with this for-now unchangeable situation That is the industry has a choice to produce on a more limited scale or to prepare production for global competition and mount a great attackrdquo20 When opting for proceeding on the international arena which many German fi lmmakers like May tried to do big budget spectacles that were set in an international setting were thought of as having more chance to appeal to large audiences both domestic and international21

On 5 December 1919 it was time for the public and journalists to fi nally see the fi rst episode The premiere took place in the Tauentzien-palast in Berlin as well as in other luxury cinemas (Figure 41) For the occasion the cinema was redecorated A report in the Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung bears witness to the attempts to transport the audience to the world of Die Herrin der Welt On arrival the audience could warm up from the freezing cold outside among green trees and blooming bushes

that according to the reviewer conjured up the feeling of a dream a fan-tasy There were Chinese men in bright servantsrsquo uniforms who with their serene appearance guided the guests and handed out programs and other premiere souvenirs The loge and the manor looked a little like the hanging gardens of Babylon and the enormous yellow globe and the colorful tapestry on the walls gave an exotic mood that ldquoimperceptibly introduced the guests to the far-off land of the fi lmrdquo22 Thus at least for the premiere the audience

Figure 41 Mia May points at fi lm posters with the image of Maud Gregaards dur-ing the premiere of the fi rst episode

was actively introduced into the fi ctional word and could participate in a screen fantasy that was quite different from the freezing world outside The three dimensional faccedilades of the fi lm sets were together with the live performances of the waiters extended and transported to the interior It highlighted the spectacular aspects of the fi lm but in turn made clear that it was not the fi lm alone anymore that made it into a spectacle a work of art a success or a failure The fi lm-text of the Groszligfi lm had now defi nitely become part of a larger whole consisting of various important paratexts as well With it Kracauerrsquos other subjects of uneasiness and critique from the mid-1920s that of the faccedilade culture of the Ufa fi lm sets studios and movie palaces as well as the disrupting live movie palace presentations or prologues (taken over from prestigious American movie palaces) can thus already be seen settling in Germany in 191923

Many reviewers reacted with excitement to the fi rst episode According to Die Illustrierte Filmwoche it was an event for which everyone had been waiting with great eagerness And happily according to the reviewer never had such huge publicity been created and disappointed so little24 Reviews like the pre-premiere publicity frequently marvelled that the realistic sets were huge and there were many crowd scenes with real Chinese people Der Kinematograph saw it as a masterpiece of German fi lm skill that combined everything that could be expected from such exciting ingredi-ents25 The ensuing success of the fi lm was celebrated as a national victory Reviewers began to boast about the fi lmrsquos strength as an export product just as the Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung had done earlier ldquoOne doesnrsquot need to be a prophet to say that it will win over foreign markets even that of hith-erto enemy countries or even that it will become a propaganda fi lm for the German fi lm industryrdquo claimed Der Film26 An article suggesting an even more victorious outcome appeared in the Erste Internationale Filmzeitung (thus indeed a journal with an agenda geared to export) ldquoThis newest sov-ereign rules in a land that is not defi ned by borders and despite our distaste for war and imperialism it will soon begin a victorious march around the worldrdquo27 A militaristic tone mixed with feelings of avenging lost honor of showing the world that Germany and the German fi lm industry could function on the international fi lm market was not far away

To help the public see all the episodes a schedule was released each week listing where each episode was playing in an Ufa theater The Berlin cin-emagoer thus always had the opportunity to see an episode that might have been missed28 The schedule functioned as a safety net and was created to continue the rhythm of watching but it also was an important tool to make a repetitive event possible However not everybody was pleased with the serial The independent cultural papers and magazines did not share the optimistic and propagandistic voices Rd from the Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier noted in several reviews that the fi lms did not rise above the aver-age feature fi lm The fi lms lacked a sense of greatness depth and strength they had no surprises and few psychological moments29 George Gotthold

angrily wrote in the Freie Deutsche Buumlhne that Die Herrin der Welt was the worst of the worst ldquoThis fi lm and others like it have a vulgarizing effect on the taste and a dumbing-down effect on the intellect of its audi-ence It fearfully avoids every problem every reasonable motivationrdquo30 Dr Wilhelm Meyer from Die Vossische Zeitung saw the serial story as cheap When the German fi lm industry next attempted such a giant work he said ldquoit should invest a little more than only moneyrdquo31 And indeed Die Herrin der Welt is mostly an adventure story similar perhaps to the fi lms of Indi-ana Jones or better yet Lara Croft (although Mia May did not have such a fl exible body) modern heroes who also travel to exotic places in search of treasures Compared to a fi lm with a more respectable subject such as Madame Dubarry for instance it might not be thought of as art Die Herrin der Welt however was never intended to compete on high cultural grounds its goal had been to entertain and impress a large audience with spectacular and exotic views and in this it succeeded wholeheartedly

However now because of its use of Kinoerlebnis it was positioned along-side competing upscale fi lms such as Madame Dubarry that also had played in the more luxurious and upper-class-oriented venues Though in Germany and several other countries this did not prevent its box offi ce success as will be seen in Chapter 7 it could cause some trouble Many reviewers held strong negative views about the serial form In Germany America France and the Netherlands critics often associated seriality with cheap melodramatic serial novels that appeared in newspapers or were published as dime novels Die Herrin der Welt therefore functioned as an important impulse in creating a stimulus for serialized prestige pictures Its serial structure allowed a bigger budget than could be spent on a single feature thus making high produc-tion values possible The end result was a package of several feature-length episodes with lower overhead costs when averaged out per fi lm Serialization can in this manner be seen not so much as a calculated fi lm form of rep-etition (such as American serials with their repetitive storylines that barely move forward) but as a way to tell an epic story that could not be told in the screening time of an average feature Production companies in both France and Germany indeed would keep using serial forms using them for artistic and more distinguished subjects as well as for lighter entertainment The epic and prestigious proportions of these fi lms were also seen as improving the fi lmrsquos chances on the international market The creation of spectacle and star extravagance blending life and fi lm would be used in important future productions of both feature and serial

IMAGES OF COMMERCIALIZATION

The world of Kinoerlebnis that May had created and that mingled the realities of fi lm life and audience reception to create an eventful feeling of importance and prestige is also present in the serial itself In episode six

(Die Frau mit den Milliarden) surprisingly the serial takes a break from itself adjusting its tempo and content Whereas in the earlier episodes the tone had remained focused on the exciting drama of the adventures with rare comic diversions this concept was now radically turned around creat-ing an abundance of comical situations but little drama or excitement The fi lmrsquos style was changed and visual treats were introduced through editing camera movement and positioning as well as sets that mocked themselves At the end of episode fi ve (Ophir die Stadt der Vergangenheit) Maud Gre-gaards and her companions are held captive in the secret city of Ophir When they manage to make contact with the American newspaper Fletch-ers World a huge plane from the newspaper company is sent to Africa to rescue them The episode ends when the plane returns to America carrying Maud an American explorer Stanley (Paul Hansen) and the treasure as well as a loyal African called Simba (Lewis Brody) In episode six however it takes a long time before the story returns to Maud and her adventures The main interest of this episode indeed is not Maud but the fi erce compe-tition between Fletchers World and Harrisons Universum

Unbeknownst to Maud and her companions a whole publicity machine is set up in order to sell more Fletchers World newspapers while making stars out of the adventurers Flyers are thrown out of airplanes over the city to announce the coming of the airplane to America while they stimulate the recipients to read more about the story in Fletchers World The mas-sive advertising has an impact on normal lives people are swept up in the excitement and rush to buy a newspaper for the latest news while pedes-trians have to put up their umbrellas to shield themselves from the falling pamphlets May knew this last kind of publicity very well having used it not only with Veritas Vincit but also to announce the start of fi lming of Die Herrin der Welt In 1919 thousands of pamphlets were thrown from planes over Ruumlderdorf Woltersdorf Erkner and the Berlin suburbs bear-ing the text ldquoAbove your head right now aerial fi lming is taking place for the May Film Companyrsquos huge release Die Herrin der Welt Donrsquot miss the opportunity to see the world premiere in lsquoUfarsquo theaters at the end of November Daily newspapers will carry further detailsrdquo32

Several other forms of commercialization are also commented on in this episode While sitting in the plane Maud gets increasingly grouchy when photographs of them have to be taken to be sent directly via ldquoremote radio photographyrdquo to the newspaper and lists are made of what they drink or smoke (with the newspaper immediately asking these companies for recip-rocal service for mentioning their names) Fletchers World thus prints the life of Maud and her companions in a succession of articles of serial news who they are how they look where they are what they are doing and how the adventures they have had continued each time ending with the slo-gan to read more in Fletchers World The serialized facts about Maud and Stanley are perhaps in some way similar to the facts and trivia about Joe and Mia Mayrsquos life the progress of the making of the fi lm the amount of

equipment needed for the fi lm and the impression of the sets as discussed in fi lm journals and newspapers

The episode not only explains how to create a star image mass con-sumption and spectacle but it also comments on the use of the doubling of image and reality as well as fi lm seriality itself Harrisons Universum fi nally succeeds in fi nding a way to get back into the competition by fi lming the stories of Maud that have appeared in Fletchers World A mediocre the-ater agent delivers look-alikes of Maud and Stanley and also gets the job to direct The pseudo-Maud is however a badly overacting actress who cannot handle the attention and behaves like a very spoiled diva The double image of reality and fi lm reality meet climatically near the end of the episode Maud and Stanley both sick of the constant media hype and attention sur-rounding them switch places with their fi lmic look-alikes When they meet face-to-face Maud and Stanley exchange clothes with their doubles cheap-ening their appearance by donning tasteless crude clothes that their look-alikes wore to imitate them Of course during the whole episode the same actors have played both the real and the fake characters Mia May thus played a badly acting arrogant fi lm diva on an American set who played the real adventurer Maud whom Mia May had also played on a German fi lm set If we believe Die Illustrierte Filmwochersquos dope that Mia May had become the character of Maud riding around on the set in costume this could lead to the assumption that when Maud was confronted in the fi lm with a cheap screen image of herself Maudrsquos adventure became even more linked to reality by comparison to the fake Maud as well as to the (double) image of Mia May the actress

The result of Harrisonrsquos fi lm production is however small-scale clumsy and rather fake Instead of hundreds of extras in front of a gigantic temple-complex worshipping Maud who is sitting on an elaborate throne in expen-sive clothing now only a handful of demented extras celebrate the Maud look-alike who cannot act and sits on an ordinary household chair in a cheap party dress with some feathers Additionally the producer Harrison complains that he does not want to spend too much money on the set the theater agent has become an egomaniacal director with a great vision who keeps his sunglasses on during shooting and the cameraman is more pre-occupied with his own hair and cranks the camera in a bored fashion Just as with the publicity for Die Herrin der Welt there existed a double image that made Mayrsquos elaborately visualized adventures and the characters even more real thus creating room for praise for Mayrsquos fi lming of this spectacle while at the same time it was indirectly implied that the German fi lm indus-try could never be surpassed by cheap American products

Coincidently or not at the time of the premiere of episode six that had dealt so much with commercializations and promotional tactics fi lm jour-nals reported that the publishing house Dr Eysler amp Co had published Karl Figdorrsquos story as a novel as was also announced in the program booklets33 Interest created by the event of Die Herrin der Welt clearly spilled over

into interest in the novel resulting in the sale of at least 100000 copies34 None of the reviewers or commentators on the serial however refl ected at the time on how this episode touched upon how the serial itself made use of the media or how it functioned in the fi lm industry Of course the comedic touches were noticed (many agreed that the comedy was acted out with exact precision and tempo) but these were viewed as being part of the American way of life (ldquofunny and real Yankee-typesrdquo)35 It was up to Fig-dor the writer of the novel (who was not the screenwriter) to refl ect in the fi lm program on the nature of the sensation in the daily life though Figdor also did not make a link with the serial itself

So ladies and gentlemen Even if you have laughed yourself to tears over Fletcher and Harrison and Bullbox do not forget that behind the masks behind the rhythm of the fevered hunt behind all the antics is youmdashwith a serious not always satisfi ed but always discerning face You want your news Coffee with bread and butter and sensation should also be on the breakfast table36

Episode six of Die Herrin der Welt thus enabled the serial to comment on itself while making the storyline actively part of the Kinoerlebnis by offering the audience a chance for comparison that served to further infl ate the epic nature of the fi lm Whether the double image of the fi lmrsquos own manipulations and commercializations indeed were seen at the time remains unknown however Figdorrsquos remarks pointed in that direction nonetheless

Both Les Mystegraveres de New-York and Die Herrin der Welt created a con-nection with the viewer by offering a possibility to reference fi lm with real-ity but with Die Herrin der Welt this was all done to turn the serial into an elaborate spectacle that at the same was self-referential Facts about the production were ldquoperiodically reported onrdquo (as Der Kinematograph called it) in different media37 Its promotion created and heightened interest just as Fletchers World did by serially feeding the public more information on Maud and her approaching arrival When the plane eventually landed people had been whipped into such a frenzy that Maud and her adventurers had to be protected from the hordes of spectators and journalists Through Kinoerlebnis the world of the fi lm intruded into world of audience and at the same time guided the people into the world of the fi lm either by exciting coverage of publicity events or just in the exotic lobby of the fi lm theater Through a blend of nationalism consumerism and reality the fi lm was made into an event-driven product It created an experience of viewing a fi lm that was different from what was known at the time Thus while Les Mystegraveres de New-York created a link with reality outside through the tie-in (and possibly the intertitles) Die Herrin der Welt showed it could also be done from the inside out The link with reality was accomplished not only

by building in self-refl exive moments in episode six but also through the epic proportions of the picture itself that were used to break out of the captivity of the fi lmic text

The techniques of book-publishing tie-ins a multitude of publicity and even more full-blown decorated cinema foyers and incorporated outside architecture were later also used for German big-budget productions such as Die Nibelungen (1924) Metropolis (1927) Spione (1928) Frau im Mond (1929) and Asphalt (1929)38 Of course extravagant premieres were not uncommon in Hollywood around 1919 Already with the premiere of Intol-erance on 5 September 1916 Griffi thrsquos art director had arranged the decora-tion of the theater incense was burning in the Oriental styled lobby while female ushers were dressed as Babylonian priestesses39 The promotional scheme of Die Herrin der Welt played however with multiple layers of real-ity and spectacle something that does not seem to have been often used in America while it also made extensive use of the press during fi lming40 When from 1921 the big budget European pictures at fi rst mostly German were shown in America it was the scale and the epic nature of the pictures as well as the knowledge of the towering budget that it would have cost to make the fi lms in America that were highlighted in promotional campaigns Not sur-prisingly a similar promotional scheme can be seen when in America ever-rising budgets were obtained For instance with Foolish Wives (Erich von Stroheim 1922) the enormous budget was used as a promotional scheme (it was allegedly the fi rst American million-dollar picture) and the realistic sets of the Monte Carlo were each time praised thereby creating a combined drive for prestige and spectacle At the American premiere the actors dressed up as the leading characters creating a presence of star-importance as well as screen-reality41 (We will comment more on Von Stroheimrsquos fi lms in Chapter 8) In Germany however the Kinoerlebnis helped (along with human curios-ity) to mend the torn structure of the serial unifying the separate episodes into one big spectacle Thus when the announcement on screen came that it was the end of the third episode of Die Herrin der Welt the audience could react with ldquoAlready What a pityrdquo42

The spectacle that had been created with Die Herrin der Welt had proven a reliable method of promotion as well as a method to obtain prestige A spe-cifi c national fi lm form was created through infl uences from abroad a form that however used specifi c local patterns in production distribution and promotion As will be seen in the discussion about serial distribution in the Netherlands in the next chapter the German serial form of Monumentalfi lm and spectacle not the tie-in was the chosen model for specifi c local reasons though the element of specifi c national pride had to be left behind

5 Adjusting Seriality in the Netherlands

In October 1915 the fi rst report on an American serial appeared in the Dutch fi lm magazine De Kinematograaf An English correspondent wrote enthusiastically about Patheacutersquos soon-to-be-released The Exploits of Elaine (1914) According to the writer the serial would be shown in almost every major city in England and the serial-novel would appear in the daily newspaper The News of the World which had a circulation of two million1 About a month later a French correspondent reported in another Dutch fi lm magazine De Bioscoop-Courant that the next big thing in Paris was a serial called Les Mystegraveres de New-York The reporter wrote that this new kind of fi lm came from America where the same work had made around 275 million guilders for the distribution company and had created 45 million new readers for the newspaper According to him the serial would be released in dozens of Parisian cinemas and could be read in the daily serial novel of Le Matin The reporter wondered ldquowould such a cinema-roman also be successful in the Netherlandsrdquo2 To answer that question one had to wait exactly four years even though by that time many serials had been shown in the Netherlands

From what we have recounted in the previous chapters so far it might seem that the international promotional campaign of fl ooding cities in America France and England with Pearl White in advertisements nov-elizations and fi lms was an unqualifi ed success In this fi nal chapter of this part where we look at the situation of serial distribution in the Netherlands this assumption has to be adjusted somewhat American serials their tie-ins as well as those adapted from the French market had more diffi culties in attaining high forms of inundation in the Dutch market because of the different practice of serial distribution prevailing there Besides looking at the effect of local practices of distribution on Les Mystegraveres de New-York I will also discuss the effects on Die Herrin der Welt that used a different serial form and no tie-in Die Herrin der Welt suited much better the Dutch distribution system Both produc-tions were exhibited in the Netherlands in 1920

Adjusting Seriality in the Netherlands 77

TOO TIED UP IMPOSSIBILITIES OF SUCCESS

On 7 November 1919 one could read in the Dutch fi lm weekly De Film

Cinema Patheacute announces the fi lm De Geheimen van New-York [Les Mystegraveres de New-York] and the newspaper De Courant has started with a serialized novel that is also called De Geheimen van New-York Now we read in the newspaper that the fi rm Patheacute is taking legal action against De Courant They think that according to copyright laws the newspaper does not have the right to translate and print the novel from which Patheacute owns the fi lm rights We cannot predict the outcome We also hear whispering lsquothat this whole matter is nothing but a publicity stunt from both sidesrsquo Could it be3

It indeed was nothing more than a publicity scam very likely invented by Louis Justet the manager of the Dutch Patheacute in cooperation with De Courant On 8 November 1919 the newspaper printed a letter from Justet announcing that the confl ict was settled and that a remarkable compromise had been made

We are now under the impression that the publication of the serialized novel De Geheimen van New-York will not do any harm to the picture presentation in our cinema but that it will encourage your readers to fi rst read the serial with interest and then to experience in reality what has been read4

Underneath the letter De Courant mentioned that the summary of the novel would be screened in Amsterdam in the Theater Patheacute from 7 November and later on in two other cinemas in Amsterdam Thus with the so-called compromise between De Courant and Patheacute the daily serialized novel became the fi rst Dutch tie-in In the Netherlands the serialization of the novel began on Saturday 1 November 1919 and would run until Wednes-day 10 March 1920

However despite successful precedents in America and France the mutual exchange of promotion between newspaper and cinema was hardly used in the Netherlands While the Amsterdam cinema Theater Patheacute pro-moted the serial novel in its fi rst seven advertisements with the slogan ldquoRead in De Courant and come seerdquo De Courant did little to promote the fi lm serial (see Figures 51 and 52) Only once did a drawn portrait of the lead actress Pearl White appear and only once was a fi lm episode title provided and two times an (inaccurate) viewing date was given So the fi lm-serial novel did not differ that much from other serial novels that were published in De Courant De Geheimen van New-York only had received more publicity beforehand and would go on much longer than a regular serial novel

The tie-in of De Geheimen van New-York was a rather strict translation of the French tie-in version of Les Mystegraveres de New-York very little was altered Francs were confi gured to guilders and the remark that Pearl liked to go to Parisian antique shops was changed to a liking for hunting for antiques in Amsterdam Very rarely small sections of the text were left out or shortened presumably only to accommodate it to the available newspaper space The writer of the tie-in remained Pierre Decourcelle Clarel continued to be French and French opinions and anti-German slurs were also left in even though the war had been over for some time and the Netherlands had remained neutral during it A change to a more Dutch sensibility was thus not made

Figure 51 A clutching hand is used to announce the tie-in arrival of De Geheimen van New-York in the newspaper De Courant

The choice for publishing in the Amsterdam-based De Courant was however the best one possible It had the largest circulation of any news-paper in the Netherlands (in 1919 it had a circulation of 176334) it was cheap and it did not address an ideologically specifi c target group De Courant did not have its own editorial offi ce as news was copied from its parent newspaper De Telegraaf5 De Telegraaf used in its news an emotion-ally involved style that contrasted with the more controlled and distanced view of the other major newspapers (that usually spoke to a specifi c target group) More middle-class Dutch newspapers as well as the intellectual elite viewed both De Courant and De Telegraaf with suspicion and annoyance

Figure 52 A similar clutching hand this time from the Amsterdam cinema Theater Patheacute announcing both the tie-in and the second fi lm episode of De Geheimen van New-York

as they saw their commercial pursuit of higher circulation and profi ts lead-ing to sensationalism that did not concern a social cause Compared with foreign newspapers however these papers were still rather mild HMC Holdert who owned both newspapers was nevertheless at that time seen by some as the Dutch type of the American newspaper-manager6

As in France the fi lm serial was planned to run for 22 weeks simul-taneously with the serial novel When the story of the fi lm episode was published the corresponding episode would start running in the cinema However whereas in France the serial was released in many copies simulta-neously in a widespread pattern there seems to have been only one print for the whole of the Netherlands a standard number for most serials (as well as many features) The tie-in thus only correctly functioned for the Amster-dam Theater Patheacute where it premiered not for other cinemas that showed the serial later However even for Theater Patheacute the strategy only worked with the fi rst seven fi lm episodes An inconsistency arose from the fact that the newspapers in France were published seven days a week whereas in the Netherlands there was no Sunday edition The tie-inrsquos length should have been adjusted but it was not This meant that after six weeks the narrative of a new episode started at the same time the corresponding episode was released in the cinema A complete consumption of the tie-in before the consumption of the fi lm was not possible anymore This discrepancy would increase with time

A much bigger problem occurred when Patheacute decided that after ten single fi lm episodes from 16 January 1920 two episodes would be shown back-to-back in one program The tie-in episodes initially were not adjusted in De Courant and thus readers fell even further behind De Courant only reacted to this acceleration near the end of the fi lm serial At the 94th chap-ter of the serial novel suddenly fi lm episodes 17 and 18 were summarized Two weeks after Theater Patheacute had shown the last episode De Courant also summarized the fi nal two fi lm episodes and the story ended Appar-ently De Courant did not see any point in continuing7 Nevertheless even with the summarization of chapters it seems that De Geheimen van New-York was the longest serial novel ever published in De Courant and this probably was true for other newspapers as well The 109 chapters were published during almost 19 weeks at a time when a serial novel in De Cou-rant usually lasted no longer than eight weeks This also applies to the fi lm serial Even though the serial ended six weeks earlier because of the screen-ing of two episodes back-to-back with 16 weeks it is the longest running serial ever to be shown in the Netherlands

Little publicity (either advertisements or reviews) concerning De Geheimen van New-York appeared in fi lm journals No reports were made of higher sales of the newspaper or of a rush on the fi lm serial caused by the tie-in of De Geheimen van New-York It is not clear what people thought was the advantage of a publication of a tie-in especially because both parties must have realized that synchronization would be diffi cult to

obtain in this situation The tie-in may have not been implemented ear-lier in the Netherlands and only a mediocre interaction may have been achieved because serial novels in Dutch newspapers generally did not seem to have functioned in a very stimulating way and they were not viewed as worthwhile Unfortunately research on the ldquofeuilletonrdquo-section and serial novels in Dutch newspapers is virtually non-existent so it is rather dif-fi cult to make a solid case8 According to sketchy research that is avail-able serial novels were fi rst introduced in the Netherlands around 1880 thus rather late in comparison with surrounding countries such as France Germany or England where by that time they had been used for decades already Also the serial novel in the Netherlands does not seem to have been that important for newspaper circulation up until 1900 there were almost no cliffhangers used and no competitive reactions from other newspapers were noticeable9 This lack of interest in serials is perhaps even better illus-trated by what a newspaper wrote when episode six of Die Herrin der Welt was released in the Netherlands ldquoNo our daily newspapers do not know any Fletchers or Harrisons competing with each other till life and death [ ] Our editors and reporters are also working more unpretentious and clear-headed wayrdquo10 Inundation on a scale envisioned by Fletcher or Har-rison was not present in the Netherlands the market was too small to have formed a cartel or a system of syndication to offer the serial novel to a big-ger reading audience11

The serial novel the ancestor of the fi lm serial was often regarded in the Netherlands as old and discarded It almost went without saying that serial novels were considered to be inferior not to mention the people who read them Various writers were not very enthusiastic about the so-called seriefi lms According to someone called ldquoFilm-Buffrdquo who every now and then wrote articles for the fi lm journal De Film-Wereld the ldquogenrerdquo had so far not been very artistic ldquoIt degrades the Art of Film to old discarded melodramasrdquo12 In his eyes serials were connected with early primitive cin-ema such as the Zigomar fi lm series that had been based on a serial novel (though no intense collaboration or distribution of both media at the same time ever took place) Felix Hageman wrote in 1919 in De Film-Wereld that he was surprised that a fi lm could end with a ldquoto be continuedrdquo while one would not dare use such a technique in the respected theater ldquoFilm producers probably will reply lsquoDoes not one also read every night in the newspaper a part of a serial novelrsquordquo To which the writer answered himself ldquoIndeedmdashbut which fatal infl uence does this have on the little nerves of our romantic-minded women who are half sick of desire to [know] the ending of a very exciting episoderdquo13 In his article ldquoSeriefi lm of Nietrdquo (Serials or Not) Hagemanrsquos negative views about fi lm serials are bluntly stated

As a matter of fact all serials [lsquoseriefi lmsrsquo] are the excesses of Film Art that probably will not last and in the end only will attract the primi-tively educated minds [ ] It may be a coincidence but all serials

have with some very rare exceptions murder and manslaughter rob-bery seduction kidnapping and all kinds of other nastiness as topic

He proposed a solution to this problem ldquoOne could build a cinema exclu-sively for horrible melodramas shown in series so far as I am concerned for 52 weeks with above the entrance the sign lsquoAdmittance only to Assesrsquordquo14 His view that seriality was only for frail women and the dumb masses did not keep him from secretly writing for the famous German pulp-publishing house Eichler hundreds of cheap sensational stories about gentleman thief Lord Lister15

Even though Hagemanrsquos serial loathing is hypocritical it shows the lack of appreciation of the serial form in the Netherlands as highbrow contempt combined with cultural issues something that at that time could also be seen in America or France (see parts three and four) It was especially from 1919 on that in more reviews of American serials a disdain was shown for the serials as well as for the audience that watched these sensational stories (according to newspaper descriptions the audience usually came from a lower social background) A daily newspaper summarized the American serial Wolves of Kultur (1918) that was released in the Netherlands as De Boodschapper des Doods in 1920 with the words ldquoDetective drama To be continuedrdquo What followed in the review was not good but neither was it exceptionally negative

Barometrically one can call this the zero point of the fi lm industry While no attempt is being made to reach an unhealthy sensation nei-ther is anything nice obtained It is only concerned with that short emotion of the man who jumps off his galloping horse onto a speeding train and of another who escapes from the fi fth fl oor along the clothes-line [ ] There is no essential difference between these fi lms and the novels of Nick Carter the Wilsons and others that sometimes are written with much more fantasy and competence16

In 1916 the fi rst American serials that were released in the Netherlands were seen as something new with an American freshness to them whereas by the end of 1919 that was no longer the case From 1916 until 1919 around 8 to 14 productions (of European and American origin) per year were offered serially17 None of the reviewers probably could have predicted that in 1920 the largest number of serials yet would reach the Netherlands The distri-bution market was fl ooded as at least 30 serial productions were offered Distributors large and small as well as old and new offered serials It turned out however that the rental sales had reached their limit From all the serials offered in 1920 it seems only 19 were ever released in Amsterdam

Thus in the period when De Geheimen van New-York (and later Die Herrin der Welt) were released in the Netherlands there was more com-petition among serials than ever before Perhaps because at that time the

American serial repertoire had become synonymous with cheap serial nov-els that lowered the status of the inundation process this new form of promotion did not result in a media event Additionally the serial lacked momentum because in the Netherlands there was no newspaper syndicate to speak of For De Geheimen van New-York to function successfully many more newspapers in the Netherlands would also have to publish the tie-in which did not happen A widespread inundation of the fi lm was also not possible with only a single print of the fi lm in circulation making it impossible to synchronize a schedule of reading and viewing (except in the fi rst few weeks and only in Amsterdam) To understand these failures and to create a stimulating event like those that accompanied the fi rst releases of serials in America France or England where syndication was in place it is necessary to look at the customary method of fi lm serial distribution in the Netherlands Only then does it become clear that because of the serial fi lm release pattern that was already in place in the Netherlands prospects for a successful release were from the beginning even worse than so far indicated In fact as will be discussed below De Geheimen van New-York was only the second American serial that was released with episodes of two reels

ADJUSTING AMERICAN SERIALS RACING TOWARDS THE END

De Sleutel naar Geluk is as far as it has been possible to track down the fi rst American serial released in the Netherlands It was in fact Universalrsquos second serial The Master Key that had premiered in America in November 1914 and consisted of 15 episodes According to the distribution company HAP it was the fi rst big seriefi lm to arrive in the Netherlands Indeed even in comparison with long features (called kilometer-fi lms) the 10000 meters with its 30 acts that from January 1916 onward would be shown in seven consecutive weeks represented an unprecedented length Though for-eign correspondents had reported earlier about the tie-in successes abroad and the The Master Keyrsquos serial novel by John Fleming Wilson had been syndicated in America De Sleutel naar Geluk was not advertised as hav-ing a serial novel The most striking piece of information about HAPrsquos announcement is however without a doubt the number of weeks in which it was shown Though it was common in the Netherlands to show shorts beside a long feature this was not done with the serials While in America The Master Key was shown during 15 weeks with one two-reel episode per week in the Netherlands the serial was released in only seven consecu-tive weeks In the fi rst six weeks two episodes and in the last week three episodes were screened in one fi lm program De Sleutel naar Geluk seems to have been a success in the Netherlands in February 1916 the serial was booked in ten cities18 The daily newspaper De Utrechtse Courant described the serial as an ldquoextraordinary gripping drama exciting until the endrdquo The

audience gave spontaneous ldquostorms of endless cheers especially when the criminal was overpoweredrdquo19 The release pattern of De Sleutel naar Geluk would be the standard for American serials for years to come

Two possible reasons can be given as to why American serials were released in such a different form in the Netherlands First of all a practical reason could be as Hageman at the time claimed that ldquoa serial in six epi-sodes is usually less expensive than six single fi lmsrdquo20 This statement could be an economic explanation of why in the Netherlands episodes of a serial would be used to cheaply fi ll a program with episodes instead of separate fi lms Unfortunately this is the only statement concerning this practice It was however wartime and even though the Netherlands remained neutral and fi lms could be imported a shortage of fi lms existed and prices contin-ued to rise (also due to increased shipping costs) With the war Brussels had vanished as a distribution center for the Dutch while many foreign pro-duction companies were also disappearing from Berlin import of German fi lms remained possible When Italy joined the Allied forces in the middle of 1915 the import of Italian fi lms also became more diffi cult21 It was pos-sible to obtain foreign fi lms (including French fi lms) from London but the trip was fi lled with obstacles and not without its dangers22 Filling up a pro-gram with serials thus seems a logical solution to the shortage problem

Another explanation could be that it appears that fi lms that were extended over several weeks or episodes of series that were shown in consecutive weeks had not been successful in the Netherlands prior to the release of the American serials Perhaps this could have stimulated distributors to change the schedule of around 15 weeks to a shorter time frame by showing more episodes in one program When fi lm journals and newspapers began to write about the new trend in the Netherlands it was often remarked that before HAP had its initial success these kinds of fi lms were not thought of as popular

After the fi rst initial attempt both in this country as well as in other countries to introduce the serie-fi lm to the cinema loving audience came to nothing it seems that today the taste of this same audience [ ] has changed The serie-fi lm in contrast to earlier times is tolerated what the cause of this is is hard to say23

Unfortunately because of the unclear use of the term serie-fi lm (used for both series and serials) as well as the fact that many numbers from 1912ndash1914 from two important Dutch fi lm weeklies are gone it remains unclear to which past sobering serie-fi lms the writer referred Capellanirsquos Les Misegraverables was at the end of 1912 shown in four weekly episodes in Amsterdam but it seems to have been a succes24 It might be possible that the negative reference was referring to Fantocircmas (released in 1913ndash1914 by the Wilhelmina company) or the Messter Monopol-series of three Henny Porten fi lms that fi lm distributor Jean Desmet had trouble getting clients

for in 1915ndash191625 It thus remains unclear Nevertheless it is certain that in 1916 things had changed and serials could be successful and that after HAPrsquos serial many others followed

Of all the American serials that were released in the Netherlands none was released in its original form and exhibited in the originally planned weekly schedule In the Netherlands the American serial would function as the feature fi lm with two or three episodes combined The short fi lms (and a few years later the second feature) that accompanied the serial and fi lled the rest of the program were only mentioned in the advertisements after the serial had been playing for several weeks It was the distributor who was mostly responsible for this mode of exhibition He announced in advertisements aimed at exhibitors how many episodes per week would be released Sometimes the distributor mentioned that the serial originally had been much longer but that several episodes were now exclusively shown in one program Patheacute announced for instance in December 1918 that ldquoat the request of our honored customers the soon to be released serial [seriefi lm] of 15 weeks will be put together with several episodes per weekrdquo26 Some-times serials that earlier had been announced with a long running time were later on shortened by the distributor HAP was under the impression that they ldquoin accordance with the saying lsquoWell begun is halve donersquo should release the serial [seriefi lm] Kaffra Kan de Geweldige [The Yellow Menace 1916] in an extraordinary way and distribute it in six weekly series instead of sevenrdquo27 It was only very rarely that a different pattern was played in a cinema than the one initially announced by the distributor28

Various advertisements program outlines reviews and municipal cen-sorship descriptions seem to suggest the idea that the episodes were un-edited and shown back-to-back in a single program Original episode titles were often quoted and descriptions seem to indicate that cliffhangers were still intact However the few transcripts of the intertitles that have survived in the fi les of the Central Film Board (a centralized censorship Board only began to function in 1928) show that episodes from older serials that at that time still toured the country sometimes had nevertheless been edited together29 For instance in the case of De Groote Onbekende (The Silent Avenger 1920) the summaries that explained what happened in the pre-vious episodes were systematically removed The audience of 1925 that watched in Amsterdam the serial in the exact rhythm as when it was still presented in 1928 probably was also spared a repetition of summaries A slight pause after the cliffhanger nevertheless still remained For example after the words ldquoPhilip sees the terrible danger before his eyes but he cannot stoprdquo the announcement is made that it is ldquothe end of the second reel of episode sevenrdquo This is immediately followed by the next intertitle ldquoThe Silent Avenger episode eight Hideout in the Rocks fi rst reelrdquo and the story continues30 The original intertitles of Schoppenaas (The Ace of Spades 1925) that had been translated into Dutch by Trans-Atlantic in April 1925 were crossed out changed and rewritten so that nothing except

the repeated character introductions showed the place where a new original episode had once begun31 Thus by putting episodes back-to-back together original endings began to function as a cliffhanger reel break Whereas these two examples highlight an intervention especially for the Dutch mar-ket some serials that were released had already been altered for France Instead of 15 episodes or more many American Patheacute-Exchange serials were released in France by the Patheacute consortium in fewer episodes while more or less still having the same episode length It is from there (possibly during the war via England) that these fi lms reached the Netherlands

Though generally the American serials were shown in the Netherlands at a rate double that of their original distribution in the fi rst two years there was still some variation in screening patterns32 For instance Patheacutersquos fi rst serial in the Netherlands was De Avonturen van Elaine (The Perils of Pauline 1914) originally in America shown in 20 episodes but in the Netherlands it was screened in 1916 in nine weeks This version was how-ever an adjusted French version that had been re-cut into nine episodes of around 600 meters and released as Les Exploits drsquoElaine Interestingly Patheacute Fregraveres was the only one of the Dutch distributors that tried to release a serial at the rate of one episode per week (though its serials had already been shortened for release in France) With the release of De Roode Cirkel (The Red Circle 1915) in 1917 a Patheacute advertisement was published on the cover of the Dutch fi lm journal De Bioscoop-Courant It explained how serials could be shown in two different ways

Serials can be shown with several episodes a week Together they form the feature fi lm and therefore carry the program However serials can also be shown as an extra-feature Every week only one episode will be shown next to the normal feature Serials that follow this latter option will offer more advantages to the exhibitor 1 They make the program more varied and offer something for everybody 2 They last longer as a result of which more weeks will provide bigger box-offi ce receipts and regular customers will be cultivated33

By putting so much emphasis on the use of serials as an extra-feature it appears as if Patheacute preferred this model of distribution De Roode Cirkel indeed was released in Amsterdam in its adjusted export version with only one episode per week However even though the serial itself got a reason-able review the mode of distribution did not According to De Bioscoop-Courant it was clear that the serial took too long and would have benefi ted if three or more episodes had been shown in one program34

After De Roode Cirkel Patheacute never again released a whole serial with only one two-reel episode per week though it indeed tried again with De Geheimen van New-York Therefore the adjusted Patheacute serials reached their fi nal episode even quicker than in France For example the original 15-part The Shielding Shadow (1916) that had been re-cut for France into

ten episodes as Ravengar was subsequently shown in the Netherlands in six weeks (also as Ravengar) Other serials followed the same pattern such as The Fatal Ring (1917) (originally 20 episodes re-cut into 15 episodes as La Reine srsquoEnnuie and shown in fi ve weeks as De Koningin Verveelt Zich) or The Mystery of the Double Cross (1917) (originally 20 episodes re-cut into nine episodes as Le Mystegravere de la Double Croix and shown in three weeks as Het Geheim van het Dubbele Kruis) This method was used until 1924 in the Netherlands for many American Patheacute serials35

In France other distribution companies did the same with their products But while for instance Universalrsquos Liberty A Daughter of the USA (1916) was released in France as Suzy lrsquoAmeacutericaine in 16 episodes in the Neth-erlands the original number of 20 episodes was announced in a scheme to release them bundled in seven weeks Whereas the subsidiary of Patheacute-Exchange imported their serials via France the Universal serials did not come from France The Dutch subsidiary of Trans-Atlantic (Universalrsquos European branch) probably obtained them from England

It is clear that with this standard of different and adjustable release forms a tie-in could never work unless it was altered and tailored as was done in France American serials were adjusted in the Netherlands to a specifi c local custom (unfortunately whose exact origin remains unclear) and were released not in two-reel episodes but bundled together by the distributor

VIEWING AMERICAN CONCEPTION AND EUROPEAN EMINENCE

In spite of the HAPrsquos apparent success with both De Sleutel naar Geluk and the new release of Purper Iris (Under the Crescent 1915) it took until the second half of 1916 before advertisements for new serials fi lled the fi lm journals Then apart from HAPrsquos serials exhibitors had their attention drawn to De Vampieren (Les Vampires) Homunculus Stingaree (1915) Avonturen van Elaine (The Perils of Pauline) Peg van het Circus (The Adventures of Peg orsquo the Ring 1916) De Dochter van den Nacht (Nat-tens Datter 1915ndash1917) and Lucie Love (Lucille Love Girl of Mystery) Thus not all of these came from America three came from Europe Nat-tens Datter was Danish Les Vampires was French and Homunculus was German

As the war lasted longer in 1917 and 1918 the number of American serials was less than European serial productions but in 1919 again more American than European productions were offered (nine against fi ve) However among the many serial productions that were offered in 1920 there were 18 Euro-pean ones and 12 from America (and one of unknown origin) An important difference between the two types of serials is that the European serial had fewer episodes than an American serial usually up to six episodes36 Also an episode of a European serial was often of irregular length and longer than its American variant Whereas an American serial was in its original form

always two reels (except for its fi rst episode of three reels) European serials were around three to fi ve reels long but even longer ones can be found The structure of a European serial exhibited thus more varieties in length than its American counterpart episodes of serials could be made with only a few reels but also with many reels to function as the feature in a program As a result of the longer length European serials were during the fi rst two years of the introduction of the fi lm form usually not shown in the Netherlands with multiple episodes in a single program This began to change from 1918 onward when for instance Patheacutersquos Le Comte de Monte-Cristo was shown in four weeks with two episodes of around 1000 meters each in one program It is not so strange that American and European serials were screened with around 1500 to 2000 meters worth of episodes Features were at that time also getting longer and serials in the Netherlands adjusted to this the only Dutch serial that was ever made the three-part Oorlog en Vrede (1918) consisted of episodes of around 2000 meters (thus over seven reels) Feuil-ladersquos Judex had only fi ve adjusted episodes of around 1700 meters when shown at the end of 1919 and Arbeid (Travail 1920) was released in 1920 with several eacutepoques accumulating a length even more than 2000 meters Because the two-reel structure of an American serial episode did not change at all as the feature fi lms grew longer in the Netherlands more episodes of an American serial were needed to keep up with this length Another differ-ence was that American serials were rarely screened in the new and classier theaters of Amsterdam while European serials could be viewed there It was in this period that De Geheimen van New-York was released in the Nether-lands with only one episode of 600 meters per week while almost a half-year after its fi nal episode Die Herrin der Welt would be released with episodes of around 2000 meters per week

De Koningin der Aarde (Die Herrin der Welt) was released in the Neth-erlands on 27 August 1920 by the Nordisk Film company that at that time released all Ufa fi lms in the Netherlands Unlike American serials it was pro-moted rather lavishly with colorized advertisements on expensive paper that celebrated the exoticness of the picture and the grandeur of the sets Film journals and newspapers did fetishize somewhat the numbers and epic quality of the production (thus fi gures of pages extras shooting days length or the cost of four million guilders) though on a much less inundating scale than in Germany It seems visual spectacle was the most important factor to stress to impress the public Right from the start Karl Figdorrsquos novel was published in Dutch as part of a so-called ldquoFilm Seriesrdquo a series that contained low-priced fi lm related novels Except for a small notifi cation in the frontispiece of the novel that the screening-rights belonged to Nordisk Film no other references were made to the fi lm version in the remaining pages of the novel (a similar method was used in the German novel) The novel was however mentioned in the program booklets that could be bought at the Rembrandt Theater cinema and ldquorecommended by the literature adviser from the Rembrandt Theater for the audience to readrdquo37

According to descriptions in newspapers and fi lm journals the German serial was a huge success The Rembrandt Theater (that had an alliance with Ufa) reported in a Nordisk advertisement that shows were sold out three times a day and that the theater had an average 20000 visitors per week (Figure 53) The Rembrandt Theater with 1200 seats was one of the largest and most luxurious theater in Amsterdam and was situated right in the heart of an important entertainment district The theater which had opened in 1919 had previously never screened a serial its typical fare was dramas and romantic comedies38 The serialrsquos celebrated success was even reported by the Lichtbild-Buumlhne in Germany in an article about the American expansion in Europe39 On 5 November 1920 a second print arrived something that unless a fi lm was very successful did not happen quickly in the Netherlands

The tone of the reviews of American serials had not gotten better as the year progressed It was obvious that reviewers were tired of the serials the serial format had become tame and predictable Usually with the passing of episodes the reviews would not get better In August 1920 the newspaper De Telegraaf also viewed the production of De Koningin der Aarde rather negatively ldquoWhat can one say about such sensational nonsense it is of no better quality than the restrdquo40 However after several episodes the newspaper reversed its judgment and concluded in September that the serial was because of its mixing of sensational tragic and comic elements in a plausible and

Figure 53 A crowd of people is waiting outside the Rembrandt Theater in Amster-dam to see the third episode of De Koningin der Aarde

human way an example of what a serial should be ldquoWe are glutted with American serials we were tired to see all those incredible sensationalistic stories and look the German fi lm gives an example of what a big serial -an inevitable but accepted product on the fi lm market- has to look likerdquo41 Nor-disk also used this two-sidedness of American and European qualities in its advertisements ldquoAmerican in its grand conception German in its emi-nence and consistency this fi lm is a masterpiece in its entiretyrdquo42 De Koningin der Aarde thus combined American and European fi lmmaking whereby the European fi lm style could complete and improve an American concept

Though De Koningin der Aarde functioned as a serial it was viewed as belonging to a better category than the American serials of the time Indeed it seems overall European serials did get better reviews than Amer-ican ones Compared with Les Mystegraveres de New-York or other American serials De Koningin der Aarde suited much better the local serial distri-bution pattern that was used in the Netherlands Instead of several epi-sodes tied together that must have caused a restless movement from one cliffhanger to the next this form of serial had a more consistent storyline and structure with less repetition while it could boast marvelous sets and adventure Through upscale advertisements and promotions a higher sense of quality was conveyed enabling the fi lm to be screened in one of the most luxurious theaters of Amsterdam This split in conception of dif-ferent audience target groups would in the years to come become increas-ingly pronounced not only in the Netherlands but in other countries as well and nationalistic opinions also infl uenced reception as we will see in part three of this study

The different distribution and exhibition forms of the American serial proved successful in the Netherlands and might even have caused a quicker popularization of the genre but this mode of distribution caused its rapid downfall as well The trouble began after the war American serials were playing in many cinemas in Amsterdam but they were not shown in the new or upgraded cinemas Also the fi lm form itself was sometimes dis-cussed as an unfavorable item ldquoThe cinema-going public likes variation a pleasant variationrdquo according to an article in De Film that discussed the positive sides of a varied fi lm program ldquoThey would usually rather see fi ve or six numbers on the screen than one series of a fi lm of many miles and in many episodes or chaptersrdquo43 Because the serial was presented as a feature and not as fi ller the waning audience interest that could be observed as early as 1920 meant a rapid end for the American serial in the Netherlands If the American serial had been part of the fi lms surrounding a feature it probably would have lasted longer Now the major distribution companies began to step out of the serial business and fewer and fewer American seri-als played in the Dutch cinemas European serials or multi-part features lasted a bit longer which is also not so strange as they usually had more money invested were less repetitive and did not have an abrupt ending that

could cheapen the feeling thereby fulfi lling different a market section as well We will have more to say about this element in Chapter 9

In the years of 1919 and 1920 De Geheimen van New-York was the odd man out because it was released in two-reel portions whereas episodes of other serials could function on their own as features in the program It is possible that Patheacute after its fi rst attempt back in 1917 with De Roode Cirkel tried again to push serials as an extra feature as they began to sense the bottom was ready to fall out of the American serial popularity How-ever the tie-in did not help to create an eventful feeling that might have been able to provide this change (though indeed the fi lmrsquos age could also have been a negative point) The fact that there was no system available in the Netherlands to create a heavy form of inundation for a serial tie-in (lack of syndication having only one print virtually no serial novel competition in newspapers) made it a rather useless form of advertising and promotion from the beginning In May 1921 De Geheimen van New-York was cen-sored locally for viewing in the north of the Netherlands there were only fi ve episodes of 2000 to 3015 meters in length Patheacute thus apparently had rearranged the serial after release in Amsterdam44

The way De Geheimen van New-York was used in the Netherlands however also shows the tie-in as a method to impose control American and French exhibitors as well as foreign distributors would with a tie-in think twice before burning their fi ngers by deviating from the implemented trajectory and losing the extra promotions Because from the start Ameri-can serials were distributed in the Netherlands in a different pattern the immobile and strict structure of De Geheimen van New-York unable to change according to specifi c local needs was probably less desirable Without the tie-in the possibility to change and create different forms of distribution and exhibition was made easier though not necessarily more successful Die Herrin der Welt however with its original longer episodes already corresponded to the pattern of Dutch feature serial distribution With its consistent storyline less repetitive structure and marvelous sets it could function as a more ldquorespectablerdquo form of seriality even though it still was constructed along adventure and melodramatic lines

CONCLUSION PART TWO

With the fi rst serials in America promotional and exhibition tactics were used on a national level to fabricate and facilitate the returning serial viewer-ship The serial tie-in for instance functioned as a national way to provide as a paratext extra plot information as well as a promotional tool to make the audience aware of the next episode that would soon be shown in a nearby theater This nationalized mode of inundation as well as its fi lm form would be used differently when situated outside the system of the American fi lm industry Looking at how Les Mystegraveres de New-York was released in France

as one of the earliest American serials it becomes clear that the transforma-tion of the fi lm form in concurrence with a tie-in could function as a way to adjust to local discourses Interweaving the fabric of daily public experience the adaptation thereby went far beyond the more common aligning of pro-motional material or changing intertitles to accommodate local viewership Though as with the American tie-ins it remains unclear how many readers (either in newspapers or weekly booklets) would actually go to the cinema after reading the stories the tie-in seems to have become an important part of the cinematic text that was available for many French viewers

Through local adjustment of a French serial form (that in its turn was also infl uenced by American serials) with Die Herrin der Welt in Germany a form of seriality was obtained that fared well by being geared to both a feature form of prestige as well as popular entertainment The form of pro-motion that was used serialized not the fi lm content but what surrounded the fi lm its stars scale and even budget Together this created a feeling of a national event and spectacle unlike anything ever witnessed before in Ger-many a technique that propelled serial consumption and that also would infl uence future productions of serials as well as features

The practice of distribution remained important as the use of Ameri-can serials (often in their French adjustments) in the Netherlands shows Through distribution practices the two-reel American serials were trans-formed into serial feature productions whereas for instance Die Herrin der Welt corresponded more to the Dutch distribution scheme of serial feature This especially became clear when more episodes of American serials were needed to keep up with concurrently expanding lengths of regular features and serial features However local transformations and adaptations of the serial form were sometimes diffi cult to transcribe across nearby borders unless they were adjusted again The tie-in of Les Mystegraveres de New-York that had been adapted from an American source for French purposes thus became useless when (four years later) it was tried out unchanged in a Dutch fi lm distribution system that had from its very fi rst serial release functioned rather differently The absence of a widespread Dutch platform for inunda-tion thwarted the success of techniques that had worked well in America and France In addition to showing the diffi culties of a widespread interna-tional form of distribution and promotional tactics this tie-in failure also points out that trans-media cooperation as it was used serially with the tie-in could serve as an extra method to solidify the repetitive pre-planned structures and without it seriality could move more freely and adjust to local needs (though still mostly defi ned by distribution)

The focus on local practices of an internationally distributed serial fi lm form makes clearer the dynamics of transformation (of creating a ldquoglo-calrdquo version) Seriality was a form that especially in Europe with its many national differences had the ability to constantly adapt and restructure into different forms depending on local fi lm distribution as well as cultural contexts Whereas feature structures always needed to be the feature and could not become a short (rarely were features also serialized) the reverse

was possible for short (especially American) serials in Europe In Europe serials could in their country of origin function as a serial feature thereby attaining feature credibility (such as higher budgets and prestige) while as will also be discussed in the next chapter still not losing the possibility for restructuring Seriality was particularly in Europe an important fi lm form that could function alongside the regular feature and that because of its many advantages would last well into the 1920s

Though for the readers it is clear what has become of Pearl White and her successful portrayal of the heroine Elaine Dodge (overcoming the torments of several evil men while admitting her love for Kennedy and taking care of French soldiers) her fate in the enemy country of her beloved France has not been told yet Would her adventures and daredevil acts ever be seen in Germany Would the content of war-related serials be problematic for German viewership Were Pearlrsquos adventures also adjusted Another fate that also has not been completely disclosed is that of the German heroine Maud Gregaards as played by Mia May Would Maud Gregaards ever get her revenge with the treasure of Saba Were Maudrsquos adventures ever shown in America and were they differently received than Harrisons Universumrsquos creations To at least lift a corner of one of these veils Die Herrin der Welt was released in America in no fewer than two Broadway theaters at the same time but in an adjusted form that was readjusted even during exhi-bition To know more about the adventures of our heroines or their serial associates turn to part three

Part III

Introduction to Part III

ldquoMust such things really be imported from America We ask ourselves this again and again Who benefi ts from this other than American producersrdquo was a question asked in August 1921 by a writer of the Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung in response to an American serial that had just been released1 A few weeks later fi lm critic and script writer Hans Siemsen began his article on American fi lms in Germany in Die Weltbuumlhne with

The German-American peace has been achieved The German-Amer-ican fi lm-war has begun Signs suggest that it will proceed like its military predecessor on the battlefi elds of Northern France In the meantime we will achieve victory upon victory2

He ended his article with a view on two imported American serials that he thought showed a boundless naiveteacute and had a witless written script

Both of these attitudes even though coming from a specifi c German viewpoint are characteristic of the debate that will be dealt with in these next chapters namely seriality as a means through which confl ict could be expressed and binary oppositions could be raised Serials were not only adaptable to local discourses as seen in the previous part They were con-sumed in locally specifi c cultural conditions that infl uenced reception and further production as they for instance connected with national views on America or Europe confl icts between high and low culture or the (interna-tional) fi lm industry The third part of this study will explore how the serial could stimulate and interact with these cultural contexts and discourses more often than not triggering hostile nationalistic feelings The subjects of these differences are the American serials that for the fi rst time were released in abundance in Germany in 1921 as well as European serials that from that same time on were imported into America

6 Consuming New World ViewsAmerican Serials in Germany

During the war German fi lm production had expanded and infl uenced the industry due to the countryrsquos isolation though as has also been pointed out in Chapter 2 imports had hardly ceased completely It nevertheless still took some time after the war before foreign productions could offi cially be imported again into Germany It was only in 1921 that the import ban on American fi lms was lifted after almost four years Then both the American and German fi lm industries that had changed so much during the war had to get reacquainted In Germany this took place through the overabundant presence of serials

In this chapter I will examine the introduction of American serials that were released in abundance in Germany Because the serial introduc-tion takes place as late as 1921 and the structure of the serials was again adjusted the serials were quickly able to function as a pressure cooker for nationalistic feelings thereby operating differently than they had in the Netherlands or France Even though perhaps as Thomas Saunders writes in his study on Hollywood in Berlin the American releases of 1921 were perceived as ldquolittle more than curiositiesrdquo they were curiosities with bright lights that made a splash anyway1 It is by adjustments that the American serial form came into increased confrontation with local and international fi lm forms and became the subject of cultural discussions

Film historian Miriam Bratu Hansen sees American adventure serials along with the slapstick comedies and detective fi lms of the interwar years as examples of Americanism and celebrating new modern sensibilities2 When after four years Germany was confronted with a drastically changed international fi lm market at fi rst American fi lms from the late 1910s were imported The serial qualities were however placed by reviewers in a spe-cifi c context of stereotypical (anti-) Americanism especially when compared with productions of the German fi lm industry These qualities are exactly the ones that Hansen cites as what was perceived as new and contemporary in American fi lms physicality directness speed and the surface of things3 Most reviewers however quickly reduced the American fi lm industry into a shorthand of negative terms though the products seem to have been popu-lar with the German audience and similar German productions were also

made Many views on America that were mentioned in connection with the serial would be re-uttered in later times It is in this chapterrsquos close-up view of 1921 the year in which American seriality was introduced in Germany that it becomes clear that American serials were consumed in quite spe-cifi c national discourses whereby conditions of reception were linked with locally altered fi lm structures exclusive imports and war-related feelings

STARTING POINTS

Negative views on America were not something new in Europe Already in the 1830s Alexis de Tocqueville had offered his famous critique on the cultural life in America under conditions of social equality something that according to him would result in a mentality of passive consumption4 Cri-tique on mass society and mass culture intermingled with cultural differ-ences that also existed in Germany before and during the First World War For instance in 1912 fi lm imports caused drama critic Alfred Kerr to con-nect ldquoAmericanization of the inner manrdquo with ldquothe fl attening of the spiritual liferdquo5 Or when America joined the war in 1917 German politicians and writers did not fail to mention that America was a nation without culture6 When the serials entered Germany in 1921 the direct association of cinema with Americanism was not yet present but it would be by the mid-1920s It was around that time that the Dawes plan and the industrial rationaliza-tion envisioned by Henry Ford and Frederick Taylor were taking place and Hollywood consolidated its hegemony on the German market7 With the marketing of mass consumption as seen for instance with the launching of Fordrsquos translated autobiography My Life and Work in 1923 the discussion of Americanism was catapulted in Germany to much higher levels From that time critiques on America for its shallowness dollar mania or as the cause of eroding cultural standards would become more common

Along with critique there existed at the same time praise and admiration for Americarsquos modernization and economic advances8 Once Germany was getting back on track and the Mark had stabilized after 1924 the topic of modernization moved center stage with two practices of Americanization On the one hand a group of engineers and businessmen proclaimed the American economic miracle a Wirtschaftswunder with Fordist-Taylorist methodsmdashmethods that according to them could help in the recovery of Germanyrsquos economy9 On the other hand as researcher Anton Kaes points out large segments of the cultural elite after being disappointed by social political and cultural modernity rallied against Americanism and its mass consumption and the loss of culture in their view tradition culture and the inclusion of soul could serve as a European trademark10 Germanyrsquos preoccupation with America was not restricted to an economic or intellec-tual elite it was discussed in the popular press as well as in scholarly eco-nomics texts America and Americanism could not be avoided it fascinated

Consuming New World Views 101

and appalled at the same time America became an important focus of Ger-many11 Adolf Halfeld a former correspondent in America thus was able to create a bestseller by heavily criticizing America in his 1927 book Amerika und der Amerikanismus In this book he bemoaned the lack of culture in America and maintained that mass-produced goods lacked the beauty and the good taste of traditionally made items12

The fi rst American productions that were exported to Germany were no prestigious features The bulk of the imported American fi lms consisted mainly of cheaply produced fi lms among them very noticeably the serial How great the share of the American serial was among foreign imports can be seen when one looks at the contingent quota and the overall number of American serials that played in Germany in 1921 At the end of 1920 an agreement had fi nally been reached with the Ministry of Economics after a full year of trade negotiations The import quota for 1921 for all foreign fi lms was set at 180000 meters of negative fi lm equivalent to 15 percent of domestic production in 1919 The 11 serial productions that were reviewed for censorship and shown in 1921 together accounted for almost 50 per-cent of the import quota nearly 90000 meters13 Based on fi gures sup-plied by Lichtbild-Buumlhne it also becomes clear that the serials accounted for 68 percent of the total 131000 meters of American fi lms imported in 192114 Though Lichtbild-Buumlhne also admits that the quota of 1921 was not so strict and more meters were imported than offi cially was permitted but even with higher import rates than the allowed 180000 the fi gure of 90000 meters still gives the serial an important presence among foreign fi lms as well as other American products15 In the years to come the quota would be raised to 250000 meters for 1922 and 1923 and to 260000 meters for 192416

There was one American production company that quickly took the lead in having their products shown in Germany once serials were introduced in 1921 Out of the eleven serial productions seven came from the Universal studio roughly adding up to 62000 meters thus around 34 percent of the total import quota and around 47 percent of all American imports The great share held by Universal in Germany surprised Quintus Fixlein (an unknown pseudonym) at the time as well who calculated in the left-wing weekly Das Tage-Buch that Universal had already imported 50 big fi lms among them several serials thereby already taking in half of the quota while more were to come17 Universal did however not release the serials itself the 62000 meters of serial could be split over several distribution companies One of those companies was Ufa that opted for taking the dis-tribution for Berlin East North and Central Germany as well as Silesia of the serial Goliath Armstrong (Elmo the Mighty 1919) that had been a successful serial in the occupied zones of Rhineland and Westphalia (Figure 61)18 It was fi rst released in three Ufa theaters at the same time (Kam-mer-Lichtspiele Kurfuumlrstendamm and Mozartsaal) and then three others picked it up as well (Weinbergs Alexanderplatz and Friedrichstrasse) This

was the only time Ufa would release an American serial it did however produce and distribute several German serials as will be discussed below19 Four of the seven Universal serials of 1921 were released in Germany by Wilhelm Feindt (including Goliath Armstrong) who was along with Oskar Einstein one of the main distributors of Universal products The others were Martin Dentler and Filmhaus Bruckmann the latter would release several more serials in 1922

The presence of Universal as the main supplier of serials makes the absence of the other international supplier of American serials Patheacute-Exchange

Figure 61 Advertisement for the six-part Goliath Armstrong Lichtbild-Buuml hne April 23 1921 51

quite clear Great serials with stars like Pearl White or Ruth Roland were thus not shown in Germany20 Reasons for this distorted relationship are probably the strong presence Universal had in Berlin and the war-related diffi culties between France and Germany Whereas Universal already had a subsidiary in Berlin in 1919 it was only towards the end of 1921 that Patheacute had one21 Das Groszlige Spiel (The Great Gamble 1919) seems to have been the only Patheacute-Exchange serial that would be released in the coming years Patheacute-Exchange had the habit of contracting independent produc-ers to make their serial products (only sometimes subsidizing production or advancing money to begin production) thereby different contractual agreements for overseas distribution could also be in effect22 It is prob-ably in this respect that the distribution company Suumlddeutsches Filmhaus advertised the serial as a Western Photoplay fi lm and not a Patheacute-Exchange fi lm while the association with a French company might also be a good reason to disguise its origins The two other non-Universal serials came from state-righted serials made by Arrow and the Canyon Picture Corpo-ration and released by respectively Filmhaus Sage and Westfalia Film Uni-versalrsquos presence was thus mostly felt in 1921 and 1922 by sheer number of serials and especially by the number of its meters23 Whereas Universal had fi rst fi lled up the feature market with cheap adjusted serial products from 1923 the total serial output dwindled down as the number of Ameri-can (non-serial) features from other companies increased in the wake of the end of the hyperinfl ation and the introduction of the Rentenmark in November 1923 Universal also came to rely more on regular and more expensive features24

Unfortunately in these fi rst years of American import there are no sta-tistics that could give an indication of their commercial success nor are any fi gures available about numbers of prints25 It is thus mostly from reactions from critics and the kind of cinemas they played in that we can draw the conclusion that it seems serials were popular in the beginning While at that time in other countries the American serial had already been relegated to the cheaper cinemas these productions were in Germany fi rst screened in some of the A-list houses in Berlin from big Ufa theaters like Kammer-Lichtspiele (1200 seats) Kurfuumlrstendamm (900) and Mozartsaal (925) to medium-sized ones like Marmorhaus (581) and Richard-Oswald-Lichtspiele (500)26 It was however not only through their abundance or exhibition in respect-able theaters that the American serials attracted much attention it was also because of their striking advertisements action cheapness differences from German productions as well as their changed lengths It has to be noted that not everybody could see these fi lms censorship practically forbade all American serials to be shown for those under the age of 18 Thus whereas in America serials were used more and more for matinee exploitation in Ger-many youth was never a target group more on censorship below

The American serials were repackaged following a path similar to that used in the Netherlands where serials were released as features years

earlier Thus in Germany instead of 15 two-reelers that were played in addition to a feature viewers usually received three weekly episodes with up to 1500 meters (6 Akte) of serial excitement This restructuring to a fea-ture length had a possible economic reason as well it was most likely done to fi t the serials into the very successful German feature serial format that had been initiated with Homunculus and stimulated more with Die Herrin der Welt The American serial structure did survive in this adjusted form at the beginning the previous episodes were recapped whereas usually at the end of the fi lm the next episode was announced27 However sometimes the internal structure also still showed the structure of the episodes that had been cobbled together For instance with the serial Der Geheimnis-volle Dolch (The Vanishing Dagger 1920) each chapter was announced explicitly within the episode the recap and the announcement of the next episode were only made once in each episode As unfortunately there are no local serial versions left a more meticulous analysis of these repackages cannot be made (original versions of these American serials also seem to have been lost)

WAR-RELATED TARGETS

It is not so strange that right from the start American serials were placed by critics in a nationalistic and protectionist setting American serials and fi lms were perhaps fi rst of all connected to the feeling of occupation With the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 Allied forces took control of most of the region of the Rhineland an occupation that would last until 1930 It was here that one could view the fi rst American fi lms well before they arrived in unoccupied Germany in 1921 Not much is known about these fi lms in the occupied zones but one notable production was Universalrsquos serial Goliath Armstrong (Elmo the Mighty) that dealt with an evil syndicate trying to steal valuable timber land from honest Lucille Gray (Grace Cunard) This serial was according to several fi lm journals rather successful in the occu-pied zones before it was released by Ufa28

In addition to feelings of occupation the response of the trade press and newspapers is linked with a specifi c American point of view that was portrayed in the serials themselves Even before America joined the Allied forces the American audiences were being prepared for a possible war through various propagandistic fi lms The war in Europe especially gave the serial new material for sensational stories on spies infi ltration and stolen documents Around 1916 many so-called ldquopreparedness serialsrdquo were made with plots of Japanese Russian Mongols Mexicans and East-ern European spies who were sometimes joined by a defected American29 With America formally joining the Allied forces in April 1917 the espio-nage element was given more focus and the secret agents became more German Obvious anti-German and propagandistic serials were made like

The Fighting Trail (1917) in which a German agent tries to fi nd the loca-tion of a mine containing valuable minerals needed to carry on the war in Europe The Eaglersquos Eye (1918) deals with a group of patriotic Ameri-cans who work with the Secret Service in uncovering numerous German plots (with episode titles like Von Rintelen the Destroyer or The Kaiserrsquos Death Messenger) Wolves of Kultur (1918) deals with German spies who pose a threat to the daughter of a murdered wireless torpedo inventor or one of the last war-related serials The Black Secret (1919) in which Pearl White combats the Germans once again but this time in both America and Europe It was from this batch of American propagandistic and national-istic serials that two of the fi rst serials premiered in unoccupied Germany These serials were released earlier than Elmo the Mighty and gathered much more attention from the press than Elmo had so far received in the occupied zone30

On 24 June 1921 Karo Ass (or Caro Ass The Red Ace) premiered in the Schauburg on Potsdamer Platz in Berlin with two restructured episodes (of 1370 and 1473 meters) in the weekly programme fi nishing in three weeks Even though American fi lms could offi cially be released as of 1 Jan-uary 1921 the distribution companies waited until the second quarter of the year typically the start of a new season31 The Red Ace was a rather old Universal serial dating from October 1917 In it Marie Walcamp battles for-eign spies in Canada who attempt to control a secret platinum-mine In the end the spies are unsuccessful and the platinum needed for the war effort is delivered to Washington DC Aspects concerning nationality can be found in the original 16 two-reel episodes but also in the adjusted German six episodes of around 1500 meters each Even though Dr Hirtzman leader of the spies became in the German version the Mexican Antonio Castro the changing of names and nationalities was not a suffi cient disguise32 The Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung complained about the ldquo(unnecessary) lengthy moralizing American-patriotic intertitlesrdquo33 And indeed the American war effort was still very noticeable in the intertitles which probably with more care could have been better transformed For instance in the fourth episode the intertitles explain the need for the platinum to reach America ldquoBecause we must deliver a large amount of explosives to the government we need the contractually agreed upon amount of platinum at once and ask that you send it immediatelyrdquo And ldquoAs you know the production of millions of dollars worth of munitions depends on the platinum in our possessionrdquo34 It was especially the part that related to the American war effort and its nationalistic overtones that caused irritation

The nationalistic mass newspaper Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger from the Scherl publishing house that was owned by conservative Alfred Hugenberg (who later would take control of the Ufa in 1927) reacted

But still we can learn from the Americans We could also use a title in a fi lm like lsquoWe are only doing whatrsquos best for our countryrsquo What

kind of uproar would there be in America if we used a title like that in a fi lm Then we subtly insert the operation of a massive munitions factory into the photo sequence We donrsquot have anything like that any-more but we could use something analogous from our own iron and steel industry35

A journal called Der (schwarze) Tag reacted even more fi ercely and saw the war coming into the theaters again while raising the issue of split audience sympathy to a higher level

There are scores of dead the platinum-thieves are fi nally caught and the desperately needed precious metal is given to the government of the United States for the production of munitions Why is America in such desperate need of munitions Itrsquos for its last war the one against us Itrsquos highly inappropriate to send us a fi lm like that where the heroes continually risk their lives so that America can produce munitions that at one time would have been shot at the audience36

Both sources connect the propagandistic American serial into a war-related discourse of loss and feeling wronged even actively linking it with the war experiences of the audiences

Just like Karo Ass Das Grosse Radium-Geheimnis (The Great Radium Mystery 1919) dealt with secret agents and a mine this time instead of platinum radium was the trophy for militaristic purposes Being made after the war the Universal serial had a less strongly war-related theme but many spies were still at large and a tank-type vehicle played an active part in it No men of evil with German sounding names appeared in the original this time it featured crooks like the (perhaps Eastern European) Countess Nada a transatlantic agent Frank Bird and a mastermind crimi-nal called The Hawk The country of origin was not named explicitly but it was referred to as ldquoa foreign powerrdquo Still American patriotic intertitles survived in the German version for instance when the good American radium scientist Marston claims ldquoYes isnrsquot it wonderful to know that we could make our fatherland one of the most powerful on earth with our radium mysteryrdquo Or when scientistrsquos daughter Gloria Marston (played by Eileen Sedgwick) has to clear the name of her father who was accused of being a traitor and a murderer ldquoI would consider the betrayal of the radium mystery to be the same as the betrayal of my fatherlandrdquo Gloria sticks to her fatherrsquos beliefs even adding to it a world vision ldquoIf the thieves really do get their hands on the radium and sell it to a foreign country then not only our fatherland but all of humanity is in immeasurable dangerrdquo37 However whether these serials were indeed seen on a large scale as Ameri-can patriotic will probably remain unknown But one has to consider pos-sible counteractive feelings as well What for instance would audiences have thought when the villainous companion in Das Grosse Radium-Geheimnis

replies to Marstonrsquos patriotic outings ldquoGood grief Marston what do I have to do with the government I want to make moneyrdquo thereby possibly turning Americarsquos money-making aspirations into a twisted version of con-sumption and dollar mania

However after The Red Ace and The Great Radium Mystery no more war-related serials were released This change could have something to do with the irritated reactions but also simply because fewer old serials were imported Soon after the peace treaties had been signed in 1918 American audiences lost interest in war-related serials Also due to American censor-ship serials featured fewer criminal masterminds that were a danger to soci-ety and the world With The Great Radium Mystery there were no reactions to American nationalistic intertitles but American and German differences were noted in the press as would be the case with future releases

Thus whereas in France serials had been adjusted to fi t French sensibili-ties (by adding German enemies) this was not done in Germany causing in some instances negative reactions though these reactions were very likely stimulated by a personal political agenda With subsequent serials a direct link with war-related rhetoric was no longer made but the disgruntled views regarding why these American serial products should be shown in Germany in the fi rst place can still be traced to an antipathy towards for-eign interference

OPPOSING VIEWS

The need to import and watch American serials was quickly questioned in several reviews to which a nationalistic and economical spin was added ldquoIs that really necessaryrdquo asked a reviewer in Film-Kurier ldquoDo we really have to send money to America just to see fi lms like thisrdquo38 Or as already quoted above ldquoMust such things really be imported from America We ask ourselves this again and again Who benefi ts from this other than Ameri-can producersrdquo39 This reaction was thus much different from that which accompanied the release of the fi rst serials in France where it took some time before nationalistic feelings against the American abundance became vocal What can be found in reviews and comments as well when one looks where the serials played is that these products do seem to have experienced some popularity It was this popularity that was for reviewers sometimes hard to fathom the split between the audience and reviewers was explained as a temporary fad for something new from abroad but also as part of the fascination for the American confi dence and optimism

Though most German fi lm journals tried to serve the entire fi lm indus-try they as well as their critics had their own interests and focal points related to their specifi c clientele (while advertisement revenues from the fi lm industry perhaps also played a part)40 Thus as in the last quote where the writer of the Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung asked who benefi ted from these

serials one also has to realize who was reacting to the fi lms (and whose voice is the one that is being researched) Though certainly in the fi lm jour-nals and several newspapers there were voices in favor of an open market many in the industry also did not want necessarily to let go of the protected cultural zone that had prevailed during the war and they did not mind a negative view of American products As Danish author and director Urban Gad wrote in 1921 while anxiously searching for an answer as to why the American fi lm was so popular even though according to him the products were bad and on average worse than the German product ldquoNowadays only Americans have such a naiumlve love of life an animal-like sense of plea-sure at life being absolutely wonderful because and for as long as the dollar stays strongrdquo41 His view of the American fi lm industry and self-appraisal of national products should not be taken lightly as Saunders in his research also shows that it was part of a discourse that surrounded the import of foreign fi lms and one that had been created earlier with the monumental pictures of a few years back such as Veritas Vincit Die Herrin der Welt and Madame Dubarry Gad had already in 1919 identifi ed monumental-ism brutality and sentimentality as Americarsquos dominant fi lm traits and he had argued for strong domestic productions42 He was supported at the time by Karl Figdor who as writer of the Die Herrin der Welt novel was on a publicity campaign to promote the soon-to-be-released serial while also declaring in the Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung of October 1919 that it was possible for the German product to become international

We have long had all the prerequisites for it We have long been able to do what the others cannot the deepening and psychological explora-tion of the problem of internal action If you have ever seen an English American or Italian fi lm then surely you have also noticed the inner shallowness of their productions43

Film studios distributors exhibitors and audiences had all been waiting excitedly for the arrival of new American fi lms while from 1919 on a fear existed of what would happen when these fi lms were allowed en masse into Germany Questions regarding import quotas Ufarsquos secret buying of Amer-ican fi lms and the internationalization of the fi lm market all were promi-nent subjects in many fi lm journals There had already been a discussion in the fi lm journals over whether the import of foreign fi lms would be good for the German fi lm industry or not and the discourse had included eco-nomic as well as nationalistic arguments Der Kinematograph whose inter-est was often most closely aligned to those of the exhibitor responded with many front-page articles on the subject A correspondent of Der Kinemato-graph in such matters was R Genenncher advocate of quota-free imports In August 1919 on the front page of Der Kinematograph he took a fi rst look at the just imported (but not released) American fi lms Genenncher presented a non-threatening image of the American fi lm industry

Americans are representative of the other extreme They still turn with the same conviction of infallibility to the popular effects and sensa-tions moods and tendencies that they recognized and tried ten years ago Therein lies their strength and their weakness44

According to Genenncher the German fi lm industry had so many high-quality products that the American productions probably could not meet that standard the American national identity remained childish and naive Genenncher admitted nevertheless that indeed American pictures would be popular but that they would never take a dominant position Genennch-errsquos fi rst-look at American products could not be shared on a larger scale until 1921 when American fi lms could fi nally offi cially be seen However though an open market might be in the interest of exhibitors other voices were also posted in Der Kinematograph

An anonymous writer in Der Kinematograph was apparently less opti-mistic and more nationalistic (the use of anonymous sources was an unfor-tunate habit of many German journals just like the use of pseudonyms or initials that nowadays cannot always be recovered) In the article ldquoThe For-eign Film in Germanyrdquo this writer called upon the magazines themselves to create an environment for German consumption of German fi lms

So again the cooperation of the press For the proper appreciation of domestic fi lms and the prevention of excessive praise for foreign fi lms Because those who promote a cult of the foreign the special fondness for foreigners and foreign character understand that their promotion of foreign products is just a step away from damaging our domestic industry and our German culture and that development at home is just as important as it is abroad45

The call for self-appraisal of German products seems to have been picked up and would because of the distorted import of what the American fi lm industry had to offer foster an even stronger voice

Because of the high percentage of serial meters and their long-run expo-sure among the imported fi lms in well-known theaters serials easily caught the eye of many critics The reaction to fi lm serials fi tted into the discussion begun earlier on the international fi lm market and importation quotas in which usually a national feeling held the upper hand With their actual arrival serials could easily be used as an example to drive home the point In the reviews the repetitive and redundant structure of the American serial was harped on like a mantra itself or as the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung somewhat comically wrote about The Red Ace ldquoIt consists primarily of chase scenes First a train is chased Then a woman Then a man Then two men Then a woman again but this time dressed as a manrdquo46 As early as The Great Radium Mystery Der Film had found the structure of the serial very clear ldquoEven if you have not seen very many American serial

fi lms their composition and character are so similar that critiques about any single fi lm will not differ signifi cantly from critiques of the fi lms in generalrdquo47 According to the Film-Kurier this was exactly what happened when The Great Radium Mystery premiered in Berlin shortly after The Red Ace The two serials formed a dialogue with each other and became an even bigger action-adventure serial featuring cowboys and many fi ghts against evil men who wanted to use earthrsquos wealth in war

There are two American serial fi lms whose episodes swirl together in onersquos head Both are made by the same company the Universal Film Manufacturing Co New York They look interchangeable and one could easily think of the one as a continuation of the other especially since one was released right after the other48

The serial was in the eyes of both trade and newspaper critics a repetition in content and visuals American serial fi lms always consisted of continuous fi ghts acrobatics and death-defying stunts without any motivation Plot structure did not matter ldquoThe manuscript does not have the typical Ger-man thoroughness in its portrayal of the main character On the other hand the tempo is constrained throughoutrdquo was the opinion regarding Karo Ass in Film und Presse49 After seeing several episodes EK writing in the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung declared the serial unfi t for the German taste He added (perhaps not deliberately) a convincing example of what could happen to a mind when watching these fi lms by producing a review as frantic as the fi lms themselves

A number of pictures are nothing more than the representation of rac-ing people automobiles or horses We see shooting punching beating boxing hitting stabbing drinking brawling loving All at breakneck pace Breathless violent wild fanatic Flowing curls (for the female actors) fl attering ties twirling lassos Canyons valleys rivers moun-tains palm trees brush wilderness Loose-fi tting cowboy pants open shirts tailcoats50

Adding some zest to the nationalistic differences was perhaps the fact that both adventures take place in the Wild West something that was exten-sively emphasized in advertising schemes Pictures of horses lassos cow-boys and cowgirls were among the many images that appeared in the German fi lm journals whereas the American origin was fetishized (even though originally The Red Ace was set in the wilds of Canada) ldquoKaro Ass shows us America and how it can ride Karo Ass features tremendous daredevil action in the saddle (see Figures 62 and 63)rdquo51

A Sensationsfi lm as a serial was also called could only have been made in the New World ldquoIt is not possible to judge this American fi lm [The Red Ace] as we would a German fi lm The plot goes as wildly far as possiblerdquo52

Figure 62 Images of the Wild West were important in advertisments for the six-part Karo Ass Lichtbild-Buuml hne July 16 1921 7

An American serial could according to some reviewers never be viewed as a German fi lm precisely because a different mentality and sensibility was needed The eyes were not trained to these differences as the Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger wrote ldquoAmerican blockbuster fi lms must be seen with dif-ferent eyes than our German fi lms One must be attuned to the presentation of reason rather than comprehensible sensationsrdquo53 Or as Effl er from Film und Presse thought the tempo fascinated the eye but repulsed the brain ldquoThese fi lms are made for the eye not the mindrdquo54 The American serials thus provided a cultural paradigm with different sensibilities and mentali-ties that seemed worth opposing The serial seems to have functioned in a way as the Other against which Germany could set its own identity while it also functioned in the worrisome conditions the fi lm industry was facing

ADMIRING THE BODY OF THE OTHER

Despite its ldquohorrible emptinessrdquo the American serial had some features that were viewed positively Genuinely praised in many reviews were the beautiful landscapes and the use of light This represented a renewal of the apprecia-tion for the image of the American countryside as it had been known already through Karl Mayrsquos novels or the Broncho Billy fi lms before the war55 ldquoThe best thing in this fi lm [episode fi ve from Goliath Armstrong] as in most American products of this genre is the scenic landscape which through the

Figure 63 Speed was also emphasized in a two-page promotion for Karo Ass Lichtbild-Buuml hne May 14 1921 54ndash55

impeccable photography is used very succesfullyrdquo wrote a reviewer from Der Kinematograph56 Another pleasure that could be obtained from watch-ing an American serial was one that was even more ingrained into the serial form namely its use of the body as a means or instrument to showcase the ongoing sensation and action It was the body that propelled the action and the storyline and it was the body that traveled at great speed (often with the aid of modern technology) through the landscape

Most of the sensationalistic stunts usually seen in cliffhangers were per-formed with dangling jumping wriggling and dragged-around bodies ready for escape to be chased or to pursue other bodies While consigning the serial to narrative oblivion many critics still admired the American body As will become clear in the next few paragraphs sensibilities that were found in the serials were tied into cultural aspects of fascination and admiration The serial body linked into a part of Americanism that was viewed by many in a more positive way a connection that would continue even after the age of serials

The American dimension of the body provided Germans according to the research of David Bathrick a different way of seeing the body ldquo[It was nei-ther] in its toughness or macho qualities nor in its monumentality or degree of muscle defi nition but rather in the natural in this case unrefl ected alter-native it offers to the lsquosteeled bronzedrsquo contours of the classical idealrdquo57 In 1921 Hermann von Wedderkop editor of Querschnitt when the journal was still a low-circulation bi-monthly newsletter on new trends in the visual arts found the qualities of the boxer decidedly un-German He even linked the qualities of the famous German boxer Hans Breitenstraumlter to his stay in the United States58 American boxing Americanism and cinema converged at the time in the fi gure of internationally famous world-heavyweight boxing champion Jack Dempsey Dempsey started his fi lm career with the Patheacute serial Daredevil Jack (1920) which was advertised in 1921 in Germany but never seems to have been released59 Even though Dempsey did not play in Goliath Armstrong (Elmo Lincoln did) the connection between boxing and serials was made by audiences and reviewers nevertheless A reviewer noted the audience reaction in the Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier

People ride up and down steep slopes hop onto galloping horses while running fl oat on logs to the valley steer rafts into rapids In the numer-ous boxing matches the crowd applauds and cheers Dempsey on I mean are amazed by Mr Lincoln60

Effl er from Film und Presse even imagined a fi ght between the two men ldquoElmo Lincoln continues his sporting and performes amazing feats He should become a champion boxer and wallop Dempseyrdquo61

Jack Dempsey was thus already well known in Germany and became even more so when in May 1922 during his European vacation he arrived in Berlin It was however not until 1925 that the German audience could see

Dempsey star At that time sports were being commercialized in Germany as in many other countries as part of an expanding mass-cultural leisure industry Boxing became an especially popular sport to watch in Germany emerging from shady halls into the prize-fi ghting stadiums62 In June 1925 Dempsey returned to Berlin to make show appearances at the Lunapark and to promote his Universal series of ten two-reelers Jack Dempsey der Weltboxmeister im Film (Fight and Win 1924) In a promotional article for this romanticized and embellished portrayal of his life Deutsche Film-woche described the impact of sports and Dempsey

Physical exercise has become very popular since the war almost every-one is physically active and the general interest in sports is in a state of steady growth So it is not surprising that the names of the worldrsquos greatest athletes are universally known and talked about Who doesnrsquot know Jack Dempsey for example the world heavyweight champion Who hasnrsquot read that Jack Dempsey isnrsquot just an excellent boxer but also an equally good actor63

Not coincidentally also in 1925 former expressionist and also literary theater and fi lm critic Kurt Pinthus wrote about the body of the boxer as an analogy for the sensibility of the new age

What a barrage of hitherto unimagined monstrosities have lashed at our nerves this decade Despite the certain increase in stimulation these daily sensations have trained and hardened our nerves like the musculature of a boxer against the sharpest blows64

It is not hard to see the 1921 serial as one of these nurseries of rapid sen-sations as well as early origins of confl ict and admiration of American products which would come into full blossom a few years later It was not only bare-knuckle fi ghts that were an ongoing and relentless feature in American serials but also the fl exibility of the whole body either male or female The many acrobatic acts and the smooth use of the body were seen as a necessary part of the American sensational fi lm something the German actors lacked (a lack that was also uttered in America) Through the combination of sensation landscape and the body the serial created a uniquely American feeling

But a serial fi lm like this could only have come from the lsquonew worldrsquo In the lsquoold worldrsquo there arenrsquot any actresses who would undertake such dar-ing [ ] She [serial star Marie Walcamp] rides shoots swims and dives from high cliffs with bound hands into water to escape her pursuers65

But it was not only the fact that an actor or actress could perform such stunts it was a sport as well with reviewers calling it a ldquosporting achievementrdquo

ldquoartistic sensationrdquo or ldquoacrobatic masterstrokesrdquo One reviewer (perhaps sarcastically) even argued that serials were like a vaudeville show (Varieteacute) that did not need actors but acrobats and contortionists66 This was a view that surprisingly was also held by the censorship board of Berlin After epi-sode fi ve of The Great Radium Mystery was fi rst prohibited a successful appeal was made against the ban As the censorship decided ldquoBecause the content and context of the image sequence is just a pretense for gymnastic acrobatic artwork of the most audacious kind they are typically completely harmless in their effects like the circus pantomimes in Germanyrdquo67 The serial was now permitted though like most American serials in Germany only for adults 18 years of age or older

The fl exibility and use of the body was also seen by Hans Siemsen as something natural quite specifi c to the American actors

There are not any gods or movie heroes but rathermdashdespite all of the lsquosensationsrsquo sports and athletic activitiesmdashsimple and natural peo-ple And itrsquos because of thismdashnot because of record-breaking physical achievements motorcycles horses or landscapesmdashthat these American fi lms manage to be so pleasing despite their miserable screenplays68

German actors did not easily copy this natural body of action even though of course in German fi lms there was also action with driving shooting and boxing The difference according to Siemsen was the wrong attitude of the German fi lm industry ldquoWe are paying the price now for the fact that young men who wanted to get into fi lms in Germany were always asked lsquoDo you have tailcoatsrsquo instead of lsquoCan you ride swim boxrsquo All of them have tail-coats But thatrsquos not all you need to make moviesrdquo69 Bodily performances were admired but they had an American air to them It was a natural pose one almost did not need to act

One notices the difference between the German and American actors in these fi lms The Americans settle into their roles to such an extent that you donrsquot sense any contrivance [ ] Like grown boys playing a wild-west game they become what they portray And that is often unbelievably engaging70

One of the few German actors who did use the body as a tool and who was not coincidently called ldquothe German Fairbanksrdquo was Harry Piel Piel was already familiar having made successful series and in 1921 he starred in the fi lm Der Reiter Ohne Kopf that had been planned as a feature but turned into a three-part serial in reaction to the coming American invasion71

A somewhat different mode of reception can be seen when one looks at two French serials that were released in 1920 Sporadically (non-Amer-ican) foreign fi lms could in spite of the import ban be seen in Germany from 1919 After Fantocircmas had been released just on the brink of the

war (and shown at least until 1916) Feuilladersquos follow-up project Les Vampires was released in June 1920 as Die Vampire Two months after Die Vampire Feuilladersquos Judex was released Both were released accord-ing to a weekly schedule over six weeks and were shown with episodes together forming around 1500 to 2000 meters Both were seen as a mix of grotesque detective drama and kitsch but like the American serials lacking logic or sense72 Reviews did not focus on the constant sameness of plot (which if one nowadays compares Les Vampires or Judex with a typical American serial is indeed less) Even though in both productions Musidora uses her body actively in movements as well as sensuality the review did not include corporal admiration The French productions were not revered as having a modern air but functioned as belonging to an already known history of things already seen in German productions as well as old style acting73 No features of modernity such as physicality directness speed and the surface of things were mentioned even though some American serials were also rather old While the American serials could offer critics new elements the French serial could not Despite the fact that France had a fi rm grip on the German fi lm industry via eco-nomic sanctions and refusing to import German fi lms there was no fl ood of French productions and nobody expected Patheacute or Gaumont to return to their former production output France was not seen as a big player on the international fi lm market whereas America was74

The American fi lm industry was thus not only worth opposing with nationalistic as well as economic arguments but also worth emulating as well as admiring just as the debate on Americanism had two sides This admiration could refl ect on the criticsrsquo own Germanness a character who lacked a certain fl exibility The split between rejection of and fascination with America would also fi nd a home in artistic circles where it could also function as a critique of the petty-bourgeois mind outside the art institutes as a way to mark your position within a national debate Bertolt Brecht interested in boxing and an admirer of fi lms with gymnastics was no stranger to serials in his diary he noted his attendance at Goliath Arm-strong75 Brecht did not make direct links to serials in his plays but he saw both boxing and mass culture as powerful metaphorical antidotes to effete modernism76 The serial thus refl ected a cultural model of an obsession and interest one that would be fostered and grow in the years after the serials had left the fi eld but one that remained linked with American life

REPETITION AND MISUNDERSTANDINGS

In many refl ections and reviews of American serials German producers and critics seemed to be under the impression that sensationalistic fi lms were what America stood for not realizing that serials were themselves not highly valued in America Serials were probably exported to Germany in great quantities

because for Universal they presented a way to enter the market with a cheaply made product in a period when not much money could be earned because of the devaluating Mark A serial was perhaps also for German distributors less expensive especially when used as a feature In America at that time serials were deemed fi t for neighborhood houses only

Though a few critics such as left-wing intellectual and theater critic Her-bert Ihering from the Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier thought that German fi lm-makers could learn from the serial (especially its tempo) there were more who warned against trying to copy the American sensational fi lms77 Producer Paul Davidson who by that time had left Ufa to work for the Europaiumlsche Film Allianz (EFA the Paramount-Ufa production company) warned that Germany should not try to compete with the sensational fi lms from America because they were linked with a different way of life that needed a different sensibility The always-crowded Broadway with its skyscrapers compared with the often-deserted Potsdamer Platz created for an American much more excitement than a German could fathom Davidson translated this sensibility together with a stereotypical need for sensation as a benefi t for the German fi lm industry ldquoGerman fi lms must have what the American fi lms do not soulrdquo78 Davidsonrsquos view was however biased by the fact that he as producer was responsible for Madame Dubarry a production that under the name of Passion was having a huge success in America at the same time Thus the use of seeing the serial or the action picture as something the American fi lm industry was good at proved their own point that German productions would be successful because they were more than repetitive structures hav-ing artistic content as well as a soul It was because of this misunderstanding that Germanyrsquos chances against the American fi lm industry were sometimes more positively judged when one also looked at the serials that were coming into Germany ldquoSix parts threaten how terrible if the rest are anything like the fi rst To judge by this fi lm America is very unsophisticatedrdquo79 Only a few reviewers seemed to have realized the discrepancy and their ideas and warnings were rarely picked up80

Siemsen who wrote for left-wing journals refl ected on this discrepancy and worried about the German export strategy beginning with expensive German exports like Madame Dubarry and Anna Boleyn (1920) or the artistic Das Cabinet des Dr Caligari (1920) while the Americans were causing quite a stir with only ldquosmall ammunitionrdquo Siemsen rightly wrote that a judgment on the American cinema could only be given when the true standard of the American cinema had shown its face ldquoWhat has been shown in Berlin so far is not even as good as an average American fi lmmdashthere is only the slightest conception of genre tempo and techniquerdquo81 Siemsen hinted also at a more sinister reason why so many serials were released in Germany He reported that a few of his colleagues suspected a scandalous cover-up by the German fi lm industry that according to them feared foreign imports and tried to create a false image of the American fi lm industry in the public mind82 It could indeed be true that good American

features had arrived in Germany and that these were gathering dust on the shelves while serials fi lled the theaters but a less conspiratorial view might be that prices being asked for the features were too high

Siemsen in the end also could not avoid a critical look at the serial and like others also judged the German product against the modernity of the American serial He gives as an example The Phantom a supporting char-acter in the serial Goliath Armstrong who does not arrive on a black horse derived from old romantic notions but on a motorcycle Siemsen describes The Phantom speeding through forest and rivers over an exploding bridge and jumping from his motorcycle onto a moving train (Figure 64) When Siemsen however then dryly notes that the fi lm may be considered comi-cal ridiculous and childish but it was at least not tedious the modernity of the serial with its physicality and speed is undercut by the apparently still needed urge for depth83 One has to realize however that the repackaging of the serial enhanced this lack of depth

An original episode of an American serial usually did not feature an extensive plot other than the quest for a treasure or secret The simple sto-ryline of action was expanded through means of repetition and redundancy which were not so obvious and obtrusive as they functioned only in small portions over several weeks But in Germany as earlier in the Netherlands instead of 15 two-reel episodes that were played along with a feature there was a weekly episode that consisted of three original episodes with a total length of around 1500 meters whereas sometimes there were even two of these feature-length episodes showed in a row It is thus not so strange that the never-ending redundancy was for some hard to swallow whereas the main feature had no beginning or end ldquoThe most fantastic part of the fi lm was that it never endedrdquo complained Fritz Engel a regular critic from the Berliner Tageblatt about Goliath Armstrong

Figure 64 The Phantom liked to perform dangerous stunts with his motorcycle in Goliath Armstrong Der Film April 16 1921 110ndash111

There was no catastrophe just new spins of yarn never a decision just more of the same coarse talk This is supposed to be suspense-ful Good God I yawned I had expected a sensation and found bore-dom that tried to convince me through brute force that it was actually excitement84

The sudden abundance of American action fi lms and their specifi c struc-ture also caused problems for censorship The censorship board had been set up in 1921 and could refuse a license to a fi lm they considered likely to threaten public order or have a depraving or immoral effect The fi rst part of the Universal serial Der Zirkuskoumlnig (King of the Circus 1920) evoked in the censorship board in Berlin views similar to those that had appeared in trade reviews ldquoThe fi lm is American and made the Ameri-can way with exciting scenes chases attacks and accidents fi ghts and wild fi ght-scenes so-called lsquosensationsrsquordquo85 It was especially because of the difference between German and American fi lms that the serial episode was approved as suitable for adults above the age of 18 According to the censors the much-used violence could be seen as realistic because it was set in America (thus also referring to the idea of America as savage and unspoiled) but the contrast with the European mentality made the picture harmless86

Exactly one month later the censorship board in Berlin did not see the last episode of Der Zirkuskoumlnig as equally harmless as the fi rst one The divide between German and American societies that according to the censorship board would inspire disgust in the viewers had apparently not been that wide The serial had been rather successful and the infl uence of the American cinema was now taken seriously Actively backtracking the commission admitted that perhaps for the more serious viewer the serial could function comically but for the common people it might incite violence The content was described only in a summary of actions as ldquothe coherence of the 1500 meters of fi lm remained unclearrdquo This thus meant fi ghts shootings boxing matches somebody thrown in chains onto a moving train fi ghts car chases someone planted before an infernal machine that was about to explode more fi ghts and someone knocked unconscious in a boxing match87 The negative impulses that came from The King of the Circus were ldquoa serious social danger for the lower part of the populationrdquo The last episode was thus banned because content coarsened the viewer (this incident also reveals the diffi culties of a cen-sorship board that only saw serials per episode a situation which would also return with later serial offerings)88 The censorship boardrsquos view of American serials had changed from being mindless yet harmless junk to popular action fi lms with dangerous inciting undertones After an appeal against the ban and cutting several meters more the episode was allowed for those over age 18

PRODUCING GERMAN REACTIONS

Though the American serials were much commented on the serial structure was still regarded by the German fi lm industry as a good product for com-petition including for its own products as the number of serials increased In the years 1920ndash1921 over 15 serial productions with more than two episodes would be released One of the fi rst German serial productions to react to the American serials was Das Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten It was released in six weekly episodes from around 1800 to 2000 meters from October 1920 onward and was announced as the fi rst big German Episodenfi lm89 The competition between America and Germany was thus already started even before the American serials had arrived in the cinemas The existence of earlier German serials like Homunculus or Die Herrin der Welt was not forgotten The word Episodenfi lm however referred to the special way that American serials would be shown in Germany Until that time American fi lms could only have been seen in the occupied Rhineland (or abroad in the Netherlands or perhaps during special viewings for distributors)90 An episode of Homunculus or Die Herrin der Welt was not made up of several episodes but made use of one continuous story On the other hand an episode of Das Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten con-sisted of three two-reel ldquoself-contained storylinesrdquo that together formed ldquoa rounded-off wholerdquo The six episodes were ldquointernally connected with each otherrdquo and formed the storyline of the complete serial91

As would be the case in later German advertisements for American serials the 18 two-reel chapters were sometimes announced separately but also as part of the structure of three chapters per episode Accord-ing to Lichtbild-Buumlhne the Episodenfi lm was because of its convenient and practical scheduling especially popular with theater owners The theater owner had the choice of how to arrange its program he could play one chapter per night or fortnight or he could play one episode a week ldquoThere are an extraordinary number of possible arrangementsrdquo92 The director of the serial William Kahn wrote about this split function of feature or short

It had to be able to fi ll an evening but also be able to be shown in indi-vidual episodes of two-to-three acts One had to be able to follow each episode independently from the previous one and moreover be able to meet the expectations of logical coherence plot sensation and sus-pense (within an episode but also across the full-evening version)93

Kahnrsquos way of structuring a fi lm product shows besides being linked closely to the way American serials were shown locally that the degree of exhibitor independence regarding how to fi ll the fi lm program was apparently still larger and more widespread than research so far has suggested (though it could very well be wishful thinking by the director himself)

The German six-part serial Der Mann Ohne Namen (1921) made under Ufarsquos auspices by PAGU with the extremely popular actor Harry Liedtke as detective Peter Voss was also distributed before the American serials arrived This time in a rare instance the German serial that had just ended its run was compared with an American one the recently started The Red Ace The review admits that the products were very similar both having no psychological or deeper meaning The critic of the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung however still succeeded in creating a difference one that was based on national characteristics

[Der Mann Ohne Namen] has humor culture no chase scene is taken seriously in the end all the running around is a good joke everything is very human By the end of The Red Ace one feels dizzy knocked out This fi lm is deadly serious it has no freeing amusing dimension it is like a sport anti-intellectual primitive94

This review connects with the repeated frame of America as a country without culture or soul but with an interest in bodily performances Hav-ing a European or German sensibility was seen as an element that could come in handy in trying to succeed in the American fi lm market95 In Ger-many Der Mann Ohne Namen became a major success making a profi t of 62 million Marks while storming the market with a total of 208 prints for all six episodes (at a time when on average a feature had 17 to 30 prints)96

Director Georg Jacoby after fi rst hailing Ernst Lubitsch and his success abroad with Madame Dubarry expressed in an article his wishes that the serial would also add to the German reputation abroad97

The Variety correspondent in Berlin indeed noticed the serial and praised it for its mixture of comedy and action However concern was also expressed Der Mann Ohne Namen unlike Das Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten consisted of six episodes of fi ve reels each that were not made up from smaller chapters ldquoThe division into fi ve-reelers is bad for the US market but with clever handling it could easily be recut into from 10 to 15 two-reelersrdquo98 It indeed was this reverse way of distribution that would become troublesome for European fi lm serials as will become clear in the next chapter In the Netherlands Der Mann Ohne Namen like Die Herrin der Welt was released the same way as in Germany and reviewers remarked that it was one of the rare exceptions of a serial that was inter-esting They admired the mixture of dramatic and improbable breakneck occurrences with such a genuinely ldquohumoristic character that one accepted these willinglyrdquo99

In 1921 one of the last German serials to be released that year was Joe Mayrsquos new EFA-funded production of Das Indische Grabmal100 Das Indis-che Grabmal had originally been designed as a serial for Fritz Lang who co-wrote the script with author Thea von Harbou However Lang was in the end deemed too inexperienced and Joe May took over Construction

of a gigantic temple complex had already begun in mid-1920 in Wolters-dorf According to Mayrsquos publicity campaign it was ldquoThe Worldrsquos Greatest Filmrdquo a comment that met with much opposition primarily because in the end many reviewers were disappointed in the weak adventure story that was used for this colossal fi lm that supposedly cost 20 to 25 million Marks101 It used like many other serial productions of that time an international exotic setting probably hoping to attract international interest as well as being able to offer the German public a popular fantasy image What is also important here is that May used a serial form different from those that have so far been mentioned one that however had been used extensively in the period 1920ndash1921 the serial effort of only two episodes

Apart from the serials of usually three to four episodes over 15 of which were produced in 1920ndash1921 a different form of seriality was also used abundantly in Germany In the same period over 40 productions with only two episodes (each of around 1800 meters worth of fi lm) were produced102 Many of these two-part fi lms seem to have been produced at a quick rate to fi ll the screens However much more research needs to be done to uncover these productions as often it is not even clear how they used their epi-sodic nature May thus used for a production of enormous cost a structure that was popular for more average productions103 An additional important element in his strategy was that the two chapters of Das Indische Grab-mal were released according to a monthly not weekly schedule The fi rst one (2957 meters) premiered on 22 October 1921 in Ufarsquos fl agship theater Palast am Zoo whereas the second episode (2534 meters) could be viewed on 19 November 1921

The feature of two episodes was a form that in the coming years was used especially for expensive serial productions The two-part serial format of Das Indische Grabmal could offer a cinematic serial feeling distinct from the American serials or their German counterparts while being used for a very expensive production in an exclusive and a prestigious manner Unfor-tunately as will be discussed in the next chapter even this two-part form of seriality would not fi nd a home in American distribution practices

American serials were consumed in Germany in quite specifi c cultural con-texts Perhaps enticed by the release of the fi rst two American serials that remarkably still had anti-German elements these and other serials were quickly viewed in cultural and economic contexts of (anti-)Americanism The specifi c reactions to American serials as seen by critics and the censorship board could in fact be the result of local serial adjustments Its feature form enabled it to hook more directly into views on the Germany fi lm industry as well as a pre-existing discussion on America and Americanism one that stimulated mostly negative views but also some admiration Like the critics the censorship boards used the differences between American and German productions to evoke stereotypical notions of America As reviewers viewed the repetition and abundance of serials as confi rming their (wishful) beliefs of

having a chance to compete in America the censorship boards acted against American serials because their repetitive use of violence and the lack of jus-tice (that is until several episodes later) were deemed dangerous for society104 Both views however were based on serials that had been made into episodes of feature length by having several episodes restructured (either cut together or with original structure still intact) into a new episode Such restructuring most likely heightened the reviewersrsquo and the censorsrsquo reactions

The audience however already enjoyed the ldquosmall ammunitionrdquo from America whereas the number of German serials also increased Thus if one believes Siemsenrsquos conspiracy theory namely that the fi lm industry indeed actively tried to make the German audience sick of American fi lms through a diet of only cheap products the scheme did not really work How much success these serials had is unfortunately somewhat unclear though judging from the reactions from critics and from the theaters they played in at least in the beginning they were sought after by the audience To gain a fi rmer idea about their popularity it would be helpful to know the number of prints that were used as well as their release patterns in cities other than Berlin

The serial structure that had been so successful throughout the world was imitated but placed in a specifi c German condition A production like Das Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten copied the specifi c local version of Ameri-can serials whereas others stayed closer to the German version that May had initiated with Die Herrin der Welt Then there were the two-part fi lms that under May obtained their grandest form Ufa creations like Der Mann Ohne Namen Das Indische Grabmal Die Abenteuerin von Monte Carlo or Seine Exzellenz von Madagaskar all made use of seriality in their vari-ous forms surprisingly all featuring an international (non-German) setting thereby designed to cater to international as well as domestic audiences

The success of the American serial did not last however When more features arrived in Germany and the serials were still presented at feature length in the theaters viewers and critics preferred the American non-serial feature The stereotypical Americanisms of physicality directness speed and the surface of things subsided for a while and changed direction When Carl Laemmle of Universal came to Germany in August 1921 and was asked if in the next season sensational Wild West fi lms would still be in the foreground he pointed in a new direction

Adventure fi lms belong to a different age Our biggest new production Toumlrichte Frauen [Erich von Stroheimrsquos Foolish Wives 1922] [ ] deals with social spheres in ten acts It will not be long before this fi lm is seen and reviewed in Germany105

Whereas it was Von Stroheim who had diffi culties implicating feature seri-ality into American distribution and exhibition schedules as will be dis-cussed in Chapter 8 it had been a European serial that infl uenced Von Stroheim even though it ran into similar problems

7 Minds That Cannot CondenseEuropean Serials in America

ldquo[T]he action is too slow for the US marketrdquo wrote Leacuteon Gaumont from New York to Louis Feuillade1 It was June 1920 and though it is unclear whether Gaumont was writing about a particular serial or just on serials in general he could very well have been referring to Feuilladersquos serial In the Clutches of the Hindu (Tih Minh 1919) that was announced as state-right release the next month It was Gaumontrsquos fourth venture in serial distribu-tion in America Like earlier serials described in Chapter 1 this serial was adjusted somewhat to the American serial length making it into a handy package of ten two-reel episodes But perhaps compared with breakneck American serials Tih Minh indeed was too different and too slow In the Clutches of the Hindu was the last European serial to be shown in the con-ventional American serial form With the rise of imported European fi lms in 1921 several new forms of European serials crossed the Atlantic and new models of distribution for the European serial were used

The European attempt to break into the American markets and Europersquos confrontation with Hollywoodrsquos hegemony has been well researched2 I will however be looking at the imported European fi lm products from the viewpoint of seriality something that will provide a different perspective of fi lm form and fi lm use in America Out of the more than 100 European features that according to Anthony Guzman were released in America in 1921ndash1923 (with half of these released by major fi lm companies) only the small number of six productions were originally serial productions (fi ve of them released by large companies)3 However these were usually the most expensive and impressive productions that had already received some attention in the American press when they were fi rst distributed in Europe Also because it is not well known that serials were frequently used in for-eign fi lm-producing countries such as Germany or France or that some of the imported productions were once serials the omission of serials in the distribution of European productions in America is seldom recognized by fi lm scholars

As I shall discuss in this chapter these serials often of feature serial length had great diffi culty adjusting to the American market perhaps even more than the ldquoregularrdquo European features European serials had become

Minds That Cannot Condense 125

longer and more visually spectacular as they were used in Europe to dif-ferentiate the local product from the American import features and serials while they were also used to attract international distribution Like In the Clutches of the Hindu however these European serial forms in America had to conform to American standards Whereas in Europe serials could function in all kinds of theaters this was not possible in America This chapter will show how format conventions functioning within a cultural context resulted in distribution and reception problems and confl icts when a different format such as the European serial is used This discussion of European serial imports can additionally serve as a point of comparison where one can witness the mechanism and principles that produced Hol-lywoodrsquos hegemony In America European seriality was not recognized as such because (except for one instance) the fi lms were stripped of their seri-ality With the European serials a divide between American and European production and distribution comes to the foreground

THE INVADING PATH

Around the same time Germany was confronted with American serials an invasion of German fi lms was taking place in America or so it was per-ceived by many trade journals Variety which overall had a rather low opinion of foreign products produced headlines from ldquoFlood of German Features Starts Action for Protectionrdquo ldquoFilm Tariff Fight Under Way as German Imports Increaserdquo ldquoGerman Film Invasion Spells Starsrsquo Ruinrdquo to an equally worrying ldquoZukor Has Bought So Far 129 German Features for Famousrdquo4 The fear of invasion and threat to American hegemony was the result of the surprise monster hit of Madame Dubarry that had been cheaply acquired from Germany and distributed by First National in Amer-ica in December 1920 under the title of Passion

Whereas up until that time pictures with a foreign background (espe-cially German) or a historical subject had been viewed as box-offi ce poi-son they now suddenly appeared to be huge box-offi ce draws5 Before that time there had been almost no European productions screened in fi rst-run houses on Broadway an essential element to gather publicity and prestige for a successful run in the rest of the country Large companies such as Loews First National and Famous Players-Lasky controlled a substan-tial share of the exhibition sector and also owned an effective distribution system whereas many independents owned the rest6 With the major suc-cess of Passion valued at $600000 (it had been bought by First National for no more than $60000) small distributors as well as major production companies wanted to obtain similar bargains and as a result the market suddenly seemed to be fl ooded with European productions7 By the time Adolph Zukor bought 129 German features in April 1921 while on an inspection trip in Europe this increase was called in the trade papers ldquoan

invasionrdquo8 The American fi lm trade was mostly alarmed by the fact that Europeans could due to the infl ation produce spectacular fi lms and offer them extremely under-priced on the American market Products that had visually impressive scenes (such as huge crowds in massive sets) that would be too costly to make in America were particularly sought after In the trade there was talk of a ban against imports a protective tariff measure and a riot of the American Legion against The Cabinet of Dr Caligari9

However as it turned out only a handful of European features were able to make a handsome profi t whereas none matched the great success of Passion The American mainstream audience outside the big cities was not inclined to watch these European products that lacked a familiar star and used different ways of directing and acting As a result most foreign fi lms were rejected by the public Only the products of Passionrsquos director Ernst Lubitsch and actress Pola Negri succeeded moderately at the end of 1922 both Lubitsch and Negri were brought over to make American pro-ductions The so-called foreign fi lm invasion had been one big phantom foreign fi lm had become a negative term10

The foreign serials were imported in a rather hostile environment and seriality itself was not looked upon as being very suitable for specifi c Amer-ican audiences American serials while retaining their action-fi lled two-reel story structure were no longer the popular kind of attraction they once had been Features were now the most important part of the fi lm program and serials were mostly seen as fi llers It seems it was also partly due to poor long-term planning by the serial majors like Universal Patheacute and Vitagraph rather than public disaffection that adult serials lost their prime place on theater screens By not vertically integrating (like Paramount Fox MGM and First National) the serial-producing companies were locked out of a market share of the important fi rst-run exhibition11 Serials were however still booked regularly into the lucrative urban small-time vaude-ville circuit where youth matinees were popular

In an attempt to turn the tide the serial became more focused on chil-dren as a result of which (in addition to trying to placate pressure groups and local censorship) serials became tamer Instead of plots based on evil-doers and blood and thunder the new serials featured more plots in which the acts of nature formed the basis for the action These serials focused on ldquoeducationalrdquo ldquothrills from historyrdquo12 When Universalrsquos ldquolatest histor-ical-educational serialrdquo The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1922) was released in an attempt to improve serials it was also offered to exhibi-tors in chunks of three or four episodes that could function as a feature in the program (the repeated endings and subtitles were eliminated and in total it equaled a fi ve-reel feature) ldquoThis move by Universal is said to be in response to a desire on the part of many high class theaters which want to run the Crusoe serial but which are hesitant about introducing serials in their programsrdquo noted a rather promotional article in Exhibitors Herald13 The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe also reduced the number of episodes

from 15 to 12 hoping to lessen the stigma of padding and uselessly drawn-out repeated actions The effectiveness of these historical serials should however not be taken too seriously as one exhibitor from a neighborhood theatre in Omaha Nebraska wrote about Universalrsquos Winners of the West (1921) ldquoThis one keeps up the history stuff for fi ve or six episodes then they run out of history and you see the same old serial plot and in conse-quence thereof the patrons lose interestrdquo14 Universal could not penetrate the high-class theaters with their ldquohistoricalrdquo serials

One of the productions bought by Zukor in Germany while making deals with Ufa setting up EFA was Die Herrin der Welt It would be the fi rst and only European serial feature that also acted as a serial feature on the American market Where Patheacute-Exchange or Universal had failed to upgrade their serial format to fi rst-run houses Paramount released Die Herrin der Welt now called The Mistress of the World on Broadway Its success would mark the release of other serials to come and infl uence American fi lm production as well Just as American serials were localized in the Netherlands France and Germany now in America European seri-als were also infl uenced by the cultural context and the implementation of specifi c fi lm forms in the American environment

TAKING THE MISTRESS TO BROADWAY

The release of The Mistress of the World in the United States in March 1922 showed the American fi lm industry a new and different mode of dis-tribution whereby the multi-reel episodes functioned just as they originally did in Europe as the main feature in a program The Mistress of the World was a re-edited version of Joe Mayrsquos serial Die Herrin der Welt that had been released in Germany in December 1919 Instead of Mayrsquos original eight episodes of fi ve to six reels now only four episodes of around fi ve reels were left thus more than half of the serial had been cut away Marketing problems were reported as early as June 1921 while Paramount tried to solve the release structure The production was fi rst thought of as a fi ve-reel serial of 12 weeks and later as a six-reel serial of eight weeks15 According to Robert Kane supervisor of the editing and titling of the fi lm it took four months to recut the serial put titles on it and create an American tempo Germans did not edit they just slapped everything in argued Kane after the production had been released It was the Teutonic mind that Americans had to struggle with ldquoThe German mind cannot condense [ ] Our task is to boil these stories down [ ] without losing the lsquogutsrsquo of the story and keeping the beautiful lsquoshotsrsquo intact It is often a Herculean taskrdquo16

In December 1921 the serial was offi cially ready17 The fi lm was pre-sented by Paramount as part of the Hamilton Theatrical Corporation that had been especially formed to handle the imports that were coming out of the 129-features deal with Ufa as well as subsequent EFA productions The

serial would be released on Broadway in Paramountrsquos luxurious Rialto and Rivoli (each having a capacity of around 2000) as well as in other ldquolead-ing fi rst-run houses throughout the countryrdquo18

Before the release of the fi rst episode of The Mistress of the World on 5 March 1922 the publicity machine of Paramount was hard at work

Figure 71 Even Marcus Loew claimed The Mistress of the World was ldquoa world-beaterrdquo Moving Picture World February 25 1922

Zukor had retained Harry Reichenbach at $1000 a week for six weeks to handle the preliminary advertising campaign as well as the exhibition and release schedule Several large advertisements had been printed in many fi lm journals lobby designs that changed according to specifi c episodes had been made and a special press book had been issued which included reproductions of special accessories (Figure 71)19 Adding some zest to it all was Paramountrsquos announcement that the picture had cost approximately $1200000 (perhaps trying to rival Universalrsquos $1 million claim for Erich von Stroheimrsquos new feature)20 What was mostly stressed in advertisements meant for exhibitors was the gigantic effort that had been poured into this fi lm resulting in spectacular crowd scenes and impressive realistic set designs of temples

The release indeed had to be something special because on 5 March 1922 Paramount celebrated its tenth anniversary so success was rather important To advertise this anniversary month (and subsequently with it also The Mistress of the World) approximately $133000 were spent On top of this with The Mistress of the Worldrsquos premiere a 10000-dollar full-page color advertisement appeared in the Sunday magazine section of Hearstrsquos American21 If the amount of promotion could have guaran-teed success The Mistress of the World could not fail But it was a sign of things to come when Harry Reichenbach sailed to England a week before the opening22 The Mistress of the World turned out to be a big failure at the box offi ce

Though Paramount had only once released a serial (unsuccessfully) back in 1917 (Who Is Number One) perhaps with The Mistress of the World they hoped to bridge the difference between short serial and feature serial However the serial was adjusted so strongly it became too similar to an American serial which worked against it True it was still distributed as a feature but many other things were spelled out along the lines of an American serial In Germany the serial had used a situational ending whereby one problem was perhaps solved but the overall goal had not been reached yet whereas in the American version abrupt endings were created (as they were used in American serials) Thus episode two ended with ldquoThe Herculean Benson forces the gate In the distant valley disclosed through the open doors is an ancient city teeming with life andmdashlsquocontinued in our nextrsquordquo After this a 100-foot trailer started ldquowith quick fl ashes of appropri-ate scenes that promised that the life of this city with its religious rites and blood sacrifi ces would follow next weekrdquo23 Also during the restructuring process many parts were left out that might have led to a different view of the production

Not much was left of the original second episode that fully functioned (in a perhaps somewhat stilted way) as a fl ashback within the serial whereby Maud Gregaardsrsquo reasons for revenge (her fatherrsquos death and the presumed death of her baby both caused by an unscrupulous man she once loved) and her search for the treasure are explained and justifi ed In the American

version this is replaced by the trouble of securing enough money to redeem the reputation of her father who had committed suicide after selling a famous treaty This new premise was probably used as a quick plot device to get the adventure started whereas in the original it was used to deepen the character of Maud It is likely that also much of episode six which had functioned as a comic interlude between the adventures and melodramatic tensions was not used in the American version The serial story stops short when Maud (now called Helen Neilsen) and Allen Stanley (called David Karpen) leave the plane and realize that they love each other If the comic situations between the two newspaper giants were still seen in the pic-ture (though no sign of them in descriptions could be found) much of the fun that relied on a farcical view of American excess was erased because instead of America the airplane now landed in Europe With this newly constructed ending the original episodes seven and eight set 15 years after Maudrsquos adventures were left out In these episodes Maud initially lets go of her plan for revenge and gives her money to her lover Allen to build a machine that would destroy all weapons of war When he fails and dies because of the doings of her past nemesis Maud founds a university for gifted children (the ldquoAkademie der Menschheitrdquo) It is in the fi nal episode that she fi nds out her son is still alive (attending her university) while she also fi nally takes her revenge

What in Germany and the Netherlands had been called an ldquointerest-ingrdquo mix of melodrama adventure and comedy was cut out in favor of action that every now and then featured spectacular views of China and Africa while Maud was in search of the treasure Such changes can also be seen in parts of the promotional campaign Though in advertisements for exhibitors the exotic and spectacular sets were emphasized in the 13 posters that were offered for exhibitors to use to lure audiences in only two portrayed the massive sets and crowd scenes The other 11 were virtual copies of American serial posters featuring many fi ght scenes daredevil acts and the discovery of a treasure (originally the promotional poster in Germany had consisted of Mia May sitting on the throne in expensive garments as the Queen of Saba) ldquoPicturing the biggest thrills in all four pictures in a striking startling manner fl ooded with color and excitement they will wake up the sleepiest town in the worldrdquo Para-mount noted24

Thus with the restructuring and promotion of The Mistress of the World in America a different position was taken The hybrid function of various genres that could be seen with Die Herrin der Welt was reduced to a single function that amplifi ed adventure and spectacle making the narrative more repetitive and similar to American serials The tension and excitement were heightened by adding cliffhanger endings while in promotional posters that would be used by exhibitors mostly fi ght scenes were shown The German serial that originally indeed had shared some qualities with American serials but had functioned on other levels as

well now had been shaped into something more similar to an American serial except for its length After the production was released cultural clicheacutes such as the criticism that the Teutonic mind just could not con-dense were uttered These remarks were based on the feature serial for-mat Seriality seemed to have been viewed only in association with the American serial

IRRECONCILABLE ADMIRATIONS AND SMALL TOWN RETRIBUTIONS

In spite of (or perhaps due to) its massive promotional campaign and its restructuring the serial feature production was no success In the fi rst week the box offi ce was $16500 at the Rialto and $14200 at the Rivoli (with ticket prices of 50 to 99 cents) This was not the business Paramount was expecting from two of its Broadway theaters25 Paramount realized it had made a mistake and wanted to pull the second episode out of the Rivoli At the last moment however the decision was made to continue playing the serial at both houses at the same time but with another feature added to the program The Mistress of the World thus became the added attraction just as the American serial usually functioned in a neighbor-hood program26 The second week box-offi ce receipts increased by around 25 percent though Rush from Variety implied it was because of a new William S Hart feature Travelinrsquo On (1922) that attendance at the Rialto did not plummet27 During the third week Paramount clearly wanted to get it over with and edited the last two episodes together into a seven-reel version Again it was a double bill this time with The Cradle (1922) with Ethel Clayton at the Rialto and The Green Temptation (1922) at the Rivoli The box offi ce at the Rialto dropped a bit but at the Rivoli it climbed to $21000 Variety thought it was because of the rain that people were forced inside28 The serial thus certainly did not go over with a bang and much more had been expected from it However in a period when attendance was overall low the box-offi ce receipts certainly were not that catastrophic especially when one takes into consideration that the fi lm played in two big theaters at the same time a detail that somehow never was taken into consideration in many of the negative reviews29

Judging from reviews the failure of The Mistress of the World at both cinemas was mostly seen as due to the fact that it was a serial

German producers have sent us many kinds of pictures but it remained for Joseph May to send us via Paramount a real old-fashioned melo-drama in serial form reminiscent of the Perils of Pauline period The Dragonrsquos Claw the fi rst episode of the thriller has little to recommend it over the old-time serial except more elaborate settings and more people in the mob scenes30

The serial structure was seen as old stimulating such comments as ldquoIt resembles the fi rst days of the nickelodion [sic]rdquo ldquocrisis follows crisis excite-ment succeeds excitement and all the thrills of the old-time melodrama and a few more are shown on the screenrdquo and ldquoit is on a par with some of the serials that we ourselves produced when the fi l-lums were in their lsquoinfancyrsquo The present picture is at least honest in its endeavor to give to blood and thunder all that blood and thunder could possibly demandrdquo31

Many reviewers were also quick to note that a serial had no place on Broadway While Motion Picture News called the serial in one of the Broadway houses politely ldquoa noveltyrdquo the less reserved Film Daily thought ldquothat this kind of entertainment was hardly the thing for metropolitan fi rst run audiencesrdquo32 Variety which usually put forward a pessimistic and skeptical view of European productions was not surprisingly the strongest in trying to create a backfi re mood According to Rush ldquoseri-als have always stood for the small neighborhood house while the two big Broadway houses have always tried or pretended to try to furnish a screen entertainment appropriate to the costly establishments and the fi ne musical and artistic programs offered thererdquo33 Rush continued his argument a week later with the remarks that ldquoartistic meritrdquo and ldquoserialrdquo were irreconcilable ldquoThe two things canrsquot be made to go together up to date The only question involved in the venture is the wisdom of putting the serial on Broadway The picture is just a serial for neighborhood serial houses and nothing else and should have been restricted to that fi eldrdquo34 Alongside these comments we fi nd some indications of the internal power struggle that apparently had been going on at Paramount Variety men-tioned that according to inside gossip Lasky contemplated the situation ldquowith a grim smilerdquo It had been Zukor who had acquired the fi lm back in 1921 while he was abroad without discussing the proposition with Lasky When Zukor wanted the serial to be shown in fi rst-run theaters Lasky protested but waived any claim to a veto35

What according to some critics also failed was that the length and struc-ture were still different from an American serial The screening time of around 70 minutes per episode was indeed different from the standard 20ndash25 minutes of an American serial episode Fritz Tidden of the Moving Picture World wrote that this had never been attempted before and exhibitors had to ldquomake much of the fact that this is a new scheme of release giving the full story in four weeks instead of fi fteenrdquo36 Rush from Variety stated that it was ldquoan exact counterpart of the typical American serial except that it is administered in fi ve-reel instead of two-reel doses which makes it just that much harder to takerdquo37 The massive re-editing job does not seem to have been successful ldquoWithin the fi rst episode the story is episodic Brittle evenrdquo wrote Tidden about the fi rst episode that comprised the storyline of the original fi rst three episodes38 The many subtitles needed to explain all the missing action also did not work very well According to Motion Picture News there was ldquono spontaneity in the action because of the many subtitles

which break up the sequence of plotrdquo39 With the second episode it took six full-title sheets to cover the preceding story and then ldquothe fi lm goes back and the characters enact the last 150 feet or so of the fi rst install-ment before the story goes onrdquo wrote a somewhat irritated Rush by the structural artifi ce while thus also describing a standard feature of an American serial40

Even though critics thought the serial structure and the place of exhibi-tion did not work it seems the Broadway audience did have a good time The audience was according to most reviews an educated one that how-ever regressed to childlike behavior to a time when they were young and still watched serials ldquoThe situations wherein the hero and heroine are saved from death are of such fl imsy and weak substance and so typical of the early days of the cinema art that the audience appears to have entered into the spirit of the thing just for the fun of it more than anything elserdquo or ldquothe sophisticated audience on a Sunday afternoon became gallery gods [ ] when the fi nal caption was announced asking the crowd to come next week and follow the plight of the heroine in the second chap-ter [ ] they gave vent to their enthusiasm like the boys in an old-time shooting galleryrdquo41 According to many reviewers because of the many laughs it also got the fi lm should have been presented by Paramount as a burlesque even though it was not clear whether that had been the picturersquos intent ldquoWe have no notion whether it is intended as burlesque melodrama but it fulfi ls this function admirablyrdquo ldquoit seems more like a burlesque of a serial At least the audience accepted it in that spiritrdquo ldquoif its reception of the spectators [ ] is any indication of the public mind it could have been put over with a bang as a burlesque melodramardquo and ldquowhen not guessing what thrill was next on the list they were guessing as to whether or not it was all intended to be taken seriously or whether it was a burlesque of a melodramardquo42

According to Laurence Reid of Motion Picture News it was in par-ticular the acting of Michael Bohnen as the Danish consul Benson ldquowho suggested to the audience that the whole affair might be a burlesque Thus at a vital scene in which murder and mystery and intrigue are dominant he spoiled the whole effect and destroyed the suspense because of his silly posturesrdquo43 The New York Times regretted the many chances missed ldquoHere is an effeminate hero then and a masculine heroine What a chance for a satirist But none was engaged to write the titles for the fi lmrdquo44 Still the intertitles were not without fun When Maud and her companion Ben-son were taken captive and were about to be sacrifi ced on the blood altar ldquothe high priest and ruler pronounced the doom on Benson lsquoThe slaves are getting restless Let them have the man for a blood sacrifi cersquo the crowd burst into hilarious laughter and there was tumultuous applauserdquo45 Besides difference in acting style the physical appearances of German actors were also commented on especially Mia May was in the crossfi re (ldquoquite a big womanrdquo and ldquohusky German fraulein of huge Teutonic architecturerdquo)46

What was left to admire with The Mistress of the World were the spec-tacular pictorial effects involving huge crowds and expensive sets that showed scenic elements of Africa and China ldquoThe Mistress of the World is undoubtedly one of the most elaborate and gigantic serials yet presentedrdquo wrote John S Spargo for the Exhibitors Herald47 Even Rush from Variety seemed to agree ldquoThe only quality that has any merit is the picturesque settings in which the events of the story take place The locale of the fi rst installment is China and so convincing are the backgrounds that one is at once persuaded that the scenes were taken in the actual Orientrdquo48 Exhibi-tors Trade Review even saw the serial ldquoto possess many of the entertaining qualities peculiar to a traveloguerdquo49

Several reviewers indicated their surprise at the risk Paramount had been willing to take with this serial Variety thought the serial had hurt Famous Playersrsquo reputation deeply they had lowered the standards of the best public group just for a momentary profi t Paramountrsquos actions were criticized as an exploitation stunt for the rest of the country ldquoThe Mistress of the World on Broadway threatens to do much to alienate from the picture theatre its best friends among the moderately well-to-do and intelligent element of the whole publicrdquo50 Harrisonrsquos Reports however was also worried about the reputation of the smaller venues and argued that Famous Players-Lasky should release exhibitors from their contractual obligations ldquolet them man-fully pocket their losses and save exhibitors a lot of humiliationrdquo51 As had also been implied with Paramountrsquos promotion of the colorful posters that would wake ldquothe sleepiest townsrdquo the company probably indeed thought that the serial would make money in neighborhood and rural theaters

Many reviewers even the ones who did not like the fi lm also thought the serial had a fair shot at these establishments Film Daily predicted that if an exhibitor of the cheaper trade knew his audience had

a liking for serial lsquomellersrsquo in the past if they have reveled at the cap-tures and escapes of Pearl White and some of the other serial stars they will be equally well pleased with The Mistress of the World and perhaps you will have something a little unusual to offer them in the way of pictorial appeal52

The critical Harrisonrsquos Reports as well thought the serial had some merit though it could also be sarcastic ldquoIt should prove an excellent entertainment to the cheaper class of audiences such as enjoy stamping their feet and exercis-ing their lungs at the sight of the hero rescuing the heroine There is much in the picture that will put this class of patrons in such frame of mindrdquo53

However according to exhibitor reactions sent in to various trade papers audience reactions in neighborhood theaters and smaller towns were rather bad ldquoThe more they come the worse they getrdquo (Tonawanda New York) ldquoThe poorest thing I ever put on my screen and a crime to see Paramountrsquos trade mark on such a productionrdquo (Philipsburg Montana mining camp

patronage) ldquoThe poorest serial picture we have run After the fi rst episode fell of 50 per cent on this onerdquo (High Springs Florida small town patron-age) ldquoI was stung on this one also so had to use it Ran fi rst two episodes on Thursday and last two on Friday Both picture and business bad Hope that the exchanges wake up some day to the fact that this foreign stuff isnrsquot wantedrdquo (Florence Kansas general patronage)54 In Kansas City after the fi rst episode fl opped at the 12th Street Theater the two others were not shown55 The split between more juvenile serial feeling and adult patronage was expressed by J Carbonell from the Monroe theater Key West Florida (neighborhood clientele) ldquoWhile the picture is somewhat good the serial idea kills it as adults do not care to oblige themselves to see it every Tues-day or whatever you may chooserdquo56

But then again in April 1922 Variety published an article commenting on the unexpected strength of the Paramount serial

At a gathering of exhibitors in New York a number of New Jersey theatre owners expressed their surprise that the picture should have fl opped on Broadway from a box offi ce draw standpoint They admit however that their audiences are not particularly pleased with the pic-ture but nevertheless they come to see it57

The Laurier Theater in Woonsocket Rhode Island had a similar experi-ence ldquoAfter hearing this picture panned from all quarters was prepared to be disappointed but played to the biggest opening in a long time For me itrsquos a winner if properly exploitedrdquo58 Unfortunately it is not known what proper exploitation meant but apparently it could be done There were a few other theaters of rural patronage that had good experience but nev-ertheless the overall opinion of the trade was (even a year afterwards) that The Mistress of the World had fl opped not only on Broadway but also in the smaller theaters59

With the release of The Mistress of the World a divide in American and European production and distribution comes to the foreground Whereas in Europe serials could function in all kinds of theaters this was not pos-sible in America The serial form was regarded as cheap mostly it seems because of the emotional undulation their implausibilities and perhaps (though this is less noted in reviews) their structural artifi ce These disliked associations could not be separated from their long-term association with the only form of seriality the American knew their own cheap two-reel productions Though The Mistress of the World did not catch on in sub-urban and small town theaters there was a general understanding among critics that the serial (and also this serial) belonged in those houses The serial form was connected to a discussion of class relations of high and low culture This discussion stood in the way of this European serial release in spite of the efforts to fi gure out an appropriate distribution pattern to re-cut the fi lm and to promote it Just as the repetitive functions of American

seriality became more pronounced through local repackaging in Germany in America the connotations that were residing in Die Herrin der Welt were enlarged In this sense it is certainly not strange that Die Herrin der Welt was made into more of an American serial because that form was what the American audiences knew However Die Herrin der Weltrsquos experience did have consequences for European serials to be released in the years to come it was the last and only silent production to be distributed in America as a serial feature all other serial productions (of several different genres) were cut down to feature lengths60

ONE FEATURE FOR ALL ALL FOR ONE FEATURE

Besides The Mistress of the World there were other serials released in America in the period 1921ndash1923 that were not seen as such because they were released as features Their extreme original lengths did however pose problems for a smooth integration As we will see in the upcoming paragraphs the most successful and striking of these fi lms had much trou-ble with their abbreviations trying to fi t into the distribution form of the American feature

Before Joe Mayrsquos disastrous entry into the American market there had been already a European serial production in America the not-very-easy-to-market anti-war drama JrsquoAccuse (1919) On 10 May 1921 director Abel Gance had screened an already shortened version of 10000 feet for an invited audience in the ballroom of the Ritz-Carlton Hotel in New York61 Originally JrsquoAccuse had consisted of four parts (approximately 1200 meters4000 feet each) but Gance himself re-edited the serial from 1919 to 1921 into several feature versions today only a shortened version exists and as a result it is often not realized that this well-known fi lm was once a serial62 At the premiere in the hotel ballroom DW Griffi th was present accompanied by the Gish sisters Gance met Griffi th and seems to have had some part in arranging for United Artists (UA) to distribute the fi lm in America taking it over from independent distributor Marc Klaw63 UA bought JrsquoAccuse for a high-priced $192000 and released the picture after it was further shortened to 7700 feet on 9 October 1921 at the Mark Strand Theater in New York64

Moving Picture World called Gancersquos ten-reel version ldquoan unsatisfac-tory attempt at feature makingrdquo which leaves the spectator ldquoa disjointed and confused story that tells too muchrdquo65 Widrsquos Daily also thought the length of the fi rst version was too long the war sequences dominated the fi lm too much and ldquoin all likelihood it will become tiresome to the average audiencerdquo Widrsquos Daily thought it would have been better if the fi lm had been cut to six reels though it wondered if the continuity could be main-tained66 Many reviewers of both versions found it doubtful that the anti-war message would particularly appeal to Americans I Accuse as released

by UA did not receive a high rating in the Motion Picture Newsrsquos chart that was based on exhibitorsrsquo reviews It received a 34 percent entertainment value and a 43 percent box-offi ce value making it a ldquofairrdquo picture most American productions on the list got at least a 60 percent value (somewhere between ldquoaveragerdquo and ldquogoodrdquo)67 After a two-week release at the Mark Strand I Accuse barely was shown outside New York68

In January 1922 producer Louis Nalpas came to America where he signed contracts with Paul Brunet (soon to be on his way out because of fraud allegations) to convey the distribution rights of Mathias Sandorf (1921) to Patheacute-Exchange69 It is unclear which version Nalpas had brought with him originally it had been a serial in nine episodes but after it proved very popular in France an even more successful feature version was also released70 Patheacute-Exchange released the picture as the nine-reel The Isle of Zorda on 26 March 1922 with a reasonable amount of advertisement focusing on the slave market the luxury of Monte Carlo and the fact that is was based on a novel by Jules Verne (Mathias Sandorf) To promote The Isle of Zorda a song was published with it to be distributed among music dealers and which could be incorporated with the musical themes when screening the picture (a treatment that many American Patheacute-Exchange serials used to get)71

The term melodrama contrary to what one might think was at that time used as variable genre as Ben Singer has shown It could contain not only a high level of pathos and emotionalism but also a non-classical narrative form ldquowith episodic strings of action that stuff too many events together to be able to be kept in line by a cause-and-effect chain of narra-tive progressionrdquo as well as graphic sensationalism that besides action and violence also included scenic spectacle72 It is thus no wonder that action-packed American serials were often associated with the term melodrama For instance Lucille Love The Girl of Mystery (1914) was advertised as ldquoa melodramatic melodrama or otherwise a melodrama to the second degreerdquo73 It is in this respect probably that the heightened spectacle caused by truncating Mathias Sandorf led Film Daily to link The Isle of Zorda with a serial production ldquoin fact there is such a wealth of material that it might easily have served for a short serialrdquo74

According to C S Sewell of the Moving Picture World The Isle of Zorda could even though interest was sustained still do with some additional cut-ting Despite the fact that it had a technique and style of acting that differed from American-made productions the ldquomelodramardquo with its beautiful shots of the French countryside and striking views of Monte Carlo nevertheless provided ldquoexcellent entertainment which should prove satisfactory to the average audiencerdquo75 Reid of Motion Picture News also thought the picture was too long but the picturesque interiors together with the best ldquomelo-dramatic formulardquo would get a crowd enthusiastic However it had to be exploited properly because it was a foreign picture with unknown players76 Exhibitors Herald also seemed to have thought the content was more than

enough ldquoThere is material enough for several screen plays and the dramatic incidents follow one another so closely your attention is held from beginning to end in a vice-like griprdquo77 Film Daily agreed that it was ldquoquite above aver-age for foreign productionrdquo but that the only real hindrance was the extreme footage ldquothough probably even this will not be any serious matter if you cater to folks who like melodramatic stories of this typerdquo A couple of notices from Patheacute appeared in April and May noting that the picture did well with ldquoheavy bookingrdquo and growing demands78 On the Motion Picture Newsrsquos chart The Isle of Zorda did a lot better than I Accuse The picture got 70 percent on the value scale 17 exhibitors reported ldquogoodrdquo one ldquobigrdquo and one ldquofairrdquo which was used in an advertisement scheme as well79 Never-theless even with a high score of 70 percent distribution still did not go smoothly In the end The Isle of Zorda seems to have gotten a modest box offi ce succeeding in some cities whereas failing in others80

On 5 August 1922 Joe Mayrsquos new spectacle Das Indische Grabmal (1921) was released by Paramount in America as The Mysteries of India a feature of seven reels The reception of The Mysteries of India shows again the resentment against serials melodramatic subjects as well as for-eign productions Originally Das Indische Grabmal was a 5500-meter fi lm that was released in Germany in two parts (in length around twice as long as the American version) It had been part of the EFA production deal Zukor had made with Ufa while buying the 129 earlier Ufa produc-tions (which included The Mistress of the World) EFA was set up as an attempt to make German fi lms under American supervision81 However not many productions would be made and the contract was dissolved at the end of 1922

The Mysteries of India was presented in an advertisement by the Hamil-ton Theatrical Corporation whereas Paramount shied away from using its name in the foreground damaged as it was by The Mistress of the World82 The release of The Mysteries of India was preceded by an inter-offi ce row over the title Exhibitors wanted to have a different title one that did not have serial connotations The exhibitors stated to the exchange offi ce that they would change the title for their own houses in the event that it was not changed Executives of Paramount then tried to persuade the home offi ce to make the change because according to them a title change meant a difference of $100000 to $200000 in booking revenues83 The suggested new title was however not used by Paramount until several months after exhibitors kept their word and promoted the production as Above All Law anyway

Even though The Mysteries of India had not been released as a two-part fi lm Film Daily nevertheless made a direct link to the serial form in its review headline ldquoAfter the fashion of a serial Poorly made and with slight appealrdquo Film Daily argued that ldquoprobably those who favor serials and are accustomed to things that are more or less improbable will be equally pleased by the thrills offered here even though there is seldom either sense or logic associated with themrdquo The box-offi ce success depended according

to an analysis of Film Daily on the class catered to It might go ldquowith the cheaper class of audience that accept thrills regardless of their nature the better class would hardly accept itrdquo84 Motion Picture News reviewed the picture as far above The Mistress of the World and a fantastic melodrama with a morbid tone85 Harrisonrsquos Reports found it a repetition of The Mis-tress of the World but with smoother continuity and not as wild action ldquoIt may please those who love strong melodramas but it will hardly appeal to critical patronsrdquo86 Variety wrote that The Mistress of the World ldquoseries was generally supposed to have ended delving into foreign mystery melo-dramatic fi lms But with the release of this one it seems somebody is a bear for punishment and wants the fi lm fans in on itrdquo87 After a mediocre release at the Broadway Rialto it went into general release88 It is unclear how the picture did overall in smaller towns but it probably was not that good89 In the end the EFA deal had hurt the company in December 1922 a new Famous Players sales slogan appeared ldquoNot a single foreign picture in the line-uprdquo90

The fi nal noteworthy French serial production that was released in this period had unlike JrsquoAccuse and probably Mathias Sandorf not already been made into a feature form beforehand In fact it was actually just part of a serial Milady released on 28 January 1923 by the American Releas-ing Co was a condensation of probably the last six episodes of Diamant-Bergerrsquos Les Trois Mousquetaires (1921) Les Trois Mousquetaires had been released in 12 weekly episodes of one hour and was the most expen-sive super production of 1921 (costing two and a half million francs) Its gigantic success (taking in 17 million francs) inspired more similar (often serial) historical reconstructions91 When Diamant-Berger wanted to fi lm the story of The Three Musketeers he had fi rst offered the role of DrsquoArtagnan to Douglas Fairbanks Fairbanks refused according to Dia-mant-Berger because he did not want to work in such a vulgar genre as the serial92 Diamant-Berger received a counter offer to direct Fairbanks in a two-hour American version of the novel This time Diamant-Berger refused he did not want to change his scenario Diamant-Berger made his own version as did Fairbanks Interestingly in America the eight-reel version of Milady was presented as follow-up to Douglas Fairbanksrsquo ver-sion thereby in a way continuing the serial feeling and making it possible to tell the complete story Fairbanks could not convey in his feature ver-sion (see Figure 72)

According to the New York Times Milady was not a spectacle like Fair-banksrsquo version which one had to get out of onersquos head but it was ldquoa fi ne and effective workrdquo with ldquoremarkable qualityrdquo93 Nevertheless the most disturbing fault of the picture was the poor continuity and the way ldquothe story jumps in a disconcerting way sometimesrdquo Apparently even a con-densation of only half the serial (though still lasting six hours) was diffi cult to turn into a smooth production Like the New York Times most reviews noticed that the production had to rely too heavily on the intertitles to

Figure 72 A promotional suggestion for exhibitors who showed Milady Exhibitors could promote Milady as a continuation of Douglas Fairbanksrsquo The Three Musketeers (1921)

tell the tale and it lacked suspense Harrisonrsquos Reports argued that ldquothe production [ ] does not come up to the American standard In places in fact it is crude The continuity in particular is jerky the scenes do not connect wellrdquo94 Film Dailyrsquos response was that direction of the fi lm was dif-fi cult to judge ldquoin view of extensive cutting which production has evidently undergonerdquo to fi t the American program95 Motion Picture News thought the story was ldquohighly complicated and poorly edited so that the spectator has some trouble in following it Indeed there are times when it looks like so many illustrated subtitles And the gaps are indicated in the manner in which the scenes shift so rapidlyrdquo96 A very negative Fred in Variety did not see it as a good fi t for Broadway with its unclear story editing and titling and he pointed out the European differences ldquoPerhaps this picture is what audiences over there want but in the USA they want things a little differ-ent and are not the sticklers for the original textrdquo97 Overall the release of Milady cannot be deemed a success the American Releasing Corporation was defunct by the end of the year98

In addition to the two pictures from Joe May and the three French seri-als in the period of 1921ndash1923 there were several other European serial productions these however disappeared even more quickly into grind houses or were only trade shown99 Thus the serial productions that were imported into America experienced many problems conforming to the fea-ture form It is indeed true that foreign production fared poorly overall in America but European serials seem to have been in an even tighter spot Their length was just too long to be easily and smoothly condensed as the use of the many intertitles also indicates (imagine the three The Lord of the Rings fi lms pressed into a feature of an hour and a half) Even those productions that were already cut upon import such as JrsquoAccuse and prob-ably Mathias Sandorf had to be shortened even more to conform not only to feature form but to a length that was shorter than in Europe By cutting much of the exposition of the story the dramatic incidents followed one another so closely that several productions were reminiscent of the Ameri-can serial that also jumped from highlight to highlight constantly trying to top the previous sensation Though in Europe many successful serials were made including expensive ones very few of them were distributed in America even in the years to come

The European serials especially the big budget French and German ones could have been likely candidates for the prestigious fi lms the European export market needed for entering America but these serials seem to have met with even more diffi culty in America than the normal European fea-tures In America the editing of the fi rst European serials had helped to fi t them into a program slot like the American serial However when Euro-pean serials grew in ambition and length problems began to arise With the American release of The Mistress of the World in 1922 the inner confl ict of the European serial was brought to the foreground While Paramount

presented it as a feature it was also marketed as similar to an American serial According to various trade papers an audience at the Rialto or Rivoli would not have had the slightest interest in the entertainment value of a serial even a more artistic European one The Mistress of the World confronted different social spaces Artistic merit and the serial were seen as irreconcilable and serials were not fi t for Broadway distribution

The only solution after the fi asco of The Mistress of the World was to re-edit European multi-reel serials and distribute them as feature produc-tions The original structure had to change and usually more than half and sometimes even three-quarters of the fi lm had to be cut in order to make an eight-reel picture suitable for American consumption It is true that other European productions also were cut extensively had diffi cul-ties with the intertitles and had to deal with resentment or many cultural differences (American star fetishism or problems related to divergence from the classical model) but the transformation of a serial into a feature was an extra barrier that could harm the fi lm Interestingly it was the boiling down of its original form that caused the narrative to be seen as reminiscent of an American serial or with similar melodramatic (that is the overwhelming string of events and sensationalism) undertones Thereby even in their feature form negative references to the American serial were made

It is possible that for these reasons no attempts were made to import many of the productions that had proven successful in their home countries such as Der Mann Ohne Namen (1921) Les Mystegraveres de Paris (1922) or Vingt Ans Apregraves (1922) Because the distribution of a serial was not thought of as suitable for the American fi rst-run houses multi-reel episodes were not to the liking of American audience and a mangled feature version did not work either the big European serials were met in America with resistance and often failure European serials had to be similar to either American serials (but these were only shown in cheap cinemas) or to the American feature form With the strict standards of the feature form different fi lm forms and methods of distribution were kept out or became very diffi cult to market

CONCLUSION PART THREE

When Varietyrsquos Berlin correspondent reported in June 1921 on the suc-cess of the Ufa serial of six fi ve-reel episodes Der Mann Ohne Namen he immediately noted that the division into the multi-reel episodes was bad for the American market ldquobut with clever handling it could easily be recut into from ten to fi fteen two-reelersrdquo100 It might have worked for Der Mann Ohne Namen but this kind of re-cutting and re-shaping probably only was suitable for action-packed serials that followed their American counter-part closely Even an original episode of The Mistress of the World did not

contain as much breakneck action as an American serial so chopping these up probably would have resulted in an even more frustrating mess for the Americans As we have seen in this chapter there was at least one German serial whose episodes consisted of three sub-episodes that could be taken apart or put together according to exhibitorsrsquo wishes but this was not the overall form for German serials nor would it be

French historical or social dramas also could not easily be transformed into two-reel structures containing not enough speed to keep the two-reel system going while having an abundance of plot and background story Additionally one has to wonder what in fact would be the point because the only pictures that could get distributed in America were expensive pic-tures that had a chance of being released in fi rst-class houses If a fi lm were distributed as a two-reel serial fi rst-class houses probably would not be interested whereas distribution and revenue income would also not be much because the fi lm only functioned to fi ll up the program next to the exclusive feature Indeed in a generalizing view but useful scope the Amer-ican fi rst-class houses forced the hand of the European imports by dictating that they had to be similar to the distribution form of the American fea-ture whereas the serial structure that could be played in second-run houses had to be similar to the American serial form (while audiences in these establishments viewed foreign products more negatively) The split between feature and serial as well as between fi rst- and second-class houses seemed in America insurmountable As a result European serials were stripped of their seriality (sometimes already in the country of origin) and distributed as feature productions

In Germany the discourse surrounding seriality was already partly present in rhetoric from national protectionism before serials (or other American products) were released but continued even more vehemently afterwards Seriality probably could however not have entered this dis-cussion in such a prominent way had it not held such a dominant presence among other foreign products and played in the form or localities it did It is plausible that had the American serial played in its original capacity of short episodes alongside a German fi lm it would not have attracted such attention in the discussion It was also from well-known and respectable theaters that the serial could in its feature form enter and amplify the discourse on the German and American fi lm industries if it had been shown only in small and cheap outlets the serial would have had lower visibility

Serials were seen as something new with an interesting need for speed and physicality but the overall judgment turned quickly negative as they were seen as machine-made carbon copies that were all alike The serial with its exciting cliffhanger as standardized method in stimulating mass consumption prefi gured the negative view on mass-produced goods some-thing that would be symbolized in the mid-1920s by Fordrsquos conveyer belt with its psychologically deadening qualities101 Serials also did not become

part of an elite subculture as had happened in France with the Surrealist and Dadaist movements though through the noticed bodily presence such a link could have been made Of course the German audience did not seem to mind and probably were fascinated by the new sensory aspects of the sensational serials at fi rst as in a way the critics also had been However the re-adjustment of American serials corresponded to the fate of European serials in America as they were adjusted to fi t into the feature style of the German serial as it had been developed during the war (culminating with the ever-present Die Herrin der Welt) The serial distribution form was connected to cultural issues through both its re-adjusted method of release as well as its conspicuous presence among imports

The reader may however wonder what was to become of seriality in the 1920s Could seriality in Europe survive and if so how Were no Euro-pean serial features ever again released in America in cut-up versions or otherwise Did no American director even long for feature seriality not even DW Griffi th or Erich von Stroheim What about productions that were released serially in Germany like Die Nibelungen (1924) or American feature productions like Griffi thrsquos Orphans of the Storm (1921) or One Exciting Night (1922) in the Netherlands How did seriality continue in France with pictures like La Roue (1923) Les Miseacuterables (1925) Napoleacuteon (1927) or (again) Die Herrin der Welt Would there be serial life with the arrival of sound Stay seated for the next instalment

Part IV

Another Time

Introduction to Part IV

In France in February 1923 when Henri Diamant-Bergerrsquos Vingt Ans Apregraves (the sequel to his Les Trois Mousquetaires) and Abel Gancersquos La Roue both successful serial productions were playing in the theaters the popular magazine Mon Cineacute conducted a survey asking its readers

Do you like serials in general (answer yes or no) Have you ever gone to the cinema especially for a serial (yes or no) Has the showing of a serial ever been the cause of you not going to the cinema (yes or no) Tell us your reasons and give an indication of the titles or the genre you prefer1

It is perhaps not surprising that in a country where seriality played such an important role in daily newspapers in weekly booklets and the cinemas there was room and interest for such a survey and that a most impressive number of 21193 answers were received The survey did however not come out of the blue but refl ected a discussion that had already been going on for some months in various fi lm journals over whether serials were still a viable fi lm form or should disappear as soon as possible

The last two chapters in this fi nal section will discuss seriality at a time when in both America and Europe hegemonic structures of both serial and feature productions were questioned and struggled with In America in particular one European serial caused an awareness of feature serial-ity that produced an effect on a well-known director such as Erich von Stroheim It is a focus that illustrates the dictation of standardized formats and the restricted possibilities for American feature seriality In Europe the fading out of the serial form was a different kind of confrontation for vari-ous directors In several French fi lm journals the discussion on serials was actively conducted in Germany it was more submerged though here also critics did not look positively upon seriality While in America the transi-tional period in which the feature became the norm is mostly seen as having been completed by the mid-1910s as shorts and other fi lm forms fell into line behind the feature when we look at the importance of serial produc-tions in Europe we see a different process at work Thus though the long-length feature was used more prominently in Europe from the early 1910s

148 Introduction to Part IV

it was not until serial production declined that the feature became the gold standard in Europe as well In the end with the arrival of sound seriality did not disappear from the cinema though at times it would become less visible Its principle remained as it was adapted in different contexts and different production and distribution strategies

8 Overshooting in America

Seriality and the extremely long fi lm were linked in America as in Europe but they were used and viewed differently on the opposite sides of the Atlantic Peter Milne discusses in a chapter called lsquoOvershootingrsquomdashand the serial from his 1922 book on directing the diffi culties of fi tting a story into the allotted two-reel serial form

Of course the ideal state of affairs would be to permit the picture to run its natural length Then there would be no trouble at all about directors overshooting However this would lead to pictures being un-necessarily long as there would always be directors who abuse such a privilege1

Around the same time that The Mistress of the World was being re-edited and getting ready for its American release in late 1921 fi lm directors DW Griffi th and Erich von Stroheim were contemplating the benefi ts of releas-ing feature fi lms serially Griffi thrsquos perception of a serial was a gigantic work at least according to a somewhat vague statement from his offi ce Von Stroheim on the other hand saw seriality as a last haven through which he could fully tell his story

In this chapter I will discuss how certain American fi lm products were obstructed because of the strict distribution patterns and fi lm forms that are connected with cultural contexts Because of a particular European serial seriality and the super-long feature became noticed and discussed it was an awareness that would pursue and infl uence Von Stroheim in sev-eral of his productions Unfortunately for Von Stroheim implementation of seriality was not possible at least not in America

ATTEMPTED ESCAPES

At the end of 1921 serial features were in the air In November 1921 a statement from DW Griffi thrsquos offi ce was published in the New York Times It stated that after his work on Orphans of the Storm (1921) Griffi th might

under take ldquothe largest motion picture ever conceivedrdquo The proposed pic-ture would be 72 reels in length and would be re leased in installments of 12 reels each According to the advance no tice the whole thing would take four years to make and it would cost $100000 a reel2 As has been explained in Chapter 1 this was not the fi rst time that Griffi th wanted to use or was forced to use a serial structure as a release pattern having witnessed it with his early multiple-reel features that were divided into reels such as His Trust His Trust Fulfi lled and Enoch Arden or his own plans of a dinner intermission for an eight-hour version of Intolerance as well as the later distribution of two separate parts after the failure of this picture

It is however very likely that Griffi thrsquos announcement was just a trial balloon Speculations on Griffi thrsquos new projects were always a hot topic A week before the announcement Widrsquos Daily had reported that Griffi thrsquos next production would be ldquoSands orsquo Deerdquo whereas a week later this had already changed into ldquoEast is Westrdquo3 In the end it turned out the next picture was One Exciting Night (1922) However it might be possible that Griffi thrsquos unnamed serialized fi lm was his pacifi stic History of the World project that would be based on HG Wellsrsquo The Outline of History (which had been published with enormous success in 1920) and which he was busy with in 1922 This project would have consisted of eight or ten thematically linked features portraying the history of time each 10 or 12 reels long and each costing be tween $15 and $2 million per episode to produce4 The project would not be made

Thus though Griffi thrsquos relationship with seriality remains vague it was perhaps no mere coincidence that he announced a feature serial At the same time Griffi thrsquos announcement was published Erich von Stroheim was busy at Universal cutting his extremely long and very expensive Fool-ish Wives while The Mistress of the World was being re-cut at Paramount (and in Germany Paramountrsquos co-fi nanced two-part Das Indische Grab-mal was released) Von Stroheim had been able to create a picture that had cost around $750000 (according to him) and had been busy for 11 months (he had started with a budget around $250000 and three weeks of shooting) An irritated studio boss Carl Laemmle in the meantime created an image of the fi rst ldquoMillion Dollar Picturerdquo even putting up a sign on Broadway with an ever rising budget fi gure as well as admitting in advertisements that Universal would never get its money back because it would have to take in $25 million to break even5 The picture did not contain explosions crumbling cities or mass scenes its spectacle func-tioned in the picture more as a backdrop

Von Stroheimrsquos fetishized love for exact realism was put to the test in building the Monte Carlo casino on set in actual size with fully operating parts such as the oft-cited electric bell system that in the picture could not be seen (or heard of course)6 Apart from Von Stroheimrsquos elaborate eye for detail the studio gave heavy play to the scale and budget of the project

Overshooting in America 151

According to the Universalrsquos press department the picture cost $110373638 was 11 months and 6 days in course of fi lming six months in process of assembling and editing consumed 320000 feet of negative in the making which footage was cut to 32000 feet and ulti-mately boiled down to 14000 and employed as many as 15000 extra people for atmosphere These sets are announced as costing $4210007

Exhibitors were urged to use and emphasize ldquothe bigness of the produc-tionmdashthe enormous costmdashthe nature of this marvelous reproduction on the rocky coast of California of the great city of Monte Carlo in every essential detailrdquo8 Thus like Die Herrin der Welt before much was known about the picture fi gures were used to make a spectacle out of it a strategy that was continued upon release

It is indeed possible that at the end of 1921 Von Stroheim looked at that time towards seriality in a more active way than Griffi th However information about this interest in the serial structure was only published in the trade papers after the feature release of his Foolish Wives The fi lm was of massive length but when Von Stroheim got stuck in the editing process at around 32 reels Universal took over and brought in Arthur Ripley to continue the cutting He managed to bring it down by over a half This 15-reel version was shown at the premiere on 11 January 1922 (lasting three and a half hours) however shortly thereafter fi ve more reels were cut with the purpose to enable exhibitors to play two shows in an evening in stead of one9 In the week after the premiere of the fi rst episode of The Mistress of the World Variety reported that

Whatever Ripleyrsquos diffi culties may have been in cutting Foolish Wives [Ripley was rumored to have had a nervous breakdown] they were no worse than those the cutters at the Famous studios on Long Island underwent in preparing the Mistress for American consump-tion Famous offi cials admit the stunt is so much of an experiment they can understand the hesitancy of the Ursquos [Universal] sales force in attempting to sell a serial of that sort to the country at large10

Now one may wonder what had been going onVariety also reported that from the beginning Von Stroheim had

intended Foolish Wives to be a five-part serial and shot with that very purpose in view 32 reels ldquoFearful of the chances of a serial released in fi ve reel parts Laemmle was nevertheless impressed and called his executives in council It was the sales force that vetoed the proposition and insisted it be cut to feature lengthrdquo When Von Stroheim learned that The Mistress of the World was to be released in exactly the manner he had intended for Foolish Wives he got very upset He did not want to stay in New York ldquoeven for the pleasure of saying lsquoI told you sorsquo after the opening again of the Mistress but would go back to the coast and try to

get started againrdquo Variety mentioned further that Foolish Wives might be released below the Panama Canal as a serial and that work would shortly be started on putting it back in its original form11 This re-installment never happened and it is unclear if Foolish Wives ever was elsewhere released as a serial the severely cut feature is now the only version that is left The incident however points out that it was assumed there could be an audience for such a fi lm in a different market12

Von Stroheimrsquos assertion that he always had intended Foolish Wives as a fi ve-part serial should however be taken with a grain of salt There were several forms of distribution that were cited and quoted (as the length and costs of the picture were similarly juggled) Motion Picture News reported in August 1921 that after the picture was fi nished shoot-ing and 559000 feet of fi lm were reduced to 129000 a feature of 12 reels was intended13 Photoplay Magazine claimed on the other hand that a rather whiney Von Stroheim had wanted Universal to hire two theaters and sell tickets for two performances Each theater would play one part of the two-part version so that the fi lm could be seen in two nights14 Also shortly after the premiere in January 1922 Von Stroheim was reported in Variety to have allegedly replied to friends who asked how it was possible to present 32 reels for an eveningrsquos entertainment ldquoThat is a detail I hadnrsquot time to bother aboutrdquo15

Interestingly from the critics there were reactions that referred to the American serials and echoed the German reactions to the millions of Marks spent by Joe May on Die Herrin der Welt (as well as on his other projects) Variety for instance was probably referring to the cheap serial history Universal was still producing ldquoThat the U should turn out such salacious junk as Foolish Wives isnrsquot surprising Theyrsquove been specializing in junk ever since the day of the store shows What is surprising is that the U spent so much money on Foolish Wivesrdquo16 Or as the critic from Photo-play wrote

There is no doubt that Mr von Stroheim probably spent almost the press-agented million on his sets and other effects if he had spent as much time on his storymdashif he had had a tale worth tellingmdashhe would have earned the applause of that Broadway fi rstnight audience and ev-ery other audience in the world17

Peter Milne who was a member of the scenario and production department of Famous Players-Lasky obviously is referring to Von Stroheim when in his book on directing he criticizes those who misjudge the tempo of a fea-ture so much that they include more scenes than are necessary usually working without a continuity schedule ending up with too much footage and are then forced to cut much out of the story Interestingly Milne groups together the excessive amount of Von Stroheimrsquos overshooting and the strict fi lming of the American serial as two extremes of planned fi lmmaking In

Milnersquos view a serial was much harder to plan than a feature because one could not rely on the elasticity of the average fi ve-reel length feature that still could permit some leverage One had to have a clear outline of what to fi lm and not overshoot as this could result in mutilating the overall balance in order to reach the required length of only two reels per episode The two extremes of fi lmmaking were however also each otherrsquos extremes in the theaters ldquo[T]he public through the theatre owners has declared itself as generally opposed to pictures taking more than an hour and a half to run unless they provide some remarkably effective interestrdquo wrote Milne On the other hand the limitations of the two-reel serial format permitted a director according to him ldquolittle that is regarded in a serious way by audi-ences of taste and discriminationrdquo18 A judgment of cultural values thus was clearly linked with form and length in a relationship that was diffi cult to break down Though Milne never speaks of the possibility of making epi-sodes from excessive features perhaps it was on his mind as he also wrote a rather fl attering (perhaps promotional) chapter on Joe May The relation of the serial and feature was close but still far away perhaps held back by the severely ingrained stigma of American serials that neither European seriality nor Von Stroheim could erase

It is striking that both directors who favored realistic sets that needed huge amounts of money and which were used as a spectacle in themselves ended with pictures that consisted of many meters or feet Through the friction caused by both productions the relation between the serial and the very long feature form was noted in Hollywood for the fi rst time Unfortu-nately The Mistress of the World fl opped and Von Stroheim could not say ldquoI told you sordquo The serial form remained identifi ed with the cheap serial form that was short and not taken seriously whereas the feature would not evolve into a narrative that encompassed more than one feature Where May succeeded after Die Herrin der Welt in creating more expensive pro-ductions in a serial form Von Stroheim kept struggling

UNLUCKY MARRIAGES

Two years and one fi lm after Foolish Wives Von Stroheim put himself into a similar position with the production of Greed (1924) spending huge amounts of money (at least $630000) and time (fi lming six months) while ending up with an enormous length of fi lm (cutting a year from supposedly 130 reels of raw material) Von Stroheimrsquos fi rst version was 42 reels long (around nine hours) whereas his most defi nitive version before MGM took over consisted of 24 reels19 MGM subsequently cut the fi lm down some more and distributed it as a ten-reel feature in December 1924 Accord-ing to Harry Carr (later scriptwriter with Von Stroheim on The Wedding March 1928) when Greed was edited down to 45 reels Von Stroheim tried to persuade the Goldwyn studio to make two installments out of it and

run it on two different nights20 In a letter to his biographer Peter Noble Von Stroheim indeed also reminisced much later ldquoAgain I had set out with the idea to make the picture in two parts Ten or twelve reels each time with time for dinner in betweenrdquo21 In the end it was found too impractical at MGM22

With so much cut away of course critics noticed as with the European serials that much of the story seemed to be missing Lifersquos Robert E Sher-wood for instance wrote

Thus the story has a choppy quality many of its developments are abrupt We see Trina in one instant the tremulous young bride and in the next the hard haggard scheming shrew of several years later The intervening stages in her spiritual decay are not shown although Von Stroheim undoubtedly included them originally

Sherwood could not fi nd any sympathy however for Von Stroheim who ended up because of distributional tactics with a severely cropped picture ldquoThis is Von Stroheimrsquos own fault He must learn to acquire some regard for the limitations of spacerdquo23 Varietyrsquos Fred was more sympathetic and tried to take some of the blame away

If for commercial purposes a picture must be slashed to this great ex-tent after a director had been permitted to go as far as he did in the tak-ing of it and the producer at one period seemed content with 26 reels it does not sound quite fair to an able director such as von Stroheim is to throw the entire blame on him [ ] As another possibilitymdashbecause no American picture was ever shown before in two sections of the length of 26 reels is not positive reason why it couldnrsquot be done24

Greed unfortunately fl opped mightily and as with Foolish Wives Von Stroheim ended up with another stripped skeleton of a brainchild25

After four years and a very successful release of The Merry Widow (1925) Von Stroheim again could not help himself and produced with The Wedding March another mammoth fi lm (eight months shooting around $1125000 in cost)26 This time a two-part fi lm would come out of it though not exactly the way he had intended it When production was stopped by producer Pat Powers Von Stroheim had not yet completed the fi lm that already ran over eight hours Again Von Stroheim had hoped to screen the fi lm in two parts and tried to edit it as such

After a certain amount of editing had been done on The Wedding March I evolved the idea of dividing the production in two fi lmsmdashone to be called The Wedding March the other to be called The Hon-eymoon These fi lms were to be distinct stories each having its own beginning and ending each complete in itself neither one dependent

upon the other as reported in the press On this basis I went ahead with the cutting and editing the fi lm with two distinct stories in view Barring a short sequence necessary in The Honeymoon no additional scenes would be needed27

According to Von Stroheim Pat Powers went to Jesse L Lasky (Par-amount distributed the film) to show the two-picture version but he refused to look at it28 The studio executives decided that not many people would want to see a continuation of part one29 The picturersquos final version that consisted only of part one had been cut from 25795 feet to a length of 10852 feet lasting a little under two hours Part two indeed called The Honeymoon was cut from 22484 feet to approximately 7000 feet (out of which some 2000 feet constituted a re prise of footage from The Wedding March) Von Stroheim forbade Powers to release this very mutilated part two in the United States The Honeymoon could thus get a limited release in Europe and South America30 However its seriality was rather diminished In France for instance Mariage de Prince (The Honey-moon) was released in 1931 more than two years after the fi rst part and with almost a third of the picture being a repetition of the fi rst episode31

The questioning of the fi lm form or even Hollywoodrsquos hegemonic fea-ture structure that had started with The Mistress of the World could how-ever not be answered by Von Stroheim at least not in America Whereas in Europe seriality could be shown in a range of cinemas from prestigious to cheap seriality in America was only considered when there was severe overshooting something that only few could succeed in within the strict control of the fi lm studios But even then with a very expensive product feature seriality was not an option At the time of Von Stroheimrsquos last attempt the situation in Europe was changing as seriality was waning a situation discussed in the next chapter

Von Stroheim had like Griffi th with Intolerance played with the idea of releasing a feature in parts However both (but especially Von Stroheim) had seemed to be only interested in this serial structure when after shooting they ended up with a very long fi lm The only solution was to either cut it or release it in parts In spite of Von Stroheimrsquos claims the serial structure does not seem to have been planned beforehand as was the case for most European serials (apart from Abel Gance as we shall see in Chapter 9) Von Stroheim and Griffi th were anomalies in the American fi lm industry and they only relate to seriality because they had the opportunity to make very long and expensive pictures Von Stroheimrsquos efforts in particular show the distribution and exhibition constraints that they had to deal with a situa-tion confronting the European fi lm industry with its serials as well With the release of The Mistress of the World the relationship between seriality and the very long feature fi lm was for the fi rst time noticed and considered more strongly though in America not acted upon

9 Adjusting Forms and Diminishing Uses

REVOLVING WHEELS

La Roue (1923) was an inspirational fi lm when it was released and today it is still regarded as a masterpiece of cinematic authorship It was admired by avant-garde fi lmmakers and other artists The artist Fernand Leacuteger for instance who designed the poster for La Roue described it as elevating ldquothe art of fi lm to the plane of the plastic artsrdquo and Jean Cocteau suppos-edly talked in admiration of ldquothe cinema before and after La Roue [ ] as there is painting before and after Picassordquo1 Because today La Roue is presented in a feature form it is often not realized that La Roue was once released serially in four parts2

La Roue was an eagerly awaited super-production of the much admired director Abel Gance a production that also was surrounded by personal tragedy It had allegedly cost 3 million francs and taken three years to fi n-ish during which Gancersquos wife died (on the day he fi nished shooting) and the main star Seacuteverin-Mars who already was ill during shooting died not long afterwards The fi lm was fi rst shown in the Gaumont-Palace in December 1922 for press and guests in three Thursday sessions each day with two chapters totaling over 10000 meters Gance then continued re-editing the production for general release fi rst into six episodes of 1800 meters but just before La Rouersquos release this was changed and replaced by four episodes that in February 1923 were released each fortnight exclu-sively in Gaumont-Palace and Madeleine-Cineacutema (in total lasting up to nine hours)3

Though La Roue was regarded by critics as an artistic achievement especially because of its scenes of rapid montage and its sequences where form and content were split many negative comments were made in the press about two of the fi lmrsquos characteristics its melodramatic content and its episodic nature a content and form not appreciated La Roue is a very melodramatic epic dealing with a locomotive engineer Sisif who falls in love with his adopted daughter Norma Still obsessed by her after she is married to a wealthy railroad inspector Sisif tries to kill himself several

Adjusting Forms and Diminishing Uses 157

times He ends up blind and living with his daughter again after his son and Normarsquos husband are killed in a fi ght Sisif dies peacefully in his shack along the railroad when spring comes and Norma joins a peasant dance in the snow Reneacute Clair (a journalist and writer as well as an actor in two melodramatic serials by Feuillade) responded to the heavy melodrama and the literariness of the intertitles with ldquoIf we were asked to judge Mr Gance by the psychological intentions he expresses on the screen and by the titles he writes I have to admit that my judgment would not be in his favor But right now we are concerned with cinemardquo4

The critic Emile Vuillermoz expressed in his article in Cineacutemagazine his objections to the commercial interest that according to him was interfer-ing with the cinematic qualities several of his objections could also be read in reviews by other critics According to him ldquoLa Roue contains all the elements of a masterpiece but the lsquoiron law of supply and demandrsquo which governs the relations between producer and consumer in the cinema is so overwhelming that it can destroy the most splendid effortsrdquo5 La Rouersquos length and its division into episodes did not inspire enthusiastic reactions as this was seen as a scheme ldquoThey say that Abel Gancersquos fi lm has cost three million francsrdquo wrote Vuillermoz

They could only recuperate this sum it seems by transforming an excellent production of 2000 meters into a vast expanse measuring 10000 meters For itrsquos a fact that cinematic beauty is sold by the pound and that in the cinema the genius of an author can only be measured with the aid of a surveyorrsquos chain Thatrsquos where we are led by the obstinacy of our fi lm distributors who refuse to abandon their demagogic ideas6

Patheacute-Consortium which released the fi lm was of course no stranger to the serial form having released many foreign serials but also at least 15 French serials in the past two years ranging from melodrama tearjerk-ers to crime stories and historical adventures Gance however also knew the serial form He once had written a script called Diaz le Briseur de Fortune (1913) a (never made) four-part series along the lines of Fantocirc-mas or Racombole he had also made a pasticheparody of the serial with Barberousse (1917)7 More importantly his previous picture had been the acclaimed three-part war-related fi lm JrsquoAccuse Gance himself denied the meat-market attitude he was accused of

More than the result of a commercial obligation this length was de-sired and I prefer to make a work of nuances rather than of action I could obviously have condensed it but if the dramatic intensity had gained by this the psychological interest and the style would have weakened8

Gance advocated massive cinematic spectacles for a vast audience fusing elitist and popular conceptions of cinema9 As Gance believed that cinema should not be only a social and international art but also a popular art form an art form for the masses his use of melodrama and seriality fi tted perfectly that end

Originally La Roue should not have exceeded 3000 meters in length and a budget of 400000 francs but the picture grew along with the costs10 The story was lengthened with many scenes and Patheacute-Consortium prob-ably must have realized some time during the shooting that it could not be shown as a feature As the tinkering with the length of the episodes until right before the general release seems to suggest a perfect form had not been decided upon beforehand According to Vuillermoz Gance had failed to choose and because of this wasted the picture The artistic discoveries would ldquodeeply shock the ignorant who have been raised in the school of serial novelsrdquo while on the other hand the elite had to wade through the melodrama and fi ght the stubborn adversaries of cinema to ldquocapture all the secret beauty of daily liferdquo11 It is obvious what Vuillermoz and several others wanted

We must have a reshaped and tightened version of La Roue re-lieved of the slight imperfections which have been imposed on it by circumstances [ ] All those who love the cinema and have confi dence in its future must lay claim to this lsquoartistic modelrsquo in the work of Abel Gance12

And so it happened though probably not as quickly as several reviewers would have wanted it In January 1924 a 4200-meter version was shown as the fi rst screening by Leacuteon Moussinacrsquos newly founded Le Club Fran-ccedilais du Cineacutema13

Gance probably was aware of similar lukewarm foreign reactions to French serial releases and the concerns their massive length posed for for-eign distribution In April 1923 Gance wrote to a representative of Patheacute Limited in London who asked for authorization to reduce his fi lm ldquoThis craze for reduction kills the best aspirations of our Art and the failure of big foreign fi lms famous in their countries of origin was always due to the cuts It corresponds to removing a few pages here and there throughout in a novelrdquo14 It is unclear to what films Gance was referring but it was a process he must have noticed when he stayed in America for five months after he had shot (but not yet edited) La Roue As has been described in Chapter 7 several French serial productions such as Mathias Sandorf Les Trois Mousquetaires LrsquoAgonie des Aigles as well as his own JrsquoAccuse had at that time diffi culties getting distributed in America and could only be released as features after being cut severely

La Roue however never really had been just a serial Gance used a different serial format already noticeable in the labeling of the episodic

structure For the critics of the presentation in the Gaumont-Palace in December 1922 La Roue was defi ned by eacutepoques a term not neutral in connotations At the time in France besides talk of episodesrsquo length and drama there were distinctions between several serial forms As Franccedilois de la Bretegraveque has analyzed there were in France three periods of episodic productions15 The fi rst corresponded to what was called fi lm en seacuteries a series such as Nick Carter (1908ndash1909) or Fantocircmas The second period was the fi lm agrave episode or cineacute-roman that started with Les Mystegraveres de New York and continued until roughly 1925 having its heyday in 1921 It used the technique of the serial novel that appeared simultaneously in the newspapers or in weekly booklets The third period started around 1923 and dealt with the fi lm agrave eacutepoques or fi lm agrave chapitres in which each episode is like an act in a play as was explained in Mon Cineacute when a promotional preview of Feuilladersquos Vindicta (1923) was given

Eacutepoques are not distinct sections that each contain their own exposi-tion and their own denouement The eacutepoque is similar to the act of a play Three four or fi ve eacutepoques form a whole and correspond to a logical curve that ends in the outcome envisaged One could not add or cut off one eacutepoque of a fi lm without harming the design of the author and unpleasantly amputating his idea and making it dubious16

Apart from a less abrupt serial feeling eacutepoques were also usually more costly to make (often in a historical setting) were lengthier per episode (more than the usual length of 700ndash1000 meters) and had only four to six episodes in total La Roue was at fi rst also released differently than the fi lm agrave episodes not in weekly fashion but with more time between the parts so that they could stay longer in theaters However in spite of the differences in form and output apparently any serial connotation had negative associa-tions in the minds of certain critics

La Roue thus shows this confl ict between the need for seriality on the part of a director who wanted to be able to create art within a popular entertainment form (and a form that could withstand his growing ambi-tion) and the desire of the cultural elite for quite the opposite a feature without what they considered imperfections It was the arrival of the feature version of La Roue that was a sign of things to come as can also be seen in the discussion on seriality that was going on at the same time in France

CHANGE OF HEART

The discussion on serials that was going on at the time of the release of La Roue had not been started by critics but seems to have been launched a few months earlier with a decision made by Le Conseil drsquoAdministration

du Syndicat Franccedilais des Directeurs This board of directors for cinema managers announced in December 1922 that they had decided almost unanimously to request production companies not to produce serials anymore As the board used the words fi lms agrave episodes and romans-cineacutema they seemed to aim at the American-style serials that then predominated however this discussion also had consequences for the entire French serial production

One of the fi rst to react was Le Courrier Cineacutematographique a criti-cal weekly mostly meant for the exhibitor The journal reacted in a rather irritated way to the fact that this decision was made only by the Parisians managers thereby discounting the 2000 exhibitors in the provinces who in return were asked by the journal to react17 The decision was thus not made from the bottom up but was imposed by the Parisian view of how and which fi lm forms should be used an important difference as differences in locality of establishments that also were related to class and cultural differences existed and continued to grow The cinemas that were located in the outskirts of Paris and the provinces were accused in trade papers sometimes of not having high standards or being downright dirty18 Seriality thus was also a way to divide cinemas between upscale and cheaper establishments between high and low culture and between city and province in a fashion similar to that previously seen in America from the mid-1910s on As an exhibitor from Mans would later respond to the Mon Cineacute survey ldquoI consider the serial (the good ones of course) like the daily bread of cinema especially in the province where at least three quarters of the faithful customers of our cinemas are from the popu-lous class [ ]rdquo19

The prestigious journal La Cineacutematographie Franccedilaise addressing the general public but mostly the professional fi lm industry asked industry heads to react to the boardrsquos decision Several production and distribution companies such as Phoceacutea GPC or Union-Eacuteclair declared bluntly or in a more veiled manner that they would no longer use seriality even though up to that point they had released several serials (from the American-style 12-part serial Le Diamant Vert [1922] to the more prestigious adventure-type nine-part Mathias Sandorf)20 It was Louis Aubert operating quite a number of theaters including several fi rst-run Parisian cinemas and also fi nancing several fi lms and serials who defended the serials and gave eco-nomic and nationalistic reasons for continuing to produce them21 Jean Sapegravenersquos right hand and managing director of Societeacute des Cineacuteromans Louis Nalpas did not really want to react and only remarked that the Patheacute-Consortiumrsquos program of 1923 would not resemble that of 1922 Patheacute-Consortium was the most important French fi lm company and the largest distributor of serials (foreign and French) A representative added however that Patheacute probably would start making serials in eight or six episodes with more attention and concentrated action than before while

they were looking for other formulas as Gaumont was doing also ldquoGau-mont has just adopted a new formula as LrsquoAffaire du Courrier de Lyon will be released in three episodes for Paris and fi ve for the province It is a formula One can fi nd othersrdquo22 With several companies selling out the production and distribution of serials became mainly the exclu-sive property of Sapegravenersquos Cineacuteromans (released through Patheacute) this was supplemented by Aubert Albatros and until Feuilladersquos death in 1925 Gaumont

The boardrsquos request forced the industry to react causing several com-panies to declare they were backing out whereas others agreed to change their strategy One of their strategies besides using the format of the eacutepoque apparently was to focus on differences in exhibition patterns These differences were as the exhibitor protest shows bound to locality which in itself was often related to cultural differences Thus the differ-ences over serials were not only played out by critics but also by exhibitors and producers using their own formulas When the discussion continued in Mon Cineacute a journal read by a large audience the request for reform became even clearer

CREATING EPOCHS

Of the 21193 persons who responded to the survey announced by Mon Cineacute in February 1923 10606 said that they generally liked serials against 10587 who answered that they did not like serials Similarly in answer to the second question (ldquoHave you ever gone to the cinema especially for a serialrdquo) 10618 answered yes whereas 10575 said that they had not the third question (ldquoHas the showing of a serial ever been the cause of you not going to the cinemardquo) prompted 10643 to say no and 10556 to say yes23 All in all there were not many differences in the answers though it did show a clear divide those who did not like serials also did not go to a programming that featured them even though in France a second feature was often shown with it as the French serial up until a short time before the survey was usually around 800 meters24 Despite the fact that a slim major-ity of the respondents appreciated the serial according to Pierre Desclaux who presented the results of the survey most viewers nevertheless favored a reform According to Desclaux three-quarters of those who responded thought the serial was too long and should be reduced to around eight episodes25 As one person wrote who was in favor of serials (81 replies to question four were also printed in Mon Cineacute) ldquoMy opinion is that one needs fi lms agrave eacutepisodes but perhaps not as long as those which one almost always sees In six eacutepoques eight at most that would be suffi cient twelve is too much one grows wearyrdquo26 Those appreciating the serial form said they enjoyed the return of their favorite actors or saw the serial as a necessary

form to fi lm these long (often serial) novels ldquobecause only this makes it possible to fi lm all of the novel rather than show only the broad outline of the actionrdquo27

Others (that is those opposing the serial) just wanted to have a com-plete story (ldquoI like to leave the cinema satisfi ed that I know what has become of the heroes of the storyrdquo) with a structure that according to them did not ruin the story28 ldquoIn a fi lm agrave eacutepisodes to make the action last for a long time one spends too much time on details that have no interest are completely useless and whose length removes all the life of the fi lmrdquo29 The opposite camp was often irritated by the bad scenar-ios and the endlessness and stupidity of the plot30 Many of the negative responses expressed indignation that serials were shown to them in the fi rst place considering serials to be a cheap business trick that could not result in a better production

The scenarios of these fi lms are obsolete rococos and childish and our fi rms are in the habit of using the inevitable lsquoCome see the continuation next weekrsquo It is good business but it is not art Needless to say I exclude from the screen any American serial fi lm [fi lm agrave episodes ameacutericain]31

One university professor made his indignation even clearer by advocating in the bigger cities a separation of audiences between those for and against the serial

But why is it necessary to sacrifi ce the one for the other Does not the cinema need the mass and the elitemdashquantity and quality [ ] Would it not be better to try to satisfy everybody in the right propor-tion by convincing the managers of the cinemas of the idea of the specialization of the establishments32

Serials were seen as being in direct confl ict with the feature form There-fore the serial form not only bothered certain audiences but also pre-vented the growth of the length of feature fi lms ldquoIndeed as soon as those [features] reach 1800 or 2000 meters it is impossible to fi t two [a fea-ture and a serial] in the same program otherwise it is the death of the documentaries travelogues and the newsreelsrdquo wrote a critical reader of Cineacutemagazine He continued with ldquoThe problem is thus seen either the cineacute-romans obstruct the ordinary fi lms by not allowing the passage of two at the same time or they [the episodes] have to wait for the next program if a big fi lm has just been releasedrdquo33 The situation where seri-als had stood in the way of long features and the rest of the program had according to him already occurred with LrsquoAtlantide (1921) the previous winter and he predicted would probably also be seen with the soon-to-be-released Foolish Wives and Fairbanksrsquo The Three Musketeers

However it has to be noted that even these fi lms could not always be free from seriality After the very long feature LrsquoAtlantide had been released in exclusivity for a year at the Madeleine it went to the Aubert-owned Elec-tricndashPalace for a few weeks in AugustndashSeptember 1922 Then at the end of September while still at the Electric it was also released in several other venues scattered around the city that had more capacity (up to 3000) but not as a feature but rather in two eacutepoques34

Serials were indeed changing and fewer were being made In 1921 the 20 serial productions that were released had an average length of between 700 and 1200 meters with around eight episodes (the maxi-mum was 12 episodes) The more than ten serials that were released in 1923 had an average of fi ve to six episodes with 1200 meters per episode (among them six productions of two to four episodes measur-ing around 1800 meters)35 The lengthening of the serial episodes thus made the serial into the feature serial The new ldquogenre de fi lms en seacuterierdquo was discussed in 1923 though several critics did not see that much dif-ference in the end ldquoEpisodes eacutepoques a more or less long event more or less thrilling more or less dragging along do they mean or will they mean progress for the cinemardquo asked Albert Bonneau in the popular but critical Cineacutemagazine ldquoAdmittedly one will notice in these dra-mas marvelous images successful scenes but all will be spoiled by the length and the inevitable dozen or half-dozen episodes or eacutepoquesrdquo36 Bonneau thus again stated as did others though less explicitly that an artistic serial production was not possible as its length watered down any innovations

However even though American serial types had been discussed nega-tively in journals by audiences exhibitors and producers alike they were still released There were still several American serials released (mostly from Universal) still re-edited into a schedule of eight to 12 episodes (whereas originally 12 to 15)37 Then there were also several German pro-ductions though with them a different format was used Instead of reduc-ing the number of episodes more episodes were created As had happened with the transition of Fritz Langrsquos two-part Die Spinnen (1919) when it was released in France in 1921 as Mysteacuteria several other German serial productions followed a similar path of feature serial into short serials38 The three-part traveling adventure Die Abenteuerin von Monte Carlo (1921) with Ellen Richter was divided into eight episodes and released as LrsquoHeacuteroiumlne de la Riviera (1922) or Fritz Langrsquos two-part feature pro-duction Dr Mabuse der Spieler (1922) was released in January 1925 in seven episodes of 700 meters (Figure 91)39 Only slightly lengthened in number of episodes were the six episodes of Der Mann Ohne Namen into the eight-part LrsquoHomme Sans Nom (1923) and the eight episodes of Die Herrin der Welt into the nine episodes of Maicirctresse du Monde (1925) The episodes of Maicirctresse du Monde (released surprisingly by Paramount

instead of Ufa) were however much shortened in length exactly half of the original had been cut leaving room for around 900 meters per epi-sode40 However all these German serials disappeared immediately from

Figure 91 In France Dr Mabuse was structured into a serial of seven episodes shown as Le Docteur Mabuse

the radar and it is unclear how they fared on the French market Research is made more diffi cult as often these serials are not even mentioned in the newspaper cinema listings when distributed as they probably functioned to fi ll up the program next to another production41

In 1925 the number of French serials released was around the same (13) Most serials had six to eight episodes with around 1000 meters and some of them were also called eacutepoques The use of eacutepoques was by that time more associated with historical productions than a ref-erence to length (as might seem with La Roue) The most important costly and notable serial production of 1925 was Socieacuteteacute des Cineacutero-mansrsquo most expensive project Victor Hugorsquos Les Miseacuterables The fi lm had cost 5 million francs it had a very large cast and was shown in four eacutepoques of exactly 2000 meters each42 Initially Cineacuteromans wanted to reduce the novel to a single feature like the rest of the Films de France series Cineacuteromans was also putting out but director Henri Fescourt wanted to follow the original form of Hugorsquos four-part novel each part to be released as a feature The production was a success and won much admiration even though corners had to be cut in production when the fi rm Westi that was participating in the fi lmrsquos fi nancing went bank-rupt43 Perhaps one of the reasons why not so many eacutepoques of feature length were made was that it was too expensive and risky as can also be seen with Abel Gancersquos next project

The discussion that ensued after the request of the board of direc-tors seems to have caused a rethinking of the serial schedule though some change already was taking place There would be more serials of around six to eight episodes instead of 12 The use of eacutepoques also indicates a more prestigious group among the serials though this would not always mean the use of feature seriality (as when it had been used with LrsquoAgonie des Aigles or La Roue) but would also indicate historical reconstructions As the shorter serials could be shown in combination with other productions the eacutepoques certainly the 2000-meters feature serials but also the 1000-meters episodes were taking up more space in the program In a way the eacutepoques of two- to four-part feature seriality are more reminiscent of the German serial features that had been used in the early 1920s as they meant a shorter obligation to return while prestige could still be obtained As the use of LrsquoAtlantide also shows it was also a question of a certain fl exibility with regard to local supply and demand as even long features could be handled as eacutepoques (more on this subject below)

DISAPPEARING IN THE MIST

At the end of 1923 in Germany Tragoumldie der Liebe the newest produc-tion of Joe May was released as a two-part feature fi lm Its reception

had some similarities to the reactions that were witnessed with La Roue While its artistic side was admired the plot and serial form were not even though a more detached form was used that would be symp-tomatic of various serials to come It had originally been designed as a four-part fi lm but due to the fully booked Ufa fl agship Palast am Zoo the premiere was delayed When it fi nally was released on 8 November 1923 the fi rst two parts and the last two parts were shown together making a very long version of around 3700 meters each The two parts were shown with a month in between thereby allowing for a longer box offi ce run44

Like Mayrsquos previous productions Die Herrin der Welt and Das Indische Grabmal it was prestigious but with a popular theme This time it was not an adventure story but a genre that critics loathed even more the Hintertreppenroman the cheap melodramatic novel ldquoJoe May has long been recognized as master of the popular fi lm but it was a surprise that he in his desire for great success would fall so deep with his choice of manuscriptrdquo wrote Fritz Olimsky45 Kurt Pinthus acknowledged its melo-dramatic source but wrote ldquoIt may be objected Cheap sensationalism If you like but look what the excellent Joe May has made of itrdquo46 What was admired by critics and thought of as suitable for highbrow audiences were Emil Janningsrsquo performance as a disturbed criminal the sets made by Paul Leni and above all Mayrsquos technical feats and his clear sense of rhythm in many scenes Herbert Ihering saw the split into two episodes as something akin to the Groszligfi lm with which May had been associated and not suitable for a society drama (Gesellschaftsfi lm)47 Pinthus also regretted that the production was not more condensed so that it could be shown in a single screening48 The usually optimistic Der Kinematograph wrote ldquoIt is the curse of Joe May that to his good fi lms he must always add new episodesrdquo49

The plot of the fi lm indeed belonged to the melodrama and was a clear break from Mayrsquos previous more adventure-oriented outings more akin to the melodramatic plottings of French stories like Eugegravene Suersquos Les Mystegraveres de Paris Critics referred as well to Victor Hugo Honoreacute de Balzac and Emile Zola50 Not coincidently the setting of the fi lm was Paris where Count Moreau was found murdered at his home The fi rst episode deals with the investigation of the murder of the Count while Countess Manon Moreau (Mia May) falls in love with one of the sus-pects Andreacute Rabatin (Wladimir Gaidarow) Everything seems to be working towards a happy ending as during the fi nal trial the two lovers are acquitted of their suspected involvement with the countrsquos death and the shady criminal Ombrade (Emil Jannings) takes the fall In the next episode however things change dramatically and what had been mended is broken up again The case is reopened and Rabatin receives 15 years as he is found (rightly) guilty of the murder whereas Manon is again

acquitted though forced to give up her child Kitty The story then skips ten years as the melodrama of various characters continues until in the end mother and grown-up daughter are reunited

With a plot like this it seems possible that May had fi gured out before-hand that the original fi rst two episodes could also be best shown togeth-er51 This way a more separate storyline seems to be working alongside it as the narrative seems fulfi lled and ended it is only with the beginning of the second episode (thus in fact the original third episode) that everything shifts again This use of an almost independent or detached form of seri-ality is exemplifi ed as the serial while waiting for a spot in Berlinrsquos Zoo-theater was released in Austria in four parts There the third and fourth parts received a different main title from the previous two namely Die Graumlfi n von Paris a method that irritated Beacutela Balaacutezs While Balaacutezs saw it as a deliberate tricking of the audience that did not go to the fi rst two episodes which had the title Tragoumldie der Liebe the distribution pattern also shows the more separate functioning it was thought the fi lm could sustain52 In Germany in 1929 after several years during the summer slack period only the original fi rst two episodes were re-released this time as a feature53 Conveniently though probably with some slight alterations the fi rst part was defi nitively severed from its even more melodramatic second part and this is the version that is nowadays still known

A short three months after Tragoumldie der Liebe the next most antici-pated Ufa production in Germany was released in Zoo Palast Fritz Langrsquos two-part Die Nibelungen54 Die Nibelungen was primarily based on the Middle High German Nibelungenlied but also on several other medieval works (it showed very little infl uence from Wagnerrsquos Ring des Nibelun-gen)55 Each episode was divided into seven Gesaumlnge (songs or cantos) which summarized the content of each part Siegfriedrsquos Tod the fi rst part of Die Nibelungen ends (as the title of the episode also tells us) with the death of the hero Siegfried after his wife Kriemhild was tricked into revealing Siegfriedrsquos only vulnerable spot (that had been covered by a leaf as he bathed in dragonrsquos blood) In the seventh and last Gesang (ldquoWie Kriemhild Hagen Tronje Rache schwurrdquo) Kriemhild standing beside the body of Siegfried swears vengeance on Siegfriedrsquos murderer Hagen The episode ends without any foreshadowing of the next part

Whereas the previous two-part serials of Lang such as Die Spinnen and Dr Mabuse (or his planned Das Indische Grabmal that was taken over by Joe May) functioned in clear conjunction with each other the epi-sodes of Die Nibelungen with their artistic style and their detached act-ing function as a series of tableaux The picture did not create an excited wonder of what was going to happen as the fi lm title and the Gesaumlnge foretold the plot it was more important how the story was visualized Thus by shifting the attention from the narrative to the visual side seri-ality was placed into a different context and was interpreted differently

The seriality of the production does not seem to have bothered anyone in fact critics discussing the fi rst episode were not wondering what would happen in the next episode Perhaps the two-part structure was not seen as a marketing scheme as this structure was also part of the original Nibelungenlied as well Additionally the fi rst episode could indeed have also functioned on its own as the story was widely available at the time Many handbooks on Germanic mythology and works on the Nibelungen-lied had been published in the 19th and early 20th centuries and Thea von Harboursquos adaption was also published with pictures of the fi lms at the time of release56 The second episode Kriemhilds Rache complemented the detached function as it had a different setup As it was centered on Kriemhildrsquos anger and wrath it had no fantastic elements (no dragon or use of magical objects) and it used a different visual language (more use of round earth forms and less eye-catching rhythmic visual treats) Though it still was visually stark it was less a visual artistic spectacle as it created a somber picture of humanity with its relentless blood bath that ends in Kriemhildrsquos revenge and death as her whole family has been slaughtered Thus in its setup the two-part Die Nibelungen refrained from using seriality as much as possible This severed function of seriality can also be seen if we look at how Die Nibelungen was released outside Germany that is separately

After much effort trying to sell Die Nibelungen to several American fi lm companies in a package deal that also included FW Murnaursquos Der Letzte Mann (The Last Laugh 1924) in the end Ufa was forced in 1925 to roadshow the fi rst part of Die Nibelungen with an orches-tra57 While the production with its magnifi cent sets interesting camera work and cinematographic tricks was admired by critics at the same time they acknowledged that the picture would not work in America58 Harrisonrsquos Reports for instance warned exhibitors

From an American picture-goerrsquos point of view Siegfried is a poor picture many a patron will get up and walk out on it It is artistic well enough but none of the characters awakens any sympathy and as the plot is founded on a legend the spectator remains indifferent as to the fate of the characters59

Separated from its roots Siegfried made Americans think of Wagnerrsquos Ring Though the fi lm was not based on Wagnerrsquos cycle his music was used any-way While Siegfried had played in the Century on Broadway the second part Kriemhildrsquos Revenge went unnoticed by most critics as probably via a close business relationship with Ufa-Usa it played in the fall in one of the fi rst art theaters in America the small Shadowbox near Washington Square in New York60 Only three years later in October 1928 when it was released more widely by Ufa on the art house cinema circuit did some

critics notice it By then Kriemhildrsquos Revenge was over four years old61 The two-part function of this fi lm had been completely lost in America It is possible the differences in style and direction of the two episodes of Die Nibelungen could have led to differences in popularity explaining the separate releases However this could only have happened with a detached style of seriality in which the second part was not necessary

It was not only in America where European productions often were released in an adjusted form that Die Nibelungen was treated this way Similar feats of distribution also seemed to have happened in England where it was shown with much fanfare in the Royal Albert Hall for sev-eral weeks from 30 May 1924 on but the second part under the title of She-Bitch was released much later in November 192562 In Paris in 1925 Les Nibelungen was released to great attention and admiration in the very prestigious Marivaux by Aubert who recently had made a distribution exchange deal with Ufa As in London the Les Nibelungen was one of the fi rst expensive German prestige productions to be released and was as a result watched closely by the German and foreign press alike63 However again French reviews almost never made reference to the second part it was in fact Lang when interviewed at the premiere who mentioned that the second part would be released a half year lat-er64 Indeed in October 1925 the second part was released but this time much less attention was given to it

Die Nibelungen was the last monumental serial feature in Germany The other German two-part serial productions were few in number and did not function as national or international epics neither in promo-tion nor in artistic quality65 Most notable were the two-part titles that dealt with the life of well-known German historical fi gures such as Wallenstein (1925) Bismarck (1926) Koumlnigin Luise (1927ndash1928) and Ufarsquos last two-part distribution Der Alte Fritz (1927)66 These produc-tions were most likely made in imitation of the four-part Fridericus Rex (1922ndash1923) that with its anti-republican theme had created outbursts of demonstrations boycotts praise and much audience interest This serial fi lm form harks back to the production of the early and mid-1910s in which dramatizations of well-known lives either historical or from literature were distributed in episodes The episodes could prob-ably easily have been skipped as the historical background was broadly known ldquo[T]he material is so well known among the German people that its fi lmic adaptation must encounter a strong interest everywhererdquo remarked one report on Wallenstein67 With Bismarck it was also noted that ldquothe events are generally already knownrdquo68 The structure of these features was very episodic and brittle as they skipped through time in order to illustrate important and often well-known episodes from the lives of the title characters These nationalistic historical productions were hardly export material69

As a result of overspending on large-scale monumental productions such as Die Nibelungen and continuing expansion Ufa was on the brink of bankruptcy in 1925 and needed help70 Help came with the Parufamet deal in December 1925 Ufa opened up to Paramount and MGM in order to receive a $4 million credit (around 17 million Marks) Parufamet would release 20 productions of each American partner which would play in 75 percent of Ufa-affi liated theaters throughout Germany The two American studios agreed that they each would take ten Ufa fi lms though under the condition that they suited ldquothe tastes of American moviegoersrdquo71 With this deal more American features found an outlet in German cinemas (though not many of them were box-offi ce successes and the audience seemed uninterested) whereas Ufa looked more towards presenting itself on the American market Perhaps with the entering of American features and the probable realization that in America feature seriality was a no-go area the new expensive produc-tions were all features such as F W Murnaursquos Tartuumlff (1925) and Faust (1926) Langrsquos Metropolis (1927) Spione (1928) Frau im Mond (1929) and Joe Mayrsquos Asphalt (1929) These productions were all surrounded with much publicity and celebrated with grand premieres worthy of world-class events like those accompanying the previous productions Die Herrin der Welt Das Indische Grabmal or Die Nibelungen Among the cheaper productions of pure entertainment even Ellen Richter or Harry Piel did not make serial productions anymore

THE PARTS OF A FEATURE

As the disappearing of the serial form is the main subject of this chap-ter it has to be acknowledged that other forms continued to be used This did not only involve the continuing production of fi lms that origi-nally had a form of seriality but also those that manipulated original features like LrsquoAtlantide in France Though these fi lms are not often encountered this manipulation probably occurred more frequently than is realized and seriality again proved its versatility as well as its impor-tance for local forms in distribution and exhibition as several examples of features in the Netherlands will show

In November 1922 Griffi thrsquos Orphans of the Storm was released in the Netherlands The picture deals with the troubles of two girls in even more troublesome times as the French revolution is about to break out Orphans of the Storm was at its premiere in Amsterdam not used as a feature presentation but had been divided into two parts similar to the French eacutepoques called tijdperken (epochs) The fi rst epoch De Blinde (The blind girl around 2400 meters) stops not with a hard-edge cliff-hanger but at a point just after an extremely melodramatic event has ended

and other plotlines are also quickly shown When Henriette (Lillian Gish) is almost reunited with her blind street-begging sister Louise (Dorothy Gish) whom she hears singing in the street she is unfortunately arrested and brought to the womenrsquos prison Then the storylines of several other characters are quickly fl ashed as secrets are revealed and Henriettersquos love is sent to prison also The outcome of all this could be seen in the second eacutepoque that was called De Storm (The storm around 1700 meters)72

Originally this two-part structure did in fact exist however in Amer-ica it was used to accommodate a small intermission due to its excep-tional length The melodramatic plottings of Orphans of the Storm were perfectly suited for breaking up a story especially as Griffi th took great care to make a very stimulating break one that would carry the melo-drama over the intermission After the break the story does not imme-diately plunge into all the open-ended storylines but it begins in a calm manner though an inter-title foretells ldquoThe storm The ominous drum murmurs to the people of their ancient wrongsrdquo The fi rst shot shows an empty street and then one drum appears in the right corner The drum-mer himself is not visible only his hands When the sound of the drum has gathered many revolutionaries in the street and the shot is fi lled with an angry mob the Revolution starts In the Netherlands the two parts were fi rst screened in the Rembrandt Theater in Amsterdam in a weekly fashion but when it was prolonged the two parts were shown together ldquoThus one does not have to walk around for a week with a concerned heart on the outcome of the fortunes of the much tested girlsrdquo73 When released in other cities a similar scheme was used thus fi rst showing it in two episodes and later as a complete version

The creation of a two-part feature was however not only used to accommodate a lengthy production better or to create exclusivity in order to gain a higher box-offi ce result74 Another Griffi th fi lm (this time of aver-age length) was cut into two a few years later in 1925 in order to be used in combination with a contest As promotional material for the detective fi lm One Exciting Night (1922) explained to possible exhibitors

Ask the Rotterdam audience with what tension they have waited for the solution and how they rushed into the Scala theatre to win the golden watch that had been offered for pointing out the murderer Seize this means to maximize your box-offi ce receipts with two weeks in a row75

Such schemes had also been used frequently with American serials abroad usually to have the audience guess who the masked rider or the disguised evil henchman really was and is reminiscent of Joe Mayrsquos prize puzzle fi lms The dividing of Wie Heeft Johnson Vermoord (Who killed Johnson) as the production was called in the Netherlands worked on

several levels It deprived the audience of a narrative outcome whereas the contest also stimulated the return of an audience that wanted to know if a correct answer had been given to the question asked in the fi lm title One reviewer thus indeed got curious when it was shown

That it was the malignant madam Harringo seems ruled out The young lover Fairfax is even more improbable The villainous Negro he came too late on the name call Thus Johnsonrsquos partner That again is too probable for that one does not offer golden prizes76

Again two years later there was another feature split into two making Metropolis the last true German Monumental serial after all though not in Germany Consistent with other Fritz Lang projects like Dr Mabuse or Die Nibelungen Metropolis was shown in the Netherlands in two parts from 15 February 1927 with each program lasting around an hour and a half In the same way as other Lang fi lms Metropolis was shown in two parts in the Rembrandt theater (whose faccedilade had been fully plastered with a colossal image of the Metropolis cityscape) (Fig-ure 92) The fi rst part Het Moderne Babylon (The modern Babylon) ended with the exciting scene when Rotwang has just completed the

Figure 92 ldquoToday the second and last part of Metropolisrdquo A two-part version of Metropolis was screened in the Rembrandt theater in Amsterdam

transformation of the false robot Maria while Freder is trapped inside the Rotwangrsquos house searching for the good Maria77 One had to wait three weeks before the second part was shown as the fi rst part was prolonged due to its success In order ldquoto fully imagine yourself in the storyrdquo at the beginning of the second part De Valsche Maria (The false Maria) the transformation and Frederrsquos search were repeated78 In Germany the long feature version of Metropolis (in length most likely around the same as the Dutch two-part version) was quickly taken out of the cinema and released in a further reduced version throughout the whole of Germany in August 192779

Though this phenomenon of features being cut into two is rare (it can also be seen in Germany with American productions) it still shows fea-tures could through seriality be used on a local level corresponding to local needs Restructuring Metropolis was probably not perceived as a problem (it was at least not mentioned) as it fi t the cultural pattern of Fritz Langrsquos earlier monumental releases The two-part restructuring of the feature functioned in the Netherlands not only as a way to show features that were for the local exhibitor perhaps of too great a length but also as a way to create tension and strategic distribution (and a way to enable the showing of long productions)

DISILLUSIONS IN FEATURE SOLUTIONS

Perhaps sparked by the discussion on seriality and the desire for a feature version of La Roue from 1923 on in France increasingly more serial productions were released that some time later would also receive a fea-ture version At the same time feature versions were sent to England or Germany In 1923 Gaumont perhaps also to supply their failing output and provide a break for the overworked Feuillade released Judex (1917) as a feature production whereas in 1924 they did the same with the more recent Les Deux Gamines (1921) also by Feuillade80 Then there were the colorized feature versions of La Sultane de lrsquoAmour (1919) and La Dame de Monsoreau (1923) both released in 1925 According to the catalogue of Raymond Chirat there also existed feature versions of Le Bossu (1925) LrsquoOrphelin du Cirque (1925) Lady Harrington (1926) Andreacute Corneacutefi s (1926) and Le Prsquotit Parigot (1926)81 As previously dis-cussed Gaumont had a formula of releasing more serial episodes in the provinces and fewer in the city According to Bretegraveque such a scheme also worked for the condensed versions that were shown in the larger cinemas whereas the serials would be shown in the suburbs (and probably the provinces)82 Much more research needs to be done on these re-editions of French serials (where and how these feature versions were released and received) While this process of re-edition again shows the fl exibility of

seriality their conversion into features also seems an additional indica-tion of the diminishing role seriality would be playing one that would cause trouble for Abel Gance with his next project Napoleacuteon

During the time Abel Gance was making a feature version of his own La Roue he already was busy with his new project Napoleacuteon would become a megalomaniac project but also a last failed attempt at serial-ity In the fi rst screenplay outline in September 1923 it was still a single fi lm of 6000 meters but in December it turned into four fi lms of 2000 meters each in the early summer of 1924 it became six fi lms of 1500 to 2000 meters whereas fi nally before shooting began Gance wanted to make it in eight parts of 2500 meters each83 When shooting began in January 1925 three screenplays were fi nished However production came to a halt in June when principal backers (the German company Westi) went bankrupt and withdrew The newly founded production company that took over Socieacuteteacute Geacuteneacuterale de Films insisted that the screenplays of the fi rst three fi lms Gance was shooting at the same time had to be welded into a single script Gance agreed and signed a con-tract that also stipulated that ldquoI undertake to establish a defi nite ver-sion of a total metrage not exceeding 3000 Should this not be the case I will allow you to make all the cuts necessary to bring the fi lm down to this lengthrdquo84

A long time later at the very prestigious Opeacutera on 7 April 1927 in violation of the agreement a 5600-meter version was exclusively shown for ten days (lasting three hours and forty minutes)85 This was however merely a working version of the project Again the fi lm was re-edited and transformed and in May a 12000-meter version was presented for critics and trade representatives at the Apollo in two episodic showings during two days each episode consisting of three periods forming and lasting four and a half hours86 Critics claimed this version was much better than the one seen at the Opeacutera But unfortunately for a long time after this screening nothing happened Gaumont-Metro-Goldwyn (GMG) the French-American cooperation that had made Gaumont not much more than a distributor of mostly American fi lms had more inter-est in continuing to show Fred Niblorsquos Ben-Hur (1925) and Napoleacuteon was bumped from its designated run at the Cineacutema Madeleine87

This problem of foreign disinterest in the serial feature form was symptomatic of the changes occurring in French production As can be seen with Napoleacuteon from the mid-1920s foreign infl uence in French fi lm production grew steadily and more productions were not just French anymore In 1925 Perretrsquos monumental historical production of Madame Sans-Gecircne was released that had cost the enormous sum of 14 million francs It was however entirely produced and distributed by Para-mount and in it Gloria Swanson starred as the 18th-century French rags-to-riches duchess88 Paramount also made modern studio spectaculars

such as LrsquoEpeacutervier (1924) and Perretrsquos La Femme Nue (1926) In the meantime Aubert and Cineacuteromans made co-productions with Germany and Austria (such as Salammbocirc [1925] or Robert Wienersquos La Duchesse des Folies-Bergegravere [1927]) while Patheacute-Consortium formed a Euro-pean consortium with German and Russian fi nanciers (distributing Cineacute-France and Westirsquos projects such as Dulacrsquos Acircme drsquoArtiste [1925] and Tourjanskyrsquos Michel Strogoff [1926]) In 1928 United Artists and First National joined Paramount as French fi lm producers These coop-erations except for Westi which went bankrupt did not seem to have spawned any serial production As Richard Abel concludes the French cinema industry seemed less and less interested in producing specifi cally French fi lms but more in universal studio spectaculars89 Though Amer-ican imports declined due to quota policies whereas German produc-tions (supported by American money) increased American companies also began to maneuver into exhibition90

As one of the most important serial producers Sapegravene from Cineacutero-mans knew from up-close how diffi cult it was to release serials inter-nationally Pictures were bought from Sapegravene by Universal for strategic reasons to discourage talk of suspected foul play rather than for strictly commercial ones91 With all these international interactions and imports going on from the fi lm industryrsquos side a lobby was building to take pro-tectionist measures through a contingent system (of which Sapegravene was an important fi gure) while resentment of the fact that French produc-tions were not distributed in America grew Most of the fi lms that were bought were serials like Surcouf (1925) Les Miseacuterables (1925) Titi Pre-mier Roi des Gosses (1926) Le Capitaine Rascasse (1926) and Bel-pheacutegor (1927) However these serials were apart from Les Miseacuterables never released in America but were shelved Though other problems such as unknown actors and an unknown story were still regarded as a major obstacle for entering the market the re-cutting of the serialrsquos massive length probably hampered their acceptance as well92 As How-ard T Lewis wrote on Les Miseacuterables ldquoIt required eight months of the most diffi cult and expensive efforts to rework and remodel this prod-uct of French studios into a shape suitable for American audiencesrdquo93 Les Miseacuterables was shortened in a series of versions from its original 32 reels to two versions the exhibitor could eventually choose from in 1927 a 12-reel version (called by Variety ldquoa machine shaped skeleton of the lurid passages in the great novelrdquo) and an eight-reel version that eliminated the character of Fantine and concentrated even more on the spectacular battle scenes and big crowds behind the barricades94 With such troubles connected with overseas serial releases it is not so strange that Sapegravene would increasingly focus more on the Cineacuteromans Films de France feature series instead of on their serials that originally had made the company great95

A good six months after the two-day showing for the press in the Apollo in May that had generated (along with the Opeacutera showing) much publicity a modifi ed and shorter version (between 3700 and 4000 meters) of Napoleacuteon was released at the Marivaux in November Dur-ing the years Napoleacuteon was conceived written produced and edited 1923ndash1927 fewer and fewer serials were made In 1926 ten French seri-als were released and in 1927 as Napoleacuteon was fi nally released only two other serials would see the light of day The version at the Marivaux nevertheless still contained a form of seriality though only in the even more detached style of story of a famous historical person Gance had arranged the Marivaux program in such a way that it could still be seen in two episodes one in the matinee and one in evening96 However as both episodes ended with the triptych of Napoleon departing to Italy now Napoleacuteon seems to have functioned as two possibilities of a fea-ture one could choose between rather than a continuation Though it is unknown whether Vuillermoz was talking about the two episodes or just one he considered the November release of Napoleacuteon as being of ldquonormal dimensionsrdquo97 The tale of versions and re-cuttings gets even muddier after this as after ten weeks at the Marivaux Napoleacuteon was taken out and released by GMG in March 1928 at the Gaumont-Pal-ace in a re-edited and shortened version It was still in two parts but Gance had not been consulted about the adjustment and called it ldquoa parody of my fi lmrdquo98 In the meantime GMG also used Napoleacuteon in the provinces to block-book American productions with it letting exhibitors decide how to run the production either in various parts as a serial or as a feature version99 As MGM also obtained the rights to release Napoleacuteon in several foreign countries it resulted in even more severely cut and restructured products because in England and America the feature form was preferred100

In 1929 no French serial productions were made and only one was released It was the last of the silent historical big budget serials the two-part Monte-Cristo directed by Fescourt produced by Louis Nal-pas and with set designer Boris Bilinsky Unfortunately it was released as sound productions became the new thing in Paris101

In Europe though seriality still functioned on all levels and the feature of one episode was not completely dominant in the years before La Roue a rift developed between critics and certain parts of the audience as well among audiences (as shown by the Mon Cineacute survey) Views on serial distribution practices and ideas on fi lm as an art form were collid-ing while differences in cultural specifi city and locality proved divisive as well In reaction to the discussion in the fi lm industry and among the audience adjusted forms of the serial were tried outmdashones that tried to offer more than just cheap thrills or melodramatic plottings The serial decreased in episodes while the episodes or eacutepoques sometimes

functioned as serial features similar to the way seriality had been used in Germany However in France as well as in Germany increasingly more costly features were made often in cooperation with foreign companies whose prestige and event-driven momentum were once also achieved through serial production

The fade out in Germany of seriality was much smoother than in France as the serial feature had already in the early 1920s become mostly a two-part-style serial whereas a more detached form of serial-ity appeared that was more reminiscent of the earlier serial form with episodic scenes from the life of a well-known fi gure Additionally the two-part productions that continued to be made were of the kind that had a small chance in creating an international interest anyway With the disappearance of seriality as a mode of distribution overshooting could result in very long features that also were diffi cult to market Metropolis thus was shown exclusively as a two-and-a-half hour ver-sion in Berlin but besides in the Netherlands where it was shown in two parts this long version had no other place to go to and the picture was shortened for wider release Projects like Metropolis and Napoleacuteon that have been subjected to many re-cuts to conform to feature length become the objects of a never-ending quest as fi lm historians try to fi nd the fi lmrsquos original longest form as it appeared locally nationally or internationally in serial form

CONCLUSION PART FOUR

Serials were locally transformed and adjusted whereas they stimulated and interacted with cultural discourses a process that becomes clear when one looks at the distribution practices As Fred from Variety wrote ldquobecause no American picture was ever shown before in two sec-tions [ ] is not positive reason why it couldnrsquot be donerdquo102 Whereas in Europe several serial forms had been used from the 1910s on it was something new for America where because of the dominating feature form and the association with the cheap short it was much more dif-fi cult for the serial fi lm form to gain acceptance Thus for a short time in America in March 1922 via the different distribution mode of Die Herrin der Welt the hegemonic structure of the feature was questioned and with it several other related topics as well It was a question that shimmered in front of Von Stroheim for years to come but could not be answered In Europe however seriality still functioned on all levels and the feature of one episode was not completely dominant though changes would also be coming to Europe

Perhaps Gance should have known better having signed a contract that stipulated the production of a 3000-meter fi lm having seen protest against La Rouersquos serial form having edited himself a feature version

of it and probably noticing the growth of disinterest in the serial form By the time Napoleacuteon was released few serial productions remained and feature production clearly had become the standard for interna-tional distribution With his extreme overshooting and trying to use a serial distribution pattern for his epic in the face of a growing antipathy against seriality Gance suddenly was in the same boat as Von Stroheim The two famous auteurs who had their dealings with seriality were also ironically linked by MGM which besides Gancersquos Napoleon had earlier cut Von Stroheimrsquos Greed into a suitable feature Though La Roue was about the same length as Napoleacuteon Napoleacuteon was treated with con-tempt and disinterest by the distribution company as it had to deal with a fi lm form that had become less attractive to use in the long time it took Gance to make the fi lm

This diminished use of seriality was not a process of an inevitable transformation to the feature but took place alongside the internation-alization of the fi lm industry Local discourses that had infl uence on the special distribution form also played a role The shift of the serial form to the far background as it did not disappear completely thus meant not only a constriction of artistic possibilities but also the loss of dif-ference and fl exibility in exhibition and distribution of having fewer options for local needs and indeed resulting in a sameness of fi lm form that in theory could be easier to ship across borders Of course cutting and re-ordering of feature fi lms still continued when shipped across bor-ders or released locally but their form remained increasingly the same Thus with the fading out of seriality the feature had also in Europe manifested itself as the most important fi lm form something that only happened in the mid-1920s and not as is regularly assumed in the 1910s Though seriality in spite of its adaptability had never triumphed over features in numbers or in length through its prestige popularity pres-ence and notable importance and infl uence on the fi lm industry it had at times come close

As this exhilarating adventure has suddenly come to a close one is per-haps left with bewilderment regarding the fate of seriality Was this truly the end Would with the coming of sound there be no more seri-als Could the American youth let go of their weekly heroes no matter how despised Did not Roxy book in 1930 the Universal sound serial The Indians Are Coming (1930) on Broadway a production that raked in $1 million103 Would Fantocircmas actor Reneacute Navarre who also starred in several serials never return with for instance the two-part Meacutephisto (1930) Would in Germany there never be made an adventure serial such as Das Indische Grabmal (1938) Didnrsquot the re-adjustments continue Did not strange things still happen to American two-reel serials from Mascot Republic or Universal as they were released as two-part serial features in France and the Netherlands in the 1930s and 1940s Indeed

this all happened and probably much more happened as well and continues to happen still

ConclusionBeyond the Cliffhanger

During the silent fi lm period fi lm seriality was present not in just one single form not only in the well-known American two-reel serial but in a range of heterogeneous forms of various lengths and uses If one looks closely this can be seen in America but it is especially in Europe that a varied palette of seriality existed on a large scale However as many fi lms have been lost over time sometimes only a few episodes are left or it is the adjusted version that remains many fi lm serials have been forgotten or only appreciated as a feature Overall in fi lm history silent serials have for a long time not been the object of study as they were often seen as overly long peculiarities that were artistically not interesting Only in recent years when serials have been shown at fi lm festivals has interest grown as the silent serials that were shown defi ed these generalizing views1 Knowledge of the history of the serial and its heterogeneous forms is essential to fully understand important aspects of fi lm history

Examination of the fi lm serial in the context of distribution prac-tices on the international fi lm market makes it clear that the serial is not a transitional fi lm form on its way to feature form as it has often been taken for The serial has been more infl uential than many fi lm studies have recognized as it functioned autonomously alongside the feature something that can be seen early on To attain longer stories in America while remaining in the distribution pattern of the one-reel system multiple reels were fi rst released in separate parts resulting in shards of seriality visible at the seams witnessed in one-reel produc-tions of Vitagraph and DW Griffi th The serial fi lm fi tted this system and would become a very popular fi lm form though through chang-ing exhibition and viewing practices it eventually would lose its central position in the program and be placed beside the feature Whereas this is true for America in Germany seriality could be used in different capacities because it was produced alongside the much-used Monopol distribution structure resulting in the appearance of a prominent fea-ture serial form Through locally developed contexts and conditions dif-ferent forms of seriality could be spawned and with it develop into an

Beyond the Cliffhanger 181

important independent fi lm form Seriality and the serial in this period thus complements a more heterogeneous and complex viewpoint of the term ldquotransitional erardquo the signifi cant transformation towards classi-cal Hollywood cinema that affected many fi lmmaking practices fi lm forms and industry structures

As this research has revealed one of the special and important quali-ties of seriality is its capacity to appear in several forms while at the same time having the opportunity to absorb and integrate locality Prod-ucts of seriality are constantly in change and are not merely distributed in their original form upon import This specifi c transformative quality of seriality can however only be obtained in a comparative framework thus not from a national but from a transnational perspective Within this perspective the cultural circulation and transformation of serial-ity can be described as a process of adaptation and restructuring into different forms depending on local fi lm cultures as well as on cultural contexts Serials also infl uenced through their presence many local con-sumption and promotional practices linked to a variety of transmedia connections By looking at how Les Mystegraveres de New-York was released in France as one of the earliest American serials this study shows that the transformation of the fi lm form in concurrence with a tie-in could function as a way to adjust to local discourses Interweaving the fabric of daily public experience the adaptation went far beyond the more com-mon aligning of promotional material or changing intertitles to accom-modate local viewership In Germany in the serial Die Herrin der Welt the image of seriality and the outside world was doubled by referencing to itself and blending outer and inner worlds creating opportunities for maximum promotion The practice of distribution however remained important for success as the use of American serials (often in their French adjustments) in the Netherlands shows as well Through distri-bution practices the two-reel American serials were transformed into serial feature productions causing the failure to successfully promote the Dutch tie-in of Les Mystegraveres de New-York Longer European serials like the German Die Herrin der Welt corresponded more easily to the local pattern of feature serial distribution Through this comparative study it has become clear that this transformative character of seriality in a local setting is directly connected with distribution As a result a new interpretation of seriality and infl uence on international fi lm devel-opment can be shown within the fi lm industry of the silent fi lm period seriality is shaped by distribution as this was the most forceful factor in creating fi lm forms and local serial transformations

Serial productions were however not only adaptable to local dis-courses but as they were consumed in locally specifi c cultural condi-tions they could actively stimulate and interact with cultural contexts and discourses as well infl uencing reception and further production As the adjusted serials were present in large quantities or confronted

different social spaces nationalistic feelings and views could be incor-porated and attached to the serial form easily As has been exemplifi ed by American serials in Germany as well as by Die Herrin der Welt in America the act of changing the products caused specifi c reactions The adjusted serial form thus probably provoked an even fi ercer reaction than if American serials had been presented in Germany in their origi-nal two-reel structure instead of the feature serial form Correspond-ingly if the German serial had been less adjusted to coincide with the feeling of an American serial standard that was connected to a specifi c discourse on high and low culture it might have had a different fate in the US The American distribution market was not fl exible enough to be receptive to alternative fi lm forms as witnessed by Erich von Stroheimrsquos attempts to break the mold The European serials too had to adjust to the established patterns in America which resulted in extreme cutting that sacrifi ced both storyline and local specifi cs In another form of local appropriation and reaction the adjusted imported American pro-ductions in both Germany and France left their mark on local fi lm pro-duction one that upon export nevertheless was often changed again

Finally it has been shown that when the European serial form moved to the far background the feature form became the ldquonaturalrdquo fi lm form to use in Europe This switch took place in the mid-1920s and not as is regularly assumed in the 1910s As in America in the mid-1910s however this change should not be seen as an inevitable process of a transitional form leading up to the feature Neither does it imply that the feature model simply was taken over as the shift of distribution pos-sibilities was connected to the internationalization of the fi lm industry and also to the weight of local discourses The shift meant not only a shrinking sphere of artistic possibilities but a loss of difference and fl ex-ibility in distribution so that there were fewer options for local needs

Today seriality is still present as a pervasive form and is adapted and transformed in different media and cultural spaces For instance the use of sequels that started in the late 1970s can be seen as a distribution strategy in which blockbusters are pilots for possible new episodes Of course lately the more regularized serial form seems to have returned with yearly planned global distribution of an event as can be seen with Star Wars The Lord of the Rings or Harry Potter Like silent seri-als these narratives proliferate in transmedial circulations appearing alongside computer games novels or toys Perhaps like the projects of Von Stroheim or Gance there are also those productions that originate more or less from an overshot production or directors who want to use a broader canvas to paint on with two-part structures like Bernardo Bertoluccirsquos 1900 (1977) or John Woorsquos Red Cliff (2008) Thus as dur-ing the silent period different changing distribution forms and lengths still exist that are connected to a serial form making a comparative

view on distribution still worthwhile Also in the relationship with dif-ferent media such as television changing fi lm forms can be seen as they are redistributed ranging from feature fi lms that are cut into mini-series (with additional footage) to mini-series cut into features Serial fi lm and television forms although produced for a global media market are often still shaped by locally developed contexts and distribution and exhibition practices

This study shows that the serial fi lm form goes far beyond the Ameri-can two-reel serial the cliffhanger It goes beyond a supposedly ldquoneutralrdquo system of distribution where a production remains unimpaired The fi lm serial was present in a range of heterogeneous forms that through trans-national distribution could be transformed into different forms with dif-ferent cultural functions Though this study deals with the silent-fi lm period of the 1910s and 1920s its method of analyzing seriality focus-sing on distribution practices within a comparative perspective can be adapted to research seriality in different historical phases cultural con-texts and media In other words to be continued

Figure C1 Cartoon by J Heacutemard Almanach du Cineacutema 1922 (Paris)

AppendixOverview of Imported Serial Films

This is an overview of imported serial fi lms in the US Germany France and the Netherlands Series and features are also mentioned when adjusted or important in relation to a serial model Great care has been taken to fi nd and include as many serial productions but most likely even more are lurk-ing in the shadows

Order of information if known foreign fi lm title month (see country information for more specifi c details) episodeslength distributor origi-nal fi lm title country of origin and year of release production company episodes sometimes director When there are more than two episodes the quoted lengths are those of the shortest and longest episode ldquo12 ep in 6 weeksrdquo means multiple episodes were shown after each other in the same program during six weeks with a total of 12 episodes

Order of fi lms is based on fi rst known premiere date or if this is unknown the fi rst encounter in fi lm journals Information taken from fi lm journals (Exhibitors Herald Exhibitors Trade Review Film Daily Harrisonrsquos Reports Motion Picture News Moving Picture World Variety and Widrsquos Daily) and the copyright fi les of the Library of Congress complemented with the research of Anthony Guzman (1993)

1913Fantomas released irregularly from July 5 ep of 3ndash4 reels Gaumont Fantocircmas

(France 1913ndash1914) Gaumont 5 ep Louis Feuillade

1916Fantomas September 5 ep (each 3 reels) Mutual Re-release of Fantocircmas (France

1913ndash1914) Gaumont 5 epVampires November 9 ep (each 3 reels) Mutual Les Vampires (France 1915ndash

1916) Gaumont 10 ep (fi rst two shown together) Louis Feuillade

186 Appendix

1917Ultus June 7 ep Mutual Ultus (Britain 1915ndash1917) Gaumont British 4 sepa-

rate features

1918Boy Scouts to the Rescue or Aids of the Nation April 5 ep of 2 reels Universal

Boy Scouts Be Prepared (Britain 1917) Transatlantic 7 epThe Hand of Vengeance or The Man from the Dead July 10 ep of 2 reels Gaumont

Re-release of Ultus (Britain 1915ndash1917) Gaumont British 4 separate features

1919Maciste The Liberator January 12 2-reel ep (total 24000 feet) Harry R Raver

Based on four Italian feature fi lms Maciste (1915) Maciste Atleta (1918) Maciste Poliziotto (1918) and Maciste Medium (1918) all made by Itala Film

1920In the Clutches of the Hindoo advertised in October 10 ep unclear if distributed

Gaumont Tih Minh (France 1919) Gaumont 12 ep (around 600 meters) Louis Feuillade

1921I Accuse May (around 10000 feet) general release October (7700 feet) United

Artists JrsquoAccuse (France 1919) 4 ep (around 4000 feet each) Films Abel Gance

1922The Son of Napoleon feature version probably only trade shown Howells LrsquoAgonie

des Aigles (France 1921) Socieacuteteacute Franccedilaise drsquoArt et Cineacutematographie (distri-bution Patheacute-Consortium) originally shown in 2 parts in 1928 in France also a feature version was released

The Sultaness of Love First National would distribute but dropped out of the deal in January 1922 feature version La Sultane de lrsquoAmour (France 1919) Les Films Louis Nalpas originally shown in 2 parts in 1923 in France also a feature version was released

The Isle of Zorda March 9 reels Patheacute Exchange Mathias Sandorf (France 1921) Union-Eacuteclair 9 ep Henri Fescourt

The Mistress of the World March 3 ep of around an hour (fi rst announced as 4) Paramount Die Herrin der Welt (Germany 1919) May Film 8 ep Joe May

Mysteries of India or Above All Law July 7177 feet Paramount Das Indische Grabmal (Germany 1921) May Film 2 ep Joe May

1923Milady January around 7000 feet American Releasing Corporation Les Trois

Mousquetaires (France 1921) Patheacute 12 ep Henri Diamant-Berger Milady was based on the last 6 ep

The Queen of Sin March 8 reels Ben Blumenthal In June 1923 Selznick Distrib-uting Company re-released it as a 6-reel edition Sodom und Gomorrah (Aus-tria 1922) Sacha Film 2 ep (around 18 reels) Michael Curtiz

Appendix 187

1925Siegfried roadshowed fall 1925 around 9000 feet ShubertsUfa Siegfried is the

fi rst part of Die Nibelungen (Germany 1924) Decla-Bioscop AG 2 ep (Sieg-fried and Kreimhilds Rache) Fritz Lang Second part of Die Nibelungen was screened in US as Kriemhildrsquos Revenge one screening in fall 1925 then art house circuit October 1928 Ufa Eastern

1926Les Miserables June 15 reels around three hours For the general release of

August 1927 there were two versions 11500 and 7713 feet Universal Les Miseacuterables (France 1925) Patheacute Consortium originally 4 ep (in total almost 5 hours) Henri Fescourt

1927Charles XII March 2 ep W J Adams Karl XII (Sweden 1925) Historisk Film

Herman Rasch 2 epDr Mabuse August version of 63 minutes Dr Mabuse der Spieler (Ger-

many 1922) Uco-Film 2 ep Fritz Lang

1928Kriemhildrsquos Revenge art house circuit October Ufa Eastern Second part of Die

Nibelungen (Germany 1924) Decla-Bioscop AG 2 epLegend of Gosta Berling October feature Collwyn Goumlsta Berlings Saga (Sweden

1924) Svensk Filmindustri 2 ep (2346 and 2189 meters) and a feature version for export with Greta Garbo

Napoleon November 6893 feet MGM Napoleacuteon (France 1927) Films Abel GanceSocieacuteteacute geacuteneacuterale des fi lms released in many different versions Abel Gance

Behind the German Lines (documentary) December feature of 8254 feet Par-amount Der Weltkrieg (Germany 1926ndash1927) Ufa 2 ep (together around 16000 feet)

These copyright requests were made before and during the time these seri-als were still shown in France they were probably never released

Judex (France 1917) Gaumont 12 ep Louis FeuilladeLa Nouvelle Mission de Judex (The New Mission of Judex) (France 1918) copy-

righted from December Gaumont 12 ep Louis FeuilladeImpeacuteria (Imperia) (France 1919) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 12 epVendeacutemiaire (France 1919) Gaumont 2 ep Louis FeuilladeLes Deux Gamines (The Two Little Urchins) (France 1921) Gaumont 12 ep

Louis FeuilladeParisette (France 1922) Gaumont 12 ep Louis FeuilladeLe Fils du Filibustier (The Corsairrsquos Son) (France 1922) Gaumont 12 ep

Louis Feuillade

GERMANY

Order of fi lms is based on censorship date (c) usually not long after-wards the fi lm would be released by the distributor If no censorship

188 Appendix

records could be found date is based on fi rst encounter in fi lm journals Unless noted otherwise serials were forbidden for young people (those under 18 years of age)

Information is mostly obtained from censorship records (Filmpruumlfstelle and Film-Oberpruumlfstelle Berlin) from the Bundesarchiv-Filmarchiv Ber-lin Cinegraph database (Hamburg) Deutsche Filminstitut (Frankfurt am Main) as well as the fi lm annuals of Jahrbuch der Filmindustrie added with information taken from fi lm journals (Deutsche Filmwoche Erste interna-tionale Filmzeitung Der Film Film-Kurier Film und Presse Die Filmwelt Die illustrierte Filmwoche Der Kinematograph Lichtbild-Buuml hne)

1912Mensch unter Menschen November in 4 ep and as feature (3010 meters)

Patheacute Fregraveres amp Co Les Miseacuterables (France 1912) Patheacute Fregraveres 4 ep

1914Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn August 8 ep (1000 meters each) Philan-

tropische Lichtbilder GesellschaftrsquosDekage Film Gesellschaft The Adven-tures of Kathlyn (US 1913) Selig 13 ep

Fantomas in July announced to be released in August 1914 (no ep mentioned) ep 5 shown late 1915 Deutsche Gaumont Fantocircmas (France 1913ndash1914) Gaumont 5 ep Louis Feuillade

1918Der Verschwender c July 2 ep (1519 and 1360 meters) Der Verschwender

(AustriaHungary 1917) Wiener Kunstfi lm 2 ep

1920Atlas der Gewaltige c March 2 ep (1525 and 1708 meters) Atlas (Italy

1920) De Giglio Film 2 ep (1507 and 1648 meters)Die Vampyre c July 6 ep at fi rst forbidden Martin Dentler Les Vampires

(France 1915ndash1916) Gaumont 10 ep Louis FeuilladeJudex August 12 ep in 5 weeks Martin Dentler Judex (France 1917) Gau-

mont 12 ep Louis FeuilladeDie Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn c September 5 ep (1401ndash1764 meters)

BremerE van GelderArnold Schanzer Re-release of The Adventures of Kathlyn (US 1913) Selig 13 ep

Goliath Armstrong successfully shown in the occupied zones of Rhineland and Westphalia release pattern unknown Wilhelm Feindt Elmo the Mighty (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

1921Gewissenlose Bestien c April 2 ep (1125 and 1270 meters) Gewissenlose Bestien

or A Skorpioacute (HungaryAustria 1918) Phoumlnix-Film 2 ep Mihaacutely KerteacuteszMichael Curtiz

Karo Ass Caro Ass or Caro Aszlig c April 6 ep (840ndash1473 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Red Ace (US 1917) Universal 16 ep

Appendix 189

Goliath Armstrong c June 6 ep (1427ndash1682 meters) Wilhelm FeindtUfa Elmo the Mighty (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

Macistes Abenteuer c June 3 ep Phoebus La Trilogia di Maciste (Italy 1920) Itala fi lm 3 ep (1549ndash1798 meters)

Mit Buumlchse und Lasso c June 6 ep (1069ndash1781 meters) Filmhaus Bruckmann Bullrsquos Eye (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

Das Groszlige Spiel c July 4 ep (1478ndash1704 meters) Suumlddeutsches Filmhaus The Great Gamble (US 1919) Western Photoplays (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Jack der Furchtlose advertised in July that ep were 700 meters totalling 5500 meters Teano-Film probably never released Daredevil Jack (US 1920) Robert Brunton Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Der Maskierte Reiter c July 5 ep (1345ndash1585 meters) Filmhaus Sage The Masked Rider (US 1919) William Steiner Productions (for Arrow) 15 ep

Das Panzergeschoszlig c July 6 ep (1193ndash1776 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Brass Bullet (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

Tarzan Der Affenmensch c August 3 ep Caesarfi lm A combination of two fea-tures Tarzan of the Apes (US 1918) and The Romance of Tarzan (US 1918) First National

Feuerkreis von Kalifornien or Die Bluthunde von Kalifornien c September 5 ep (1407ndash1601 meters) Westfalia Film Vanishing Trails (US 1920) Canyon Pictures Corporation 15 ep

Der Geheimnisvolle Dolch c September 18 ep in 6 weeks (1346ndash1460 meters) Martin Dentler The Vanishing Dagger (US 1920) Universal 18 ep

Wer ist Nr 1 advertised in September unclear if and how released Geha-Magdeburg Probably Who is Number One (US 1917) Paramount Pictures 15 ep

Der Zirkuskoumlnig c September 6 ep (1464ndash1556 meters) censored various times Filmhaus Bruckmann King of the Circus (US 1920) Universal 18 ep

Das Groszlige Radiumgeheimnis c November 6 ep (1375ndash1940 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Great Radium Mystery (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

1922Der Gluumlhende Kristall c January 5 ep (1358ndash1462 meters) Filmhaus Bruckmann

The Flaming Disc (US 1920) Universal 18 epDer Rote Handschuh c January 6 ep (1633ndash1761 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Red

Glove (US 1919) Universal 18 epDie Vampire von New-York or Die Huronen c January later re-censored and seems

to be forbidden 4 ep (1296ndash1449 meters) Nivo Film Die Huronen (Austria 1921) Marischka FilmAstra Film 4 ep

Unter der Roten Maske c March 5 ep (1342ndash1605 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Purple Mask (US 1916) Universal 16 ep

Die Raumltsel Afrikas c May 5 ep (1432ndash1690 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Lionrsquos Claw (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

Atlantide c June 2 ep (1444 and 1557 meters) Ufa LlsquoAtlantide (France 1921) Socieacuteteacute Geacuteneacuterale pour le Deacuteveloppement International et Commercial de la Cineacute-matographie feature version and in 2-parts Jacques Feyder

Boulevard-Blut c June 1922April 5 ep (15101577ndash22701913 meters) Pax Film Les Deux Gamines (France 1921) Gaumont 12 ep Louis Feuillade

Seepiraten c June 6 ep (1310ndash1403 meters) Filmhaus Bruckmann US Univer-sal with Eddie Polo

Der Wirbelwind c June 5 ep (1386ndash1586 meters) Bayerische Film Gesell-schaft The Whirlwind (US 1920) Allgood Picture Corporation (for Repub-lic) 15 ep

190 Appendix

Eddie Polos Abenteuer im Wilden Westen c July 5 ep (532ndash574 meters ep 1 3 4 were suited for all ages) Filmhaus Bruckmann Perhaps The Secret Four (US 1921) Universal 15 ep

Elmo der Furchtlose or Tarzans Neue Mission c July 6 ep (1082ndash1485 meters) International Film Vertrieb Deitz amp Co Elmo the Fearless (US 1920) Great Western Producing Company (for Universal) 18 ep

Das Gelbe Dreieck c July 4 ep (925ndash1241 meters) Scala Il Triangolo Giallo (Italy 1917) Tiber Film 4 ep (1151ndash1522 meters)

Der Graf von Monte Christo c August 5 ep in 3 weeks (1651ndash2109 meters) Suumlddeutsches Filmhaus Le Comte de Monte-Cristo (France 1918) Les Films drsquoArt (Patheacute Fregraveres) 8 ep (870ndash1485 meters)

Ein Kind der Freien Liebe c August 1922July 1924 5 ep (18551773ndash21652186 meters) Pax-Film Probably LrsquoOrpheline (France 1921) Gau-mont 12 ep Louis Feuillade

Cyclone die Heldin der Kalifornischen Berge c October at least 2 ep (1658 and 1648 meters) Landlicht-FilmverleihPaul Ringel US Universal

Zirkus Gray c November 6 ep (1162ndash1309 meters) FilmHaus Bruckmann Probably The Gray Ghost (US 1921) Universal 16 ep

Der Rote Handschuh c December 1922 (October 1921) 6 ep (1638ndash1761 meters) Wilhelm Feindt The Red Glove (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

1923Der Fliegende Houmlllander c January censored in two parts unclear how released

(2172 and 1583 meters) Ufa Den Flyvende Hollaelignder (Danmark 1920) Nordisk Films 4 ep

Sodom und Gomorrha c February 2 ep (1931 and 1830 meters) censorship ordered it to be shown in one evening UfaHansa Sodom und Gomorrha (Aus-tria 1922) Sacha Film 2 ep (around 18 reels) Mihaacutely KerteacuteszMichael Curtiz

Zwei Waisen im Sturm der Zeiten c March 2 ep (2141 and 1388 meters) Ufa Orphans of the Storm (US 1921) DW Griffi th Productions feature DW Griffi th

Die Verlorene Stadt c May 3 ep (1789ndash2068 meters) Saturn Film and Mara-thon Film The Lost City (US February 1920) Selig Polyscope Company (for Warner Bros) 15 ep

Zirkus Nelly c May and October fi rst forbidden then only forbidden for chil-dren at least 3 ep (1321ndash1875 meters) Wilhelm Feindt US Universal

Mit Stanley im Dunkelsten Afrika c June 6 ep (1385ndash1692 meters) Filmhaus Bruumlckmann With Stanley in Africa (US 1922) Universal 18 ep

Naumlrrische Frauen or Du Sollst Nicht Begehren c August censored in two ep (1784 and 1424 meters) but unclear if so released UniversalMerkurFulag Foolish Wives (US 1922) Universal feature Erich von Stroheim

Kapitaumln Kidd c OctoberDecember fi rst forbidden then only forbidden for children 5 ep Promo Film Captain Kidd (US 1922) Star Serial 15 ep

Aus den Tagen Buffalo Bills c November 6 ep (1117ndash1473 meters) youth allowed FilmHaus Bruckmann In the Days of Buffalo Bill (US 1922) Uni-versal 15 ep

1924Der Fall Gregory c January 2 ep (1917 and 1914 meters) Ufa Roger la Honte

(France 1922) Le Film drsquoArt 4 epDie Geheimnisvollen Vier c January 6 ep (1267ndash1709 meters) Cinema Film

Vertrieb The Secret Four (US 1921) Universal 15 ep

Appendix 191

Tao das Geheimnis von Siam-Cambo c January feature version (1878 meters) Suumld Film Tao (France 1923) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 10 ep (600ndash1000 meters)

Norma Rollende Raumlder Rasendes Blut c April 2 ep (2099 and 2015 meters) Suumld Film La Roue (France 1923) Films Abel Gance fi rst shown in 4 ep Abel Gance

Die Drei Musketiere c May 4 ep (2096ndash2252 meters) Suumld Film Les Trois Mous-quetaires (France 1921) Patheacute Consortium Cineacutema 12 ep (795ndash1660 meters) Henri Diamant-Berger

Ein Gefaumlhrliches Abenteuer Von Jungen Maumldchen Elefanten ua Wilden Tieren c June feature (1884 meters) Ufa Feature version of A Dangerous Adventure (US 1922) Warner Bros released in 15 ep and as feature version

Die Jagd um die Welt in 18 Tagen or Die Reise um die Erde in Achtzehn Tagen c May 3 ep (1814ndash1985 meters) Filmhaus Bruckmann Around the World in 18 Days (US 1923) Universal 12 ep

Geaumlchtet Schmerzensweg einer Mutter c July feature version (1892 meters) Ufa La Porteuse de Pain (France 1923) Les Films Marcel Vandal et Charles Delac 4 ep

Goumlsta Berling c August 2 ep (2278 and 2181 meters) Trianon Goumlsta Berlings Saga (Sweden 1924) Svensk Filmindustri 2 ep (2346 and 2189 meters) and a feature version for export with Greta Garbo

Die Zehn Gebote c August 2 ep as well as a feature version Paramount Film Vertrieb The Ten Commandments (US 1923) Paramount feature

Hyaumlnen des Meeres c October at least 2 ep (1775 and 1745 meters) Ellen Rich-ter Film Probably Beasts of Paradise (US 1923) Universal 15 ep

Intoleranz October 2 ep (2027 and 2061 meters) Westfalia Film Intolerance (US 1916) also re-edited into two features The Mother and the Law (1919) and The Fall of Babylon (1919)

Der Radiokoumlnig c October unknown in how many ep forbidden Maak-Film The Radio King (US 1922) Universal 10 ep

Alte Soldaten c JulyNovember feature (19612009 meters) Universal LrsquoAgonie des Aigles (France 1921) Socieacuteteacute Franccedilaise drsquoArt et Cineacutematographie (distribu-tion Patheacute-Consortium) originally shown in 2 parts in 1928 in France also a feature version was released

Mandrin c December feature (2284 meters) Deitz amp Co Mandrin (France 1924) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 8 ep (835ndash1190 meters) Henri Fescourt

1925Tarzans Ruumlckkehr in den Urwald c February 2 ep (1866 and 2036 meters)

Pantomim Film The Adventures of Tarzan (US 1921) Weiss BrothersNuma Pictures CorporationGreat Western Producing Co 15 ep

Parisette die Taumlnzerin der Groszligen Oper c March 2 ep (2243 and 2845 meters) Bayerische Film Parisette (France 1922) Gaumont 12 ep (of 800 meters each) Louis Feuillade

Das Geheimnisvolle Haus c May 2 ep (2733 and 2463 meters) Dewesti La Maison du Mystegravere (France 1923) Films Albatros 10 ep and a feature version in 1929 Alexandre Volkoff

Der Koumlnig von Paris c May 2 ep (1956 and 1703 meters) Westfalia Film Le Roi de Paris (France 1923) Eacutetablissements Louis Aubert 4 ep

Die Verstoszligenen c JulyOctober 2 ep (26871825 and 34632198 meters) Suumld Film Les Deux Gosses (France 1924) Phocea Film 8 ep

Der Pacifi c-Expreszlig c SeptemberOctober 2 ep forbidden Nitzsche AG Prob-ably The Fast Express (US 1924) Universal 15 ep

Ein Koumlnigskind c December feature (2403 meters) Suumld-Film LlsquoEnfant-Roi (France 1923) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 8 ep (965ndash1800 meters)

192 Appendix

1926Karl XII der Schwedische Napoleon c February 2 ep (2520 and 2696

meters) Mischke amp Co Karl XII (Sweden 1925) Historisk FilmHerman Rasch 2 ep

Surcouf der Koumlnig der Schwarzen Flagge c March feature (3499 meters) Suumld-Film Surcouf (France 1925) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 8 ep (800ndash1900 meters)

Mensch unter Menschen c December 2 ep (3308 and 2979 meters) Deulig Les Miseacuterables (France 1925) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 4 ep (2000 meters each) Henri Fescourt

1927Die Geheimagentin von New York c March 2 ep (2611 and 2763 meters) US

UniversalBelphegor c December 2 ep (2457 and 2221 meters) Deutsches Lichtspiel Syn-

dikat Belpheacutegor (France 1927) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 4 ep (1257-1667 meters)

Pech Muszlig der Mensch Haben c December feature (2981 meters) Aubert Film Le Bouif Errant (France 1926) Le Film drsquoArt 6 ep

1929Die Raumltsel Afrikas c January 2 ep (2617 and 2360 meters) Re-release of The

Lionrsquos Claw (US 1918) Universal 18 epDer Graf von Monte Christo c May 2 ep (2664 and 2336 meters) suited for

children Terra-Filmverleih Monte-Cristo (France 1929) Les Films Louis Nal-pas 2 ep Henri Fescourt

Der Frosch mit der Maske c JulySeptember feature (2294 meters) fi rst for-bidden then children not allowed A Hegewald Filim Mark of the Frog (US 1928) Patheacute Exchange 10 ep

Tarzans Neue Dschungelgeschichten or Tarzan Abenteuer in Dschungel und Urwald c November feature (2607 meters) Deutsche Universal Film-Verleih Tarzan the Mighty (US 1928) Universal 15 ep and feature version

FRANCE

Film titles are ordered alphabetically as month of release is often unknown Most adaptations appeared after their publication in newspaper or maga-zine as booklet in the fi lm series of Les Romans-Cineacutema (Le Renaissance du Livre) or Cineacutema-Bibliothegraveque (Jules Tallandier)

For this overview in addition to researching the French yearbooks of Almanach du cineacutema Annuaire geacuteneacuteral de la cineacutematographie franccedilaise et eacutetrangegravere and Le tout-cineacutema Annuaire geacuteneacuteral illustreacute du monde cineacutematographique various fi lm journals were used (Cineacute-journal Cineacutemagazine La cineacutematographie franccedilaise Cineacuteopse Le courrier cineacute-matographique Mon cineacute) as well as the work of Bousquet (1999ndash2004) DallrsquoAsta (1999) Icart (1989) and Mitry (1970)

Appendix 193

1915Les Mystegraveres de New-York December 22 ep (600 meters each) Patheacute adapted by

Pierre Decourcelle French import version of the US Patheacute Exchange serials The Exploits of Elaine (1914) 14 ep The New Exploits of Elaine (1915) 10 ep The Romance of Elaine (1915) 12 ep

Trey orsquo Hearts according to foreign fi lm journals it could be seen in September Trey orsquo Hearts (US 1914) Universal 15 ep

1916Le Cercle Rouge November 11 ep (at fi rst advertised with 10) Agence Geacuteneacuterale Cineacute-

matographique adapted by Maurice Leblanc in Le Journal The Red Circle (US 1915) Balboa Amusement Producing Company (for Patheacute Exchange) 14 ep

LrsquoEacutenigme des Millions or LrsquoEacutenigme du Million 15 ep Socieacuteteacute Adam The Million Dollar Mystery (US 1914) Thanhouser Film Corporation 23 ep

Les Exploits drsquoElaine July 9 ep Patheacute adaptation by Marc Mario in Le Matin The Perils of Pauline (US 1914) Patheacute Fregraveres 20 ep

LrsquoIris Rouge August 6 ep L Aubert Under the Crescent (US 1915) Universal 6 ep

Le Masque aux Dents Blanches November 16 ep Patheacute adapted in Le Matin The Iron Claw (US 1916) Feature Film Corporation (for Patheacute Exchange) 20 ep

Les Millions de Mamrsquozelle sans-le-Sou September 12 ep (of 600 meters each) Union-Eacuteclair adapted by Georges Le Faure The Master Key (US 1914) Uni-versal 15 ep

Ultus LrsquoHomme de lrsquoAu Delagrave June 2 ep Gaumont Probably based on the fi rst Ultus fi lm Ultus The Man from the Dead (GB 1915) Gaumont British a total of 4 Ultus fi lms were made (1915ndash1917) In May 1918 Gaumont offered Ultus with 5 ep adding the newer fi lms

1917Le Courrier de Washington November 10 ep Patheacute adapted by Marcel Allain in

Le Petit Journal Pearl of the Army (US 1916) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Le Domino Rouge September 13 ep Univers-Cineacutema-Location The Purple Mask (US 1916) Universal 16 ep

Le Fiacre 13 8 ep Eacuteclipse Il Fiacre n 13 (Italy 1916) Ambrosio Films 4 ep (1322ndash1450 meters)

Ravengar May 12 ep Patheacute adapted by Guy de Teacuteramond in JrsquoAi Vu The Shield-ing Shadow (US 1916) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Sherlock Holmes 6 ep Perhaps the Anglo-French series Sherlock Holmes (UKFrance 1912ndash1913) Eacuteclair 8 ep

Suzy lrsquoAmeacutericaine December 16 ep Agence Geacuteneacuterale Cineacutematographique adapted by MG Le Faure in Le Pays de France Liberty a Daughter of the USA (US 1916) Universal 20 ep

1918LrsquoAs de Carreau 12 ep The Red Ace (US 1917) Universal 16 epCoeur drsquoHeacuteroiumlne June 11 ep Patheacute adapted by Marcel Allain Patria (US 1917)

International Film Service (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 epLrsquoHeacuteroiumlne du Colorado 12 ep adapted by Gustave Le Rouge US

194 Appendix

La Maison de la Haine December 12 ep (470ndash885 meters) Patheacute adapted by Guy de Teramond The House of Hate (US 1918) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 20 ep

Mlle Monte Cristo 8 ep Mademoiselle Montecristo (Italy 1918) Caesar Film 5 ep (680ndash949 meters)

Le Mystegravere de la Double Croix September 9 ep (605ndash780 meters) Patheacute The Mystery of the Double Cross (US 1917) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Les Mystegraveres de Paris 8 ep Parigi Misteriosa (Italy 1917) Ceasar Film 4 ep (937ndash1357 meters)

La Reine srsquoEnnuie March 15 ep (510ndash785 meters) Patheacute adapted by Pierre Decourcelle The Fatal Ring (US 1917) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 20 ep

Le Secret du Sous-marin 15 ep The Secret of the Submarine (US 1916) American Film Manufacturing Company (for Mutual) 15 ep

La Valleacutee de la Terreur 6 ep US

1919LrsquoAvion Fantocircme 12 ep The Brass Bullet (US 1918) Universal 18 epLe Cinnabar 11 ep USLe Crime de Broadway 10 ep USHaut les Mains or Hands Up or La Fianceacutee du Soleil May 12 ep (560ndash940

meters) Patheacute adapted by Henry de Brisay in LrsquoOrdre Public Hands Up (US 1918) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Le Meacutedecin des Folles 7 ep Il Medico delle Pazze (Italy 1919) Societagrave Anonima Ambrosio 3 ep (1417ndash1575 meters)

Le Messager de la Mort 15 ep Wolves of Kultur (US 1918) Western Photoplays (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

La Mort Rouge 7 ep La Morte Rossa (Italy 1918) Lux Artis Film 5 ep (1239ndash1549 meters)

Le Mystegravere de la Secte Noire 12 ep adapted by Guy de Teacuteramond in LrsquoInformation The Mysteries of Myra (US 1916) Wharton (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Le Mystegravere de Montfl eury 7 ep Il Mistero di Montfl eury (Italy 1918) Aquila Films 4 ep (1362ndash1737 meters)

Les Mystegraveres de la Jungle 12 ep The Lionrsquos Claw (US 1918) Universal 18 epPar Amour August 12 ep (520ndash850 meters) Patheacute adapted by Marcel Allain

in Le Petit Journal The Lightning Raider (US 1919) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Le Roi de la Nuit 6 ep Il Re del la Notte (Italy 1919) Monaldi Film 3 ep (1160ndash1249 meters)

Le Roi du Cirque 14 ep Probably King of the Circus (US 1920) Universal 18 epSa Majesteacute lrsquoArgent 6 ep SM il Danaro (Italy 1919) De Giglio Film 2 ep

(1574 and 1286 meters)Le Tigre Sacreacute October 12 ep (570ndash895 meters) Patheacute adapted by Guy de Teacutera-

mond in LrsquoAvenir The Tigerrsquos Trail (US 1919) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Le Triangle Jaune 7 ep Il Triangolo Giallo (Italy 1917) Tiber Film 4 ep (1151ndash1522 meters)

La Vedette Mysteacuterieuse 12 ep USVictimes de lrsquoAmbition 7 ep UK

1920Atlas 6 ep Atlas (Italy 1920) De Giglio Film 2 ep (1507 and 1648 meters)

Appendix 195

Buffalo et Bill 8 ep Buffalo e Bill (Italy 1920) Latina Ars 3 ep (1168ndash1354 meters)

La Citeacute Perdue May 12 ep Gaumont adapted by Arnould Galopin The Lost City (US 1920) Selig Polyscope Company (for Warner Bros) 15 ep

La Course aux Millions 12 ep USDraga lrsquoHeroiumlque Princesse 12 ep USLa Femme aux Yeux drsquoOr 10 ep USLes Fregraveres du Silence 10 ep Who is Number One (US 1917) 15 epLe Gant Rouge 12 ep The Red Glove (US 1919) Universal 18 epGlobe-Trotter par Amour June 6 ep (630ndash835 meters) Patheacute adapted by Guy

de Teacuteramond in LrsquoEacuteclair Bound and Gagged (US 1919) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 10 ep Fregraveres

Le Grand Jeu October 12 ep (565ndash970 meters) Patheacute adapted by Guy de Teacutera-mond in La Liberteacute The Great Gamble (US 1919) Western Photoplays (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Houdini le Maicirctre du Mystegravere February 15 ep (480ndash880 meters) Patheacute adapted by Jean Petithuguenin in LrsquoOrdre Public The Master Mystery (US 1919) Octa-gon Films 15 ep

LrsquoIntreacutepide Canadienne 15 ep USLe Jockey de lrsquoAir 9 ep (episode 9 had a length of 350 meters) Super-Film Prob-

ably the feature Die Geheimnisse des Zirkus Barreacute (Germany 1920) Metro Film 2450 meters Harry Piel

Kaffra-Kan 12 ep Eacuteclipse adapted by Maxime La Tour The Yellow Menace (US 1916) Serial Film CompanyUnity Sales 16 ep

Lassister-le-Vengeur February 5 ep (715ndash850 meters) presented within 2 eacutepoques Fox Consisted of two Fox features Riders of the Purple Sage (US 1918) and The Rainbow Trail (US 1918)

Le Maicirctre du Monde 12 ep Elmo the Mighty (US 1919) Universal 18 epMartin lrsquoEnfant Trouveacute 7 ep Martino il Trovatello (Italy 1919) General-Megale

3 ep (1222ndash1386 meters)Le Mystegravere du Silence 16 ep The Silent Mystery (US 1918) Burston Films 15 epLe Ranch de la Mort 12 ep USLe Secret des Sept 11 ep (around 600 meters per episode) Georges Petit A Fight

for Millions (US 1918) Vitagraph 15 epLes Vacances de Za-La-Mort 8 ep ItalyLes Yeux drsquoAcier 7 ep La Canaglia di Parigi (Italy 1918) Tiber-Film 7 ep

(648mdash853 meters)

1921Le Cavalier Masqueacute September 12 ep Select The Masked Rider (US 1919)

William Steiner Productions (for Arrow) 15 epLe Collier Fatal April 15 ep Harry USLes Ecumeurs du Sud March 10 ep Georges Petit Smashing Barriers (US 1919)

Vitagraph 15 epLrsquoEntreinte de la Pieuvre February 15 ep Agence Geacuteneacuterale Cineacutematographique

Trial of the Octopus (US 1919) Hallmark Pictures 15 epFantomas en Ameacuterique August at least 3 ep Fox Fantomas (US 1920) Fox

20 epLe Fauve de la Sierra March 10 ep (around 600 meters each) Patheacute-Consortium

adapted by Guy de Teramond in Cineacutemagazine The Lion Man (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

La Favorite du Maharadjah February 5 ep Eclair There can be three feature fi lms involved in this version though likely it concerns the fi rst two Maharad-

196 Appendix

jahens Yndlingshustru I (Denmark 1917) Nordisk Maharadjahens Yndling-shustru II (Denmark 1919) Nordisk and Die Lieblingsfrau des Maharadscha 3 Teil (Germany 1920) PAGU

Le Grand Secret March 12 ep Select adapted by Georges Spitzmuller amp Reneacute De Bargegraves The Great Secret (US 1917) Serial Producing Company 18 ep

LrsquoHeacuteritiegravere de lrsquoIle Perdue September 14 ep Sutto adapted by Gustave Le Rouge in La Deacutemocratie Nouvelle Neal of the Navy (US 1915) Balboa Amusement Producing Company (for Patheacute Exchange) 14 ep

LrsquoHomme Qui a Vendu Son Cerveau September 14 ep Select The Lurking Peril (US 1919) Wistaria 15 ep

Jack-Sans-Peur May 8 ep (around 700 meters each) Patheacute-Consortium Daredevil Jack (US 1920) Robert Brunton Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Le Lotus de Thien-Taiuml September 12 ep Van Goitsenhoven The Dragonrsquos Net (US 1920) Universal 12 ep

La Main Invisible July 10 ep Georges Petit Invisible Hand (US 1920) Vita-graph 15 ep

Le Masque Rouge 15 ep The Iron Test (US October 1918) Vitagraph 15 ep

Les Mystegraveres de Londres or Le Grand Mystegravere de Londres July 12 ep Phoceacutea The Great London Mystery (UK 1920) Torquay amp Paignton Photoplay Pro-ductionsReubenson 12 ep

Mysteacuteria February 9 ep (around 500 meters each) Aubert adapted by Gustave Le Rouge in La Lanterne Die Spinnen (Germany 1919) Decla 2 ep Fritz Lang

LrsquoOr de la Forecirct March 12 ep Super-Film USLa Princesse Noire May 7 ep Foucher-Location La Principessa Nera (Italy

1920) De Giglio Film 2 ep (1675 and 1925 meters)Le Roi de lrsquoAudace April 10 ep Aubert adaptation by M Maffert US with

Eddie PoloLes Sept Perles October 12 ep Super Probably The Seven Pearls (US 1917)

Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 epLe Sorcier Mysteacuterieux October 12 ep Georges Petit USLe Taureau Sauvage October 5 ep Grandes Productions Cineacutematographiques Il

Toro Selvaggio (Italy 1919) 2 ep (1258 and 1318 meters)Le Tourbillon March 12 ep (around 700 meters each) Gaumont The Whirlwind

(US 1920) Allgood Picture Corporation (distribution Republic) 15 epVoleurs de Femmes January 12 ep Fox Bride 13 (US 1920) Fox 15 ep

1922Les Aventures de Robinson Crusoeacute April 12 ep (around 600 meters each)

FN Location The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (US 1922) Universal 18 ep

Le Dernier des Mohicans 6 ep (630ndash760 meters) Phoceacutea Probably Lederstrumpf (Germany 1920) Luna Film 2 ep

En Mission au Pays des Fauves April 8 ep Gaumont adapted by Guy de Tera-mond Miracles of the Jungle (US 1921) Selig (for Warner Bros) 15 ep

Les Exploits de Diabolos 12 ep USLrsquoHeacuteroiumlne de la Riviegravera December 8 ep Vitagraph Die Abenteuerin von

Monte Carlo (Germany 1921) Ellen Richter Film 3 epLrsquoHeacuteritiegravere du Radjah July 8 ep Patheacute-Consortium adapted by Charles Vayre

and Robert Florigni Ruth of the Rockies (US 1920) Ruth Roland Serials (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Appendix 197

LrsquoIdole du Cirque 10 ep US with Eddie PoloLe Maicirctre des Teacutenegravebres June 8 ep (of around 600 meters each) Vitagraph

adapted by Jean-Louis Bouquet and Andreacute Dolle Man of Might (US 1919) Vitagraph 15 ep

Maicirctresses du Monde August 8 ep Rosenvaig USLe Mystegravere de la Femme Voileacutee October 10 ep Rosenvaig USPar la Force et par la Ruse January 12 ep Grandes Productions Cineacute-

matographiques The Black Secret (US 1919) George B Seitz Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

La Piste de lrsquoEpervier October 12 ep Phoceacutea The Hawks Trail (US 1920) Bur-ston Films 15 ep

Le Pont des Soupirs 8 ep novel by Michel Zeacutevaco Il Ponte dei Sospiri (Italy 1921) Pasquali 4 ep (1676ndash1717 meters)

La Prairie Rouge 7 ep USLe Treacutesor des Incas 12 ep US

1923Les Aventures de Buffalo Bill 9 ep Probably In the Days of Buffalo Bill (US

1922) Universal 18 epLes Corsaires 6 ep ItalyLa Dame en Gris 6 ep La Dame en Gris (Italy 1919) Gladiator Film 2 ep

(1643 and 1738 meters)La Deacuteesse des Tropiques release pattern unclear Probably The Jungle Goddess

(US 1922) William N Selig Productions 15 epLrsquoHomme Sans Nom 6 ep adapted by Georges Spitzmuller Der Mann Ohne

Namen (Germany 1921) PAGU 6 epPatte de Velours Gentleman Cambrioleur 8 ep Velvet Fingers (US 1920) George

B Seitz Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 epLe Prince de la Montagne 6 ep Der Fuumlrst der Berge (Germany 1921) Harry Piel

Film 2 ep (2448 and 2100 meters)Les Rocircdeurs de lrsquoAir 10 ep (around 600 meters each) Patheacute-Consortium adapted

by Robert Florigni The Sky Ranger (US 1921) George B Seitz Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Risquetout 10 ep Gaumont adapted by Eugegravene Geacuteral US with Charles Hutchison

Le Treacutesor Sous-marin 10 ep US

1924Les Avventures de Ruth July 8 ep (550ndash1060 meters) Patheacute-Consortium The

Adventures of Ruth (US 1919) Ruth Roland Serials (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 epLes Derniegraveres Aventures de Tarzan 6 ep The Adventures of Tarzan (US 1921)

Weiss Brothers Artclass PicturesNuma Pictures Corporation 15 epLes Fianceacutes 4 ep I Promessi Sposi (Italy 1922) Bonnard Films 2 ep (1640 and

2176 meters)Pillage 8 ep Plunder (US 1923) George B Seitz Productions (for Patheacute Exchange)

15 epLes Pirates de lrsquoIle Mysteacuterieuse 10 ep USLe Tombeau Indou presented by distributor in December 1922 probably not

released before March 1924 feature Georges Petit Das Indische Grabmal (Germany 1921) May Film 2 ep Georges Petit re-released the fi lm in 1927

Le Tour du Monde en 18 Jours 6 ep Around the World in 18 Days (US 1923) Universal 12 ep

Les Trageacutedies Secregravetes 4 ep Italy

198 Appendix

Triboulet 4 ep Triboulet I Misteri della Corte di Francia (Italy 1923) Cines 6 ep

Trois Millions de Dot 4 ep Tre Milioni di Dote (Italy 1920) Caesar Film 2 ep (1717 and 1670 meters)

Le Voile Mysteacuterieux 8 ep Probably The Veiled Mystery (US 1920) Vitagraph 15 ep

1925Le Convoi Tragique 8 ep adapted by J Segnac in Le Film Complet US Probably

Leatherstocking (US 1924) Patheacute Exchange 10 epDans les Serres de lrsquoAigle 8 ep The Eaglersquos Talons (US 1923) Universal 15 ep

Joe MayLe Docteur Mabuse 7 ep Films Kaminsky Dr Mabuse der Spieler (Germany

1922) Uco Film 2 ep Fritz LangLe Faux Prince 4 ep GermanyLrsquoInfernal Justicier 12 ep USMaicirctresse du Monde 8 ep Paramount Die Herrin der Welt (Germany 1919) May

FilmUfa 8 ep Joe MayLa Mort de Siegfried or Les Nibelungen March Aubert First part of Die Nibe-

lungen (Germany 1924) Decla-Bioscop AG 2 ep (Siegfried and Kreimhilds Rache) Fritz Lang Second episode of Die Nibelungen was screened in France as La Vengeance de Kriemhild October Aubert

Le Raid en Avion trade shown in May probably as feature Flug um den Erdball (Germany 1925) Ellen Richter Film 2 ep

1926Les Ailes Bruleacutees labeled as lsquofi lm agrave eacutepisodersquo Fox USLrsquoArcher Vert various ep Films Ceacutelegravebres The Green Archer (US 1925) Patheacute

Exchange 10 epBilly Kid Roi du Paddok labeled as lsquoseacuterialrsquo Universal USLrsquoHercule du Cirque labeled as lsquofi lm agrave eacutepisodersquo Universal USLes Loups du Nord 8 ep Universal Wolves of the North (US 1924) Universal

1927Cheval X 6 ep Films Ceacutelegravebres Galloping Hoofs (US 1924) Malcolm Strauss

Pictures (for Patheacute Exchange) 10 epLa Jeunesse de Buffalo Bill June 8 ep (of around 900 meters each) Universal

Fighting with Buffalo Bill (US 1926) Universal 10 epLe Tombeau Indou September feature (3600 meters) Georges Petit Re-release of

Das Indische Grabmal (Germany 1921) May Film 2 ep Joe May

Le Secret du Jade June announced as lsquoseacuterialrsquo Meacuteric The Chinatown Mystery (US 1928) Trem Carr PicturesSyndicates Pictures 10 ep

La Symphonie Nuptiale March feature Paramount The Wedding March (US 1928) Paramount feature for export a 2-part version also existed Erich von Stroheim The second part Mariage de Prince (The Honeymoon) was released in July 1931 Paramount

Appendix 199

NETHERLANDS

Usually episodes were shown for a week unless otherwise noted episodes were not shown separate on different days of the week ldquo12 ep in 6 weeksrdquo means episodes were shown after each other in the same weekly program Date is of fi rst known exhibition in large cities of Amsterdam The Hague and Rotterdam or fi rst available known date the serial was on offer by distributors As premieres did not always take place in mentioned larger cities earlier release dates are possible In the Netherlands usually only one fi lmcopy existed Information taken from fi lm journals De Bioscoop-Cou-rant De Film De Film-Wereld De Kinematograaf Kunst en Amusement Maandblad voor de Bioscoop-Commissies and Nieuw Weekblad voor de Cinematografi e Some fi lm titles are from the online encyclopedia of fi lm culture in the Netherlands httpcinemacontextnl

1912De Ellendigen November 4 ep (lasting 25 hours) Les Miseacuterables (France 1912)

Patheacute Fregraveres 4 ep Albert Capellani

1915De Avonturen van Mary advertised in June to be shown in 12 ep unclear if

released Imperial Film Service Amsterdam What Happened to Mary (US 1912) Edison 12 ep

1916De Sleutel naar het Geluk January 7 ep (a total of 10000 meters) HAP The Master

Key (US 1914) Universal 15 epDe Purperen Iris July 3 ep (5000 meters) HAP Under the Crescent (US 1915)

Universal 6 epHomunculus August 6 ep Cinema Palace Homunculus (Germany 1916) Deutsche

Bioscop 6 epStingaree de Australische Struikrover September 12 ep in 6 and 4 weeks FAN

Stingaree (US 1915) Kalem 12 epDe Vampieren or Vampiers de Misdadigers der Wereldsteden October 9 ep in 9

and also 7 weeks (11265 meters) HAP Les Vampires (France 1915ndash1916) Gau-mont 10 ep (fi rst two shown together) Louis Feuillade

De Avonturen van Elaine October 9 weekly ep Patheacute Fregraveres The Perils of Pauline (US 1914) Patheacute Fregraveres 20 ep

Peg van het Circus November 15 ep in 7 weeks FAN The Adventures of Peg orsquo the Ring (US 1916) Universal 15 ep

Lucie Love or Lucie Love het Geheimzinnige Meisje December shown in 5 weeks Casino Film Verhuur Lucille Love Girl of Mystery (US 1914) Universal 15 ep

1917De Twee Straatjongens January 2 ep Les Deux Gosses (France) probably either

Caillardrsquos (1912) version or Capellanirsquos (1914)

200 Appendix

Vrijheid or Liberty January 20 ep in 7 weeks (13500 meters) Kino Rotterdam Liberty a Daughter of the USA (US 1916) Universal 20 ep

De Wandelende Jood January release pattern unclear Ahasver (Germany 1917) Deutsche Bioscop 3 ep Robert Reinert

Dochter van den Nacht or Koningin van den Nacht February 4 weekly ep (fi rst only 3 ep later a new feature ep was added 980mdash1470 meters) HAP Nat-tens Datter (Denmark 1915ndash1917) Filmfabriken Danmark 4 independent fea-tures would be made in this series

De Geheimzinnigen March Filma 3 ep (700ndash950 meters) La Secta de los Mis-toriosos (Spain 1914) 3 ep

De Zoon van den Spoorwegkoning March shown in 2 ep of 5 reels (total 3017 meters) HAP The Nersquoer Do Well (US 1914) Selig 10-reel feature

Zvani de Hindoesche April 2 ep Filma Zvani (Italy 1915) Societagrave Anonima Ambrosio feature (1400 meters)

Ultus September in 3 weeks (3000 meters) HAP Ultus (GB 1915ndash1917) Gaumont British 4 features

De Roode Cirkel October 11 ep Patheacute The Red Circle (US 1915) Balboa Amusement Producing Company (for Patheacute Exchange) 14 ep

Kaffra-Kan de Geweldige November 16 ep in 8 and 6 (with 1093ndash1923 meters per week) weeks HAP The Yellow Menace (US 1916) Serial Film CompanyUnity Sales 16 ep

Het Geheimzinnige Masker November 16 ep in 12 weeks FAN The PurpleMask (US 1916) Universal 16 epRavengar December 12 ep in 6 weeks (530ndash665 meters per ep) Patheacute Fregraveres The

Shielding Shadow (US 1916) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

1918Het Geheimzinnige Muntstuk or Het Gebroken Muntstuk January 10 ep in 5

weeks (2100ndash2200 meters per week) PR v Duinen Amsterdam The Broken Coin (US 1915) Universal 22 ep

Panopta April 2 ep (1594 and 1406 meters) HAP Panopta (Danmark 1917) Filmfabriken Danmark 4 ep

De Graaf van Monte-Cristo August 8 ep in 4 weeks (930ndash1550 meters per ep) Patheacute Fregraveres Le Comte de Monte-Cristo (France 1918) Le Film drsquoArt (Patheacute Fregraveres) 8 ep (870ndash1485 meters)

Fiacre 13 September 4 ep Witte Bioscoop Il Fiacre n 13 (Italy 1916) Ambrosio Films 4 ep (1322ndash1450 meters)

Het Mysterie der Roode Oogen or De Man met de Roode Oogen October 8 ep (1126ndash1360 meters) HAP The Crimson Stain Mystery (US 1916) Consoli-datedErbograph (for Metro Pictures) 16 ep

De Heer der Wereld November 2 ep Witte Bioscoop Der Herr der Welt (Ger-many 1917) Deutsche Bioscop 2 ep

Padvinders Geeft Acht November shown in at least 3 weeks Boy Scouts Be Pre-pared (Britain 1917) Transatlantic 7 ep

Twintigduizend Mijlen onder Zee December 2 ep (total 2500 meters) P R van Duinen 20000 Leagues under the Sea (US 1916) Universal feature

1919De Koningin Verveelt Zich January 15 ep in 5 weeks (525ndash840 meters per ep)

Patheacute Fregraveres The Fatal Ring (US 1917) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 20 epDe Avonturen van een Gentleman-Dief February 3 ep Nordisk Fantasie des

Aristide Careacute (Germany 1918) PAGU 3 epKoning der Cowboys April 5 ep BenS Bullrsquos Eye (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

Appendix 201

De Maangodin April 18 ep in 6 weeks Nordisk The Lionrsquos Claw (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

Protea IV or De Geheimen van het Kasteel Malmort April 6 ep in 4 weeks FAN Proteacutea IV ou Les Mystegraveres du Chacircteau de Malmort (France 1917) Eacuteclair 6 ep

Heldinnehart May 11 ep in 7 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres Patria (US 1917) Interna-tional Film Service (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Het Geheim van het Dubbele Kruis July 9 ep in 3 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres The Mys-tery of the Double Cross (US 1917) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Verloren Dochters August release pattern unclear Verlorene Toumlchter (Germany 1918) William Kahn 3 ep

De Circuskoning September 18 ep in 6 weeks Filma Lure of the Circus (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

JrsquoAccuse October 3 ep JrsquoAccuse (France 1919) 4 ep Films Abel GanceTarzan de Aapmensch October 3 ep (1459ndash1650 meters) HAP A combina-

tion of two features Tarzan of the Apes (US 1918) and The Romance of Tarzan (US 1918) First National

Judex October 5 ep (1623ndash1744 meters) BenS Judex (France 1917) Gaumont 12 ep

De Geheimen van New-York November 22 ep in 16 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres French version of the US Patheacute Exchange serials The Exploits of Elaine (1914) 14 ep The New Exploits of Elaine (1915) 10 ep The Romance of Elaine (1915) 12 ep (this version was fi rst released in France as Les Mystegraveres de New-York)

De Grijze Geest December 5 ep (1733ndash1860 meters) BenS The Gray Ghost (US July 1917) Universal 16 ep

1920Het Geheim der Steengroeve January 2 ep Nebima A Baacutenya Titka (Hungary

1918) Uher 2 epDe Jacht naar Millioenen or De Erfenis van Negen Millioen January 2 ep HAP

LrsquoUomo dal Domino Nero (Italy 1919) Itala Film 2 ep (1412 and 1696 meters)

Doodendans January 2 ep Der Taumlnzer (Germany 1919) Maxim-Film Ges Ebner amp Co 2 ep

De Verborgenheden van Parijs January 4 ep in 3 weeks (1430-2000 meters per week) FAN Parigi Misteriosa (Italy 1917) Ceasar Film 4 ep (937ndash1357 meters)

Elmo de Machtige January 6 ep in 6 and 4 weeks (the latter twice with a new epi-sode during the MondayndashThursday 1710ndash1788 meters per ep) BenS Elmo the Mighty (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

De Roode Handschoen January 18 ep in 6 weeks HAP The Red Glove (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

Harry Houdini de Boeienkoning February 6 ep (1684ndash1841 meters) Filma The Master Mystery (US 1919) Octagon Films 15 ep

Mephisto advertised in February to be shown in 4 weeks unclear if released Lux Company Mefi sto (Spain 1917) Studio Films Barcelona 12 ep

Door Eerzucht tot Misdaad advertised in February to be shown in 5 weeks unclear if released Lux Company Spain Studio Films Barcelona with Lola Paris and Bianca Valoris

De Boodschapper des Doods March 15 ep in 5 weeks Cinema Palace Wolves of Kultur (US 1918) Western Photoplays (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

De Koperen Kogel March 18 ep in 6 weeks Nordisk Film Co The Brass Bullet (US 1918) Universal 18 ep

Zij Die van de Liefde Leven March advertised in February 1922 as having 2 ep MFMB Die von der Liebe leben (Germany 1919) Neutral Film feature

202 Appendix

Naar de Overwinning April 15 ep in 6 weeks FAN The Fighting Trail (US 1917) Vitagraph 15 ep

Demon van het Circus advertised in April to be shown in 3 weeks unclear if released Casino Record Film Unknown origin

Arbeid May 4 ep Patheacute Fregraveres Travail (France 1919) Le Film drsquoArt (Patheacute Fregraveres) 7 ep (700ndash1600 meters)

Dans op den Vulkaan July advertised with 2 ep (1949 and 1837 meters) HAP Tanz auf dem Vulkan (Germany 1920) Eichberg Film 2 ep

Koningin der Wildernis July 6 ep in 6 and 4 weeks Filma The Lost City (US February 1920) Selig Polyscope Company (for Warner Bros) 15 ep

Mea Culpa July 2 ep Cinema Palace Mea Culpa (France 1919) Phocea Film feature with Suzanne Grandais

De Vagebond July probably in 2 ep Rocambole (Italy 1919) De Rosa Film 5 ep (1074ndash1709 meters)

De Koningin der Aarde August 8 ep Nordisk Films Die Herrin der Welt (Ger-many 1919) May FilmUfa 8 ep Joe May

Nana August 3 ep FAN Nanagrave (Italy 1917) Caesar Film 3 epDe Speler August 2 ep FAN Die Faust des Riesen (Germany 1917) Messter

Film 2 epMejuffrouw de Monte-Cristo or Gravin de Monte-Cristo advertised in August

to be shown with 5 ep in 2 weeks unclear if released FAN Mademoiselle Montecristo (Italy 1918) Caesar Film 5 ep (680ndash1150 meters)

De Geheimzinnige Ruiter September 12 ep in 4 weeks Hands Up (US 1918) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Peer Gynt October release pattern unclear Peer Gynt (Germany 1918) Richard Oswald 2 ep

Binnen de Wet November 2 ep Within the Law (US 1917) Vitagraph featureDe Spinnen November 2 ep Die Spinnen (Germany 1919) Decla 2 ep Fritz

LangMorel de Aanvoerder der Ketenen or Morel de Koning van Parijs December 3

ep Internationale Film Onderneming Morel der Meister der Kette (Germany 1920) Decla Film 2 ep

De Jacht naar den Indischen Dolk December 6 ep Nordisk Films The Vanishing Dagger (US 1920) Universal 18 ep

Prometheus December 2 ep Nordisk Prometheus (Danmark 1919) Nordisk 2 ep

The Mystery of 13 advertised in December unclear if released BenS The Mystery of 13 (US 1919) Burston Films 15 ep

The Hawks Trail advertised in December to be shown in 6 weeks unclear if released BenS The Hawkrsquos Trail (US 1920) Burston Films 15 ep

1921Het Huis van den Haat January 12 ep in 4 and 2 weeks (the latter with each epi-

sode lasting 2 hours) Patheacute Fregraveres The House of Hate (US 1918) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 20 ep

De Bende der Witte Dominorsquos January 4 ep PIG Dollari e Fraks (Italy 1919) Itala-Film 4 ep (1130ndash1458 meters)

Het Circus des Doods March 15 ep in 5 weeks HAP The Iron Test (US 1918) Vitagraph 15 ep

De Vampier van St Louis May 2 ep Lux Company Der Vampyr von St Louis (Germany 1920) Althoff amp Co 2 ep

Het Driekleurig Collier June 2 ep Cinema Palace Unclear which fi lm Based on novel by E Villiod

Appendix 203

Het Radium Mysterie een Strijd om Millioenen advertised in June for 18 ep to be shown 6 weeks unclear if released Nordisk The Great Radium Mystery (US 1919) Universal 18 ep

Lassiter de Schrik der Mormonen July 2 ep Consisted of two Fox features Raid-ers of the Purple Sage (US 1918) and The Rainbow Trail (US 1918)

De Groote Onbekende July 5 ep Filma Possibly The Silent Avenger (US 1920) Vitagraph 15 chapters

Jack Zonder Vrees Jack de Roekelooze or Jack de Geweldige July 8 ep in 3 and 2 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres Daredevil Jack (US 1920) Robert Brunton Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Circusroes August 6 ep (1450ndash1560 meters) Filma King of the Circus (US 1920) Universal 18 ep

Het Masker des Doods August 2 ep H Kleinmann Die Maske des Todes (Ger-many 1920) Lucifer Film 2 ep

Mathias Sandorf August 3 ep Cinema Palace Mathias Sandorf (France 1921) Union-Eacuteclair 9 ep Henri Fescourt

Eenige Episoden uit het Leven van Maciste September 3 ep PIG La Trilogia di Maciste (Italy 1920) Itala fi lm 3 ep (1549ndash1798 meters)

William Baluchet de Koning der Detectiven September release pattern unclear William Baluchet Roi des Deacutetectives (France 1920) Monat Film 5 ep

Jack de Wervelwind October 12 ep in 4 weeks Well Film The Whirlwind (US 1920) Allgood Picture Corporation (for Republic) 15 ep

De Man Zonder Naam October 6 ep Nordisk Der Mann Ohne Namen (Ger-many 1921) PAGU 6 ep

Samson de Stomme October advertised to be shown in 2 ep PIG Sansone Muto (Italy 1919) Albertini Film 2 ep (1565 and 1108 meters)

De Spoorwegkoning November 2 ep Nederlandsche Bioscoop Trust Der Eisen-bahnkoumlnig (Germany 1921) Illeacutes-Film-Co 2 ep

De Vlammende Schijf November 18 ep in 6 weeks (1715ndash1801 meters per week) BenS The Flaming Disc (US 1920) Universal 18 ep

De Ruiter Zonder Hoofd December 3 ep EMELKA Der Reiter ohne Kopf (Germany 1921) Metro-Film 3 ep

Tarzanrsquos Liefde December 5 ep Cinema Palace The Adventures of Tarzan (US 1921) Weiss BrothersNuma Pictures CorporationGreat Western Producing Co 15 ep

1922Een Drama onder Napoleon January 2 ep FAN Un Drame sous Napoleacuteon

(France 1921) Socieacuteteacute Franccedilaise des Films Eacuteclair featureDe Keizer der Armen Januari 6 ep in 3 and 2 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres LrsquoEmpereur

des Pauvres (France 1922) Patheacute Consortium Cineacutema 6 ep (645ndash990 meters)Fromont Junior en Risler Senior or De Vrouwelijke Hyena January 2 ep Patheacute

Fregraveres Fromont Jeune et Risler Aicircneacute (France 1921) SCAGL 2 epGigolette of de Straatmeid van Montmartre January 4 ep Patheacute Fregraveres Gigolette

(France 1921) Patheacute Consortium Cineacutema 4 ep (1595ndash1850 meters)De Groote Geheimen van het Oosten or De Wonderverhalen uit Duizend en een

Nacht January 2 ep Patheacute Fregraveres Les Contes de Mille et une Nuits (France 1921) Socieacuteteacute de Films Albatros 2 ep (995 and 1110 meters)

Hoog Spel January shown in 3 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres The Great Gamble (US 1919) Western Photoplays (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

De Zaak van Trein 24 or De Moord in Trein 24 January 8 ep in 2 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres LrsquoAffaire du Train 24 (France 1921) Patheacute Fregraveres 8 ep (675ndash835 meters)

204 Appendix

De Drie Musketiers February 12 ep in 6 and 5 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres Les Trois Mousquetaires (France 1921) Patheacute Consortium Cineacutema 12 ep Henri Dia-mant-Berger

Het Geheim van de Zes Speelkaarten advertised in February to be shown in 6 weeks unclear if released Berliner Film Manufaktur Das Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten (Germany 1920ndash1921) William Kahn-Film 6 ep

Het Kwaad Straft Zichzelve February 2 ep Borgslaeliggtens Historie (Denmark 1921) Nordisk Films 2 ep

De Man Zonder Geweten February advertised as 2 ep H Kleinman Der Mann Ohne Gedaumlchtnis (Germany 1919) BB-Film-Fabrikation feature

Atlas March 2 ep PIG Atlas (Italy 1920) De Giglio Film 2 ep (1507 and 1648 meters)

De Kroeg March 2 ep Cinema Palace LrsquoAssommoir (France 1921) Maurice de Marsan 4 ep

Avonturen in de Afrikaansche Wildernis April 15 ep in 7 weeks Loet C Barn-stijn Miracles of the Jungle (US July 1921) Selig (for Warner Bros) 15 ep

De Diamant Koningin April 6 ep Nordisk The Diamond Queen (US 1921) Universal 18 ep

Fridericus Rex April 2 ep Nordisk Films Fridericus Rex (Germany 1922) Csereacutepy-Film 2 ep in 1923 2 new ep would be released as well as a feature version in 1925

De Jacht op Schurken April 2 ep Das Achtgroschenmaumldel Jagd auf Schurken (Germany 1921) Rex-Film 2 ep (1862 and 1660 meters)

Verborgen Gevaren April shown in 5 weeks Well Film Hidden Dangers (US 1920) Vitagraph 15 ep

Overwinnen of Sterven May 18 ep in 6 weeks (1402-1593 meters per week) HAP Do or Die (US 1921) Universal 18 ep

Voor de Poorten der Hel May 2 ep Cinema Palace Le Coeur Magnifi que (France 1921) Les Films Legrand 2 eacutepoques (unclear if shown in one session) Severin MarsJean Legrand

Zijne Excellentie van Magdagaskar May 2 ep Nordisk Seine Exzellenz von Madagaskar (Germany 1921) PAGU 2 ep

De Eed van Stephan Huller June 2 ep HAP Der Eid des Stephan Huller (Ger-many 1919ndash1921) Greenbaum Film 2 ep

De Vliegende Hollander release pattern unclear July 1922 Den Flyvende Hol-laelignder (Danmark 1920) Nordisk Films 4 ep

De Brug der Zuchten August 4 ep in 4 and 2 weeks PIG Film Il Ponte dei Sospiri (Italy 1921) Pasquali 4 ep (1676ndash1717 meters)

Dr Mabuse de Speler August 2 ep Nebima Dr Mabuse der Spieler (Germany 1922) Uco Film 2 ep Fritz Lang

Unus August 2 ep Unus der Weg in die Welt (Germany 1921) Harry Piel Film 2 ep

De Gemaskerde Vliegenier September 8 ep in 2 weeks (fi rst announced as 4 weeks) Patheacute LrsquoAviateur Masque (France 1921) Aigle Film (distribution Patheacute Consortium Cineacutema) 8 ep (580ndash740 meters)

In den Greep van den Vampier September 2 ep (2350 and 1800 meters) Perhaps Daumlmon Blut (Germany 1920) Macht-Film Conrad Tietze 2 ep

De Indische Graftempel September 2 ep (2670 and 2360 meters) Nordisk Das Indische Grabmal (Germany 1921) May Film 2 ep Joe May

Blonde Leen de Matrozenmeid October 2 ep (2085 and 1982 meters) H Kleinmanrsquos Filmbureau Bummellotte (Germany 1922) Hegewald Film feature

Roger de Geschandvlekte October 2 ep Socieacuteteacute des Films Artistiques Roger la Honte (France 1922) Le Film drsquoArt 4 ep

Appendix 205

Het Land van den Duivel November 2 ep (1470 and 1235 meters) Patheacute Fregraveres Unclear which fi lm

Het Liefdesnest November 2 ep Das Liebesnest (Germany 1922) Aafa-Film AG 2 ep

De Weezen der Revolutie November 2 ep (2400 and 1700 meters) later also shown in one session Orphans of the Storm (US 1921) DW Griffi th Produc-tions feature DW Griffi th

De Vampieren van New York or De Huronen December 2 ep Mercurius Die Huronen (Austria 1921) Marischka FilmAstra Film 4 ep

1923De Blauwvos January shown in 3 weeks (fi rst announced as 5 weeks) Cinema

Palace The Blue Fox (US 1921) Arrow 15 epDronken Lot January 12 ep in 4 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres La Pocharde (France

1921) Ermolieff Films 12 ep (645ndash1175 meters)Jack Hoxie de Dolle Bliksem February 15 ep in 3 weeks Vicor Film Lightning

Bryce (US 1919) National Film CorporationArrow 15 epDe Erfgename van den Radjah March 8 ep in 2 weeks (fi rst announced as 4

weeks) Patheacute Fregraveres Ruth of the Rockies (US 1920) Ruth Roland Serials (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Het Geheimzinnige Huis or De Misdaad van een Vader April shown in 2 weeks (1735 and 1200 meters) Cinema Palace La Maison du Mystegravere (France 1923) Films Albatros 10 ep and feature version in 1929 Alexandre Volkoff

Met Stanley in Afrika April in 4 weeks Universal With Stanley in Africa (US 1922) Universal 18 ep

Tot Zwijgen Gedoemd April 2 ep Patheacute Consortium La Baillonneacutee (France 1922) Socieacuteteacute drsquoEacuteditions Cineacutematographiques 7 ep (around 700 meters)

De Avonturen van Robinson Crusoeuml advertised in May to be shown in 4 weeks unclear if released Universal Films The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (US 1922) Universal 18 ep

De Avonturen van Robinson Crusoeuml June 2 ep (around 2300 meters each) HAP Les Aventures de Robinson Crusoe Le Avventure di Robinson Crusoe (FranceItaly 1922) Flegrea FilmMonat Films

De Reis om de Wereld in Achttien Dagen May shown in 3 weeks Universal Films Around the World in 18 Days (US 1923) Universal 12 ep

Hurricane Hutch or De Avonturen van Jack advertised in June to be shown in 4 weeks Well Film Hurricane Hutch (US 1921) George B Seitz Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

De Verborgenheden van Parijs July shown in 3 weeks (in Amsterdam from 2nd week only on Monday until Thursday) Rofi lex Rotterdam Les Mystegraveres de Paris (France 1922) Phoceacutea Film 12 ep

20 Jaar Later October 2 ep Patheacute Cinema Vingt Ans Apregraves (France 1922ndash1923) Patheacute 12 ep

Nobody November announced as having 52 ep (each 350 meters) unclear how many released Mercurius Nobody (Germany 19211922) Nobody FilmPro-greszlig Film originally with 52 ep but the last 27 ep were in Germany restruc-tured into fi ve feature fi lms

Vidocq November 10 ep in 2 weeks (429ndash964 meters per ep) Patheacute Fregraveres Vid-ocq (France 1922) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 10 ep (710ndash1630 meters)

1924De Geest van het Kwaad January 2 ep Patheacute Fregraveres Tao (France 1923) Socieacuteteacute

des Cineacuteromans 10 ep (600ndash1000 meters)

206 Appendix

Tragedie der Liefde January 2 ep (3850 and 3750 meters) Nordisk Films Tragoumldie der Liebe (Germany 1923) May Film 4 ep (shown in Berlin in 2 ep) Joe May

Circus-Koningin February shown in 3 weeks Odeon Possibly re-release Lucille Love Girl of Mystery (US 1914) Universal 15 ep

De Groote Onbekende March 15 ep shown in 3 weeks (but announced in 4 and 5 weeks) HAP The Silent Avenger (US 1920) Vitagraph 15 ep Possibly already shown in 1921

Het Rad March shown as feature and in 2 ep Patheacute Fregraveres La Roue (France 1923) Films Abel Gance fi rst shown in 4 ep Abel Gance

De Staaltrein March shown in 4 weeks Universal Films The Steel Trail (US 1923) Universal 15 ep

Beesten in een Paradijs April shown in 3 and 2 weeks Universal Films Beasts of Paradise (US 1923) Universal 15 ep

Gevaarlijk Spel May 2 ep Menschen und Masken (Germany 1924) Hape-Film Co 2 ep Harry Piel

De Doodende Straal June 10 ep in 2 weeks Patheacute Consortium The Sky Ranger (US 1921) George B Seitz Productions (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

Helena August 2 ep Helena (Austria 1924) Bavaria Film 2 ep (2189 and 2904 meters)

De Jacht naar het Geheim September 5 ep (1500-1800 meters) Hofstadfi lm The Timber Queen (US July 1922) Ruth Roland Serials (Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

De Avonturen van Ruth October 8 ep offered fi rst in 2 weeks (3213 and 2282 meters per week) then in 4 weeks Patheacute Fregraveres The Adventures of Ruth (US 1919) Ruth Roland Serials (for Patheacute Exchange) 15 ep

De Nibelungen October 2 ep Ufa Die Nibelungen (Germany 1924) Decla-BioscopUfa 2 ep Fritz Lang

1925De Geheimzinnige Ruiter February in 4 weeks Universal The Riddle Rider (US

1924) Universal 15 epDe Man die Zijn Hersens Verkocht or Het Loerende Gevaar (when still shown in

August 1929) April release pattern unclear A Tuschinski The Lurking Peril (US 1919) Wistaria 15 ep

Wie Heeft Johnson Vermoord 2 ep (with prize) Loet C Barnstijn One Exciting Night (US 1922) United Artists feature DW Griffi th

Japhet de Vondeling November 4 ep Muntfi lm Amsterdam Jafet der Soslashger Sig en Fader (Danmark 1922) Nordisk 4 ep

1926Jeruzalem April 2 ep Ufa Ingmarsarvet (Sweden 1925) and Till Oumlsterland

(Sweden 1926) Nord-Westi FilmKapitein Kidd de Schrik der Zeeeumln announced by distributor in April to be shown

in 5 weeks Gerard Leeners Filmproduction Captain Kidd (US 1922) Star Serial corp 15 ep

Mandrin de Vrijbuiter May feature (2400 meters) Patheacute Fregraveres Mandrin (France 1924) Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 8 ep (835ndash1190 meters)

Een Mislukt Plan release pattern unclear September Battling Brewster (US 1924) Rayart Pictures 15 ep

De Man met de Kap October 20 ep in 2 and 3 weeks Svea Re-release The House of Hate (US 1918) Astra Film (for Patheacute Exchange) 20 ep

Appendix 207

Schoppenaas October 3 ep Croeze en Bosman The Ace of Spades (US 1925) Universal 15 ep

1927Het Stalen Net January probably in 3 ep Strings of Steel (US 1926) Universal

10 epDe Ellendigen February 2 ep Patheacute Consortium Les Miseacuterables (France 1925)

Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 4 ep (2000 meters each) Henri FescourtMetropolis February 2 ep Ufa Metropolis (Germany 1927) Ufa feature Fritz

LangLightning Hutch or Landverraders June exhibitor could choose to show it in 3 or

2 weeks Odeon Lightning Hutch (US 1926) Arrow 10 epHet Geheimzinnige Afgodsbeeld July 10 ep (5000 meters) unclear how released

Croeze en BosmanUniversal Films The Winking Idol (US 1926) Universal 10 ep

De Terugkomst van den Geheimzinnigen Ruiter July release pattern unclear Croeze en BosmanUniversal Films Return of the Riddle Rider (US 1927) Universal 10 ep

1928Het Spoor van de Tijger August 2 ep Croeze en Bosman The Trail of the Tiger

(US 1927) Universal 10 epHet Geheimzinnige Eiland or Het Betooverde Eiland December 2 ep Croeze en

Bosman Haunted Island (US 1928) Universal 10 ep

1929Napoleacuteon March version of 3946 meters Patheacute Consortium Napoleacuteon (France

1927) Films Abel GanceSocieacuteteacute geacuteneacuterale des fi lms released in many different versions Abel Gance

Tarzan de Machtige July 4 ep (1486ndash2009 meters) Croeze en Bosman Tarzan the Mighty (US 1928) Universal 15 ep

NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION

1 Gloria Groom Edouard Vuillard Painter-Decorator Patrons and Proj-ects 1892-1912 (New Haven Yale University Press 1993) 172ndash177 Sabine Rewald ldquoVuillardrsquos Unlikely Obsession Revisiting Place Vintimillerdquo Art in America 89 no7 (2001)

2 Place Vintimille (1911) can be seen in the National Gallery of Art Washing-ton DC United States

3 Stephen King ventured his luck less successfully with his internet serial novel The Plant (2000ndash2001) At Five Chapters fi ve-part stories are published every week while Daily Lit sent daily e-mails with short installments of well-known novels httpwwwfi vechapterscom and httpwwwdailylitcom (accessed May 21 2010)

4 Jonathan Gray Show Sold Separately Promos Spoilers and Other Media Paratexts (New York New York University Press 2010) Henry Jenkins Convergence Culture Where Old and New Media Collide (New York New York University Press 2006)

5 Theodor W Adorno ldquoCulture Industry Reconsideredrdquo New German Cri-tique 6 (1975) 12

6 ldquoIn contrast the technique of the culture industry is from the beginning one of distribution and mechanical reproduction and therefore always remains external to its objectrdquo Adorno ldquoCulture Industry Reconsideredrdquo 14

7 Gramsci (or J H Rosny as the true authorship of the unsigned source is unclear) considered ldquoopiatesrdquo like the popular serial novels from Eugegravene Sue Alexandre Dumas or George Sand as still belonging to literature Antonio Gramsci Selections from Cultural Writings eds David Forgacs and Geof-frey Nowell-Smith (Cambridge Harvard University Press 1985) 34ndash36

8 In a note to Paul Nizan he wrote ldquoIt appears to me that the problem is this how to create a body of writers who are artistically to serial literature what Dostoyevski was to Sue and Soulieacute or with respect to the detective story what Chesterton was to Conan Doyle and Wallacerdquo Ibid 102 and 344

9 Gary Garrels ed Sol LeWitt A Retrospective (San Francisco San Francisco Museum of Modern Art 2000) 373

10 Roger Hagedorn ldquoTechnology and Economic Exploitation The Serial as a Form of Narrative Presentationrdquo Wide Angle 10 no 4 (1988) 5

11 Roy McKeen Wiles Serial Publication in England before 1750 (Cambridge University Press 1957) Mary Hamer Writing by Numbers Trollopersquos Serial Fiction (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1987) Graham Law Seri-alizing Fiction in the Victorian Press (Houndsmill Palgrave 2000)

210 Notes

12 Lise Queffeacutelec Le roman-feuilleton franccedilais au XIXe siegravecle (Paris Presses universitaires de France 1989)

13 Charles Johanningsmeier does offer insights into the reproduction of material from English periodicals in America Charles Johanningsmeier Fiction and the American Literary Marketplace The Role of Newspaper Syndicates 1860-1900 (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1997) Graham Law and Norimasa Morita have called for an international comparative study of the serial novel Graham Law and Norimasa Morita ldquoThe Newspaper Novel Towards an International Historyrdquo Media History 6 no 1 (2000)

14 Robert C Allen ed To Be Continued Soap Operas around the World (London Routledge 1995) Hugh OrsquoDonnell Good Times Bad Times Soap Operas and Society in Western Europe (London Leicester University Press 1999) Tamar Liebes and Elihu Katz The Export of Meaning Cross-Cultural Readings of Dallas (New York Oxford University Press 1990)

15 One notable exception is Monica DallrsquoAstarsquos work on seriality For instance Monica DallrsquoAsta ldquoItalian Serial Films and lsquoInternational Popular Culturersquordquo Film History 12 no 3 (2000) 300ndash307

16 Ben Singer Melodrama and Modernity Early Sensational Cinema and Its Contexts (New York Columbia University Press 2001) Shelley Stamp Movie-Struck Girls Women and Motion Picture Culture after the Nickel-odeon (Princeton Princeton University Press 2000)

17 Thomas Elsaesser ldquoThe New Film Historyrdquo Sight amp Sound 55 no 4 (1986) Important was the publication of Robert C Allen and Douglas Gomery Film History Theory and Practice (New York Knopf 1985)

18 Andrew Higson ldquoThe Limiting Imagination of National Cinemardquo in Cin-ema and Nation eds Mette Hjort and Scott MacKenzie (London Rout-ledge 2000) 68

19 This is still true for imported Asian fi lms Siu Lam Juk Kau (Shaolin Soccer 2001) or Ong-Bak (Ong-Bak The Thai Warrior 2003) were adjusted to fi t a presumed Western taste See also Anna Antonini ed Film and Its Multiples (Udine Forum 2003) Richard Maltby and Melvyn Stokes ed Hollywood Abroad Audiences and Cultural Exchange (London BFI Publishing 2004) Jan Distelmeyer ed Babylon in FilmEuropa Mehrsprachen-Versionen der 1930er Jahre (Hamburg Edition Text+Kritik 2006)

20 More on the usefulness of comparative studies as well as its relation to trans-national approaches Hartmut Kaelble Der Historische Vergleich Eine Ein-fuumlhrung zum 19 Und 20 Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main Campus-Verlag 1999) Juumlrgen Kocka ldquoComparison and Beyondrdquo History and Theory 42 no 1 (2003)

21 Overall in fi lm history silent serials have for a long time not been the object of study as they were often seen as overly long peculiarities that were artisti-cally not interesting Only in recent years when serials have been shown at fi lm festivals such as Le Giornate del Cinema Muto (Pordenone Italy) and Il Cinema Ritrovato (Bologna Italy) has interest grown as the silent serials that were shown defi ed these generalizing views

22 Riccardo Redi has looked into the differences of an Italian version of Feuil-ladersquos Judex (1917) Riccardo Redi ldquoA propos drsquoune copie Italienne de Judexrdquo Les cahiers de la cineacutemathegraveque 48 (1987)

23 Ben Singer ldquoNew York Just Like I Pictured Itrdquo Cinema Journal 35 no 3 (1996) 115

24 In television studies there are various defi nitions and classifi cations How-ever terms such as ldquoepisodic seriesrdquo ldquocontinuous serialrdquo ldquoepisodic serialrdquo or ldquosequential seriesrdquo become quickly rather murky as one tries to use them in an international setting where more hybrid variations exist See Allen

Notes 211

ed To Be Continued Soap Operas around the World Christine Geraghty Women and Soap Opera A Study of Prime Time Soaps (Oxford Polity Press 1991)

25 The novel qualifi cations are used by Mutual releases Advertisement ldquoThe Diamond from the Skyrdquo Moving Picture World November 20 1915 1436 Advertisement ldquoThe Girl and the Gamerdquo Moving Picture World January 15 1916 364ndash365

26 ldquoDe Seriefi lmrdquo De Kinematograaf August 18 1916 2454 27 Kalton C Lahue Continued Next Week A History of the Moving Picture

Serial (Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1964) xvindashxvii 28 However Stedmanrsquos additional demand for a predetermined release form

cannot be used with European serial features as these were especially in the beginning released randomly that is as soon as they were fi nished As a result of this European serials had from the beginning a less abrupt but more worked out ending Raymond William Stedman The Serials Sus-pense and Drama by Installment 2nd ed (Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1977) 7

29 Umberto Eco The Role of the Reader Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (Bloomington Indiana University Press 1984) 117

30 Indeed with comics like Superman sometimes there have also been special multi-issue stories where storylines are weaved across multiple issues of the comic magazine

31 In television matters can be slightly different I consider the soap a serial even though in fact soaps do not have a true overarching storyline Many of them have after decades still not come to a conclusion

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION PART I

1 Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell Film History An Introduction 3rd ed (New York McGraw-Hill 2010) 49 Richard Koszarski An Eveningrsquos Entertainment The Age of the Silent Feature Picture 1915-1928 (Berkeley University of California Press 1994) 164 See also earlier studies like Sted-man The Serials 100 Lahue Continued Next Week 19

2 Ben Singer ldquoSerial Melodrama and the Narrative Gesellschaftrdquo Velvet Light Trap 37 (1996) 76 Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 111

NOTES TO CHAPTER I

1 Michael J Quinn ldquoParamount and Early Feature Distribution 1914-1921rdquo Film History 11 no 1 (1999) 41

2 Eileen Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 1907-1915 (Berkeley Uni-versity of California Press 1994) 192

3 The term feature had already been used in 1904 Richard Abel The Red Rooster Scare Making Cinema American 1900-1910 (Berkeley University of California Press 1999) 23 and 25

4 This change can for instance clearly be seen in the production of Vitagraph quality fi lms (such as The Life of Moses) as described in William Uricchio and Roberta E Pearson Reframing Culture The Case of the Vitagraph Quality Films (Princeton Princeton University Press 1993) See also Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 199

212 Notes

5 More on the development of new narrative and expressive norms in Charlie Keil Early American Cinema in Transition Story Style and Filmmaking 1907ndash1913 (Madison University of Wisconsin Press 2001) 45ndash82

6 Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 111 7 Ibid 112 8 DW Griffi th ldquoA Vital Theme Is Necessary for a Classic Picturerdquo Motion

Picture News September 16 1916 MoMA Griffi th File Reproduced in Miriam Hansen Babel and Babylon Spectatorship in American Silent Film (Cambridge Harvard University Press 1991) 137

9 Tom Gunning ldquoNon-Continuity Continuity Discontinuity A Theory of Genres in Early Filmsrdquo Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative eds Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker (London BFI Publishing 1990) 89

10 The disruption caused by cuts can however also be smoothed over with the ldquogenre of continuityrdquo such as can be seen with a chase fi lm where cuts are linked together by a continuity of action on the story level

11 Gunning ldquoNon-Continuity Continuity Discontinuityrdquo 92 Tom Gunning uses the word parallel editing however as David Bordwell writes if ldquotempo-ral simultaneity is not pertinent to the series [of images] the cutting may be called parallel editing if the series are to be taken as temporally simultane-ous then we have crosscuttingrdquo Griffi thrsquos Intolerance thus uses both David Bordwell Janet Staiger and Kristin Thompson The Classical Hollywood Cinema Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (London Routledge amp Kegan Paul 1985) 48

12 Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker ldquoIntroduction The Continuity Sys-tem Griffi th and Beyondrdquo in Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative eds Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker (London BFI Publishing 1990) 305

13 Ibid 311 14 Herman G Weinberg and Erich von Stroheim The Complete Wedding

March of Erich Von Stroheim (Boston Little Brown 1974) 95 15 Robert M Henderson DW Griffi th His Life and Work (New York Oxford

University Press 1972) 174 16 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 191 17 Henderson DW Griffi th His Life and Work 97 18 Kristin Thompson ldquoHis Trustrdquo in The Griffi th Project eds Paolo Cherchi

Usai and Eileen Bowser vol 4 (London BFI Publishing 2000) 246 19 Ibid 248 20 Robert M Henderson DW Griffi th The Years at Biograph (New York

Farrar 1970) 119 21 Moving Picture World June 17 1911 1358ndash1359 Lea Jacobs ldquoEnoch

ArdenndashPart Onerdquo in The Griffi th Project eds Paolo Cherchi Usai and Rich-ard Abel vol 5 (London BFI Publishing 2001) 48

22 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 204 23 Uricchio and Pearson Reframing Culture 196 24 Of course the exhibitor could also function in this as a helping hand 25 Uricchio and Pearson Reframing Culture 163 26 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 197 Richard Abel The Cineacute Goes

to Town French Cinema 1896ndash1914 rev ed (Berkeley University of Cali-fornia Press 1998) 201

27 Ben Brewster ldquoTraffi c in Souls An Experiment in Feature-Length Narrative Constructionrdquo Cinema Journal 31 no 1 (1991) 39

28 Stephen Railton ldquolsquoA Decided Innovationrsquo The 3-Reel Vitagraph Production (1910)rdquo Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin amp American Culture httputciathvirginiaedu (accessed May 21 2010)

Notes 213

29 ldquoReviews of Licensed Filmsrdquo New York Dramatic Mirror August 6 1910 26 Also see ldquoUncle Tomrsquos Cabinrdquo Moving Picture World August 6 1910 298

30 Abel The Cineacute Goes to Town 303ndash305 31 Idem 359 32 Richard Abel ldquoGuarding the Borders in Early Cinema The Shifting Ground

of French-American Relationsrdquo in Celebrating 1895 The Centenary of Cin-ema ed John Fullerton (London John Libbey amp Company 1998) 50

33 Epes Winthrop Sargent Moving Picture World June 22 1912 1125 Brewster ldquoTraffi c in Soulsrdquo 39 For a discussion of Sargentrsquos role see Bor-dwell Staiger and Thompson The Classical Hollywood Cinema 106ndash108

34 ldquoGreat Northern Special Feature Film Cordquo Motion Picture News January 6 1912 13 Bordwell Staiger and Thompson The Classical Hollywood Cinema 133

35 In such cases seriality produced a break that was tied into the overall experience of the program Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 199 Brewster ldquoTraffi c in Soulsrdquo 41

36 Douglas Gomery Shared Pleasures A History of Movie Presentation in the United States (Madison University of Wisconsin Press 1992) 32

37 Charles Musser ldquoOn lsquoExtrasrsquo Mary Pickford and the Red-Light Film Film-making in the United States 1913rdquo Griffi thiana 50 (1994) 149

38 Brewster ldquoTraffi c in Soulsrdquo 41 39 Abel The Cineacute Goes to Town 321 Moving Picture World November 1

1913 503 40 For instance the reel breaks of the Italian epics are diffi cult to analyze

Paolo Cherchi Usai ldquoCabiria an Incomplete Masterpiece The Quest for the Original 1914 Versionrdquo Film History 2 no 2 (1988) 155ndash165

41 According to Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell The Adventures of Kathlyn was the fi rst serial Eileen Bowser Richard Koszarski and Buck Rainey regard What Happened to Mary as a precursor of the serial while The Adventures of Kathlyn was the fi rst proper serial Thompson and Bordwell Film History 61 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 209 Koszarski An Eveningrsquos Entertainment 164 Buck Rainey Serials and Series A World Filmography 1912ndash1956 (Jefferson McFarland 1999) 1

42 ldquoAlone in New Yorkrdquo Moving Picture World September 7 1912 976 43 W Stephen Bush ldquoFantomas or the Man in Blackrdquo Moving Picture World

November 8 1913 594 44 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 206 45 Gunning ldquoA Tale of Two Prologuesrdquo 34 46 For instance one reel ends when Fantocircmas exits the room after he has turned

on the gas in the room where the drugged Elizabeth is lying The next reel begins with Fandor breaking into the room and saving Elizabeth by turning off the gas and opening the window Abel The Cineacute Goes to Town 373ndash374 and 377

47 Perhaps mostly unaltered as episode descriptions in trade papers seem to be the same as the original episode

48 This is a pleasure Michael Denning also describes as belonging to the reading of dime novels and serial novels (and something that is also witnessed with research on television soaps) Michael Denning Mechanic Accents Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America (London Verso 1987) 71

49 Hanford C Judson ldquoThe Perils of Paulinerdquo Moving Picture World April 4 1914 38

50 Frank Leon Smith ldquoThe First American Serialrdquo Films in Review 9 no 2 (1958) 109

214 Notes

51 Serials were in the coming years exemplary in providing huge numbers of prints Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 110 ldquoPathe Holds a Recordrdquo Variety April 14 1916 20

52 Janet Staiger ldquoCombination and Litigation Structures of US Film Distribu-tion 1896ndash1917rdquo in Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative eds Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker (London BFI Publishing 1990) 201 The Adventures of Kathlyn was Seligrsquos only serial

53 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 213ndash214 54 ldquoFive Serials a Weekrdquo Moving Picture World March 4 1916 1515 ldquoTwo

Serials at the Same Nightrdquo Moving Picture World November 20 1915 1523

55 Bowser The Transformation of Cinema 210

56 Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 118ndash119 57 Jas S McQuade ldquoChicago News Letterrdquo Moving Picture World March

4 1916 1478 and March 11 1916 1634 ldquoRandolph Film Reissues The Million Dollar Mysteryrdquo Moving Picture World May 11 1918 880 CS Sewell ldquoThe Million Dollar Mysteryrdquo Moving Picture World June 8 1918 1473

58 Rainey Serials and Series 1912ndash1956 753 59 Such as The Fortieth Door (1924) The Way of a Man (1924) Galloping

Hoofs (1924) The Fighting Marine (1926) or Hawk of the Hills (1927) 60 Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 116ndash117 61 Advertisement Moving Picture World August 26 1916 1354 62 Advertisement Reel Life (30 September 1916) The Fantomas serial novel

had appeared in newspapers such as Los Angeles Tribune New York World Pittsburgh Press and Little Rock Gazette Advertisement Reel Life (2 Sep-tember 1916) 21

63 ldquoThe False Magistrate Concludes Fantomasrdquo Moving Picture World Octo-ber 7 1916 99 ldquoFantomas Still Being Bookedrdquo Moving Picture World January 13 1917 253

64 ldquoAuthor of Fantomas See Picturesrdquo unidentifi ed source from the Motion Pictures Bureau Scrapbooks Library of Congress (MPBS LoC)

65 The fi rst two episodes (815 and 350 meters) were shown together in one pro-gram

66 As in France the fi rst two episodes were put together Looking at American episode descriptions no noticeable difference in storyline could be found

67 ldquoPre-Showing Gaumontrsquos New Serial Evokes Praiserdquo Motion Picture News October 28 1916

68 ldquoIntroducing The Vampiresrdquo Moving Picture World November 25 1916 1190

69 ldquoGaumont Serial is Nearly Readyrdquo unidentifi ed source MPBS LoC 70 Judith McLaren ldquoUltus The Films from the Deadrdquo in Crossing the Pond

Anglo-American Film Relations before 1930 eds Alan Burton and Laraine Porter (Trowbridge Flicks Books 2002) 45

71 Margeret I MacDonald ldquoUltusrdquo Moving Picture World June 16 1917 1796 ldquoComments on the Filmsrdquo Moving Picture World July 7 1917 81

72 ldquoGaumontrsquos Ten-Reel Serial Not Yet Namedrdquo unidentifi ed source MPBS LoC

73 ldquoGaumont Serial Title Now The Hand of Vengeancerdquo Moving Picture World June 15 1918 1600

74 Advertisements Moving Picture World June 29 1918 1806 September 7 1918 1343

75 ldquoKeen Interest Shown in The Hand of Vengeancerdquo unidentifi ed source Sep-tember 7 1918 MPBS LoC

Notes 215

76 Margaret I MacDonald ldquoThe Hand of Vengeancerdquo Moving Picture World July 27 1918 588ndash589

77 Another even more obscure example was the Maciste serial Maciste the Liberator (1919) DallrsquoAsta ldquoItalian Serial Filmsrdquo Film History 12 no 3 (2000) 305

78 ldquoA Message to Boysrdquo Moving Picture World February 23 1918 1048 ldquoUniversal Program for May 13 Has No Long Subjectsrdquo unidentifi ed source MPBS LoC

79 W Stephen Bush ldquoAre Short Subjects Coming Backrdquo Moving Picture World September 23 1916 1947 Even in 1922 such articles did pop up ldquoMajority of Neighborhood Houses in Favor of the Short Featurerdquo Moving Picture World November 4 1922 41

80 Robert C McElravy ldquoThe Boy Scouts to the Rescuerdquo Moving Picture World March 2 1918 1268 ldquoAids of the Nation and On the Trailrdquo Mov-ing Picture World April 27 1918 590

81 Scott Simmon ldquoThe Fall of Babylon The Mother and the Lawrdquo in The Grif-fi th Project ed Paolo Cherchi Usai vol 9 (London BFI Publishing 2005)

82 Russell Merritt ldquoIntolerance Production and Distributionrdquo in The Griffi th Project ed Paolo Cherchi Usai vol 9 (London BFI Publishing 2005) 44

83 See especially Ben Singerrsquos and Ben Brewsterrsquos article in American Cinemarsquos Transitional Era Audiences Institutions Practices eds Charlie Keil and Shelley Stamp (Berkeley University of California Press 2004) 76 See also Keil Early American Cinema in Transition 45ndash82

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

1 ldquoWelcome beautiful Kathlynrdquo ldquoEin 8000 Meter-Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne August 1 1914 36

2 The only known precedent of foreign form of seriality in Germany is Capel-lanirsquos Les Miseacuterables (1912) More research needs to be done on how Les Miseacuterables fi ts into the Monopol system

3 Even though French fi lms soon were banned in Germany at the end of 1915 Fantomas was shown with episodes in different order Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne August 1 1914 35 ldquoAus der Praxisrdquo Der Kinematograph September 22 1915

4 For more on these rights see Dr Richard Treitel ldquoFilm- und Kino-Recht IIrdquo Der Kinematograph July 28 1916 ldquoFilm- und Kino-Recht IIIrdquo Der Kinematograph September 6 1916

5 Corinna Muumlller Fruumlhe deutsche Kinematographie Formale wirtschaftli-che und kulturelle Entwicklungen 1907ndash1912 (Stuttgart Metzler 1994) 105ndash157

6 Ibid 172 7 ldquoAutorenkunstler und Riesenfi lmsrdquo Der Kinematograph September 3

1913 8 Arthur Mellini ldquoDie Bilanz der Winter-Saisonrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne June 6

1914 12 9 ldquoEin 8000 Meter-Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne August 1 1914 36 10 Ibid 34 11 Ibid 12 Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne August 1 1914 38ndash39 13 Corinna Muumlller ldquoVariationen des Kinoprogramms Filmform und

Filmgeschichterdquo in Die Modellierung des Kinofi lms Zur Geschichte des

216 Notes

Kinoprogramms zwischen Kurzfi lm und Langfi lm (190506ndash1918) eds Harro Segeberg Knut Hickethier and Corinna Muumlller vol 2 (Munich Wil-helm Fink 1998) 64

14 Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne December 31 1915 8 15 The war did create a boom in German production companies Jerzy Toeplitz

Geschichte des Films 1895-1928 (Berlin Henschel-Verl 1992) 138 16 Herbert Birett Verzeichnis in Deutschland gelaufener Filme (Munich Saur

1980) 617 Herbert Birett and Sabine Lenk ldquoDie Behandlung auslaumlndischer Filmgesellschaften waumlhrend des ersten Weltkriegsrdquo in Positionen deutscher Filmgeschichte 100 Jahre Kinematographie Strukturen Diskurse Kon-texte ed Michael Schaudig (Munich Diskurs Film Verlag Schaudig amp Ledig 1996) 65

17 Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne August 1 1914 38ndash39 18 Karen Pehla ldquoJoe May und seine Detektive Der Serienfi lm als Kinoerleb-

nisrdquo in Joe May Regisseur und Produzent eds Hans-Michael Bock and Claudia Lenssen (Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1991) 61

19 Ibid 63ndash65 20 Ibid 66 21 Thomas Elsaesser ldquoEarly German Cinema A Second Liferdquo in A Second

Life German Cinemarsquos First Decades eds Thomas Elsaesser and Michael Wedel (Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 1996) 25

22 This is as Umberto Eco also writes regarding Superman a repetitive struc-ture that in fact is circular and immobile Eco The Role of the Reader 120ndash122

23 For more on Oswald see Helga Belach and Wolfgang Jacobsen eds Richard Oswald Regisseur und Produzent (Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1990) Jurgen Kasten and Armin Loacker eds Richard Oswald Kino zwischen Spektakel Aufklaumlrung und Unterhaltung (Vienna Filmarchiv Austria 2005)

24 Wilhelm Graf ldquoDer Monopolfi lm-Vertriebrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne February 26 1916 16

25 Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne October 16 1915 32 26 ldquoHomunculus III Teilrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne October 28 1916 50 27 Deutsche Bioscop later merged into Decla 28 ldquoWas die lsquoLBBrsquo erzaumlhltrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne September 30 1916 32 29 Rudmer Canjels ldquoDe serial in Nederland 1915ndash1925 De unieke opkomst

en ondergang van een aangepaste fi lmvormrdquo Tijdschrift voor mediageschie-denis 4 no 1 (2001) 108ndash128

30 Alfred Rosenthal ldquoDie deutsche Kinematographie im dritten Kriegsjahrrdquo Der Kinematograph December 27 1916

31 A Czillard ldquoDas Geschaumlft in Rheinland und Westfalenrdquo Der Kinemato-graph September 20 1916

32 ldquoDie Serien-Filmsrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne March 24 1917 12 and 46 ldquoEin Pro-test der Theaterbesitzerrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne March 17 1917 36 ldquoAus den Vereinenrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne March 22 1919 38ndash39 ldquoZur Serienfragerdquo Der Kinematograph April 11 1917 On taking fi lms outside the series see A Szilaacuterd ldquoSerienwut Kulturfi lms und Propagandafi lmsrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne December 29 1917 71 Film director Ernst Reicher admitted in 1917 that the costs of the Stuart Webbs series had doubled and that he could not keep up the same level of quality as seen in the fi rst episode of the series Ernst Reicher ldquoDer Verkaufsvertrag fuumlr Filmserienrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne December 8 1917 12 and 16

33 ldquoDie Serien-Filmsrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne March 24 1917 52

Notes 217

34 Die Filmwelt distanced itself from these opinions Tb ldquoSprechsaal Film-Abschluumlsse fuumlr die Serien 1919-20rdquo Die Filmwelt 5 (1919) 36 and 38

35 Its production was probably infl uenced by older Italian productions Grif-fi thrsquos Intolerance (offi cially not released until 1924) or Robert Reinerrsquos Ahas-ver (1917) Unlike Griffi thrsquos Intolerance the three storylines from different periods are not edited together but follow each other like episodes More on Mayrsquos sleuths in Sebastian Hesse Kamera-Auge und Spuumlrnase Der Detek-tiv im fruumlhen deutschen Kino (Frankfurt StroemfeldRoter Stern 2003) 147ndash173

36 Long before the general public would be this inundated May had already whetted the appetite by promoting the fi lm heavily mostly for exhibitors in fi lm journals even including a contest for the best poster design with a grand prize of 400 Marks Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne November 2 1918 45

37 Veritas Vincit set in motion the production of monumental features like Pest in Florenz (1919) Prinz Kuckuck (1919) and Madame Dubarry (1919) and perhaps it was also an inspiration to episodic feature productions like Unheimliche Geschichten (1919) Der Muumlde Tod (1921) or Das Wachsfi g-urenkabinett (1924) ldquoDer teuerste Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne November 15 1919 23ndash24

38 Die Filmwelt 7 (1919) 62ndash63 This cannot be seen in episodes one four fi ve and six that are available at the Cineacutemathegraveque Royal Brussels

39 In the end the fi rst episode was released on 28 November 1919 six weeks later than originally scheduled

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION PART II

1 Philippe Soupault ldquoLe cineacutema USArdquo Le theacuteacirctre et comoedia illustreacute 15 January 1924 Translation in Paul Hammond ed The Shadow and Its Shadow Surrealist Writings on the Cinema 3rd ed (San Francisco City Lights Books 2000) 56

2 ldquoBig American cinema novel adapted by Pierre Decourcelle published by Le Matinrdquo

3 Roland Robertson ldquoGlocalization Time-Space and Homogeneity-Hetero-geneityrdquo in Global Modernities eds Mike Featherstone Scott Lash and Roland Robertson (London Sage 1995) 29 See also Roland Robertson ldquoGlobalization Theory 2000+ Major Problematicsrdquo in Handbook of Social Theory eds Barry Smart and George Ritzer (London Sage 2001)

4 Stephen Bottomore ldquoShots in the Dark The Real Origins of Film Editingrdquo in Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative eds Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker (London BFI Publishing 1990) 104ndash113

5 More on the exhibitorrsquos role in Charles Musser ldquoThe Eden Museacutee in 1898 The Exhibitor as Creatorrdquo Film amp History 11 no 4 (1981) 73ndash83 and 96 Charles Musser ldquoToward a History of Screen Practicerdquo Quarterly Review of Film Studies 9 no1 (1984) 59ndash69

6 Often though with a national censorship the local censorship remained in effect creating a double locality Censorship laid on by the industry itself is of course a different matter altogether See also Lee Grieveson Policing Cin-ema Movies and Censorship in Early-Twentieth-Century America (Berke-ley University of California Press 2004)

7 Casper Tybjerg ldquoThe Presentation of Variant Endingsrdquo in Film and Its Mul-tiples ed Anna Antonini (Udine Forum 2003) 237ndash240

218 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

1 ldquoMary The Remarkable Story of a Remarkable Girlrdquo The Ladiesrsquo World (August 1912) 32

2 ldquoWhat Happened to Maryrdquo The Ladiesrsquo World (September 1912) 12ndash13 Until episode four one could win $100 for imagining what happened to Mary ldquoThe lsquoMaryrsquo Answer That Wins the Prizerdquo The Ladiesrsquo World (Octo-ber 1912) 38

3 ldquoEdison-McClurerdquo Moving Picture World June 29 1912 1212 Rothvin Wallace ldquoThe Activities of Maryrdquo The Ladiesrsquo World (March 1913) 11 ldquoBoosting Pathe Picturesrdquo Moving Picture World March 14 1914 1392ndash1393

4 In 1911 Vitagraph launched The Motion Picture Story Magazine probably the fi rst American fi lm journal for the fi lm fan Kathryn H Fuller At the Pic-ture Show Small-Town Audiences and the Creation of Movie Fan Culture (Charlottesville University Press of Virginia 2001) 133ndash149

5 ldquoEdison-McClurerdquo Moving Picture World June 29 1912 1212 Advertise-ment The Ladiesrsquo World (December 1912) 39 See also Singer Melodrama and Modernity 213

6 Rothvin Wallace ldquoThe Activities of Maryrdquo The Ladiesrsquo World (March 1913) 11

7 ldquoEdison-McClurerdquo Moving Picture World June 29 1912 1212 8 Julian T Baber ldquoEffi cient Publicity Workrdquo Moving Picture World May 30

1914 1270 Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 105 9 Lahue Continued Next Week 7 10 Harold MacGrath ldquoThe Adventures of Kathlynrdquo Chicago Tribune January

4 1914 Each Sunday there would be a new episode of the serial novel mak-ing a total of 26

11 Lahue Continued Next Week 8 12 McManus would later as general manager of the Hearstrsquos International Film

Service help set up a deal with Patheacute to release as of January 1917 all Hearstrsquos products ldquoPathe and International Join Forcesrdquo Moving Picture World Jan-uary 13 1917 202

13 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 278 14 Advertisement Moving Picture World April 11 1914 154ndash155 15 Ben Singer ldquoFiction Tie-Ins and Narrative Intelligibility 1911ndash18rdquo Film His-

tory 5 no 4 (1993) 502 16 Advertisements Moving Picture World March 28 1914 1697 April 11

1914 150 17 Kalton C Lahue Bound and Gagged The Story of the Silent Serials (New

York Castle Books 1968) 128 Howard Wesley and Charles Elbert ldquoElaine My Moving Picture Queenrdquo (New York Leo Feist Inc 1915)

18 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 216 19 Janet Staiger ldquoAnnouncing Wares Winning Patrons Voicing Ideals Think-

ing About the History and Theory of Film Advertisingrdquo Cinema Journal 29 no 3 (1990) 12ndash13

20 Stamp Movie-Struck Girls 108 21 Ibid 22 Staiger ldquoAnnouncing Waresrdquo 13 23 Lahue Bound and Gagged 125 24 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 278ndash279 25 However the serial was not instantly pushed into this position nor was it

with the arrival of the feature immediately kicked out of the fi rst-run houses This process took some time

Notes 219

26 ldquoStories of Serials Gain in Favorrdquo Moving Picture World April 29 1922 933

27 Even FJ McConnell general short product sales manager from Universal wrote in 1926 that the ldquoserials today are fundamentally the same as they have been for the last 12 yearsrdquo ldquoWhat Does the Exhibitors Say About Serialsrdquo in Film Year Book 1926 ed Joseph Dannenberg (New York Film Daily 1926) 799

28 As Staiger argues it was much more benefi cial for the production company to attain a national grid of promotion when distribution and exhibition were also vertically integrated (which happened in the late 1910s) and when the fl at rate was turned into a percentage of box offi ce profi ts (which hap-pened in the late 1920s) Staiger ldquoAnnouncing Waresrdquo 14

29 Around the same time that Les Mystegraveres de New-York was released in Paris the serial The Exploits of Elaine opened in Britain and created a storm of publicity ldquoThe Vogue of the Serialrdquo The Bioscope July 1 1915 51 ldquolsquoElainersquo Makes Wonderful Showing in Englandrdquo Moving Picture World October 23 1915 637 ldquoMetropolitan Briefsrdquo Moving Picture World October 30 1915 781 Jane Bryan ldquoUnder the Infl uence of the Clutching Hand The Exploits of Elaine in Britainrdquo in Crossing the Pond Anglo-American Film Relations before 1930 eds Alan Burton and Laraine Porter (Trowbridge Flicks Books 2002) 54

30 The Trey orsquo Hearts (1914) was released a few months earlier but it hardly made an impact Moving Picture World October 30 1915 957

31 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 281 32 In response to the criticism Thanhouser ordered a rewrite in mid-release

and changed the title of Zudora to The Twenty Million Dollar Mystery All the changes were to no avail after 20 episodes the fi nal curtain came down with critical and fi nancial disaster ldquoThanhouser Rewriting lsquoZudorarsquo Not Pleasingrdquo Variety December 19 1914 23 ldquoLoew Cancels lsquoZudorarsquordquo Variety January 1 1915 26 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 286

33 In light of motion picture story magazines Andrew Shail adds the sugges-tion that the purpose of these kinds of paratexts was not to explain inad-equate told narratives but to help clarify the newly achieved higher level of narrational complexity It provided moviegoers with a guide for how to recognize cause-and-effect chains or conjunctions of shots narrationally Andrew Shail ldquoThe Motion Picture Story Magazine and the Origins of Popular British Film Culturerdquo Film History 20 no 2 (2008) 185ndash186

34 Advertisements Cineacute-Journal November 20 and 27 1915 35 I have viewed and compared episodes eight nine and ten from The Exploits

of Elaine (previously available from Glenn Video Vistas) 36 Gaylyn Studlar ldquoThe Perils of Pleasure Fan Magazine Discourse as Womenrsquos

Commodifi ed Culture in the 1920srdquo Wide Angle 13 no1 (1991) 6ndash33 37 ldquoBoosting Pathe Picturesrdquo Moving Picture World March 14 1914 1392ndash

1393 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 279 38 Richard Abel French Cinema The First Wave 1915ndash1929 (Princeton

Princeton University Press 1984) 72 39 Decourcelle would leave SCAGL around 1914 His Les Deux Gosses was

fi lmed in 1924 as an eight-part serial by Louis Mercanton Abel The Cineacute Goes to Town 40ndash41

40 Arthur B Reeve The Exploits of Elaine A Detective Novel (New York Hearstrsquos International Library Co 1915) 6

41 Ibid 15 42 Pierre Decourcelle Les mystegraveres de New-York (Paris La Renaissance du

Livre 1916) 20

220 Notes

43 NRP Bonsor North Atlantic Seaway An Illustrated History of the Pas-senger Services Linking the Old World with the New vol 2 2nd ed (Cam-bridge Stephens 1978) 658

44 Frederic Coleman From Mons to Ypres with French A Personal Narrative (London Sampson Low Marston amp Co 1916) 179

45 William Uricchio ldquoThe First World War and the Crisis in Europerdquo in The Oxford History of World Cinema ed Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (New York Oxford University Press 1997) 63 See also Abel French Cinema The First Wave 1915ndash1929

46 Clarelrsquos French decent was mentioned at least a couple times a week in the serial novel episodes

47 My translation all translations from the French hereinafter are mine Decourcelle Les mystegraveres de New-York 10ndash11 This scene from the fi rst episode of the tie-in is not referred to in the fi rst two episodes of the French fi lm version

48 For more on Bertillon see Henry Taylor Fowkes Rhodes Alphonse Bertillon Father of Scientifi c Detection (London George G Harrap 1956)

49 Decourcelle Les mystegraveres de New-York 224 and 460 50 Ibid 243 and 338 51 Arthur B Reeve The Romance of Elaine (New York Hearstrsquos International

Library Co 1916) 194 52 Ibid 350 His sympathies could indeed also lie with the Austrians or the

Japanese 53 Arthur B Reeve The Romance of Elaine (London Hodder amp Stoughton

1916) 84 54 Jacques Portes Fascination and Misgivings The United States in French

Opinion 1870ndash1914 (Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2000) 343 55 Decourcelle Les mystegraveres de New-York 364 56 Ibid 57 Ibid 459 58 Unfortunately most of the episodes are lost or not available for viewing

because of their fragile condition In fi lm episodes 1 2 and 14 of Les Mystegraveres de New-York (previously available from Glenn Video Vistas) no references to war or patriotic subjects are made the intertitles only mentioned that Clarel was French (ldquole ceacutelegravebre deacutetective scientifi que fran-ccedilaisrdquo) As noted war-related material only entered the print version from episode 16 on Lobster Films possibly has more episodes of Les Mystegraveres de New-York but the fi lm (a 28 mm print) needs to be restored before it can be viewed

59 Decourcelle Les mystegraveres de New-York 527 60 ldquoPearl White the Idol of the French Soldiersrdquo June 1916 Unidentifi ed source

found in the Pearl White clipping fi le The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts

61 French serial novels with anti-German themes can already be read in 1912 Hans-Joumlrg Neuschaumlfer Dorothee Fritz-El Ahmad and Klaus-Peter Walter Der franzoumlsische Feuilletonroman Die Entstehung der Serienliteratur im Medium der Tageszeitung (Darmstadt Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 1986) 322ndash331

62 Charles W Brooks America in Francersquos Hopes and Fears 1890-1920 (New York Garland 1987) 320ndash372

63 In the order of serials mentioned the original American novelization can be read in Charles Goddard The Perils of Pauline (New York Hearstrsquos Interna-tional Library Co 1915) weekly by Arthur Stringer in The Atlanta Constitu-tion from 27 February 1916 a weekly summarization by Guy W MrsquoConnell

Notes 221

in The Atlanta Constitution from 3 December 1916 The fi rst two appeared as a French novelization in Le Matin the last one in Le Petit Journal

64 Guy de Teramond (Francois-Edmond Gautier de Teramond) La maison de la haine (Paris La Renaissance du Livre 1920) 99

65 Ibid 66 Ibid 102 67 Brooks America in Francersquos Hopes and Fears 354ndash355 68 Teramond La maison de la haine 117ndash118 69 Brooks America in Francersquos Hopes and Fears 418ndash420 70 Ibid 362 71 Such as in The Moving Picture World episode 5 April 13 1918 285 or

episode 20 August 3 1918 716 72 Decourcellersquos adaptation of La Reine srsquoEnnuie hardly contains any reference

to the war as the story deals with an Egyptian priestess who tries to get a ring with the power of invisibility

73 Teramond La maison de la Haine 284ndash287 74 Ibid 287 75 Ibid 76 Ibid 288 77 Apart from statements in the press that Les Mystegraveres de New-York was suc-

cessful this can also be deduced from the several parodies that appeared Henri Bousquet ldquoLe pied qui eacutetreintrdquo Les cahiers de la cineacutemathegraveque 40 (1984) 23ndash24

78 Brooks America in Francersquos Hopes and Fears 601ndash672 79 Pearl White ldquoLrsquohistoire de ma vierdquo La Liberteacute May 29ndashJuly 14 1922 80 Francis Lacassin Louis Feuillade Maicirctre des lions et des vampires (Paris

Bordas 1995) 204ndash207 81 Length according to the fi lmography in Jacques Champreux and Alain

Carou ed in ldquoLouis Feuilladerdquo special issue 1895 (October 2000) 390 Advertisement Cineacute-Journal November 6 1915

82 Abel French Cinema 71 83 Lacassin Louis Feuillade 202 84 More on the Cineacuteromans productions in Richard Abel ldquoSurvivre agrave un lsquonou-

vel ordre mondialrsquordquo Patheacute Premier empire du cineacutema ed Jacques Kerma-bon (Paris Centre Georges Pompidou 1994) Anne-Elizabeth Dutheil de la Rochegravere Les studios de la Victorine 1919ndash1929 (Paris AFRHCCineacute-mathegraveque de Nice 1998)

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

1 Karl Figdor ldquoDie Herrin der Welt 1 Teil Die Freundin des gelben Mannesrdquo Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung December 6 1919 41

2 Fritz Olimsky ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Die Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung Novem-ber 30 1919

3 Die Filmwelt June 28 1919 29 Lichtbild-Buumlhne June 28 1919 24ndash25 Film-Kurier July 2 1919 Der Kinematograph July 2 1919

4 ldquoDer teuerste Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne November 15 1919 23ndash24 Number quotes are not always the same in various sources Olimsky ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Die Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung November 30 1919

5 ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Die Illustrierte Filmwoche 39 (1919) 7 6 Ibid 7 ldquoMit der Stadtbahn um die Weltrdquo Der Film September 27 1919 4

222 Notes

8 Bobby Emil Luumlthge ldquoRiesenaufnahme in Woltersdorfrdquo Film-Kurier Sep-tember 17 1919

9 LK Frederik Film-Kurier August 23 1920 Hans-Michael Bock ldquoEin Instinkt- und Zahlenmensch Joe May als Produzent und Regisseur in Deutschlandrdquo in Joe May Regisseur und Produzent eds Hans-Michael Bock and Claudia Lenssen (Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1991) 131

10 Bobby Emil Luumlthge ldquoDie May-Stadt in Woltersdorfrdquo Film-Kurier August 13 1919 and ldquoRiesenaufnahme in Woltersdorfrdquo Film-Kurier September 17 1919

11 ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Die Illustrierte Filmwoche 39 (1919) 7 12 ldquoDer teuerste Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne November 15 1919 23ndash24 13 Fritz Olimsky ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Die Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung Novem-

ber 30 1919 14 Richard Abel French Cinema 162 15 Joe May ldquoRundschreiben an die Kinobesitzerrdquo Die Filmwelt January 15

1919 62ndash63 16 Gerald Ramm Als Woltersdorf noch Hollywood war (Woltersdorf Bock amp

Kuumlbler 1996) 17 17 Siegfried Kracauer From Caligari to Hitler A Psychological History of the

German Film rev and exp ed ed Leonardo Quaresima (Princeton Princ-eton University Press 2004) 56ndash57

18 Also noted by Christian Rogowski ldquoFrom Ernst Lubitsch to Joe May Challenging Kracauerrsquos Demonology with Weimar Popular Filmrdquo in Light Motives German Popular Film in Perspective eds Randall Halle and Mar-garet McCarthy (Detroit Wayne State University Press 2003) 6

19 Thomas J Saunders Hollywood in Berlin American Cinema and Weimar Germany (Berkeley University of California Press 1994) 89

20 ldquoDer teuerste Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne November 15 1919 23ndash24 21 RB ldquoCaligari oder Herrin der Welt Prunkfi lm oder expressionistischer

Filmrdquo Film-Kurier March 9 1920 The international successful Lubitsch fi lm Madame Dubarry (Passion) can be seen in this light as well using French history of King Louis XV and the French Revolution in order to make a prestigious costume drama

22 ldquoNachklaumlnge zur Herrin der Weltrdquo Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung December 13 1919 27 See also Die Illustrierte Filmwoche 51ndash52 (1919) 539 and Die Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung December 6 1919

23 In 1925 according to Kracauer these kinds of interiors gave the audience a false sense of wholeness masking the fragmented reality outside Siegfried Kracauer The Mass Ornament Weimar Essays trans and ed Thomas Y Levin (Cambridge Harvard University Press 1995) 324 Prologues were made to put the audience in the mood for what they were going to see often mimicking the theme of the feature Rudmer Canjels ldquoFeaturing on Stage American Prologues from the 1920srdquo in Filmrsquos Thresholds eds Veronica Innocenti and Valentina Re (Udine Forum 2004) 309ndash320

24 ldquoDie Geschichte der Maud Gregaardsrdquo Die Illustrierte Filmwoche 51ndash52 (1919) 539

25 ldquoBerliner Filmneuheitenrdquo Der Kinematograph December 10 1919 26 Podehl ldquoDie Herrin der Welt 1 Teilrdquo Der Film December 7 1919 47 27 ldquoNachklaumlnge zur Herrin der Weltrdquo Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung

December 13 1919 27 28 ldquoMay-Filmrdquo Der Kinematograph December 17 1919 29 Rd ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier December 14 1919

Notes 223

30 George Gotthold ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Freie Deutsche Buumlhne December 28 1919 431

31 My (Dr Wilhelm Meyer) ldquoFilmschaurdquo Vossische Zeitung February 2 1920

32 Gerald Ramm Das maumlrkische Grabmal vergessene Filmlegenden zweier Drehorte (Woltersdorf Gerald Ramm 1997) 12

33 Die Herrin der Welt was at the premiere not accompanied by a tie-in in the newspapers However Der Holsteinischer Courier did run a serial publica-tion of Figdorrsquos novel while the fi lmserial was running in the cinema in Neu-muumlnster Karl Figdor ldquoDie Herrin der Weltrdquo Der Holsteinischer Courier October 23 1920

34 ldquoDas Filmbuch im Kinordquo Der Kinematograph May 23 1920 LB (Ludwig Brauner) ldquoErfahrungen mit dem Kinobuchhandelrdquo Der Kinematograph June 13 1920 ldquoWelche Buumlcher gehoumlren ins Kinordquo Der Kinematograph June 27 1920 With the huge success of the novel of Die Herrin der Welt in the lobbies of the more luxurious Ufa theaters special points of sale for other fi lm related novels were made in 1920 LB (Ludwig Brauner) ldquoDer Kinobu-chhandel bricht sich Bahnrdquo Der Kinematograph August 1 1920

35 Wbg (Hans Wollenberg) ldquoDie Frau mit den Milliardenrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne January 17 1920 23

36 Karl Figdor ldquoDie Herrin der Welt 6 Teil Die Frau mit den Milliardenrdquo Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung January 31 1920 43ndash44

37 ldquoBerliner Filmneuheitenrdquo Der Kinematograph December 10 1919 38 Janet Ward Weimar Surfaces Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany

(Berkeley University of California Press 2001) 142ndash190 Klaus Kreimeier The Ufa Story A History of Germanyrsquos Greatest Film Company 1918ndash1945 (Berkeley University of California Press 1999) 117

39 Merritt ldquoIntolerancerdquo 41 See also Motion Picture News November 11 1916

40 Even today such movie propaganda and crossovers are still used for instance with the premieres of the Lord of the Rings fi lms where elves hobbits and Nazgucircls were roaming about

41 Koszarski An Eveningrsquos Entertainment 40 42 ldquoUr- und Presseauffuumlhrungenrdquo Der Kinematograph December 31 1919

NOTES TO CHAPTER 5

1 ldquoAantekeningen uit Engelandrdquo De Kinematograaf November 5 1915 2037

2 ldquoNieuwe fi lmrdquo De Bioscoop-Courant December 10 1915 11 3 ldquoVan binnen- en buitenlandrdquo De Film November 7 1919 1128 4 ldquoDe Geheimen van New-York Het confl ict met Patheacute bijgelegdrdquo De Cou-

rant November 8 1920 5 De Telegraaf had in 1919 a circulation of 30675 Jan van de Plasse ldquoEen

eeuw De Telegraaf Episoden uit het bestaan van een honderdjarige krant Deel 1rdquo De Journalist 43 no 22 (1992) 28

6 Marcel Broersma ldquoBotsende stijlen De Eerste Wereldoorlog en de Neder-landse journalistieke cultuurrdquo Tijdschrift voor Mediageschiedenis 2 (1999) 45ndash46 and 49

7 Pierre Decourcelle ldquoDe Geheimen van New Yorkrdquo De Courant March 10 1920

224 Notes

8 Ankie Boon-de Gouw ldquoFeuilletons in de Rotterdamse pers in de jaren 1880ndash1920rdquo Tĳdschrift voor sociale geschiedenis 10 no 3 (1984) 291ndash314

9 It was only around 1880 that in the Netherlands slowly more serial novels were used in newspapers and the number of episodes grew Most novels were translated from German and English serials Rutger van Oldenbeek ldquo(Slot volgt) De feuilletonroman in Nederlandrdquo (masterrsquos thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam 1988) 71ndash72

10 JF ldquoJournalistieke fi lmrdquo Algemeen Handelsblad October 19 1920 In Dutch the expression ldquoKoningin der Aarderdquo (Queen of the World) also is a synonym for the press

11 Frank van Vree ldquoMassapers en modernisering De pers als spiegel en oorzaak van maatschappelijke veranderingenrdquo in Tekens en teksten cultuur com-municatie en maatschappelijke veranderingen vanaf de late middeleeuwen eds Henk Kleijer Ad Knotter and Frank van Vree (Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 1992) 95ndash108 Huub Wijfjes Journalistiek in Nederland 1850-2000 Beroep cultuur en organisatie (Amsterdam Boom 2004) 131ndash137

12 ldquoAanteekeningen van een bioscoop-maniak De cinema-roman-feuilletonrdquo De Film-Wereld 47 (1919) 7

13 This seems to suggest that at that time serial novels in the Netherlands ended with a cliffhanger

14 Felix Hageman ldquoSeriefi lm of nietrdquo De Film-Wereld 51 (1919) 2 15 Eichler also published such pulp series as Nick Carter Buffalo Bill or Nat

Pinkerton Dick Berents ldquoAls een dief in de nacht De avonturen van Raffl es Arsegravene Lupin en Lord Listerrdquo Vrij Nederland December 2 1978 20ndash33

16 ldquoCinema Palacerdquo De Telegraaf March 28 1920 17 Not counting feature fi lms that were distributed in two episodes 18 Advertisement De Bioscoop-Courant February 28 1916 4 19 ldquoBioscoop New Yorkrdquo De Utrechtsche Courant June 5 1916 20 Felix Hageman ldquoSeriefi lm of nietrdquo De Film-Wereld 51 (1919) 2 21 Ivo Blom Jean Desmet and the Early Dutch Film Trade (Amsterdam

Amsterdam University Press 2003) 247ndash248 22 ldquoReisbeschrijvingrdquo De Bioscoop-Courant February 26 1915 2 23 ldquoDe Seriefi lmrdquo De Kinematograaf August 18 1916 2454 This view can

also be seen in an advertisement from another distributor De Bioscoop-Courant August 11 1916 5

24 The episodes could not be seen in random order and they had a consis-tent storyline with returning characters Advertisement Nieuws van de Dag October 31 1912 In February 1913 De Ellendigen (Les Miseacuterables) returned to Amsterdam and was shown in one screening of two and a half hours long

25 Blom Jean Desmet 260ndash262 26 Advertisement De Koningin Verveelt Zich De Kinematograaf December 27

1918 4240ndash4241 27 Advertisement De Bioscoop-Courant November 16 1917 12 28 Kaffra Kan was fi rst shown in six weeks in Rotterdam but later in Amster-

dam this changed to eight weeks Les Vampires similarly played fi rst in nine episodes later in seven It remains unclear whether this change had been initiated by exhibitors reacting to audience wishes or the decision was made by the distributor In any case the examples show how serials made use of an adaptable form of release

29 Prior to the centralized censorship from 1913 onward municipal and regional boards were set up in the Netherlands (often related to a specifi c religious background) making it possible for a fi lm to be censored in one

Notes 225

city but not in the next At the end of 1920 the municipal Amsterdam fi lm commission came into effect it seems from that time on American serials were often not allowed for those younger than 16 or 18 years old More research needs to be done on how serials were censored Karel Dibbets ldquoHet bioscoopbedrijf tussen twee wereldoorlogenrdquo in Geschiedenis van de Ned-erlandse fi lm en bioscoop tot 1940 eds Karel Dibbets and Frank van der Maden (Weesp Het Wereldvenster 1986)

30 Censorship fi le 1614 (7 August 1928) Nationaal Archief The Hague 31 Censorship fi le 5470 (6 December 1928) Nationaal Archief The Hague 32 In Amsterdam the serials were usually shown during the whole week rarely

a different scheme was used 33 lsquoSerialrsquo is a translation of seriefi lm Advertisement De Bioscoop-Courant

November 16 1917 8 This example also shows that the exhibitor still had room to maneuver and could adjust the program though it was only at the discretion of the distributor

34 Bioscoop-Courant November 30 1917 31 35 This concerned serials that had been produced until 1921 when Patheacute-Ex-

change was sold to Merrill Lynch causing Patheacute in France to drop imports from the company

36 From 1919 onward more and more European productions were being made consisting of only two episodes instead of more

37 ldquoRembrandtheaterrdquo De Telegraaf August 29 1920 38 Ivo Blom ldquoHet Rembrandt Theater tussen 1919 en 1933rdquo Ons Amsterdam

2 (2004) 52ndash56 39 Don Carlos ldquoDie amerikanische Expansion in Europardquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne

October 16 1920 44 40 ldquoRembrandttheaterrdquo De Telegraaf August 29 1920 41 ldquoRembrandttheaterrdquo De Telegraaf September 25 1920 42 De Koningin der Aarde advertising supplement Kunst en Amusement

August 5 1920 43 ldquoVerscheidenheid in het programmardquo De Film November 28 1919 1201 44 ldquoLijst van afgekeurde fi lms door Groningenrdquo Maandblad voor de Bioscoop-

Commissies May 15 1921 4

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION PART III

1 ldquoDas groszlige Spielrdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung August 14 1921 Reproduced in Film und Presse 27ndash28 (1921) 238

2 Hans Siemsen ldquoDeutsch-amerikanischer Filmkriegrdquo Die Weltbuumlhne Sep-tember 1 1921 219 Fritz Guumlttinger ed Kein Tag ohne Kino Schriftsteller uumlber den Stummfi lm Textsammlung (Frankfurt am Main Deutsches Film-museum Frankfurt 1984) 435ndash439

NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

1 Thomas J Saunders Hollywood in Berlin 84 I agree with Saundersrsquo argument that the import of serials caused a temporary and lopsided view of what America stood for while eliciting rather hostile nationalistic feel-ings Saunders however does not recognize the local adjustments of the American serial form and does not place the serials in the perspective

226 Notes

of German serial productions or examine the German fascination with them

2 Miriam Bratu Hansen ldquoThe Mass Production of the Senses Classical Cin-ema as Vernacular Modernismrdquo in Reinventing Film Studies eds Christine Gledhill and Linda Williams (London Arnold 2000) 343

3 Ibid 4 Rob Kroes If Yoursquove Seen One Yoursquove Seen the Mall Europeans and Amer-

ican Mass Culture (Urbana University of Illinois Press 1996) 17 5 Alfred Kerr ldquoKinordquo Pan 3 (19121913) 553ndash554 Quoted in Anton Kaes

ed Kino-Debatte Texte zum Verhaumlltnis von Literatur und Film 1909ndash1929 (Munich Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag 1978) 75

6 Frank Trommler ldquoThe Rise and Fall of Americanism in Germanyrdquo in The Rela-tionship in the Twentieth Century vol 2 of America and the Germans An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History eds Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh (Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press 1985) 334ndash335

7 Miriam Bratu Hansen ldquoAmerica Paris the Alps Kracauer (and Benjamin) on Cinema and Modernityrdquo in Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life eds Leo Charney and Vanessa R Schwartz (Berkeley University of Califor-nia Press 1995) 367

8 Mary Nolan Visions of Modernity American Business and the Moderniza-tion of Germany (New York Oxford University Press 1994) 4

9 Trommler ldquoThe Rise and Fall of Americanism in Germanyrdquo 335ndash336 10 Anton Kaes ldquoMass Culture and Modernity Notes toward a Social His-

tory of Early American and German Cinemardquo in The Relationship in the Twentieth Century vol 2 of America and the Germans An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History eds Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh (Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press 1985) 328

11 Trommler ldquoThe Rise and Fall of Americanism in Germanyrdquo 335ndash336 12 Adolf Halfeld Amerika und der Amerikanismus Kritische Betrachtungen

eines Deutschen und Europaumlers (Jena Diederichs 1927) 111 For more views on America in Germany see Anton Kaes Martin Jay and Edward Dimendberg eds The Weimar Republic Sourcebook (Berkeley University of California Press 1994)

13 Calculations are made from lengths mentioned in censorship cards from the Bundesarchiv-Filmarchiv Berlin (B-FB) Not included is Wer ist Nr 1 and Jack der Furchtlose which were advertised but probably never released

14 American import fi gures are from Kristin Thompson Exporting Entertain-ment America in the World Film Market 1907ndash34 (London BFI Publish-ing 1985) 106

15 ldquoDie neue Einfuhrregelungrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne December 24 1921 22 16 According to Saunders the quota was exceeded by almost 20 percent Saun-

ders Hollywood in Berlin 58 17 Quintus Fixlein ldquoFilmwirtschaft Der Filmzollrdquo Das Tage-Buch 34 (27

August 1921) 1026ndash1027 18 ldquoGeschaumlftliche Mitteilungenrdquo Film-Kurier May 2 1921 South Germany

was taken by Herpra-Film and West Germany as well as the occupied zones by Wilhelm Feindt

19 It did however also release in 1923 Orphans of the Storm (1921) in two parts and in 1924 the (American) feature version of A Dangerous Adventure (1922)

20 Hereby it indeed becomes clear that some of the cliffhanger questions I asked at the end of the previous part (namely if Pearl Whitersquos adventures and dare-devil acts would ever be seen in Germany and if they were also adjusted) can be answered negatively My apologies for such a cliffhanger let down

21 ldquoPatheacute in Berlinrdquo Film-Kurier September 2 1921

Notes 227

22 Lahue Bound and Gagged 60ndash61 23 In 1922 Universal would expand its presence on the market to at least nine seri-

als with only one serial from another company With around 62000 meters Universal already had through the serials an import market percentage (based on the 250000 quota limit) of almost 25 percent Measured against the num-ber of imported American fi lm meters of that year (151000 meters) Universal kept a 40 percent presence among other American imports Wilhelm Feindt as well as Filmhaus Bruckmann would supply the most serials

24 More on Universalrsquos feature distribution in several articles in Erika Wot-trich ed Deutsche Universal Transatlantische Verleih- und Produktions-strategien eines Hollywood-Studios in den 20er und 30er Jahren (Munich Edition Text + Kritik 2001)

25 A problem not only concerning serials See Joseph Garncarz ldquoHollywood in Germany The Role of American Films in Germany 1925ndash1990rdquo in Hol-lywood in Europe Experiences of a Cultural Hegemony eds David W Ell-wood and Rob Kroes (Amsterdam VU University Press 1994)

26 ldquoBerlin als Kinostadtrdquo Der Kinematograph April 17 1921 ldquoGoliath Arm-strongrdquo Der Kinematograph August 7 1921

27 Intertitles from censorship cards ep 4 Das Panzerschoszlig B-FB 28 Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung September 28 1920 12 ldquoWilhelm

Feindtrdquo Der Kinematograph October 10 1920 ldquoGeschaumlftliche Mitteilun-genrdquo Film-Kurier May 2 1921

29 In 1916 there were The Secret of the Submarine Liberty The Yellow Men-ace and Pearl of the Army

30 Margot Meyer ldquoGoliath Armstrong und Braszlig-Bulletrdquo Film-Kurier October 26 1920 MM ldquoAmerikanische Groszligfi lme in Hamburgrdquo Der Film Octo-ber 30 1920 34

31 ldquoDas Ausland und die deutsche Einfuhrrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne April 2 1921 23

32 His helpers should have gotten the same treatment Berta Schriver remained Berta and Stahl-Paulo became Steele Heffern

33 Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung July 10 1921 Film und Presse 21ndash22 (1921) 186 34 Censorship cards ep 4 Karo Ass B-FB 35 Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger July 10 1921 Film und Presse 21ndash22 (1921) 186

Closest text from the intertitles is ldquoTo help our country will also in the future be our fi rst dutyrdquo Censorship card last episode B-FB

36 Der (schwarze) Tag July 9 1921 Film und Presse 21ndash22 (1921) 186 The exact background of this journal cannot be identifi ed it is not related to the newspaper Der Tag

37 Censorship cards ep 1 and 2 Das Groszlige Radiumgeheimnis B-FB 38 ldquoDer Zirkuskoumlnigrdquo Film-Kurier October 17 1921 39 ldquoDas Groszlige Spielrdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung August 14 1921 40 E A Dupont ldquoFilmkritik und Filmreklamerdquo Film-Kurier August 24 1919

Heinz-B Heller ldquoAus-Bilder Anfaumlnge der deutschen Filmpresserdquo in Film Stadt Kino Berlin eds Wolfgang Jacobsen Rudolf Arnheim and Uta Berg-Ganschow (Berlin Argon 1987)

41 Urban Gad ldquoWarum siegt der amerikanische Filmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne August 20 1921 15

42 Urban Gad ldquoDie amerikanische Grossfi lmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne March 15 1919 14ndash16 March 22 1919 28ndash30 See also ldquoGeschaumlfts um Sicherheitrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne July 26 1919 21 Robert Bogyansky ldquoDer deutsche Filmrdquo Film-Kurier March 4 1920 Saunders Hollywood in Berlin 87

43 Karl Figdor ldquoExportfi lm oder nationaler Filmrdquo Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung October 18 1919 42ndash43

228 Notes

44 R Genenncher ldquoDie Amerikanerrdquo Der Kinematograph August 13 1919 He reminded worried producers that import also meant that German fi lms could get exported as well R Genenncher ldquoDie kommende Hochfl utrdquo Der Kinematograph February 4 1920

45 ldquoDer auslaumlndische Film in Deutschlandrdquo Der Kinematograph January 8 1919

46 ldquoKaro Assrdquo Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung June 26 1921 Film und Presse 17ndash18 (1921) 152

47 ldquoDas groszlige Radium-Geheimnis Karo Aszligrdquo Der Film July 3 1921 46 48 ldquoKaro Aszlig Das groszlige Radium-Geheimnisrdquo Film-Kurier July 2 1921 49 Effl ersbquoldquoCaro Aszlig 5 und 6 Teilrdquo Film und Presse 19ndash20 (1921) 168 50 EK Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung July 10 1921 Film und Presse 19ndash20

(1921) 168 51 Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne July 16 1921 7 52 12 Uhr Mittagszeitung July 2 1921 Film und Presse 19ndash20 (1921) 168 53 ldquoDas Groszlige Spielrdquo Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger July 31 1921 Film und Presse

27ndash28 (1921) 236 54 Effl er ldquoDas Groszlige Spiel II Teil Auf den Schienen der Railway Eigene Kri-

tikrdquo Film und Presse 27ndash28 (1921) 235 55 Deniz Goumlktuumlrk Kuumlnstler Cowboys Ingenieure Kultur- und medienge-

schichtliche Studien zu deutschen Amerika-Texten 1912-1920 (Munich Wilhelm Fink 1998) 157ndash175

56 ldquoGoliath Armstrongrdquo Der Kinematograph August 14 1921 57 David Bathrick ldquoMax Schmeling on the Canvas Boxing as an Icon of Wei-

mar Culturerdquo New German Critique 51 (1990) 125 58 Idem 59 Advertisement Lichtbild-Buumlhne July 16 1921 56 60 ldquoGoliath Armstrong I Teilrdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier July 10 1921 61 Effl er ldquoGoliath Armstrong II Teil Auf Leben und Tod Eigene Kritikrdquo

Film und Presse 21ndash22 (1921) 188 After playing the muscleman in the Bab-ylonian episode of Griffi thrsquos Intolerance Elmo Lincoln began playing Tarzan in 1918 and 1921 in serials

62 Hermann Kasack ldquoSport als Lebensgefuumlhlrdquo Die Weltbuumlhne October 9 1928 557ndash558 Bathrick ldquoMax Schmeling on the Canvasrdquo 116

63 ldquoRund um die Jack Dempsey-Filmerdquo Deutsche Filmwoche May 1 1925 10

64 Kurt Pinthus ldquoDie Uumlberfuumllle des Erlebensrdquo Berliner Illustrierte February 28 1925 Reproduced in Hans-Georg Kemper and Silvio Vietta Expression-ismus 2nd ed (Munich Fink 1983) 11

65 ldquoCaro Ass Eigene Kritikrdquo Film und Presse 17ndash18 (1921) 152 66 Zl ldquoCaro Aszligrdquo 12 Uhr Mittagszeitung July 2 1921 Film und Presse 19ndash20

(1921) 168 Hl ldquoCaro Assrdquo Taumlgliche Rundschau June 26 1921 Film und Presse 17ndash18 (1921) 153 ldquoDas groszlige Spielrdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier August 14 1921

67 Censorship records (11 November 1921) episode fi ve Das Groszlige Radiumge-heimnis Filmpruumlfstelle Berlin Available at Deutsche Filminstitut (DIF) Frankfurt am Main

68 Hans Siemsen ldquoDeutsch-amerikanischer Filmkriegrdquo Die Weltbuumlhne Sep-tember 1 1921 221

69 Ibid 70 Margot Meyer ldquoGoliath Armstrong und Braszlig-Bulletrdquo Film-Kurier October

26 1920 71 ldquoDer Reiter ohne Kopf rdquo Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung April 6 1921 Film

und Presse 13ndash14 (1921) 109 More on Piel in Matias Bleckman Harry

Notes 229

Piel Ein Kino-Mythos und seine Zeit (Duumlsseldorf Filminstitut Duumlsseldorf 1992)

72 Such as with Les Vampires seen in P-l (Fritz Podehl) ldquoDie Vampirerdquo Der Film June 5 1920 38

73 ldquoOne does indeed not need to fear the competition of these foreign fi lms We have better actors better technicians and more capable directorsrdquo wrote Film-Kurier with Judex Film-Kurier August 28 1920 Or as Hans Siemsen wrote down the reaction of a fi lm director friend when seeing Judex ldquoMan we already were doing that ten years agordquo Hans Siemsen ldquoDie Filmereirdquo Die Weltbuumlhne January 27 1921 103

74 More on GermanndashFrench relations in Sibylle M Sturm and Arthur Wohlge-muth eds Hallo Berlin Ici Paris Deutsch-franzoumlsische Filmbeziehungen 1918-1939 (Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1996)

75 Fritz Guumlttinger Der Stummfi lm im Zitat der Zeit (Frankfurt Deutsches Filmmuseum 1984) 109ndash112

76 Bathrick ldquoMax Schmeling on the Canvasrdquo 122 77 Hi (Herbert Ihering) ldquoFilmschau [Goliath Armstrong]rdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-

Courier July 24 1921 78 B (quoting Paul Davidson) ldquoAmerikamdashder beste Absatzmarktrdquo Berliner

Tageblatt April 5 1921 79 ldquoDer Zirkuskoumlnigrdquo Film-Kurier October 17 1921 Film und Presse 37ndash38

(1921) 388ndash389 80 According to LA Hermann the fi lm industry would not benefi t from this

false image LA Hermann ldquoSchiefe Urteile uumlber die amerikanische Produk-tionrdquo Der Kinematograph November 6 1921

82 Hans Siemsen ldquoNoch immer Kinordquo Die Weltbuumlhne November 24 1921 531ndash532

83 Hans Siemsen ldquoDeutsch-amerikanischer Filmkriegrdquo 220ndash221 84 Fritz Engel ldquoAmerika-Filmrdquo Berliner Tageblatt June 17 1921 85 Censorship records (22 September 1921) episode one Der Zirkuskoumlnig

Film-Oberpruumlfstelle Berlin (B15931) DIF 86 ldquoThe violent and criminal acts that accompany this novel are only believable

because of the setting of the fi lm ie remote regions of America One feels excludedmdasheven if only through the intellectual projection of the fi lmrsquos events onto the emotional universe of a German movie-goer What the viewer sees therefore appears as a novel-like work of fantasy It is most likely to be repel-lent and off-putting The danger that one might be tempted to commit the criminal acts shown at the beginning thus completely disappearsrdquo Censorship records (22 September 1921) episode one Der Zirkuskoumlnig Film-Oberpruumlf-stelle (B15931) DIF On the primitive image of America see for instance Beeke Sell Tower ldquolsquoUltramodern and Ultraprimitiversquo Shifting Meanings in the Imagery of Americanism in the Art of Weimar Germanyrdquo in Dancing on the Volcano Essays on the Culture of the Weimar Republic eds Thomas W Kniesche and Stephen Brockmann (Columbia Camden House 1994)

87 Censorship records (20 October 1921) episode six Der Zirkuskoumlnig Film-Oberpruumlfstelle Berlin (B18721) DIF

88 After appealing against the ban and cutting several meters more the epi-sode was however allowed for those over age 18 Censorship records (20 November 1921) episode six Der Zirkuskoumlnig Film-Oberpruumlfstelle Berlin (B18721) DIF Censorship records (29 November 1921) Filmpruumlfstelle Ber-lin (B04581) DIF

89 ldquoDer erste groszlige deutsche Episoden-Filmrdquo Film-Kurier June 14 1920

230 Notes

90 Das Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten was then still announced as Karo 10 ldquoDer erste groszlige deutsche Episoden-Filmrdquo Erste Internationale Film-Zei-tung June 19 1920 22

91 ldquoDer deutsche Episodenfi lmrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne October 16 1920 47 92 Ibid 93 William Kahn ldquoDeutsche und auslaumlndische Episoden-Filmerdquo Film-Kurier

July 14 1921 94 vL Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung July 3 1921 Film und Presse 17ndash18

(1921) 153 95 ldquoAmerikanische Filmkaumlufer in Berlinrdquo Film-Kurier May 24 1921 96 Michael Toumlteberg ldquoOhne Ruumlcksicht auf die Qualitaumlt Ein Blick in die

Geschaumlftsbuumlcher des Verleihsrdquo in Das Ufa-Buch Kunst und Krisen Stars und Regisseure Wirtschaft und Politik eds Hans-Michael Bock and Michael Toumlteberg (Frankfurt am Main Zweitausendeins 1992) 74

97 Buumlhne und Film 2 (1920) 19 From clipping fi le Der Mann Ohne Namen B-FB

98 ldquoBig German Serialrdquo Variety June 17 1921 39 99 ldquoRembrandtheater Onder wilde dierenrdquo De Telegraaf October 23 1921 100 The last one was Ellen Richterrsquos three-part Die Abenteuerin von Monte

Carlo 101 ldquoDer Welt groumlszligter Filmrdquo Neue Zeit November 22 1921 Film und Presse

45ndash46 (1921) 478 ldquoDer Welt groumlszligter Filmrdquo Film-Kurier August 13 1921 102 List compiled through research of data by Gerhard Lamprecht the Cinegraph

database (Hamburg) and my own fi ndings Gerhard Lamprecht Deutsche Stummfi lme (Berlin Deutsche Kinemathek 1967ndash1969) However of most fi lms the narrative content of the two-part productions is unclear making a distinction between serial and series qualities not obtainable

103 Critics (from fi lm journals newspapers and cultural magazines) were how-ever not overly enthusiastic about the fi lm form of Das Indische Grabmal Lichtbild-Buumlhne for instance did not appreciate this unnecessary breaking up of the narrative a fault that also lay with scenario by Thea von Harbou Lichtbild-Buumlhne October 29 1921 24

104 This can also be seen in the Netherlands where episodes were also shown together Canjels ldquoDe serial in Nederlandrdquo 108ndash128

105 ldquoFilmfragen in Deutschland und Amerikardquo Film-Kurier August 10 1921

NOTES TO CHAPTER 7

1 Richard Abel ldquoLe fantocircme de Louis Feuillade aux Eacutetats-Unis (1910ndash1914)rdquo in ldquoLouis Feuilladerdquo eds Jacques Champreux and Alain Carou special issue 1895 (October 2000) 308

2 David B Pratt ldquolsquoFit Food for Madhouse Inmatesrsquordquo Griffi thiana 16 nos 48ndash49 (1993) 97ndash157 Anthony Henry Guzman ldquoThe Exhibition and Reception of European Films in the United States during the 1920srdquo (PhD diss University of California 1993)

3 There were also two that almost were released La Sultane de lrsquoAmour (1919) and LrsquoAgonie des Aigles (1921) Guzman ldquoThe Exhibition and Reception of European Filmsrdquo 96ndash97 124ndash125 142ndash143

4 Variety April 15 1921 45 April 22 1921 46 April 29 1921 45 idem 5 For more on the release of Passion see David B Pratt ldquolsquoO Lubitsch Where

Wert Thoursquo Passion the German Invasion amp the Emergence of the Name lsquoLubitschrsquordquo Wide Angle 13 no 1 (1991) 34ndash70

Notes 231

6 Koszarski An Eveningrsquos Entertainment 72ndash75 and 80ndash82 7 Guzman ldquoThe Exhibition and Reception of European Filmsrdquo 59ndash63 8 ldquoZukor Has Bought So Far 129 German Features for Famousrdquo Variety

April 29 1921 45 9 ldquoRiot over German Feature Picture Cabinet of Caligari Egged on Coastrdquo

Variety May 13 1921 47 ldquoAll Hollywood Now Lining up against German Made Filmsrdquo Variety May 20 1921 1 ldquoTariff Fixers Said to Look Favor-ably on High Film Dutyrdquo Variety June 3 1921 46 Marshall Neilan ldquoNew Pointers on Pictures from the Trade Schoolsrdquo Variety June 24 1921 35

10 The Widrsquos Year Book held an inquiry on the foreign invasion ldquodirected to the leading executives of the industryrdquo the outcome of which resulted in judg-ments indicating that there had actually hardly been an invasion and that only a few productions could cause no alarm to the continued supremacy of American pictures Joseph Dannenberg ed Widrsquos Year Book 1921-1922 (New York Widrsquos Films and Film Folks Inc 1921) 207ndash209

11 Rafael A Vela ldquoWith the Parentsrsquo Consent Film Serials Consumerism and the Creation of a Youth Audience 1913ndash1938rdquo (PhD diss University of Wisconsin 2000) 165

12 More on the use of historical serials AA Schmidt ldquoThe Serial in the High-Class Houserdquo Motion Picture News December 31 1921 264 Howard McLellan ldquoThe Reconstruction of the Serialrdquo Exhibitors Trade Review January 28 1922 585ndash586 ldquoNew and Better Serials Being Produced Says Boardrdquo Exhibitors Herald March 4 1922 46

13 ldquoIntroduction as Feature Is Plan of Universal for Crusoe Serialrdquo Exhibitors Herald April 15 1922 70 Or ldquoTarzan Serial a Hit in First Run Housesrdquo Motion Picture News November 19 1921 2709

14 Exhibitors Herald March 4 1922 78 15 ldquoSerial in Sixty Reelsrdquo Variety June 17 1921 68 ldquoGerman-made Films

Now Found to be Heavy Drug on Marketrdquo Variety June 24 1921 1 16 Benjamin de Casseres ldquoOur Domestic Movies and the Germansrdquo New York

Times March 26 1922 17 ldquoGerman Serial Readyrdquo Widrsquos Daily December 19 1921 1 18 ldquoMistress of the World at Leading First Run Housesrdquo Moving Picture World

March 18 1922 265 19 ldquoElaborate Press Book Issued for Mistress of the Worldrdquo Moving Picture

World March 11 1922 164 20 ldquoMistress of World Opens Simultaneously at Broadway Theatresrdquo Exhibi-

tors Herald March 18 1922 32 Also noticed in ldquoWas das Ausland meldetrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne April 1 1922 60

21 ldquoParamount Anniversary Month Leads to Revival in Businessrdquo Moving Pic-ture World April 1 1922 465 Variety March 10 1922 44

22 ldquoMistress of World Flops Zukor and Lasky Dividedrdquo Variety March 10 1922 47

23 Rush ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 17 1922 41 Exhibitors Herald describes another cliffhanger that is not in the original ldquoMia May in The Mistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Herald March 25 1922 61

24 Advertisement supplement Moving Picture World March 11 1922 2 There was also another promotional scheme probably meant for exhibitors in which the serial was compared to the Seven Wonders of the World Adver-tisement Exhibitors Herald April 1 1922 15

25 Usually the box offi ce was in this time of low attendance around $18000 to $21000 In June the Rivoli had Over the Border (1922) taking in $10000 and the Rialto receiving $12000 with The Woman Who Walked Alone (1922)

232 Notes

26 Rush ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 17 1922 41 27 The Rialto took in $21400 and the Rivoli $20400 At the Rivoli a Jack

Holt feature Bought and Paid For (by DeMille) played Rush ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 17 1922 41 ldquoBrsquoWay Exhibitors Encouraged Double Mistress with Featurerdquo Variety March 24 1922 46 Rush ldquoMis-tress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 17 1922 41

28 Rush ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 24 1922 41 29 ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Harrisonrsquos Reports March 11 1922 38 ldquoBusi-

ness in Broadway Houses Falls Rialtorsquos Daily Change Innovationrdquo Variety April 7 1922 46 ldquoWorst of the Slump Over Thinks Broadway Exhibitorsrdquo Variety April 21 1922 44

30 ldquoMia May in The Mistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Herald March 25 1922 61

31 Laurence Reid ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Motion Picture News March 18 1922 1627 ldquoNewspaper Opinions Evening Telegram and Americanrdquo Film Daily March 7 1922 4

32 Laurence Reid ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Motion Picture News March 18 1922 1627 ldquoGenuine Serial Atmosphere with All the Thrills and Improb-abilitiesrdquo Film Daily March 12 1922 2

33 Rush ldquoDragonrsquos Clawrdquo Variety March 10 1922 41 34 Rush ldquoRace for Liferdquo Variety March 17 1922 41 35 ldquoMistress of World Flops Zukor and Lasky Dividedrdquo Variety March 10

1922 47 36 Fritz Tidden ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Moving Picture World March 18

1922 298 37 Rush ldquoDragonrsquos Clawrdquo Variety March 10 1922 41 38 Fritz Tidden ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Moving Picture World March

18 1922 298 39 Laurence Reid ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Motion Picture News March

18 1922 1627 40 Rush ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 17 1922 41 41 ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Trade Review April 8 1922 1367

Laurence Reid ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Motion Picture News March 18 1922 1627

42 ldquoNewspaper Opinions NY Worldrdquo Film Daily March 22 1922 2 Lau-rence Reid ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Motion Picture News March 18 1922 1627 ldquoDragons Clawrdquo New York Times March 6 1922 ldquoMia May in The Mistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Herald March 25 1922 61

43 Laurence Reid ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Motion Picture News March 18 1922 1627

44 ldquoDragons Clawrdquo New York Times March 6 1922 45 Rush ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Variety March 24 1922 41 46 ldquoGenuine Serial Atmosphere With All the Thrills and Improbabilitiesrdquo Film

Daily March 12 1922 2 ldquoOuch Serial is Awful Floprdquo Los Angeles Times March 12 1922 Or as the New York Times already wrote in 1921 ldquothe actresses who appear in many of the fi lms are not young and beautiful to satisfy Americansrdquo ldquoDonrsquot Fear German Filmsrdquo New York Times May 29 1921

47 John S Spargo ldquoBroadway Doesnrsquot Welcome Serial Type of Productionrdquo Exhibitors Herald April 8 1922 46

48 Rush ldquoDragonrsquos Clawrdquo Variety March 10 1922 41 49 ldquoThe Mistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Trade Review March 18 1922

1145 50 ldquoFilm Serials in New Yorkrdquo Variety March 17 1922 12

Notes 233

51 ldquoAbout The Mistress of the Worldrdquo Harrisonrsquos Report March 18 1922 44

52 ldquoGenuine Serial Atmosphere with All the Thrills and Improbabilitiesrdquo Film Daily March 12 1922 2

53 ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Harrisonrsquos Reports March 11 1922 38 54 ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Moving Picture World October 14 1922 594

ldquoMistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Herald June 17 1922 66 July 22 1922 60 July 29 1922 70

55 ldquoMistress of World Flops at KCrdquo Variety May 5 1922 37 56 ldquoParamount The Mistress of the Worldrdquo Exhibitors Herald June 3 1922

68 57 ldquoInside Stuffrdquo Variety April 14 1922 41 58 ldquoStraight from the Shoulder Reportsrdquo Moving Picture World May 27 1922

413 59 Mistress of the Worldrdquo Moving Picture World September 30 1922 392

October 28 1922 797 60 In December 1922 Joe May followed suit with a claim of 700 million Marks

(in that month an equivalent of around $92000) against Paramount and Ufa because Die Herrin der Welt had been mangled in such a manner that his reputation was damaged ldquoWas die LBB erzaumlhltrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne Decem-ber 2 1922 23 It probably blew over as according to the Film-Kurier Ufa stated that it had not only required a distribution license but also owned the copy ldquoDie 700 Millionen Schadenerfaszligklage gegen die Ufardquo Film-Kurier December 11 1922

61 ldquoJrsquoAccuse French Film Shownrdquo New York Times May 11 1921 62 Abel French Cinema 296 63 Richard Schickel DW Griffi th An American Life (New York Simon and

Schuster 1984) 457 ldquoKlaw Suesrdquo Variety December 2 1921 47 64 Motion Picture News estimated a viewing time of 89 to 110 minutes ldquoI

Accuse Opens at the New York Strandrdquo Motion Picture News October 29 1921 2316 Abel French Cinema The First Wave 41

65 Edward Weitzel ldquoJrsquoAccuserdquo Moving Picture World May 21 1921 327 66 ldquoA Striking Indictment against War But Much Too Longrdquo Widrsquos Daily May

15 1921 3 67 ldquoExhibitors Reports in Percentagesrdquo Moving Picture World April 8 1922

2061 68 In the Mark Strand it was presented with an on-stage prologue ldquoBrook-

lyn Mark Strandrdquo Motion Picture News October 29 1921 2285 More reviews from exhibitors ldquoUnited Artists I Accuserdquo Exhibitors Herald June 24 1922 106 October 7 1922 75 November 17 1923 312

69 Nalpas had already shown a print in July 1921 ldquoLouis Nalpas Prominent French Director Hererdquo Motion Picture News July 23 1921 575 ldquoPathe Acquires Celebrated French Picturerdquo Motion Picture News January 28 1922 749 ldquoPathe Gets lsquoMathias Sandorfrsquordquo Exhibitors Trade Review Janu-ary 21 1922 523

70 Abel French Cinema The First Wave 80 71 ldquolsquoIsle of Zordarsquo Song to Be Published as a Tie-up with Pathe Filmrdquo Exhibi-

tors Herald April 15 1922 73 ldquoSong Number for lsquoThe Isle of Zordarsquordquo Motion Picture News April 15 1922 2208

72 Singer Melodrama and Modernity 46ndash49 73 Ibid 6 74 ldquoA Very Interesting and Unusual Melodrama Though Much Too Longrdquo Film

Daily March 12 1922 7

234 Notes

75 CS Sewell ldquoThe Isle of Zordardquo Moving Picture World March 18 1922 300

76 Laurence Reid ldquoThe Isle of Zordardquo Motion Picture News March 25 1922 1756

77 ldquoSpecial Cast in Isle of Zordardquo Exhibitors Herald April 8 1922 73 78 ldquoGrowing Demand Reported for lsquoIsle of Zordarsquordquo Exhibitors Trade Review

April 1 1922 1241 ldquolsquoIsle of Zordarsquo Drawing Much Exhibitor Interest Pathe Saysrdquo Moving Picture World April 1 1922 542 ldquolsquoIsle of Zordarsquo Appealsrdquo Moving Picture World April 22 1922 848 ldquolsquoIsle of Zordarsquo Scores Big Book-ings Some for Long Runsrdquo Moving Picture World May 27 1922 388

79 ldquoExhibitorsrsquo Reports on Picturesrdquo Motion Picture News December 30 1922 3366ndash3367 Advertisement Moving Picture World September 2 1922 34

80 Exhibitors Herald December 9 1922 85 ldquoLos Angeles Business Continues Sluggishrdquo Variety May 5 1922 36 ldquoWeather Change in Philly Braces up Bizrdquo Variety July 28 1922 36

81 More on EFA in Thomas J Saunders ldquoVon Dafco zu Damra Spekulation mit amerikanischen Filmenrdquo in Das Ufa-Buch Kunst und Krisen Stars und Regisseure Wirtschaft und Politik eds Hans-Michael Bock and Michael Toumlteberg (Frankfurt am Main Zweitausendeins 1992) Thomas J Saun-ders Hollywood in Berlin American Cinema and Weimar Germany (Berke-ley University of California Press 1994) 60ndash63

82 Mia May who played one of the principals was not mentioned nor featured in any illustration

83 ldquoInside Stuffrdquo Variety July 28 1922 35 84 ldquoMysteries of Indiardquo Film Daily July 30 1922 11 85 ldquoThe Mysteries of Indiardquo Motion Picture News August 5 1922 660 86 ldquoMysteries of India -Mia Mayrdquo Harrisonrsquos Reports July 29 1922 118 87 Skig ldquoMysteries of Indiardquo Variety July 28 1922 33 88 It raked in $16400 ldquolsquoZendarsquo Revives Interest May Break Summer Dull-

nessrdquo Variety August 4 1922 37 89 In Germany EFA issued a press release that Das Indische Grabmal was a

success not only in the Rialto but also across America ldquoNeuer Erfolg eines deutschen Groszligfi lms in Amerikardquo Film-Kurier August 3 1922

90 The Paramount sales organization had been instructed ldquoto get the exhibi-torrsquos attention away from the imported fl opsrdquo ldquolsquoNo Foreign Picturesrsquo New Famous Players Sales Sloganrdquo Variety December 8 1922 38

91 Abel French Cinema 21 92 Henri Diamant-Berger Il eacutetait une fois le cineacutema (Paris J-C Simoeumln 1977)

86ndash88 Abel French Cinema 81 93 ldquoDrsquoArtagnan Againmdashand Differentrdquo New York Times January 22 1923 94 ldquoMilady- French castrdquo Harrisonrsquos Reports January 27 1923 15 95 ldquoFrench Production of Dumasrsquo Novel That Has Interesting Anglesrdquo Film

Daily January 28 1923 11 96 Laurence Reid ldquoPre-release Reviews of Featuresrdquo Motion Picture News

February 3 1923 584 97 Fred ldquoMiladyrdquo Variety January 25 1923 41 98 Guzman ldquoThe Exhibition and Reception of European Filmsrdquo 148 99 The Sultaness of Love (La Sultane de lrsquoAmour 1919) First National would

distribute but dropped out of the deal in January 1922 when the copying was estimated to take 7 months due to the French handcoloring process The Son of Napoleon (LrsquoAgonie des Aigles 1921) a two-part super pro-duction by Bernard-Deschamps did not get more than a trade showing in 1922 The Queen of Sin (Sodom und Gomorrha 1922) a highly expensive

Notes 235

two-part Austrian production of around 4000 meters that for distribu-tion in America resulted in a version with more than half of it cut away with only the destruction of Sodom packed inside a modern story to show for Then in 1924 there also was La Roue which Abel Gance intended to bring to America via his personal contact with Hugo Riesenfeld Gance had shipped him a version of 4000 meters with English titles in January However nothing seems to have become of that ldquoDeal Offrdquo Film Daily January 1922 1 Abel Gance to Hugo Riesenfeld 9 January 1924 Bilio-thegraveque du Film Paris Gance215-B67

100 ldquoBig German Serialrdquo Variety June 17 1921 39 101 Read for instance Stefan Zweig ldquoDie Monotonisierung der Weltrdquo Berliner

Boumlrsen-Courier February 1 1925 Reproduced in Kaes Jay and Dimend-berg The Weimar Republic Sourcebook 397ndash400

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION PART IV

1 ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute February 15 1923 15

NOTES TO CHAPTER 8

1 Peter Milne Motion Picture Directing The Facts and Theories of the New-est Art (New York Falk Publishing Co 1922) 130

2 ldquoPicture Plays and Peoplerdquo New York Times November 6 1921 3 ldquoA 72 Reelerrdquo Widrsquos Daily November 8 1921 1 ldquolsquoEast Is Westrsquo Nextrdquo

Widrsquos Daily November 18 1921 1 4 Schickel DW Griffi th An American Life 469ndash471 5 ldquoAsks Bids on lsquoFoolish Wivesrsquordquo Motion Picture News January 7 1922 412

Advertisement Motion Picture News January 7 1922 346ndash347 Wolfgang Jacobsen Helga Belach and Norbert Grob eds Erich Von Stroheim (Ber-lin Argon 1994) 45 Richard Koszarski Von The Life and Films of Erich Von Stroheim (New York Limelight Editions 2001) 87ndash91

6 Harry Carr ldquoHollywoodrsquos One Real GeniusmdashlsquoVonrsquordquo Photoplay May 1928 138 ldquoFoolish Wives The Story of its Making Why It Cost over a Millionrdquo Motion Picture News February 11 1922 996

7 Bell ldquoFoolish Wivesrdquo Variety January 20 1922 35 8 Will Page ldquoHow I Would Put the Picture Overrdquo Motion Picture News Feb-

ruary 11 1922 1000 and 1004 ldquoAccessories Involved in the Production and Presentation of Foolish Wivesrdquo Motion Picture News February 11 1922 1002

9 ldquoFoolish Wives Cut to Ten Reelsrdquo Exhibitors Trade Review January 28 1922 589

10 ldquoInside Stuff on Picturesrdquo Variety March 10 1922 43 11 Ibid 12 It was not only Universal or Von Stroheim that observed closely the progress

of The Mistress of the World as John S Spargo from the Exhibitors Herald noted ldquoin view of the discussion over Foolish Wives the experiment with Mistress of the World was watched with great interest by producers and exhibitorsrdquo John S Spargo ldquoBroadway Doesnrsquot Welcome Serial Type of Productionrdquo Exhibitors Herald April 8 1922 46

13 ldquoStroheim Cutting Big Filmrdquo Motion Picture News August 20 1921 962

236 Notes

14 ldquoPlays and Playersrdquo Photoplay Magazine April 1922 86 15 ldquoFoolish Wives Re-censored after First Presentationrdquo Variety January 20

1922 38 16 Bell ldquoFoolish Wivesrdquo Variety January 20 1922 35 17 ldquoFoolish Wives A Review of a Picture That Is an Insult to Every Americanrdquo

Photoplay March 1922 70 18 Milne Motion Picture Directing 131ndash134 19 PA Harrison ldquoFacts about Greedrdquo Harrisonrsquos Reports December 13

1924 1 Koszarski Von 160ndash161 20 Harry Carr ldquoOn the Camera Coastrdquo Motion Picture Magazine April 1924

76 21 Arthur Lennig Stroheim (Lexington University Press of Kentucky 2000)

215ndash216 22 Though it remains unclear when exactly the idea of two parts popped up

Varietyrsquos information suggests it was only when Von Stroheim had arrived at a length of 30 reels or less ldquoGreed in Ten Reelsrdquo Variety November 29 1924 21

23 Robert E Sherwood ldquoGreedrdquo Life January 1 1925 24 24 Fred ldquoGreedrdquo Variety December 10 1924 34 25 As remarked by Von Stroheim on Foolish Wives Harriette Underhill ldquoVon

Stroheimrsquos Foolish Wives Not So Foolishrdquo New York Tribune January 22 1922

26 Erich von Stroheim ldquoStroheim States Own Version Tilt over Wedding Marchrdquo Exhibitors Herald February 11 1928 22

27 Ibid 28 Ibid 29 Lennig Stroheim 242 30 Weinberg and Von Stroheim The Complete Wedding March 95 Koszarski

Von 224 Of part one only the severely cut version remains and part two is lost after the only known print was destroyed in a fi re of the archive of the Cineacutemathegraveque Franccedilaise in May 1957

31 Koszarski Von 226

NOTES TO CHAPTER 9

1 Fernand Leacuteger ldquoLa Roue Sa valeur plastiquerdquo Comoedia 16 December 1922 5 Translation from Richard Abel French Film Theory and Criticism A HistoryAnthology 1907ndash1939 vol 1 (Princeton Princeton University Press 1988) 272 Kevin Brownlow The Paradersquos Gone By (Berkeley Uni-versity of California Press 1968) 541

2 A long version of La Roue was restored by the Cineacutemathegraveque Franccedilaise in 1979 totaling 6219 meters (thus still missing much) lasting 283 minutes (at 20 fs) A 260-minute version (NTSC) is available on DVD Flicker AlleyBlackhawk 2008

3 Bousquet gives a length totalling 10500 (2945 2785 2255 and 2510 meters) According to Icart each episode of the four-part version was 2300 meters whereas a version of six episodes was released in Toulouse Henri Bousquet De Patheacute Fregraveres agrave Patheacute Cineacutema Catalogue 1923-1927 (Bassac H Bousquet 2004) 372ndash377 Roger Icart ldquoEacutetude sur une longue copie tein-teacutee de La Rouerdquo 1895 31 (2000) 276 Abel French Cinema 327

4 Reneacute Clair ldquoLes fi lms du mois La Rouerdquo Theacuteatre et comoedia illustreacute March 1923 Translation from Abel French Film Theory and Criticism 279

Notes 237

5 Emile Vuillermoz ldquoLa Rouerdquo Cineacutemagazine February 23 1923 329ndash330 Translation from Abel French Film Theory and Criticism 275ndash276

6 Ibid The need for a more compact version is also repeated in variation by others Leacuteon Moussinac ldquoLa Roue drsquoAbel Gancerdquo Le crapouillot January 16 1923 13 Gaston Tournier ldquoLa Rouerdquo Echo de Paris February 16 1923

7 Roger Icart Abel Gance ou le Promeacutetheacutee foudroyeacute (Lausanne LrsquoAge drsquohomme 1983) 51 and 70ndash72

8 As told to Jean Mitry Theacuteatre et comoedia illustreacute May 1 1924 Reprinted in Abel Gance Un soleil dans chaque image ed Roger Icart (Paris CNRS EditionsCineacutemathegraveque franccedilaise 2002) 54

9 Norman King Abel Gance A Politics of Spectacle (London BFI Publishing 1984) 58

10 Icart ldquoEacutetude sur une longue copierdquo 275 11 Emile Vuillermoz ldquoLa Rouerdquo Cineacutemagazine February 23 1923 330

Translation Abel French Film Theory and Criticism 276 12 Emile Vuillermoz ldquoLa Rouerdquo Cineacutemagazine March 2 1923 365ndash366

Translation Abel French Film Theory and Criticism 279 13 Rene Jeanne ldquoUne seconde version de La Rouerdquo Cineacutemagazine February

29 1924 342ndash344 14 Letter to Patheacute Limited London April 11 1923 Icart Abel Gance 148 15 Franccedilois de la Bretegraveque ldquoSerials et fi lms agrave eacutepoquesrdquo 1895 33 (2001) 354ndash

355 16 Montchanin ldquoLa revenanterdquo Mon cineacute May 3 1923 12 One has to be

careful with a strict implementation as the serial forms were in fl ux and of course the terms were also used by companies to their own advantage as well

17 Charles Le Fraper ldquoLe pour et le contrerdquo Le courrier cineacutematographique January 6 1923 6 Charles Le Fraper was the manager of Le courrier cineacute-matographique

18 Henri Diamant-Berger Cineacutemagazine July 1 1921 24 Cineacutemagazine October 28 1921 14 Jens Ulff-Moslashller describes that concerning later years (around 1927) provincial cinemas owners sought the cheapest fi lm rates for their programs which usually meant they rented American productions As a result provincial cinema owners were rather opposed to any import restric-tions Jens Ulff-Moslashller ldquoHollywoodrsquos lsquoForeign Warrsquo The Effect of National Commercial Policy on the Emergence of the American Film Hegemony in France 1920ndash1929rdquo in ldquoFilm Europerdquo and ldquoFilm Americardquo Cinema Com-merce and Cultural Exchange 1920ndash1939 eds Andrew Higson and Rich-ard Maltby (Exeter University of Exeter Press 1999) 185

19 R Thibaut (manager of Cineacutema de la Mission in Mans) ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute April 12 1923 20

20 Laurent manager of Phoceacutea also warned that as it took a longer time to make a serial production it was actually more risky to make than a single fea-ture as they unfortunately witnessed themselves with the death of Suzanne Grandais during the shooting of LrsquoEssor (1920) ldquoNos enquecirctes Est-ce la fi n du Cineacute-Roman agrave eacutepisodesrdquo La cineacutematographie franccedilaise December 23 1922 5 Director Louis Mercaton also reacted and said he detested the genre and would not make one as he preferred to make a distinction between 1800 meters for a normal picture and 2500 meters for an exclusive picture Mercanton would nevertheless direct in 1924 his next production for Pho-ceacutea the eight episodes (totalling 8000 meters) of Les Deux Gosses (based on Pierre Decourcellersquos novel) ldquoNos enquecirctes Est-ce la fi n du Cineacute-Roman agrave eacutepisodesrdquo La cineacutematographie franccedilaise December 23 1922 6

238 Notes

21 ldquoNos enquecirctes Est-ce la fi n du Cineacute-Roman agrave eacutepisodesrdquo La cineacutematogra-phie franccedilaise December 30 1922 14 Aubert would together with Sapegravene become the promoter of the contingent plan to reduce the number of Ameri-can productions For more information on American views on the French contingency with serials as weapon see Jens Ulff-Moslashller ldquoThe lsquoFilm Warsrsquo between France and the United States Film-Trade Diplomacy the Emergence of the Film Quota System in France 1920-1939rdquo Vol 2 (PhD diss Brandeis University 1998) 154ndash155

22 ldquoNos enquecirctes Est-ce la fi n du Cineacute-Roman agrave eacutepisodesrdquo La cineacutematog-raphie franccedilaise December 23 1922 3 Also printed in ldquoLes Romans-Ci-neacutemardquo Cineacuteopse January 1923 114ndash115

23 Pierre Desclaux ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute May 10 1923 7 24 The most obvious exception is LrsquoAgonie des Aigles and Les Trois Mous-

quetaires 25 Pierre Desclaux ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute May 10 1923 7 26 Bayah (from Peacuterigueux) ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute April 19

1923 20 27 Odette Decous-Nayssens (from Toulouse) ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon

cineacute April 5 1923 10 28 Fernande Pinard ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute April 19 1923

20 29 Jeune France (from Arras) ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute April 12

1923 20 30 Desclaux also claimed that those who did like serials were usually a fan of the

French historical serials such as Les Trois Mousquetaires or Le Empereur de Pauvres not so much the crime serials or the American serials Desclaux ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo 7

31 Jean drsquoAgen (from Agen) ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute April 5 1923 10

32 MS ldquoUne enquecircte de Mon cineacuterdquo Mon cineacute April 19 1923 20 33 Albert Montez ldquoA propos des Cineacute-Romansrdquo Cineacutemagazine September 1

1922 268 34 Such as Saint-Paul owned by Sandberg 1200 places (4e Arrondissement)

Tivoli Sandberg 3000 places (10e) Cinegravema Demours-Palace 1150 places (17e) or Palais des Fecirctes (3e) around 1000 places E L Fouquet ed Le tout-cineacutema 1923 Annuaire geacuteneacuteral illustreacute du monde cineacutematographique (Paris Filma 1923) 64ndash72

35 Year of release based on the release date of fi rst eacutepisode Raymond Chirat and Roger Icart Catalogue des fi lms franccedilais de long meacutetrage Films de fi c-tion 1919ndash1929 (Toulouse Cineacutemathegraveque de Toulouse 1984)

36 Albert Bonneau ldquoUn genre discuteacute Le fi lm a eacutepisoderdquo Cineacutemagazine July 27 1923 127

37 Patheacute had severed their connections with Patheacute-Exchange as the American branch was taken over by Merill-Lynch in 1921 One of the last American serials released by Patheacute seems to have been the rather old The Adventures of Ruth (1919) released in 1924 as Les Aventures de Ruth in eight episodes

38 With its nine episodes (fi rst announced as ten) Mysteacuteria corresponded more or less to the standards of the fi lm agrave episodes with lengths of around 500 meters and a newspaper tie-in Georges Sturm Die Circe der Pfau und das Halbblut Die Filme von Fritz Lang 1916-1921 (Trier Wissenschaftlicher Verlag 2001) 34 and 136ndash146 Roger Icart ldquoMysteacuteria Version franccedilaise du fi lm de Fritz Lang Les Araigneacuteesrdquo Archives 74 (1998) 12ndash15

39 Advertisement La cinematographie franccedilaise January 3 1925 ldquoLe Doc-teur Mabuserdquo La cinematographie franccedilaise January 10 1925 25

Notes 239

40 The serial did more or less follow the original story names or characters were hardly changed and most important situations are mentioned The original beginning and endings were however shifted presumably to create more exciting endings ldquoMaitresse du Monderdquo Bulletin Paramount MayndashJune 1925 18ndash20

41 There were also several Italian products (sometimes based on French serial stories) that were also lengthened in number of episodes For more informa-tion on Italian serials see Vittorio Martinelli ldquoFilmographie des serials et des fi lms agrave eacutepisodes du cineacutema muet Italienrdquo Les cahiers de la Cineacutemathegraveque 48 (1987) 111ndash121 Monica DallrsquoAsta ldquoWhich One Za-La-Mort and Ital-ian Serial Filmsrdquo in Fotogenia Storie e teorie del cinema 45 (19971998) 319ndash325 Monica DallrsquoAsta ldquoItalian Serial Filmsrdquo 300ndash307

42 Abel French Cinema 31 43 Ibid 130 44 Walter Thielemann ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo Reichsfi lmblatt 42 (1923) 16ndash17

45ndash47 (1923) 18 Th ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo Der Film November 21 1923 17

45 Fritz Olimsky ldquoDie Tragoumldie der Lieberdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung Novem-ber 9 1923 bdquoDie Tragoumldie der Liebe (Fortzsetzung)rdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Zei-tung November 18 1923

46 Kurt Pinthus ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo Das Tage-Buch November 13 1923 1457

47 Herbert Ihering ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier November 9 1923

48 Kurt Pinthus ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo 1457 49 ldquoTragoumldie der Liebe II Teilrdquo Der Kinematograph November 25 1923 50 Ms (Heinz Michaelis) ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo Film-Kurier November 9

1923 Walter Thielemann ldquoTragoumldie der Lieberdquo Reichsfi lmblatt 45ndash47 (1923) 18

51 In the Netherlands Tragoumldie der Liebe was also shown in two parts 52 Beacutela Balaacutezs ldquoDie Graumlfi n von Parisrdquo Der Tag October 2 1923 Reprinted in

Beacutela Balaacutezs Schriften zum Film vol 1 eds H Diederichs Helmut Wolfgang Gersch and Magda Nagy (Budapest Akadeacutemiai Kiadoacute 1982) 222ndash223

53 The fi lm was a success with the audience (though not as huge as Mayrsquos previ-ous productions) and played for several weeks also in many other theaters after it had moved out of Zoo

54 In between these productions several other serial productions could be seen in Berlin also all two-part features There was Menschen und Masken Die Groszlige Unbekannte and Helena It was the last time such a collection of serial productions was seen in Germany

55 Stanley R Hauer ldquoThe Sources of Fritz Langrsquos Die Nibelungenrdquo LiteratureFilm Quarterly 18 no 2 (1990) 103ndash110

56 Hauer ldquoThe Sources of Fritz Langrsquos Die Nibelungenrdquo 57 ldquoRoad-Showing Siegfriedrdquo Variety June 10 1925 26 58 ldquoSiegfriedrdquo Film Daily August 30 1925 4 59 ldquoSiegfriedrdquo Harrisonrsquos Reports January 2 1926 2 It was described as a

success in the German fi lm journals as the theater was sold out this success did however not continue Reinhold H Hirsch ldquoIm Zeichen der Groszligfi lmerdquo Der Kinematograph September 13 1925

60 The Shadowbox was programmed by The Screen Guild a member of which was former fi lm critic Curtis Melnitz who then worked for Ufa-Usa Guz-man ldquoThe Exhibition and Reception of European Filmsrdquo 209

61 Mordaunt Hall ldquoThe Sequel to Siegfriedrdquo New York Times October 16 1928 ldquoKriemhildrsquos Revengerdquo Film Daily October 28 1928 8

240 Notes

62 ldquoDie Urauffuumlhrung des Nibelungenfi lms in London Ein ganz groszliger Erfolgrdquo Der Film-Kurier May 3 1925 bdquoDie Nibelungen in Londonrdquo Der Film-Ku-rier May 17 1924 bdquoDie englischen Nibelungen-Verfuumlhrungenrdquo Der Film-Kurier May 29 1924

63 ldquoFritz Langs Pariser Erfolgrdquo Der Film-Kurier March 26 1925 bdquoSiegfrieds Siegerdquo Der Film-Kurier April 17 1925 Special issue on La mort de Sieg-fried in Cineacutemagazine April 10 1925

64 Gaston Phelip ldquoComment Fritz Lang est venu au cineacutemardquo Cineacutemagazine April 10 1925 62

65 Ufa released the two-part Der Flug um den Erdball (1925) again an around-the-world adventure with Ellen Richter There also was the inter-continental adventure-type Die Frau Ohne Namen (1927) that was fi nanced by Matador the German Universal subsidiary and Die Eule (1926) with American serial star Eddie Polo who had moved to Germany American seri-als were after 1923 hardly making a presence most serial products were actually French released as two-part fi lms (though their often melodramatic colportage did not create an enthusiastic following)

66 Der Alte Fritz consisted of two lengthy feature fi lms in which Otto Gebuumlhr resumed after Fridericus Rex his role of Frederick the Great (1712ndash1786) this time focusing on the tragic last years when he was estranged misunder-stood and lonely

67 Pr ldquoWallensteinrdquo Lichtbild-Buumlhne May 22 1925 1 68 ldquoBismarck II Teilrdquo Der Kinematograph January 9 1927 69 Variety already reported with Fridericus Rex that it was a ldquobig money-maker

for Germany- but for America utterly worthlessrdquo C Hooper Trask ldquoGer-man Picture Newsrdquo Variety March 31 1922 42 Ickes ldquoDer Alte Fritz (I Teil)rdquo Filmwoche January 11 1928 40

70 Kreimeier The Ufa Story 126 71 Ibid 127 72 In 1923 in Germany Orphans of the Storm was also shown in two epi-

sodes 73 ldquoRembrandt-Theaterrdquo Algemeen handelsblad November 26 1922 74 I am not aware of any shortages of supply that also could have affected such

strategies 75 Advertisement Nieuw weekblad voor de cinematografi e June 5 1925 76 ldquoPassage-Bioskooprdquo Het Volk November 21 1925 77 According to intertitles of episode one Censorship fi le 2290 (21 August

1928) Nationaal Archief The Hague 78 From episode descriptions given to the fi lm censorship committee the repeat

is also noticeable in the transcript of the intertitles 79 Patrick McGilligan Fritz Lang The Nature of the Beast (London Faber amp

Faber 1997) 131 80 ldquoJudexrdquo Cineacutemagazine June 1 1923 370 ldquoLes Deux Gaminesrdquo Cineacutemag-

azine June 27 1924 543 Abel French Cinema 81 81 Chirat and Icart Catalogue des fi lms franccedilais de long meacutetrage There also

was a new feature version of LrsquoAgonie des Aigles in 1928 and La Maison du Mystegravere in 1929

82 Unfortunately Bretegraveque does not clarify this assumption so the exact extent of this condensation practice remains unclear Bretegraveque ldquoLe fi lm en tranches Les mutations du fi lm agrave eacutepisodes 1918ndash1926rdquo Les Cahiers de la Cineacutemathegraveque 33ndash34 (1981) 99

83 King Abel Gance 146ndash147 84 Kevin Brownlow Napoleon Abel Gancersquos Classic Film (London J Cape

1983) 100ndash101

Notes 241

85 Ibid 150 86 Lengths are constantly fl ying around and researchers also do not use con-

sistent lengths For approximations of length see Icart Abel Gance 171 Brownlow Napoleon 161 and 299

87 Brownlow Napoleon 161 88 Abel French Cinema 30 89 Ibid 219 Richard Abel ldquoFrench Silent Cinemardquo The Oxford History of

World Cinema ed Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (Oxford Oxford University Press 1997) 123

90 Abel French Cinema 59 Abel ldquoFrench Silent Cinemardquo 119 For more on American decline and quotas in France see Thompson Exporting Enter-tainment 125 Ulff-Moslashller ldquoHollywoodrsquos lsquoForeign Warrsquordquo

91 Ulff-Moslashller ldquoHollywoodrsquos lsquoForeign Warrsquordquo 192 Marcel Lapierre concluded that the mutilated French fi lms supported the idea that Americans had no interest and need for French fi lms however excellent Marcel Lapierre Les cent visages du cineacutema (Paris B Grasset 1948) 150

92 Letter Crawford to Nalpas January 25 1927 Merritt Crawford Papers MoMA

93 Howard T Lewis The Motion Picture Industry (New York D Van Nos-trand 1933) 408

94 Rush ldquoLes Miserablesrdquo Variety August 24 1927 22 It had been for some time undecided whether the fi lm would be cut to a length of around 12 reels or released in two instalments as it had been in England even though ldquoafter putting the question to newspaper editors and critics all over the country the idea of a production in two parts won favorrdquo Mordaunt Hall ldquoLes Mis-erablesrdquo New York Times July 9 1926 Meakin ldquoLes Miserablesrdquo Variety June 30 1926 12

95 Abel French Cinema 85 96 Brownlow Napoleon 163 97 Emile Vuillermoz ldquoAbel Gance et Napoleacuteonrdquo Cineacutemagazine November

25 1927 335 98 Part one was shown on March 23ndash29 and part two on April 6ndash12 in total

probably around three hours Brownlow Napoleon 286 99 For further information on the various versions of Napoleon see Ibid 286ndash

287 King Abel Gance 148ndash149 100 Brownlow Napoleon 170ndash176 101 Abel French Cinema 195 102 Fred ldquoGreedrdquo Variety December 10 1924 34 103 Will H Hays wrote to Universalrsquos Carl Laemmle ldquoThe entire motion pic-

ture industry owes you a debt of gratitude for The Indians Are Coming It brought 20000000 children back to the theatrerdquo Lahue Continued Next Week 152

NOTES TO CONCLUSION

1 Such as Le Giornate del Cinema Muto (Pordenone Italy) or Il Cinema Ritro-vato (Bologna Italy)

Bibliography

Abel Richard The Cineacute Goes to Town French Cinema 1896ndash1914 Rev ed ldquoLe Fantocircme de Louis Feuillade aux Eacutetats-Unis (1910ndash1914)rdquo Champreux

Jacques and Alain Carou ed ldquoLouis Feuilladerdquo special issue 1895 (October 2000) 291ndash314 Berkeley University of California Press 1998

French Cinema The First Wave 1915ndash1929 Princeton Princeton Univer-sity Press 1984

French Film Theory and Criticism A HistoryAnthology 1907ndash1939 Vol 1 Princeton Princeton University Press 1988

ldquoFrench Silent Cinemardquo In The Oxford History of World Cinema edited by Geoffrey Nowell-Smith 112ndash123 Oxford Oxford University Press 1997

ldquoGuarding the Borders in Early Cinema The Shifting Ground of French-American Relationsrdquo In Celebrating 1895 The Centenary of Cinema edited by John Fullerton 45ndash54 London John Libbey amp Company 1998

The Red Rooster Scare Making Cinema American 1900-1910 Berkeley University of California Press 1999

ldquoSurvivre agrave un lsquonouvel ordre mondialrsquordquo In Patheacute Premier empire du cineacutema edited by Jacques Kermabon 158ndash189 Paris Centre Georges Pompi-dou 1994

Adorno Theodor W ldquoCulture Industry Reconsideredrdquo New German Critique 6 (1975) 12ndash19

Allen Robert C ed To Be Continued Soap Operas around the World London Routledge 1995

Allen Robert C and Douglas Gomery Film History Theory and Practice New York Knopf 1985

Antonini Anna ed Film and Its Multiples Udine Forum 2003Balaacutezs Beacutela Schriften zum Film Edited by H Diederichs Helmut Wolfgang

Gersch and Magda Nagy Vol 1 Budapest Akadeacutemiai Kiadoacute 1982Bathrick David ldquoMax Schmeling on the Canvas Boxing as an Icon of Weimar

Culturerdquo New German Critique 51 (1990) 113ndash136Baudry Pierre ldquoLes aventures de lrsquoideacutee (sur lsquoIntoleacuterancersquo) 2rdquo Cahiers du Cineacutema

241 (1972) 31ndash45Belach Helga and Wolfgang Jacobsen eds Richard Oswald Regisseur und Pro-

duzent Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1990Berents Dick ldquoAls een dief in de nacht De avonturen van Raffl es Arsegravene Lupin en

Lord Listerrdquo Vrij Nederland December 2 1978 20ndash33Birett Herbert Verzeichnis in Deutschland gelaufener Filme Munich Saur

1980Birett Herbert and Sabine Lenk ldquoDie Behandlung auslaumlndischer Filmgesell-

schaften waumlhrend des ersten Weltkriegsrdquo In Positionen deutscher Filmge-schichte 100 Jahre Kinematographie Strukturen Diskurse Kontexte edited

244 Bibliography

by Michael Schaudig 61ndash74 Munich Diskurs Film Verlag Schaudig amp Ledig 1996

Bleckman Matias Harry Piel Ein Kino-Mythos und seine Zeit Duumlsseldorf Film-institut Duumlsseldorf 1992

Blom Ivo Jean Desmet and the Early Dutch Film Trade Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 2003

ldquoHet Rembrandt Theater tussen 1919 en 1933rdquo Ons Amsterdam 2 (2004) 52ndash56

Bock Hans-Michael ldquoEin Instinkt- und Zahlenmensch Joe May als Produzent und Regisseur in Deutschlandrdquo In Joe May Regisseur und Produzent edited by Hans-Michael Bock and Claudia Lenssen 125ndash144 Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1991

Bonsor NRP North Atlantic Seaway An Illustrated History of the Passenger Services Linking the Old World with the New Vol 2 2nd ed Cambridge Stephens 1978

Boon-de Gouw Ankie ldquoFeuilletons in de Rotterdamse pers in de jaren 1880-1920rdquo Tĳdschrift voor sociale geschiedenis 10 no 3 (1984) 291ndash314

Bordwell David Janet Staiger and Kristin Thompson The Classical Hollywood Cinema Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 London Routledge amp Kegan Paul 1985

Bottomore Stephen ldquoShots in the Dark The Real Origins of Film Editingrdquo In Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative edited by Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker 104ndash113 London BFI Publishing 1990

Bousquet Henri De Patheacute Fregraveres agrave Patheacute Cineacutema Catalogues 1915ndash1918 1919ndash1922 1923ndash1927 Bassac H Bousquet 1999 2001 2004

ldquoLe pied qui eacutetreintrdquo Les cahiers de la Cineacutemathegraveque 40 (1984) 23ndash24Bowser Eileen The Transformation of Cinema 1907ndash1915 Berkeley University

of California Press 1994Bretegraveque Franccedilois de la ldquoLe fi lm en tranches Les mutations du fi lm agrave eacutepisodes

1918ndash1926rdquo Les cahiers de la Cineacutemathegraveque 33ndash34 (1981) 89ndash102 ldquoSerials et fi lms agrave eacutepoquesrdquo 1895 33 (2001) 352ndash358Brewster Ben ldquoPeriodization of Early Cinemardquo In American Cinemarsquos Transi-

tional Era Audiences Institutions Practices edited by Charlie Keil and Shelley Stamp 66ndash75 Berkeley University of California Press 2004

ldquoTraffi c in Souls An Experiment in Feature-Length Narrative Construc-tionrdquo Cinema Journal 31 no 1 (1991) 37ndash56

Broersma Marcel ldquoBotsende stijlen De Eerste Wereldoorlog en de Nederlandse journalistieke cultuurrdquo Tijdschrift voor mediageschiedenis 2 (1999) 40ndash68

Brooks Charles W America in Francersquos Hopes and Fears 1890ndash1920 New York Garland 1987

Brownlow Kevin Napoleon Abel Gancersquos Classic Film London J Cape 1983

The Paradersquos Gone By Berkeley University of California Press 1968Bryan Jane ldquoUnder the Infl uence of the Clutching Hand The Exploits of Elaine in

Britainrdquo In Crossing the Pond Anglo-American Film Relations before 1930 edited by Alan Burton and Laraine Porter 53ndash59 Trowbridge Flicks Books 2002

Canjels Rudmer ldquoFeaturing on Stage American Prologues from the 1920srdquo In Filmrsquos Thresholds edited by Veronica Innocenti and Valentina Re 309ndash320 Udine Forum 2004

ldquoDe serial in Nederland 1915ndash1925 De unieke opkomst en ondergang van een aangepaste fi lmvormrdquo Tijdschrift voor mediageschiedenis 4 no 1 (2001) 108ndash128

Bibliography 245

Champreux Jacques and Alain Carou eds ldquoLouis Feuilladerdquo special issue 1895 (October 2000)

Chateau Dominique ldquoIntoleacuterance une encyclopeacutedie du cineacutemardquo In DW Grif-fi th Colloque international edited by Jean Mottet 259ndash272 Paris Publica-tions de la SorbonneLrsquoHarmattan 1984

Cherchi Usai Paolo ldquoCabiria an Incomplete Masterpiece The Quest for the Orig-inal 1914 Versionrdquo Film History 2 no 2 (1988) 155ndash166

Chirat Raymond and Roger Icart Catalogue des fi lms franccedilais de long meacutetrage Films de fi ction 1919ndash1929 Toulouse Cineacutemathegraveque de Toulouse 1984

Coleman Frederic From Mons to Ypres with French A Personal Narrative Lon-don Sampson Low Marston amp Co 1916

DallrsquoAsta Monica ldquoAmerican Serials and the Identity of French Cinema or How to Resist Colonizationrdquo Cinegrafi e 14 (2001) 161ndash174

ldquoLa Diffusione del fi lm a episodi in Europardquo In Storia del cinema mon-diale 3 LrsquoEuropa edited by Gian Piero Brunetta 277ndash323 Torino Einaudi 1999

ldquoItalian Serial Films and lsquoInternational Popular Culturersquordquo Film History 12 no 3 (2000) 300ndash307

ldquoWhich One Za-La-Mort and Italian Serial Filmsrdquo Fotogenia Storie e teorie del cinema 45 (19971998) 319ndash325

Dannenberg Joseph ed Film Year Book 1926 New York Film Daily 1926 ed Widrsquos Year Book 1921ndash1922 New York Widrsquos Films and Film Folks

Inc 1921Decourcelle Pierre Les mystegraveres de New-York Paris La Renaissance du Livre

1916Denning Michael Mechanic Accents Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in

America London Verso 1987Diamant-Berger Henri Il eacutetait une fois le cineacutema Paris J-C Simoeumln 1977Dibbets Karel and Frank van der Maden eds Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse

fi lm en bioscoop tot 1940 Weesp Het Wereldvenster 1986Distelmeyer Jan ed Babylon in FilmEuropa Mehrsprachen-Versionen der 1930er

Jahre Hamburg Edition Text + Kritik 2006Dutheil de la Rochegravere Anne-Elizabeth Les studios de la Victorine 1919ndash1929

Paris AFRHCCineacutemathegraveque de Nice 1998Eco Umberto The Role of the Reader Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts

Bloomington Indiana University Press 1984Elsaesser Thomas ldquoEarly German Cinema A Second Liferdquo In A Second Life

German Cinemarsquos First Decades edited by Thomas Elsaesser and Michael Wedel 9ndash37 Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press 1996

ldquoThe New Film Historyrdquo Sight amp Sound 554 (1986) 246ndash251Elsaesser Thomas and Adam Barker ldquoIntroduction The Continuity System Grif-

fi th and Beyondrdquo In Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative edited by Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker 293ndash317 London BFI Publishing 1990

Fuller Kathryn H At the Picture Show Small-Town Audiences and the Creation of Movie Fan Culture Charlottesville University Press of Virginia 2001

Gance Abel Un soleil dans chaque image Ed Roger Icart Paris CNRS EditionsCineacutemathegraveque franccedilaise 2002

Garncarz Joseph ldquoHollywood in Germany The Role of American Films in Ger-many 1925ndash1990rdquo In Hollywood in Europe Experiences of a Cultural Hege-mony edited by David W Ellwood and Rob Kroes 94ndash123 Amsterdam VU University Press 1994

Garrels Gary ed Sol LeWitt A Retrospective San Francisco San Francisco Museum of Modern Art 2000

246 Bibliography

Geraghty Christine Women and Soap Opera A Study of Prime Time Soaps Oxford Polity Press 1991

Goumlktuumlrk Deniz Kuumlnstler Cowboys Ingenieure Kultur- und mediengeschichtli-che Studien zu deutschen Amerika-Texten 1912ndash1920 Munich Wilhelm Fink 1998

Gomery Douglas Shared Pleasures A History of Movie Presentation in the United States Madison University of Wisconsin Press 1992

Gramsci Antonio Selections from Cultural Writings Edited by David Forgacs and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith Cambridge Harvard University Press 1985

Gray Jonathan Show Sold Separately Promos Spoilers and Other Media Para-texts New York New York University Press 2010

Grieveson Lee Policing Cinema Movies and Censorship in Early-Twentieth-Century America Berkeley University of California Press 2004

Groom Gloria Edouard Vuillard Painter-Decorator Patrons and Projects 1892ndash1912 New Haven Yale University Press 1993

Gunning Tom ldquoNon-Continuity Continuity Discontinuity A Theory of Genres in Early Filmsrdquo In Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative edited by Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker 86ndash94 London BFI Publishing 1990

Guumlttinger Fritz Der Stummfi lm im Zitat der Zeit Frankfurt Deutsches Film-museum 1984

ed Kein Tag ohne Kino Schriftsteller uumlber den Stummfi lm Textsammlung Frankfurt am Main Deutsches Filmmuseum Frankfurt 1984

Guzman Anthony Henry ldquoThe Exhibition and Reception of European Films in the United States During the 1920srdquo PhD diss University of California 1993

Hagedorn Roger ldquoTechnology and Economic Exploitation The Serial as a Form of Narrative Presentationrdquo Wide Angle 10 no 4 (1988) 4ndash12

Halfeld Adolf Amerika und der Amerikanismus Kritische Betrachtungen eines Deutschen und Europaumlers Jena Diederichs 1927

Hamer Mary Writing by Numbers Trollopelsquos Serial Fiction Cambridge Cam-bridge University Press 1987

Hammond Paul ed The Shadow and Its Shadow Surrealist Writings on the Cin-ema 3rd ed San Francisco City Lights Books 2000

Hansen Miriam Bratu ldquoAmerica Paris the Alps Kracauer (and Benjamin) on Cinema and Modernityrdquo In Cinema and the Invention of Modern Life edited by Leo Charney and Vanessa R Schwartz 362ndash402 Berkeley University of California Press 1995

Babel and Babylon Spectatorship in American Silent Cambridge Har-vard University Press 1991

ldquoThe Mass Production of the Senses Classical Cinema as Vernacular Mod-ernismrdquo In Reinventing Film Studies edited by Christine Gledhill and Linda Williams 332ndash350 London Arnold 2000

Hauer Stanley R ldquoThe Sources of Fritz Langrsquos Die Nibelungenrdquo LiteratureFilm Quarterly 18 no 2 (1990) 103ndash110

Heller Heinz-B ldquoAus-Bilder Anfaumlnge der deutschen Filmpresserdquo In Film Stadt Kino Berlin edited by Wolfgang Jacobsen Rudolf Arnheim and Uta Berg-Ganschow 117ndash126 Berlin Argon 1987

Henderson Robert M DW Griffi th The Years at Biograph New York Farrar 1970

DW Griffi th His Life and Work New York Oxford University Press 1972

Hesse Sebastian Kamera-Auge und Spuumlrnase Der Detektiv im fruumlhen deutschen Kino Frankfurt StroemfeldRoter Stern 2003

Bibliography 247

Higson Andrew ldquoThe Limiting Imagination of National Cinemardquo In Cinema and Nation edited by Mette Hjort and Scott MacKenzie 63ndash73 London Rout-ledge 2000

Icart Roger Abel Gance ou Le Promeacutetheacutee foudroyeacute Lausanne LrsquoAge drsquohomme 1983

ldquoEacutetude sur une longue copie teinteacutee de La Rouerdquo 1895 31 (2000) 274ndash290

ldquoMysteacuteria version franccedilaise du fi lm de Fritz Lang Les araigneacuteesrdquo Archives 74 (1998) 1ndash15

ldquoSerials et fi lms franccedilais a episodesrdquo In Le cineacutema franccedilais muet dans le monde infl uences reacuteciproques symposium de la FIAF Paris 1988 edited by Pierre Guibbert 215ndash224 Paris Cineacutemathegraveque de ToulouseInstitut Jean Vigo 1989

Jacobs Lea ldquoEnoch ArdenmdashPart Onerdquo In The Griffi th Project edited by Paolo Cherchi Usai and Richard Abel 47ndash49 Vol 5 London BFI Publishing 2001

Jacobsen Wolfgang Helga Belach and Norbert Grob eds Erich Von Stroheim Berlin Argon 1994

Jenkins Henry Convergence Culture Where Old and New Media Collide New York New York University Press 2006

Johanningsmeier Charles Fiction and the American Literary Marketplace The Role of Newspaper Syndicates 1860ndash1900 Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1997

Kaelble Hartmut Der historische Vergleich Eine Einfuumlhrung zum 19 und 20 Jahrhundert Frankfurt am Main Campus-Verlag 1999

Kaes Anton ed Kino-Debatte Texte zum Verhaumlltnis von Literatur und Film 1909ndash1929 Munich Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag 1978

ldquoMass Culture and Modernity Notes toward a Social History of Early American and German Cinemardquo In The Relationship in the Twentieth Century Vol 2 America and the Germans An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History edited by Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh 317ndash331 Philadel-phia University of Pennsylvania Press 1985

ed Weimarer Republik Manifeste und Dokumente zur deutschen Litera-tur 1918ndash1933 Stuttgart Metzler 1983

Kaes Anton Martin Jay and Edward Dimendberg eds The Weimar Republic Sourcebook Berkeley University of California Press 1994

Kasten Juumlrgen and Armin Loacker eds Richard Oswald Kino zwischen Spek-takel Aufklaumlrung und Unterhaltung Vienna Filmarchiv Austria 2005

Keil Charlie Early American Cinema in Transition Story Style and Filmmak-ing 1907ndash1913 Madison University of Wisconsin Press 2001

Kemper Hans-Georg and Silvio Vietta Expressionismus 2nd ed Munich Fink 1983

King Norman Abel Gance A Politics of Spectacle London BFI Publishing 1984

Kocka Juumlrgen ldquoComparison and Beyondrdquo History and Theory 42 no 1 (2003) 39ndash44

Koszarski Richard An Eveningrsquos Entertainment The Age of the Silent Feature Picture 1915ndash1928 Berkeley University of California Press 1994

Von The Life and Films of Erich Von Stroheim New York Limelight Editions 2001

Kracauer Siegfried From Caligari to Hitler A Psychological History of the Ger-man Film Rev and exp ed Edited by Leonardo Quaresima Princeton Princ-eton University Press 2004

248 Bibliography

The Mass Ornament Weimar Essays Translated and edited by Thomas Y Levin Cambridge Harvard University Press 1995

Kreimeier Klaus The Ufa Story A History of Germanyrsquos Greatest Film Com-pany 1918ndash1945 Berkeley University of California Press 1999

Kroes Rob If Yoursquove Seen One Yoursquove Seen the Mall Europeans and American Mass Culture Urbana University of Illinois Press 1996

Lacassin Francis Louis Feuillade Maicirctre des lions et des vampires Paris Bordas 1995

Lahue Kalton C Bound and Gagged The Story of the Silent Serials New York Castle Books 1968

Continued Next Week A History of the Moving Picture Serial Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1964

Lamprecht Gerhard Deutsche Stummfi lme Berlin Deutsche Kinemathek 1967ndash1969

Lapierre Marcel Les cent visages du cineacutema Paris B Grasset 1948Law Graham Serializing Fiction in the Victorian Press Houndsmill Palgrave

2000Law Graham and Norimasa Morita ldquoThe Newspaper Novel Towards an Inter-

national Historyrdquo Media History 6 no 1 (2000) 5ndash17Lennig Arthur Stroheim Lexington University Press of Kentucky 2000Lewis Howard T The Motion Picture Industry New York D Van Nostrand

1933Liebes Tamar and Elihu Katz The Export of Meaning Cross-Cultural Readings

of Dallas New York Oxford University Press 1990Maltby Richard and Melvyn Stokes eds Hollywood Abroad Audiences and

Cultural Exchange London BFI Publishing 2004Martinelli Vittorio ldquoFilmographie des serials et des fi lms agrave eacutepisodes du cineacutema

muet italienrdquo Les cahiers de la Cineacutemathegraveque 48 (1987) 111ndash121McGilligan Patrick Fritz Lang The Nature of the Beast London Faber amp Faber

1997McLaren Judith ldquoUltus The Films from the Deadrdquo In Crossing the Pond Anglo-

American Film Relations before 1930 edited by Alan Burton and Laraine Por-ter 45ndash52 Trowbridge Flicks Books 2002

Merritt Russell ldquoIntolerance Production and Distributionrdquo In The Griffi th Project edited by Paolo Cherchi Usai 39ndash46 Vol 9 London BFI Publishing 2005

Milne Peter Motion Picture Directing The Facts and Theories of the Newest Art New York Falk Publishing Co 1922

Mitry Jean Les seacuterials en Ameacuterique et en Europe 1908ndash1930 Vol 12 Film-ographie universelle Paris Institut des hautes eacutetudes cineacutematographiques 1970

Muumlller Corinna Fruumlhe deutsche Kinematographie Formale wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Entwicklungen 1907ndash1912 Stuttgart Metzler 1994

ldquoVariationen des Kinoprogramms Filmform und Filmgeschichterdquo In Die Modellierung des Kinofi lms zur Geschichte des Kinoprogramms zwischen Kurzfi lm und Langfi lm (190506ndash1918) edited by Harro Segeberg Knut Hick-ethier and Corinna Muumlller 43ndash75 Vol 2 Munich Wilhelm Fink 1998

Musser Charles ldquoThe Eden Musee in 1898 The Exhibitor as Creatorrdquo Film amp History 11 no 4 (1981) 73ndash83 and 96

ldquoOn lsquoExtrasrsquo Mary Pickford and the Red-Light Film Filmmaking in the United States 1913rdquo Griffi thiana 50 (1994) 148ndash175

ldquoToward a History of Screen Practicerdquo Quarterly Review of Film Studies 9 no 1 (1984) 59ndash69

Bibliography 249

Neuschaumlfer Hans-Joumlrg Dorothee Fritz-El Ahmad and Klaus-Peter Walter Der franzoumlsische Feuilletonroman Die Entstehung der Serienliteratur im Medium der Tageszeitung Darmstadt Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 1986

Nolan Mary Visions of Modernity American Business and the Modernization of Germany New York Oxford University Press 1994

OrsquoDonnell Hugh Good Times Bad Times Soap Operas and Society in Western Europe London Leicester University Press 1999

Oldenbeek Rutger van ldquo(Slot Volgt) De feuilletonroman in Nederlandrdquo Masterrsquos thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam 1988

Pehla Karen ldquoJoe May und seine Detektive Der Serienfi lm als Kinoerlebnisrdquo In Joe May Regisseur und Produzent edited by Hans-Michael Bock and Claudia Lenssen 61ndash72 Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1991

Plasse Jan van de ldquoEen eeuw de Telegraaf Episoden uit het bestaan van een hon-derdjarige krant Deel 1rdquo De Journalist 43 no 22 (1992) 26ndash30

Portes Jacques Fascination and Misgivings The United States in French Opinion 1870ndash1914 Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2000

Pratt David B ldquolsquoFit Food for Madhouse Inmatesrsquordquo Griffi thiana 16 nos 48ndash49 (1993) 96ndash157

ldquolsquoO Lubitsch Where Wert Thoursquo Passion the German Invasion amp the Emergence of the Name lsquoLubitschrsquordquo Wide Angle 13 no 1 (1991) 34ndash70

Queffeacutelec Lise Le roman-feuilleton franccedilais au XIXe siegravecle Paris Presses univer-sitaires de France 1989

Quinn Michael ldquoParamount and Early Feature Distribution 1914ndash1921rdquo Film History 11 no 1 (1999) 98ndash113

Railton Stephen ldquolsquoA Decided Innovationrsquo The 3-Reel Vitagraph Production (1910)rdquo Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin amp American Culture httputciathvirginiaedu (accessed 21 May 2010)

Rainey Buck Serials and Series A World Filmography 1912ndash1956 Jefferson McFarland 1999

Ramm Gerald Als Woltersdorf noch Hollywood war Woltersdorf Bock amp Kuumlbler 1996

Das maumlrkische Grabmal vergessene Filmlegenden zweier Drehorte Wolt-ersdorf Gerald Ramm 1997

Redi Riccardo ldquoA propos drsquoune copie italienne de lsquoJudexrsquordquo Les cahiers de la Cineacute-mathegraveque 48 (1987) 83ndash88

Reeve Arthur B The Exploits of Elaine A Detective Novel New York Hearstrsquos International Library Co 1915

The Romance of Elaine New York Hearstrsquos International Library Co 1916 The Romance of Elaine London Hodder amp Stoughton 1916Rewald Sabine ldquoVuillardrsquos Unlikely Obsession Revisiting Place Vintimillerdquo Art

in America 89 no 7 (2001) 70ndash79Rhodes Henry Taylor Fowkes Alphonse Bertillon Father of Scientifi c Detection

London George G Harrap 1956Robertson Roland ldquoGlobalization Theory 2000+ Major Problematicsrdquo In Hand-

book of Social Theory edited by Barry Smart and George Ritzer 458ndash471 London Sage 2001

ldquoGlocalization Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneityrdquo In Global Modernities edited by Mike Featherstone Scott Lash and Roland Robertson 25ndash44 London Sage Publications 1995

Rogowski Christian ldquoFrom Ernst Lubitsch to Joe May Challenging Kracauerrsquos Demonology with Weimar Popular Filmrdquo In Light Motives German Popular Film in Perspective edited by Randall Halle and Margaret McCarthy 1ndash23 Detroit Wayne State University Press 2003

250 Bibliography

Saunders Thomas J Hollywood in Berlin American Cinema and Weimar Ger-many Berkeley University of California Press 1994

ldquoVon Dafco Zu Damra Spekulation mit amerikanischen Filmenrdquo In Das Ufa-Buch Kunst und Krisen Stars und Regisseure Wirtschaft und Politik edited by Hans-Michael Bock and Michael Toumlteberg 70ndash71 Frankfurt am Main Zweitausendeins 1992

Schickel Richard DW Griffi th An American Life New York Simon and Schus-ter 1984

Shail Andrew ldquoThe Motion Picture Story Magazine and the Origins of Popular British Film Culturerdquo Film History 20 no 2 (2008) 181ndash197

Simmon Scott ldquoThe Fall of Babylon The Mother and the Lawrdquo In The Griffi th Project edited by Paolo Cherchi Usai 203ndash211 Vol 9 London BFI Publish-ing 2005

Singer Ben ldquoFeature Films Variety Programs and the Crisis of the Small Exhibi-torrdquo In American Cinemarsquos Transitional Era Audiences Institutions Prac-tices edited by Charlie Keil and Shelley Stamp 76ndash100 Berkeley University of California Press 2004

ldquoFiction Tie-Ins and Narrative Intelligibility 1911ndash18rdquo Film History 5 no 4 (1993) 489ndash504

Melodrama and Modernity Early Sensational Cinema and Its Contexts New York Columbia University Press 2001

ldquoNew York Just Like I Pictured Itrdquo Cinema Journal 35 no 3 (1996) 104ndash128

ldquoSerial Melodrama and the Narrative Gesellschaftrdquo Velvet Light Trap 37 (1996) 72ndash80

Staiger Janet ldquoAnnouncing Wares Winning Patrons Voicing Ideals Thinking About the History and Theory of Film Advertisingrdquo Cinema Journal 29 no 3 (1990) 3ndash31

ldquoCombination and Litigation Structures of US Film Distribution 1896ndash1917rdquo In Early Cinema Space Frame Narrative edited by Thomas Elsaesser and Adam Barker 189ndash210 London BFI Publishing 1990

Stamp Shelley Movie-Struck Girls Women and Motion Picture Culture after the Nickelodeon Princeton Princeton University Press 2000

Stedman Raymond William The Serials Suspense and Drama by Installment 2nd ed Norman University of Oklahoma Press 1977

Studlar Gaylyn ldquoThe Perils of Pleasure Fan Magazine Discourse as Womenrsquos Commodifi ed Culture in the 1920srdquo Wide Angle 13 no 1 (1991) 6ndash33

Sturm Georges Die Circe der Pfau und das Halbblut Die Filme von Fritz Lang 1916ndash1921 Trier Wissenschaftlicher Verlag 2001

Sturm Sibylle M and Arthur Wohlgemuth eds Hallo Berlin Ici Paris Deutsch-franzoumlsische Filmbeziehungen 1918ndash1939 Munich Edition Text + Kritik 1996

Teramond Guy de La maison de la haine Paris La Renaissance du Livre 1920Thompson Kristin Exporting Entertainment America in the World Film Mar-

ket 1907ndash34 London BFI Publishing 1985 ldquoHis Trustrdquo In The Griffi th Project edited by Paolo Cherchi Usai and

Eileen Bowser 246ndash248 Vol 4 London BFI Publishing 2000Thompson Kristin and David Bordwell Film History An Introduction 3rd ed

New York McGraw-Hill 2010Toeplitz Jerzy Geschichte des Films 1895ndash1928 Berlin Henschel-Verl 1992Toumlteberg Michael ldquoOhne Ruumlcksicht auf die Qualitaumlt Ein Blick in die Geschaumlfts-

buumlcher des Verleihsrdquo In Das Ufa-Buch Kunst und Krisen Stars und Regisseure Wirtschaft und Politik edited by Hans-Michael Bock and Michael Toumlteberg 74ndash75 Frankfurt am Main Zweitausendeins 1992

Bibliography 251

Tower Beeke Sell ldquolsquoUltramodern and Ultraprimitiversquo Shifting Meanings in the Imagery of Americanism in the Art of Weimar Germanyrdquo In Dancing on the Volcano Essays on the Culture of the Weimar Republic edited by Thomas W Kniesche and Stephen Brockmann 84ndash104 Columbia Camden House 1994

Trommler Frank ldquoThe Rise and Fall of Americanism in Germanyrdquo In The Rela-tionship in the Twentieth Century Vol 2 America and the Germans An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History edited by Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press 1985

Tybjerg Casper ldquoThe Presentation of Variant Endingsrdquo In Film and Its Multiples edited by Anna Antonini 237ndash240 Udine Forum 2003

Ulff-Moslashller Jens ldquoThe lsquoFilm Warsrsquo between France and the United States Film-Trade Diplomacy the Emergence of the Film Quota System in France 1920-1939rdquo Vol 2 PhD diss Brandeis University 1998

ldquoHollywoodrsquos lsquoForeign Warrsquo The Effect of National Commercial Policy on the Emergence of the American Film Hegemony in France 1920ndash1929rdquo In ldquoFilm Europerdquo and ldquoFilm Americardquo Cinema Commerce and Cultural Exchange 1920ndash1939 edited by Andrew Higson and Richard Maltby 181ndash206 Exeter University of Exeter Press 1999

Uricchio William ldquoThe First World War and the Crisis in Europerdquo In The Oxford History of World Cinema edited by Geoffrey Nowell-Smith 62ndash70 Oxford Oxford University Press 1997

Uricchio William and Roberta E Pearson Reframing Culture The Case of the Vitagraph Quality Films Princeton Princeton University Press 1993

Vela Rafael A ldquoWith the Parentsrsquo Consent Film Serials Consumerism and the Creation of a Youth Audience 1913ndash1938rdquo PhD diss University of Wisconsin 2000

Vree Frank van ldquoMassapers en modernisering De pers als spiegel en oorzaak van maatschappelijke veranderingenrdquo In Tekens en teksten Cultuur commu-nicatie en maatschappelijke veranderingen vanaf de late middeleeuwen edited by Henk Kleijer Ad Knotter and Frank van Vree 95ndash108 Amsterdam Amster-dam University Press 1992

Ward Janet Weimar Surfaces Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany Berkeley University of California Press 2001

Weinberg Herman G and Erich von Stroheim The Complete Wedding March of Erich Von Stroheim Boston Little Brown 1974

Wesley Howard and Charles Elbert Elaine My Moving Picture Queen New York Leo Feist Inc 1915

Wijfjes Huub Journalistiek in Nederland 1850ndash2000 Beroep cultuur en organ-isatie Amsterdam Boom 2004

Wiles Roy McKeen Serial Publication in England before 1750 Cambridge Uni-versity Press 1957

Wottrich Erika ed Deutsche Universal Transatlantische Verleih- und Produk-tionsstrategien eines Hollywood-Studios in den 20er und 30er Jahren Munich Edition Text + Kritik 2001

AAbel Richard 13 175Abenteuerin von Monte Carlo Die

(1921) 123 LrsquoHeacuteroiumlne de la Riviera (1922) 163

Ace of Spades The (1925) Schoppe-naas 85

Active Life of Dolly of the Dailies The (1914) 17

Adorno Theodor W xiii xivAdventures of Kathlyn The (1913) 5

16 17 18 24 43 213n41 Die Abenteuer der Schoumlnen Kathlyn 24 26ndash27 28 30 32 34

Adventures of Peg orsquo the Ring The (1916) Peg van het Circus 87

Adventures of Robinson Crusoe The (1922) 126

Affaire du Courrier de Lyon Lrsquo (1923) 161

Agonie des Aigles Lrsquo (1921) 158 165 238n24 240n81 The Son of Napoleon 230n3 234n99

Ahasver (1917) 217n35Albatros Films 161Alexanderplatz (Berlin) 101Allain Marcel 19 56Alte Fritz Der (1927) 169 240n69Acircme drsquoArtiste (1925) 175Americanism 99ndash100 113 116 122

123American Film Company 19American Releasing Corporation 139

141Andreacute Corneacutefi s (1926) 173Anna Boleyn (1920) 117Arden Edwin 47Arrow Film Corporation 18 103Asphalt (1929) 75 170

Assomoir Lrsquo (1909) Drink 11As the World Turns (1956ndash2010) xivAtlantide Lrsquo (1921) 162 163 165

170Aubert 161 163 169 175Aubert Louis 160 238n21

BBabelsberg 66Balaacutezs Beacutela 167Balzac Honoreacute de xiv 166Barberousse (1917) 157Barker Adam 8ndash9Barrymore Lionel 47Bathrick David 113Beacutebeacute xxBeloved Adventurer The (1914) 17 18Belpheacutegor (1927) 175Ben-Hur (1925) 174Berliner Boumlrsen-Courier 70 113 117Berliner Boumlrsen-Zeitung 64 66 70

97 105 107Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger 105 112Berliner Tageblatt 27 118Bernegravede Arthur 61Bertillon Alphonse 52ndash53Bertolucci Bernardo 182Bilinsky Boris 176Biograph xxi 6 9ndash11 13 15 23Bioscoop-Courant De 76 86Bismarck (1926) 169Black Box The (1915) 43 44Black Secret The (1919) 105body use of the 113ndash16Bohnen Michael 133Bonfi re of the Vanities The xiiBonneau Albert 163Bonvillain LP 48Bordwell David 3 212n11 213n41

Note Not included are references to entries in the Appendix (pp 185ndash207)

254 Index

Bossu Le (1925) 173Bowser Eileen 16 213n41boxing 110 113ndash14 115 116Boy Scouts-Be Prepared (1917) Boy

Scouts to the Rescue 22Brecht Bertolt 116Breitenstraumlter Hans 113Bretegraveque Franccedilois de la 159 173Brewster Ben 15Broadway 117 125 127 128 131

132 134 135 141 150 168 178

Brody Lewis 72Broncho Billy xx 112Brunet Paul 137Bullrsquos Eye The (1918) 22Bush W Stephan 16 19

CCabinet des Dr Caligari Das (1920)

117 The Cabinet of Dr Calig-ari 126

Caduta di Troia La (1911) The Fall of Troy 14

Canyon Picture Corporation 103Capitaine Rascasse Le (1926) 175Capellani Albert 13 14 84Carmi Maria series 28Carr Harry 153censorship xv 40 217n6 Germany

29 101 103 115 119 122ndash23 Netherlands 85 91 224n29 US 107 126

Chaplin Charlie 21 52Chi Bi (2008ndash2009) Red Cliff xiii 182Chicago Record-Herald 43Chicago Tribune 43Chirat Raymond 173Cineacutemagazine 157 162 163Cineacutematographie Franccedilaise La 160Clair Reneacute 157Classical Hollywood cinema 8 15 23

181Clayton Ethel 131cliffhanger use of xix xx 8 12 16

17 18 24 26 30 31 35 48 63 85 90 113 130 143 170 231n23

Club Franccedilais du Cineacutema Le 158Cocteau Jean 156Comte de Monte-Cristo Le (1918) 61

67 88continuity 8ndash9 139 141 212n10Cosmopolitan 47

Courant De 77ndash80Courrier Cineacutematographique Le 160Courrier de Lyon Le (1911) 13 14Crimson Petal and the White The xiiCunard Grace 44 104

DDallas (1978ndash1991) xivDallrsquoAsta Monica 210n15Daly Arnold 47Dame de Monsorau La (1923) 173Dark Tower The xiiDavidson Paul 117Decourcelle Pierre 39 47 49 51 52

55 78Dekage Film Gesellschaft 26 28 29Demon Shadow The (1919) 18Dempsey Jack 113ndash14Desclaux Pierre 161 238n30Desmet Jean 84Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung 109

110 121Deutsche Bioscop 30 216n27Deutsche Filmwoche 114Deux Gamines Les (1921) 173Deux Gosses Les 49 219n39Diamant-Berger Henri 139 147Diamant Vert Le (1922) 160Dickens Charles xivDostoyevsky Fyodor xiiiDr Mabuse der Spieler (1922) 163

167 172 Le Docteur Mabuse 164

Duchesse des Folies Bergegravere La (1927) 175

Dulac Germaine 175Dumas Alexandre 67 209n7

EEaglersquos Eye The (1918) 105Eacuteclair 13Eclipse Company 26Eco Umberto xix 216n22Edison Manufacturing Company xx 6

7 15 17 18 42 44Eichler (publisher) 82 224n15Electric-Palace (Paris) 163Elmo the Mighty (1919) Goliath Arm-

strong 101ndash2 104 105 112 113 116 118

Elsaesser Thomas 8ndash9Engel Fritz 118Enoch Arden (1911) 10 13 150Eacutepervier Lrsquo (1924) 175

Index 255

eacutepoques 159 161 163 165 176Erste Internationale Film-Zeitung 68

70 108Essanay Film Manufacturing Company

6Europaiumlsche Film Allianz (EFA) 117

121 127 138 139 234n89Evening American 43Exhibitors Herald 126 134 137Exhibitors Trade Review 134Exploits of Elaine The (1914) 17 44

47 48 76 219n29 See also Les Mystegraveres de New-York (1915)

Exploits of Elaine The (novelization) 44 47ndash48 49 76 See also Les Mystegraveres de New-York (novel-ization)

EYE Film Institute Netherlands xvii

FFaber Michel xiiFairbanks Douglas 139 140 162Famous Players-Lasky 125 134 139

152Fantocircmas (1913ndash1914) xx 16 60 84

115 157 159 215n3 Fan-tomas 16 19 21

Fatal Ring The (1917) De Koningin Verveelt Zich 87 La Reine srsquoEnnuie 58 87

Faust (1926) 170Femme Nue La (1926) 175Fescourt Henri 165 176Feuillade Louis 16 19 60ndash61 67 88

116 124 157 159 161 173feuilleton xiv 13 81 224n9 See also

serial novelFighting Trail The (1917) 105Figdor Karl 63 73ndash74 88 108

223n33Film De 77 90Film Der 65 70 109Film Daily 132 134 137 138 139

141Filmhaus Bruckmann 102 227n23Filmhaus Sage 103Film-Kurier 107 110 229n73Filmwelt Die 31Film-Wereld De 81First National Pictures 21 125 126

175 234n99Fixlein Quintus (pseud) 101Foolish Wives (1922) 75 150ndash53 154

162 Toumlrichte Frauen 123

Ford Henry 100 143Fox Film Corporation 126Frau im Mond (1929) 75 170Freie Deutsche Buumlhne 71Fridericus Rex (1922ndash1923) 169

240n66 240n69Friedrichstrasse (Berlin) 101Fuller Mary 15

GGad Urban 108Gaidarow Wladimir 166Gance Abel 61 136 147 155ndash58

165 174 176 177 178 182 235n99

Gasnier Louis 46Gaumont 19 21 60 61 116 124

161 173 174Gaumont Leacuteon 21 124Gaumont-British Picture Corporation

21Gaumont-Metro-Goldwyn 174 176Gaumont-Palace (Paris) 156 159 176Geheimnis der Sechs Spielkarten Das

(1920) 120 121 123General Film Company 9Genenncher R 108ndash9Gerusalemme Liberata La (1911)

The Crusaders or Jerusalem Delivered 14

Gibson Helen xixGish Dorothy 136 171Gish Lillian 9 136 171glocalization 40 92Gotthold George 70Graf Wilhelm 28ndash30Gramsci Antonio xiii 209nn7ndash8Grandais Suzanne series 28Gray Jonathan xiiiGreat Gamble The (1919) Das Groszlige

Spiel 103Great Radium Mystery The (1919)

Das Grosse Radium-Geheimnis 106ndash7 109 110 115

Greed (1924) 153ndash54 178Green Mile The xiiGreen Temptation The (1922) 131Griffi th DW xxi 7ndash11 21 22 75

136 149ndash50 151 155 170 171 180

Grisham John xiigroszligfi lm xix 34 35 64 70 166 See

also monumentalfi lmGuardian The xii

256 Index

Guggenheim Eugegravene 49Gunning Tom 8 9 16 212n11Guzman Anthony 124

HHagedorn Roger xivHageman Felix 81ndash82 84Halfeld Adolf 101Hamilton Theatrical Corporation 127

138Hansen Juanita 44Hansen Miriam Bratu 99Hansen Paul 72Harbou Thea von 121 168Harrisonrsquos Reports 134 139 141 168Harry Potter xii xiii xviii 182Hart William S 131Hazards of Helen The (1914ndash1917)

xix 17Hearst publishing 43 44 47 48 129Herrin der Welt Die (1919) xxi

31ndash33 34 35 63ndash74 75 76 92 104 108 120 121 123 127 130 136 144 151 152 153 166 170 177 181 182 223n33 De Koningin der Aarde 81 82 88ndash90 91 92 Maicirctresse du Monde 163 The Mistress of the World 127ndash36 138 139 141ndash42 149 150 151 153 155 233n60

Higson Andrew xvHis Trust (1911) 9ndash10 13 150His Trust Fulfi lled (1911) 9ndash10 13 150Holdert HMC 80Holmes Helen xix 44Homunculus (1916) 5 29 30ndash31 87

104 120Honeymoon The (1928) 154ndash55

Mariage de Prince 155 See also The Wedding March (1928)

House of Hate The (1918) 57 58 59 La Maison de la Haine 56 57 59 61 See also La Maison de la Haine (novelization)

Hugenberg Alfred 105Hugo Victor 165 166Hund von Baskerville Der (1914ndash

1920) 28

IIhering Herbert 117 166Illustrierte Filmwoche Die 65 66 70

import ban German 67 99 115 American 126

import quota American 125 French 175 238n21 German 101 108 109 227n23

Indians Are Coming The (1930) 178 241n103

Indische Grabmal Das (1921) 33 67 121ndash22 123 138 166 167 170 The Mysteries of India 138ndash39

Indische Grabmal Das (1938) 178Inferno Lrsquo (1911) Dantes Inferno 14intertitles use of 74 85 92 105

106 133 139 141 142 157 220n58

Intolerance (1916) 7ndash9 22 75 150 155 217n35 228n61 The Fall of Babylon (1919) 22 The Mother and the Law (1919) 22

invasion German fi lm 125ndash26 231n10

Iron Claw The (1916) Le Masque aux Dents Blanches 56

JJrsquoAccuse (1919) 61 136 139 141

157 158 I Accuse 136ndash37 138Jacoby Georg 121James Bond xviii xixJannings Emil 166Jasset Victorin 13Jenkins Henry xiiiJoe Deebs series 28Judex (1917) 61 88 116 173

229n73Judith of Bethulia (1913) 11Judson Hanford C 16Juif Errant Le xivJustet Louis 77

KKahn William 120Kaiser the Beast from Berlin The

(1918) 56Kalem xxi 6 7 17Kammer-Lichtspiele (Berlin) 101 103Kane Robert 127Kerr Alfred 100Kill Bill (2003ndash2004) xiiiKinematograaf De 76Kinematograph Der 25 28 70 74

108 109 113 166King Stephen xii 209n3

Index 257

King of the Circus (1920) Der Zirkuskoumlnig 119 229n86 229n88

kinoerlebnis 27 64 71 74 75Klaw Marc 136Kleine George 6 7Koumlnigin Luise (1927ndash1928) 169Koszarski Richard 3 213n41Kracauer Siegfried 67ndash68 70

222n23Kurfuumlrstendamm (Berlin) 101 103

LLacassin Francis 61Lady Harrington (1926) 173Ladiesrsquo World The 41 42 43Laemmle Carl 123 150 151Lahue Kalton C xixLang Fritz 121 163 167 169 170

172 173Lasky Jesse L 132 155Larsson Stieg xiiLeacuteger Fernand 156Leni Paul 166Letzte Mann Der (1924) The Last

Laugh 168Leacutevesque Marcel 60Lewis Howard T 175Lewis Sheldon 47LeWitt Sol xiiiLiberty a Daughter of the USA

(1916) Suzy lrsquoAmeacutericaine 87Lichtbild-Buumlhne 24 25 26 30 31 66

89 101 120Liedtke Harry 121Life of Buffalo Bill The (1912) 10Life of George Washington The

(1909) 11 12Life of Moses The (1909) 11 12

211n4Lincoln Elmo 113 228n61Lionrsquos Claw The (1918) 22Loew Marcus 128Loewrsquos Incorporated 125Lord of the Rings The (2001ndash2003)

xiii xviii 141 182 223n40Lost (2005ndash2010) xiiLubin Manufacturing Company xxi 6

7 14 17 18Lubitsch Ernst 66 121 126 series

28 222n21Lucille Love Girl of Mystery (1914)

17 22 43 137 Lucie Love 87Lumiegravere company 5

MMacDonald Margaret I 21Maciste xx 215n77Madame Dubarry (1919) 66 71 108

117 121 222n21 Passion 117 125 126

Madame Sans-Gecircne (1925) 174Madeleine-Cineacutema (Paris) 156 163

174Maison de la Haine La (novelization)

57ndash59 See also The House of Hate (1918)

Mann Ohne Namen Der (1921) 67 121 123 142 De Man Zonder Naam 121 LrsquoHomme Sans Nom 163

Man Who Disappeared The (1914) 17

Mario Marc 56Marivaux (Paris) 169 176Mark Strand (New York) 136 137

233n68Marmorhaus (Berlin) 30 103Martin Dentler 102Master Key The (1914) 17 44 83

De Sleutel naar Geluk 83ndash84 87

Matheacute Eacutedouard 60Mathias Sandorf (1921) 137 139 141

158 160 The Isle of Zorda 137ndash38

Matin Le 13 39 47 49 50 55 56 61 76

Matrix The (1999ndash2003) xiiiMay Joe 27ndash28 31ndash33 35 63 64

67 68 71 72 73 121ndash22 127 131 136 138 152 153 165ndash67 170 171 217nn35ndash36 233n60

May Karl 112May Mia 63 65 69 71 72 73 93

130 133 166 234n82 series 27 28

McClure Publications 42McManus Edward A 42 43 218n12Meglio Gioventugrave La (2003) The Best

of Youth xiiiMeacuteliegraves Manufacturing Company 6Meacutephisto (1930) 178Merry Widow The (1925) 154Merwin Bannister 42Metropolis (1927) 75 170 172ndash73

177Meyer Wilhelm 71

258 Index

MGM (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer) 126 153ndash54 170 178

Michel Strogoff (1926) 175Millennium trilogy xiiMillion Dollar Mystery The (1914)

17 18 19 43 44 45Milne Peter 149 152ndash53Miseacuterables Les (1909) 11Miseacuterables Les (1912) 14 84 215n2

De Ellendigen 84 224n24Miseacuterables Les (1925) 165 175

241n94Mon Cineacute 147 159 160 161 176Monet Claude xivmonopolfi lm 24 25 26 26 27 28

35 series 25 27ndash28 30 31 34ndash35

Monte-Cristo (1929) 176monumentalfi lm xix 31 35 64 75

See also groszligfi lmMoody Rick xiiMoreno Antonio 57Motion Picture News 132ndash33 137

139 141 152Moving Picture World 10 15 19 21

22 42 48 132 136 137Moussinac Leacuteon 158Mozartsaal (Berlin) 101 103MPPC (Motion Picture Patents Com-

pany) xx 3 5 6 7 9 11 17 44

Muumlller Corinna 25Murnau FW 168 170Musidora 60 116Mutual Film Corporation 19ndash21Mystegraveres de New-York Les (1915)

xxi 39 46 47 49 51 53 54 55ndash56 60 61 74 76 78 79 90 91 159 181 219n29 220n58 221n77 De Geheimen van New-York 77 80 82ndash83 86 88 91

Mystegraveres de New-York Les (noveliza-tion) 39 46 47 49ndash55 57 58 60 74 76 78 92 181 De Geheimen van New-York 77ndash81 83 91 92 181

Mystegraveres de Paris Les (1922) 142Mystegraveres de Paris Les (novel) xiv

166Mystery of the Double Cross The

(1917) Het Geheim van het Dubbele Kruis 87 Le Mystegravere de la Double Croix 87

NNalpas Louis 61 137 160 176Napoleacuteon (1927) 174 176 177 178Nat Pinkerton (1911ndash1912) 16Nattens Datter (1915ndash1917) De

Dochter van den Nacht 87Navarre Reneacute 61 178Negri Pola 126New Exploits of Elaine The (1915)

47New York Dramatic Mirror 12 45New York Times 133 139 149Nibelungen Die (1924) 75 167ndash68

169 170 172 Kriemhildrsquos Revenge 168ndash69 Les Nibe-lungen 169 She-Bitch 169 Siegfried 168

Niblo Fred 174Nick Carter (1908ndash1909) xx 16 82

159Nielsen Asta 25 series 25Noble Peter 154non-continuity 8ndash9 18 22 23 40Nordisk Film 27 88 89 90Notre Dame de Paris (1911) 13Nouvelle Mission de Judex La (1918)

611900 (1977) 182

Ooccupied zones Germany 101 104

105 120Old Curiosity Shop The xivOlimsky Fritz 64 66 166One Exciting Night (1922) 150 Wie

Heeft Johnson Vermoord 171ndash72

Oorlog en Vrede (1918) 88Opeacutera (Paris) 174 176Orphans of the Storm (1921) 149

170ndash71 Weezen der Revolutie 170ndash71

Orphelin du Cirque Lrsquo (1925) 173Oskar Einstein 102Oswald Richard 28 series 28overshooting 149 152ndash53 155 177

178Oxford American xii

PPAGU (Projektions-AG Union) 121Painted House A xiiPalast am Zoo (Berlin) 122 166 167Panzer Paul 10

Index 259

Paramount Pictures Corporation 117 126 127ndash35 138 141 150 155 163 170 174 175 233n60 234n90

Parufamet 170passion play 5 11Patheacute-Consortium 157 158 161 160

161 175Patheacute-Eclectic 44Patheacute-Exchange 16 17 18 43 44 46

47 48 86 87 103 113 126 127 137 138

Patheacute-Fregraveres xx 6 7 11 17 44 46 47 48 51 56 60 61 76 77 80 85 86 88 91 103 116

Patheacute Limited 158Pearl of the Army (1916) Le Courrier

de Washington 56Pehla Karen 27Perils of Pauline The (1914) 5 10

16 17 18 43 44 131 De Avonturen van Elaine 86 87 Les Exploits drsquoElaine 56 86

Perret Leacuteonce 174 175Pershing John J 58Petithuguenin Jean 56Philantropische Lichtbilder Gesellschaft 26Phoceacutea 160 237n20Photoplay Magazine 152Picasso Pablo 156Pickford Mary 44Piel Harry 115 170Pinthus Kurt 114 166Plimpton Horace G 42Polo Eddie 22 240n65Porten Henny 84Pouctal Henri 61 67Powers Pat 154ndash55preisraumltselfi lme 27ndash28 63 64 171provinces exhibition in French 160

161 173 176 237n18Psilander Valdemar series 28Prsquotit Parigot Le (1926) 173

QQuerschnitt 113Quinn Michael 6Quo Vadis (1913) 14

RRainey Buck 213n41Red Ace The (1917) 44 105 110

Karo Ass 105ndash6 107 109 110 112 121

Red Circle The (1915) De Roode Cirkel 86 91

reel-break cliffhanger 13ndash14 16 86Reeve Arthur B 47 49 51 53 57Reichenbach Harry 129Reid Laurence 133 137Reiter Ohne Kopf Der (1921) 115Rembrandt Theater (Amsterdam)

88ndash89 171 172Renaissance du Livre La 49Republic Pictures 178Rialto (Broadway) 128 131 139 142

231n25 232n27Ribot Alexandre 58Richard-Oswald-Lichtspiele (Berlin)

103Richter Ellen 163 170 230n100

240n65Ripley Arthur 151Rippert Otto 30Rivoli (Broadway) 128 131 142

231n25 232n27Road orsquo Strife (1915) 17Robertson Roland 40Roland Ruth 103Rolling Stone xiiRomance of Elaine The (1915) 47 53Roue La 144 156ndash59 165ndash66

173ndash74 176ndash78 235n99 236n2Rowling JK xiiRoyal Albert Hall (London) 169Rush 131 132 133

SSalammbocirc (1925) 175Sandberg Serge 61Sannom Emilie series 30Sapegravene Jean 160 161 175 238n21Sargent Epes Winthrop 7 14Saunders Thomas 68 99 108 225n1Sazie Leacuteon 13SCAGL 49Scala Theatre (Rotterdam) 171Schauburg (Berlin) 105Scherl publishing house 105(schwarze) Tag Der 106 227n36Secret of the Submarine The (1916) 19Sedgwick Eileen 44 106Seine Exzellenz von Madagaskar

(1921) 123Selig Polyscope Company xxi 6 7 16

17 18 26 43 44Sequel to The Diamond From the Sky

The (1916) 19

260 Index

serial features 30 92ndash93 127 136 149 165 169 174 177

serial novel xii xiii xiv 41 42 43 47 48ndash49 52 55 71 76 77 80ndash81 83 91 158 159 See also tie-in

series xviiindashxx 16 17 21 25 84 See also monopol-series

Seacuteverin-Mars 156Sewell CS 137Shadowbox (New York) 168 239n60Sherwood Robert E 154Shielding Shadow The (1916) Raven-

gar 86ndash87Siemsen Hans 97 115 117ndash18 123

229n73Silent Avenger The (1920) De Groote

Onbekende 85Singer Ben xv xviii 3 43 46ndash47

137Smith Frank Leon 17soap opera xii xivndashxv xviii xxi

211n31Socieacuteteacute des Cineacuteromans 61 160 161

165 175Socieacuteteacute Etablissements LrsquoAubert See

AubertSocieacuteteacute Franccedilaise des Films Eacuteclair See

EacuteclairSocieacuteteacute Geacuteneacuterale de Films 174Sodom und Gomorrha (1922) The

Queen of Sin 234n99Soupault Philippe 39Spargo John S 134 235n12Spinnen Die (1919) 67 167 Mysteacute-

ria 163 238n38Spione (1928) 75 170Staiger Janet 45 219n28Stamp Shelley xv 3 18Star Wars (1977ndash2005) xiii xviii 182Stedman Raymond xix 211n28Stingaree (1915) 87Stroheim Erich von xxii 75 123 129

144 147 149ndash55 177 178 182 235n12

Stuart Webb series 30 31 216n32Suumlddeutsches Filmhaus 103Sue Eugegravene xiv 166 209n7Sultane de lrsquoAmour La (1919) 173

The Sultaness of Love 234n99Superman xix 216n22Surcouf (1925) 175Swanson Gloria 174syndication 43 81 83 91

TTage-Buch Das 101Tare La (1911) 14Tartuumlff (1925) 170Tauentzienpalast (Berlin) 68Taylor Frederick 100Telegraaf De 79 89Teramond Guy de 57 58 59terminfi lm 25Terreur (1924) 59Thackeray William Makepeace xivThanhouser Film Company 17 18 19

43 44 45 47Theater Patheacute (Amsterdam) 77 79 80Thompson Kristin 3 10 213n41Three Musketeers The (1921) 139ndash40

162Tidden Fritz 132tie-in xxi 39 40 41ndash44 45 46ndash61

62 64 75 76 78ndash81 83 87 91 92 181 See also serial novel

Tih Minh (1919) 61 In the Clutches of the Hindu 124 125

Titi Premier Roi des Gosses (1926) 175

Tocqueville Alexis de 100Traffi c in Souls (1913) 15Tragoumldie der Liebe (1923) 165ndash66

167transitional period 3 6 22ndash23 147

181transitional fi lm form xx 3 7 23 35

36 180Travail (1920) Arbeid 88Travelinrsquo On (1922) 131Trey orsquo Hearts The (1914) 17 219n30Trans-Atlantic (Universal) 22 85 87Triangle Film Corporation 21Trois Mousquetaires Les (1921) 139

147 158 Milady 139ndash41Trollope Anthony xiv24 (2001ndash2010) xiiiTwilight (2008ndash2010) xiii

UUfa (Universum Film Aktiengesell-

schaft) 31 66 70 72 88 89 101 102 104 105 108 117 121 122 123 127 138 142 164 167 168 169 170 233n60

Ultus (1915ndash1917) 21 The Hand of Vengeance 21

Uncle Tomrsquos Cabin (1910) 11ndash12

Index 261

Under the Crescent (1915) De Purp-eren Iris 87

Union-Eacuteclair 160United Artists (UA) 136 137 175Universal Film Manufacturing Com-

pany xx 17 22 43 44 83 87 101ndash3 104 105 106 110 114 117 119 123 126 127 129 150ndash52 163 175 178

Utrechtse Courant De 83

VVampires Les (1915ndash1916) 5 19

60ndash61 116 De Vampieren 87 224n28 Die Vampire 116 The Vampires 19ndash20 21 22 60

Vanishing Dagger The (1920) Der Geheimnisvolle Dolch 104

Variety 121 125 131 132 134 135 139 141 142 151 152 154 175 177

Ventures of Marguerite The (1915) 17Veritas Vincit (1918) 31 35 64 66

72 108 217n37Vernon Hedda series 28Vie et la Passion de Jeacutesus-Christ La

(1898) 5Vieille Fille La xivVingt Ans Apregraves (1922) 142 147Vitagraph Company of America xxi 6

7 11 12 13 15 23 126 180 211n4 218n4

Vossische Zeitung Die 71Vuillard Eacutedouard xi xii xivVuillermoz Emile 157 158 176

WWagner Richard 167 168Walcamp Marie 22 44 105 114Wallenstein (1925) 169Wedderkop Hermann von 113Wedding March The (1928) 153ndash55

Mariage de Prince 155 The Honeymoon 154ndash55

Weinbergs (Berlin) 101Wells HG 150Weltbuumlhne Die 97Western Photoplay 103Westfalia Film 103Westi Film 165 174 175What Happened to Mary (1912) 5 15

16 17 18 41ndash42 44 213n41White Pearl xxi 10 16 39 41 44

46 47 56ndash57 59 60 76 77 103 105 134

Who Will Marry Mary (1913) 15 16 18 42

Widrsquos Daily 136 150Wiene Robert 175Wilhelm Feindt 102 227n23Wilhelmina Company 84Williams Kathlyn 27Wilson John Fleming 83Wilson Woodrow 56 59Winners of the West (1921) 127Wolfe Tom xiiWoltersdorf 64ndash66 67 72 122Wolves of Kultur (1918) 105 De

Boodschapper des Doods 82 105

Woo John 182World War I 3 24 26 28 31 34 35

40 41 51 53ndash59 66 67 68 78 84 86 87 90 99 100 103 104ndash7 108 112 116 136

YYellow Menace The (1916) Kaffra

Kan de Geweldige 85 224n28

ZZigomar (1911ndash1913) xx 13 14 16

81Zola Emile 11 166Zudora (1914) 17 18 19 47ndash48

219n32Zukor Adolph 125 127 129 132

Book Cover

Copyright

Contents

Figures

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Part I Film Seriality and Its Serial Uses Transition and Beyond


1 Seriality Unbound


Part II Localizing Serials Translating Spectacle and Daily Life





Part III Confronting Seriality in Europe and America


6 Consuming New World Views American Serials in Germany

7 Minds That Cannot Condense European Serials in America

Part IV Another Time




Conclusion Beyond the Cliffhanger

Appendix Overview of Imported Serial Films

Notes

Bibliography

Index

Rudmer Canjels

New York London

ISBN13 978-0-415-87714-5 (hbk)ISBN13 978-0-203-83258-5 (ebk)

Contents

PART I

PART II

PART III

vi Contents

PART IV

Another Time

Figures

viii Figures

Acknowledgments

Introduction

xii Introduction

Introduction xiii

xiv Introduction

Introduction xv

xvi Introduction

Introduction xvii

xviii Introduction

Introduction xix

xx Introduction

Introduction xxi

xxii Introduction

Part I

1 Seriality Unbound

Seriality Unbound 7

Seriality Unbound 9

SHARDS OF SERIALITY

Figure 22 continued

CONCLUSION PART ONE

Part II

CONCLUSION PART TWO

Part III

STARTING POINTS

WAR-RELATED TARGETS

OPPOSING VIEWS

THE INVADING PATH

Part IV

Another Time

ATTEMPTED ESCAPES

UNLUCKY MARRIAGES

REVOLVING WHEELS

CHANGE OF HEART

CREATING EPOCHS

186 Appendix

rate features

Appendix 187

Louis Feuillade

GERMANY

188 Appendix

Appendix 189

190 Appendix

Appendix 191

192 Appendix

FRANCE

Appendix 193

194 Appendix

Appendix 195

196 Appendix

Appendix 197

198 Appendix

Appendix 199

NETHERLANDS

200 Appendix

Appendix 201

202 Appendix

Appendix 203

204 Appendix

Appendix 205

206 Appendix

Appendix 207

210 Notes

Notes 211

NOTES TO CHAPTER I

212 Notes

Notes 213

214 Notes

Notes 215

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

216 Notes

Notes 217

218 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

Notes 219

Livre 1916) 20

220 Notes

Notes 221

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

222 Notes

Notes 223

NOTES TO CHAPTER 5

224 Notes

Notes 225

NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

226 Notes

Notes 227

228 Notes

Notes 229

230 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 7

Notes 231

232 Notes

Notes 233

234 Notes

Notes 235

NOTES TO CHAPTER 8

236 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 9

Notes 237

238 Notes

Notes 239

240 Notes

1983) 100ndash101

Notes 241

NOTES TO CONCLUSION

Bibliography

244 Bibliography

Bibliography 245

246 Bibliography

Bibliography 247

248 Bibliography

Bibliography 249

250 Bibliography

Bibliography 251

254 Index

132 134 135 141 150 168 178

17 18 24 26 30 31 35 48 63 85 90 113 130 143 170 231n23

strong 101ndash2 104 105 112 113 116 118

Index 255

115 157 159 215n3 Fan-tomas 16 19 21

165 174 176 177 178 182 235n99

136 149ndash50 151 155 170 171 180

256 Index

1920) 28

106 133 139 141 142 157 220n58

JJrsquoAccuse (1919) 61 136 139 141

Index 257

(1909) 11 12Life of Moses The (1909) 11 12

117 121 222n21 Passion 117 125 126

Matin Le 13 39 47 49 50 55 56 61 76

May Karl 112May Mia 63 65 69 71 72 73 93

130 133 166 234n82 series 27 28

177Meyer Wilhelm 71

258 Index

pany) xx 3 5 6 7 9 11 17 44

611900 (1977) 182

Index 259

47 48 86 87 103 113 126 127 137 138

Karo Ass 105ndash6 107 109 110 112 121

The (1916) 19

260 Index

144 147 149ndash55 177 178 182 235n12

schaft) 31 66 70 72 88 89 101 102 104 105 108 117 121 122 123 127 138 142 164 167 168 169 170 233n60

Index 261

Variety 121 125 131 132 134 135 139 141 142 151 152 154 175 177

7 11 12 13 15 23 126 180 211n4 218n4

46 47 56ndash57 59 60 76 77 103 105 134

40 41 51 53ndash59 66 67 68 78 84 86 87 90 99 100 103 104ndash7 108 112 116 136

219n32Zukor Adolph 125 127 129 132

Book Cover

Copyright

Contents

Figures

Acknowledgments

Introduction


1 Seriality Unbound

















Notes

Bibliography

Index

Rudmer Canjels

New York London

ISBN13 978-0-415-87714-5 (hbk)ISBN13 978-0-203-83258-5 (ebk)

Contents

PART I

PART II

PART III

vi Contents

PART IV

Another Time

Figures

viii Figures

Acknowledgments

Introduction

xii Introduction

Introduction xiii

xiv Introduction

Introduction xv

xvi Introduction

Introduction xvii

xviii Introduction

Introduction xix

xx Introduction

Introduction xxi

xxii Introduction

Part I

1 Seriality Unbound

Seriality Unbound 7

Seriality Unbound 9

SHARDS OF SERIALITY

Figure 22 continued

CONCLUSION PART ONE

Part II

CONCLUSION PART TWO

Part III

STARTING POINTS

WAR-RELATED TARGETS

OPPOSING VIEWS

THE INVADING PATH

Part IV

Another Time

ATTEMPTED ESCAPES

UNLUCKY MARRIAGES

REVOLVING WHEELS

CHANGE OF HEART

CREATING EPOCHS

186 Appendix

rate features

Appendix 187

Louis Feuillade

GERMANY

188 Appendix

Appendix 189

190 Appendix

Appendix 191

192 Appendix

FRANCE

Appendix 193

194 Appendix

Appendix 195

196 Appendix

Appendix 197

198 Appendix

Appendix 199

NETHERLANDS

200 Appendix

Appendix 201

202 Appendix

Appendix 203

204 Appendix

Appendix 205

206 Appendix

Appendix 207

210 Notes

Notes 211

NOTES TO CHAPTER I

212 Notes

Notes 213

214 Notes

Notes 215

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2

216 Notes

Notes 217

218 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3

Notes 219

Livre 1916) 20

220 Notes

Notes 221

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4

222 Notes

Notes 223

NOTES TO CHAPTER 5

224 Notes

Notes 225

NOTES TO CHAPTER 6

226 Notes

Notes 227

228 Notes

Notes 229

230 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 7

Notes 231

232 Notes

Notes 233

234 Notes

Notes 235

NOTES TO CHAPTER 8

236 Notes

NOTES TO CHAPTER 9

Notes 237

238 Notes

Notes 239

240 Notes

1983) 100ndash101

Notes 241

NOTES TO CONCLUSION

Bibliography

244 Bibliography

Bibliography 245

246 Bibliography

Bibliography 247

248 Bibliography

Bibliography 249

250 Bibliography

Bibliography 251

254 Index

132 134 135 141 150 168 178

17 18 24 26 30 31 35 48 63 85 90 113 130 143 170 231n23

strong 101ndash2 104 105 112 113 116 118

Index 255

115 157 159 215n3 Fan-tomas 16 19 21

165 174 176 177 178 182 235n99

136 149ndash50 151 155 170 171 180

256 Index

1920) 28

106 133 139 141 142 157 220n58

JJrsquoAccuse (1919) 61 136 139 141

Index 257

(1909) 11 12Life of Moses The (1909) 11 12

117 121 222n21 Passion 117 125 126

Matin Le 13 39 47 49 50 55 56 61 76

May Karl 112May Mia 63 65 69 71 72 73 93

130 133 166 234n82 series 27 28

177Meyer Wilhelm 71

258 Index

pany) xx 3 5 6 7 9 11 17 44

611900 (1977) 182

Index 259

47 48 86 87 103 113 126 127 137 138

Karo Ass 105ndash6 107 109 110 112 121

The (1916) 19

260 Index

144 147 149ndash55 177 178 182 235n12

schaft) 31 66 70 72 88 89 101 102 104 105 108 117 121 122 123 127 138 142 164 167 168 169 170 233n60

Index 261

Variety 121 125 131 132 134 135 139 141 142 151 152 154 175 177

7 11 12 13 15 23 126 180 211n4 218n4

46 47 56ndash57 59 60 76 77 103 105 134

40 41 51 53ndash59 66 67 68 78 84 86 87 90 99 100 103 104ndash7 108 112 116 136

219n32Zukor Adolph 125 127 129 132

Book Cover

Copyright

Contents

Figures

Acknowledgments

Introduction


1 Seriality Unbound

















Notes

Bibliography

Index

Documents

Distributing Silent Film Serials: Local Practices, Changing Forms, Cultural Transformation