DISCRIMINATIONANDMODERNPAGANISM:ASTUDYOFRELIGIONANDCONTEMPORARYSOCIALCLIMATE

By

ElizabethHoadley

BachelorofPhilosophy,EnglishLiteratureandAnthropology,UniversityofPittsburgh2016

SubmittedtotheFacultyof

TheDietrichSchoolofArtsandSciencesinpartialfulfillment

oftherequirementsforthedegreeofBachelorofPhilosophy

UniversityofPittsburgh2016

ii

UNIVERSITYOFPITTSBURGH

DIETRICHSCHOOLOFARTSANDSCIENCES

Thisthesiswaspresentedby

ElizabethHoadley

Itwasdefendedon

May17,2016

andapprovedby

Dr.MichaelBobick,PostdoctoralFellow,DepartmentofAnthropology

Dr.AmyMurrayTwyning,Lecturer,DepartmentofEnglish

Dr.S.ZorehKermani

ThesisDirector:Dr.HannahJohnson,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofEnglish

iii

DISCRIMINATIONANDMODERNPAGANISM:ASTUDYOFRELIGIONANDCONTEMPORARYSOCIALCLIMATE

ElizabethHoadley,BPhil

UniversityofPittsburgh,2016

ThisworkinvestigatesattitudesofreligiousdiscriminationagainstPaganismand

howthefaithislivedasaculture.Itcloselyexamineshowdiscriminatoryattitudesagainst

PaganismaretranslatedintoactionsandhowtheyhaveaffectPaganlivesonanindividual

basis.Thisprojectalsoinvestigatestheoriginsofdiscriminatoryattitudesfornon-Pagans,

inordertobetterunderstandthem.Theresearchproblemincludestwobasicparts:

distinguishingdiscriminativeactionsandattitudes,andobservingtheireffectsonPagans’

dailylives.ThecycleofactionandinformationinvolvedindiscriminationagainstPagansis

discussedindetail,includingananalysisofthedefensemechanismsemployedbyPagansto

mitigatetheadverseeffectsofdiscriminationintheirlives.Thegoalofthisresearchisto

addtocurrentunderstandingsofreligiousdiscriminationandhowitcangreatlyinfluence

Paganpracticeandculture.Theuseoftheresultsofthisresearchwillincludebutnotbe

limitedto:furtherstudiesontheculturalpowerofreligiousdiscrimination,theformation

ofgreaterpublicunderstandingofnontraditionalreligionsandhowtheyareaffectedby

modernsocialclimates,andtheadditionofaseldomheardvoiceintocurrent

conversationssurroundingreligioustensionsinthemodernworld.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

1.0 CHAPTERONE...........................................................................................................1

1.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................1

1.2 COMMUNITYSCOPENATIONALLYANDREGIONALLY.............................................7

1.3 RESEARCHINGDISCRIMINATION................................................................................10

1.4 PAGANORIGINSANDPRACTICE..................................................................................14

1.4.1 HistoricalOrigins.....................................................................................................14

1.5 RECONSTRUCTINGADEFINITION...............................................................................18

1.5.1 Animism......................................................................................................................18

1.5.2 IndividualandCommunity...................................................................................20

1.5.3 Magic............................................................................................................................22

1.5.4 Ritual............................................................................................................................24

1.5.5 AWorkingDefinition..............................................................................................26

2.0 CHAPTERTWO........................................................................................................29

2.1 SCHOLARLYROOTSOFTHEFIELD.............................................................................29

2.2 DEFINITIONANDSYNTHESIS(1980-1995):............................................................31

2.3 CONSOLIDATIONANDCOMMUNITY(1995-2005):...............................................35

2.4 ANALYSISANDEVOLUTION(2005–Present):.......................................................39

2.5 PreviousWorkonDiscrimination..............................................................................42

3.0 CHAPTERTHREE.....................................................................................................48

3.1 DEALINGWITHDIFFERENCE:THENON-PAGANVIEW........................................48

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3.1.1 ConceptualizingtheUnfamiliar..........................................................................48

3.1.2 TranslatingFictionalImageryintoReality.....................................................49

3.1.3 “Witchcraft?LikeCauldronsandFlyingBroomsticksandPointyHats

andStuff?”....................................................................................................................................52

3.1.4 “I’mPrettySureIt’sDevilWorship.”.................................................................56

3.1.5 “They’reJustaBunchofWeirdos.”....................................................................60

3.2 MASKINGDISCRIMINATION..........................................................................................62

3.2.1 PerformancesandHowtoSpotThem..............................................................63

3.2.2 MyOwn“Liars”.........................................................................................................68

4.0 CHAPTERFOUR.......................................................................................................73

4.1 UNCOVERINGTHECYCLEOFDISCRIMINATION.....................................................73

4.1.1 InterviewingandEffects........................................................................................75

4.1.2 CreatingaCycleofIgnorance...................................................................................76

4.2 THEPAGANPERSPECTIVE.............................................................................................79

4.2.1 LisaandTara.................................................................................................................79

4.2.2 Matt...............................................................................................................................81

4.2.3 Janet.............................................................................................................................85

4.3 ACOMMUNUALRESPONSE............................................................................................88

5.0 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................90

APPENDIXA........................................................................................................................95

APPENDIXB........................................................................................................................95

BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................97

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1

1.0 CHAPTERONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In1994,threeteenageboysfromasmalltowninTennesseewereconvictedofthefirst-

degreemurderofthreechildrenbasedonfalseaccusationsofparticipationinasatanic

ritual.Themainsuspect,DamienEchols,hadaninterestinWiccaandunbeknownsttohim,

hisreligiouscuriositywouldbethedownfallofhisentirecase.Soonafterthemangled

bodiesofthethreeyoungboyswerefound,rumorsbegancirculatingthatthekillingsmight

havebeentheworkofdevilworshipers.Evenbeforereceivinganyinformationonthecase,

theWestMemphisPoliceDepartmentassignedthecasenumber93-05-0666tothefile,the

lastthreedigitsanumberhistoricallyassociatedwiththedevil,(Echolsv.State,1996).Two

daysafterfindingthebodies,investigatorsinterviewedthe“troubledlocalteenager,”

DamienEchols.Damien“wrotedarkpoems,worelonghair,hadatattooonhisupperarm,

andwasaself-describedWiccan.”1Withahistoryofpsychologicalproblemssuchas

depressionandaggression,Damienpresentedtheinvestigatorswithaneasytarget.When

searchinghishome,investigatorstestifiedattrialthattheyfound“elevenblackt-shirtsand

thebookNeveronaBroomstick.”2Whileowningalotofblackt-shirtsanda(rather

informativeandwell-rounded)bookonthehistoryandoriginofWiccadoesnotseem,

today,toprovehisparticipationinaritualmurderofthreeyoungboys,thisinterestin

Wiccawasthepinnacleoftheprosecution’scase.Inadditiontothebook,investigatorsalso

1 This is a direct quote from the investigative report included in the Echols v. State (1996) case file. 2 ibid.

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obtainedDamien’sprivatenotebookfullofmusingsonthereligionfromwhichDamienwas

askedtoreadduringhistrial.

IntheinvestigativereportpublishedonMay10th,1993outliningDamien’s

statementstothepolice,heechoesthethoughtsandexperiencesofmanyotherWiccans.

Damiencameacrossacommunityonlineandmetaperson“whoheconsideredtobea

priestess.”3Hedescribedhisreligionasa“whitewitchgroup,”thatbelieved“therewasa

GoddessandnotaGod,”andthatworkedtogethertowards“adivinelight”(Echolsv.State).

Despitetestifyingrepeatedlythathe“wasnotaSatanist,”and“didn’tbelieveinhuman

sacrifice,”DamienEcholswasconvictedofmurderingallthreechildrenduringasatanic

ritualandwassentencedtodeaththatsameyearattheageof18(Echolsv.State).After

manyyearsofarbitrationEcholshasrecentlybeenreleasedfromprison,butthescarsof

suchagravemisunderstandingremain.Echols,whowaswronglyunderstoodasaSatanist,

wasinrealityjustatroubledboywhohadaninterestinPaganism,anature-basedreligion

thatbelievesindoingnoharmandthesignificanceofthecyclesoflife(Linder).

Thiscaserepresentstheconsequencesthatmayarisefrommisinformationwhichis

thefocusofthisstudy.Althoughthroughouthistory,elementsofanimalsacrificehavebeen

includedinsometraditions,thenatureofthereligionsincludedwithinthePaganlabelis

notinanywaycenteredonthingssuchasdevilworshipandhumansacrifice.Infact,the

WiccanRede,ortheWiccanmoralcode,requiresthatawitchharmnone,andWiccans

firmlybelievethatwhatevertheyputoutintotheworld,positiveornegative,willcome

backtotheminlifethree-fold;thusmakingitveryimportanttoactwithpositivitytowards

3 Eventhelanguagewithinthisreportgiveswaytothepre-existingattitudesthattheprosecutionheld.Phraseslike“whoheconsideredtobe,”showtheirlackoffaithinthevalidityofhisstatementandsuspicionsurroundingthereligionitself.

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others(Walker).WiccansregardtheRedeasanage-oldtraditionpasseddownorally,the

contentsofwhichisthecodebywhichallWiccansidentifythemselvesandtheirvalues

(Walker).Paganism,likemostotherreligions,hasitsmainfocusonpersonalgrowth,and

thecreationofacommunity.Theyseektoenlightenthemselveswiththeaspectsofa

better,morewholeself,whichtheyfindinnature.Paganism,aprecisedefinitionofwhich

willbediscussedfurtheron,isanumbrellatermencompassingavarietyofnature-based

religionsincludingWicca,thedefinitionsofeachjustasdeepandtangledashistoryitself.

ThewordPaganismfunctionsmuchlikethetermChristianity:undertheumbrellaof

Christianityanditsvariousdenominationsandsects,onefindshighlyvariablebeliefsand

practicesthatareallunitedbyasmallsetofcore,universalbeliefs.Thesameistruefor

Paganism.Eventhoughthereachesofpaganismarewideanddiverse,eachsectcelebrates

suchdiversityinarespectfulwayandallidentifyasalargercommunityaswellas

individualbranches.Forsomeonetobesentencedtodeathsimplybecausemembersoflaw

enforcementwerenotfamiliarwithWiccaanddidnotinformthemselvesdepictsthelevel

ofignorancesurroundingPaganismandtheconsequencesthatcancomefromsuch

misunderstanding.Itseemsacutelyhumantobecarriedawaybywhatisexcitingand

dramaticascanbeseeninnon-Pagans’definitionofwordssuchaswitchcraft,which

relatestothepracticeofWiccaandotherPagangroupsbuthasbeenredefinedbypop

culturalimagery.Whatnaturallysticksinone’smindisnotthemundaneorbenign,but

ratherwhatisexcitingandunfamiliar.Thisisperhapsthereasonwhypopculture

understandingsofwitchcraftarequicklyattachedtoPaganreligions.Thedeephistorical

tensionandmodernculturalspectacleattachedtothewordWitch,iswherethis

discriminationandmisunderstandinggrowsroots.Notingtheimportanceofsuch

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influences,myresearchaimstofurtherinvestigatetheoriginsandextentofthese

potentiallydiscriminatoryattitudes.

Whenintroducedtothetopicofmyresearch,manyinmyaudiencestruggletoplace

thewordPaganismintoacontextinwhichitiseasilyunderstood.Whilewitchand

witchcraftaretermsthatareexceedinglyfamiliarwithinpopularculture,Paganismisa

wordseldomheardinmainstreamsociety.Whethertheyconsideritadead,ancient

religion,orhavebeenacquaintedwiththeterminaderogatorywaythroughtheirown

religiousbackground,allofmyinformantsoutsideofPaganculturefounditmuchmore

difficulttoexplainthewordPaganismthanwordslikewitchandwitchcraft.Whilethe

lattertwowordsareinevitablyconnectedintheirminds,Paganism,thetechnicalumbrella

termforavarietyofreclaimedancientreligions,ismuchmoreunfamiliartomostof

modernAmericathanthetermwitch,whichisusedasaninsiderdesignationmainlyby

Wiccansandasaderogatorystatementbysomenon-Pagans.Whenonethinksofamodern

witch,mostpeopleimmediatelypicturesomeformofdevilworshiporevildoer—animage

popularizedbyfilms,television,andthemedia.UnfortunatelyforDamienEchols,his

outwardappearanceofwhatmanylabeledas“gothic,”fitthisbillperfectly(Linder).While

thegothicsubcultureisunrelatedtotheactualpracticeofPaganismentirely,thisimage

rootedinentertainmentisthentransferredontomainstreamsociety’sideasofthereligion

ofPaganismasthepopculture“witch”isoftentheironlylinkbetweenunderstandingand

unfamiliarity.ThecaseoftheWestMemphisThree,forexample,isatestamenttothe

negativestigmathattheWiccanreligionreceivesasaresultofthisideologicalconnection.

Althoughthewitch-huntsofthepastmayseemarchaic,thesadrealityisthateven

inAmericatodayreligiouslymotivatedhatecrimesmakeupaboutonefifthofallhate

crimescommitted(UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice).Theseincludeviolence,

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vandalism,andthreatsamongothers.However,inthecaseofPaganismwhatseemtobe

moredetrimentalarethelessblatant,systemicconsequencesofmisunderstandingand

ignorance,suchasthatwhichbroughtthedeathpenaltyuponDamienEcholsintheWest

MemphisThreecase.Damienwasnotbeatenupbyastranger,norwashishome

vandalized,butbecausethemembersoflawenforcementinchargeofhiscaseimmediately

wroteofftheWiccanreligionasdevilworship,theconsequencesquicklyspiraledoutof

control.Evenbeyondthelegalandpubliclyvisiblerealmisanentirelevelofdiscrimination

thatnearlyalwaysgoesunreported.Theconsequencesofthesecircumstancesareechoed

intheaccountsofmanyofmyPaganinformants.Oneman,forinstance,hadhisPaganflag

torncompletelydownbyoneofhisneighbors.Whilethiswasindeedanactofvandalism

andcouldbeconsideredahatecrime,whatJeff4,a50-year-oldmanfromthequiet

countrysidejustoutsideofPittsburgh,consideredtobemoredetrimentalwasthelossof

hispeaceofmindandplaceinthecommunity.Jeffhasbeenamemberofthecommunity

formanyyearsandlivesinafairlyruralareathatisheavywithChristianchurches.While

hewasawarethathisneighborswereChristian,heneverimaginedthattheywouldgoso

farastowalkontohispropertyandphysicallyvandalizehisflag:

ItwasjustanicelittleflagIpickedupatoneoftheesotericstoresIwenttoonce,andIdidn’tthinkitwouldoffendanyone.Ithadapentacleonit,butI’mnotembarrassedofthat.Satanisminvertsthepentacleforeviljustliketheyinvertthecross.Butoneofmyneighbors,amiddleagedmaninthehouseover,walkeduptomyhouseandtoremyflagdown.Now,IknewhewasaChristianandIcouldguesswhyhedidit,buttoactuallyripmyflagdown?Thatwassurprisingtome.Ifeltprettyuncomfortableafterthat,andIfeltlikeIneededtospeakwithhimaboutit.WhenIconfrontedhimaboutitlater,heclaimedthatmyflaghadoffendedhimandhedidn’twanthischildrenseeingit.But,Isaid,thewitchdecorationsheputsuparoundHalloweenoffendmeandprovidesabadexampleforhiskidstoo.Thecrappypartisthatdoesn’tevenregistertohim,evenafterItalkedtohimaboutit.Hewasstilljustasangryabouthischildrenseeingmyflag,anddidn’tseeanythingwrongwithtearingitdown.ItwaslikeIdidn’tevencountasaperson(P203).

4 Pseudonyms have been assigned to all informants in order to protect their anonymity.

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ForJeff,thisinstancewasmorethanjustanactofvandalismonhispropertybuta

dehumanizingactthatmadehimfeelostracizedfromhiscommunity.Whilethissmall

eventwasnotsomethingthatJefffeltcouldbereportedinawaythatwouldsolveany

issues,itisthedehumanizinganddemoralizingconsequencesoftheignoranceof

mainstreamsocietythatcausesmuchgreaterdetrimenttothePagancommunity.AsJeff

explained,“Icanreplacemyflag,thatwasn’ttheissue.Theissuewasthewayitmademe

feelunsafeandunwantedinmyowncommunity”(P203).Whilethisfeelingisoftenthe

resultofhatecrimes,whatisuniqueaboutPaganismisthatthisostracizationand

discriminationmostoftencomesfrommuchsmallerandcoverteventsthatflyunderthe

radarofanyrealconsequenceforthediscriminator.ManyofmyPaganinformants

describedsimilarissuesresultingfrommisunderstandingandprejudiceassociatedwith

Paganism,suchasJanet,whowasfiredfromherofficejobshortlyaftershestartedtelling

peopleaboutherreligion,orJohn,whoseownfamilynolongerassociateswithhim

becauseofhisreligion(P236)(P222).Almosteveryotherinformantdescribedthefear

thatexistsintheirlivesasaresultofhearingthestoriesofothers.Iarguethatitisthis

exactsystemofinformationsurroundingexperienceswiththebroadercommunitythat

leadsPaganstoperpetuatethecycleofdiscriminationbyusingdefensetechniquesto

guardthemselvesfromanypossiblediscomfort.

FearandanxietyleadsmanyPaganstoremainquietabouttheirbeliefsevenwith

theirclosestfriends.InthisworkIarguethatwhileremainingsilentdecreasestheirriskof

discrimination,itconverselyincreasestheprobabilitythatdiscriminationwillcontinueto

exist.Becausetheyarenotpresentingaclear,visibleimageofthePaganpopulationtothe

communityatlarge,thesecrecyandcompartmentalizationcementsinplaceafeedback

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loopofignoranceandthusdiscrimination.Ifthegoalofthecommunityistoberespected

andunderstood,thiscycleofignoranceandsecrecycannotcontinue.However,theease

withwhichaPaganisabletoguardhisorherbeliefsmakesthealternative—dealingwith

thepossibleconsequencesthatmayfirstcomewithmakingtheircommunityvisible—all

themoreunappealingtomany.WhileanAfricanAmericancannotguardhimselfagainst

theconjecturesofaracist,aPaganhastheabilitytoblendinandremainundertheradarof

anyonewithstrongprejudicesagainstthem.Thisfactleadsmanymembersofthe

communitytotakeprecautionsintheirliveswhenallowinganyonetoknowtheirreligion,

andthusinadvertentlypromotesaskewedpopularunderstandingofthescopeofthe

religion.

1.2 COMMUNITYSCOPENATIONALLYANDREGIONALLY

AccordingtorecentPewResearchCenterstudiesonthereligiouslandscapeoftheU.S.,

Paganismmakesup.3%ofthepopulation.Whilethisnumberdoesnotseemlikealarge

portionofthepopulation,itamountsto956,700Pagans,giventhecurrentU.S.population

of318.9millionpeople(PewResearchCenter).Thisliesfarbeyondwhatmanywould

estimatethepopulationofPaganstobeintheU.S.basedontheirvisibilityalone.Whenone

non-PaganinformantwasaskedwhathewouldestimatethetotalpopulationofPagans

withintheU.S.tobe,heanswered“20,000”(NP123).Thisestimateis2%oftheactual

populationintheU.S.whoidentifyasPaganorWiccan.ItisnotjustthesecrecyofPagans

thatcausesthisunderestimate,butalsothewaysinwhichPaganspractice.Pewestimates

thatnearly60%ofallPaganschoosetopracticeontheirown(PewResearchCenter).Being

asolitarypractitionerisapopularchoicenationally,asthepracticeofthereligioneasily

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allowssmall,individualceremoniesthatcanbedoneinsideone’sownhome.Solitary

practitionersstillmayfunctionasapartofthebroaderPagancommunity,butperform

mostreligiousritualsbythemselves.Thisway,thepractitionerisallowedtochooseexactly

howtheywanttopracticeandwhattheywanttobelieve.Becausethebeliefsencompassed

inpaganismvarywidely,itisoftenmoreproductiveforeachmembertoperformritualson

theirown.However,40%ofthepopulationisinvolvedingroupworship,whichalthoughit

accountsforasmallerpercentageofthepopulation,isstillanotableamount.Thetrue

detrimenttovisibility,however,isthelackofanyestablishedchurches.Althoughthe

PluralismProjectfromHarvardUniversityrecordednearly400Paganorganizationswithin

theU.S.,onlyaboutonefourthofallofthecommunitieslistedactuallyhadabuildingthat

couldbeeasilyidentifiedbyanoutsiderasaplaceofworship(Eck).Foralmostonemillion

followers,thereareonlyaround100estimatedcentersofworshiplistedonthewebsite

withtheirownbuildings.ForalargemajorityofPagans,theirpreferredsettingforrituals

isoutside,inpublicparksorprivateland.Manyotherspracticeingroupsintheirleaders’

homes.Thiscausesagapinperceivedcommunitysizenationallyforthosewhoarenot

involvedinthePagancommunity.

ThistrendisechoedwithinthesmallersamplesizeofPennsylvaniaandwithin

Pittsburghaswell.PewResearchCenterprojectsasimilardistributionamongreligious

affiliationswithinPennsylvaniaasthosepresentednationally.Agroupof.3%ofthe

populationresidingwithinPennsylvaniawhoidentifyasPaganswouldamountto38,370

people,giventhemostrecentstatecensuspopulationrecordof12.79millionpeople(U.S.

CensusBureau).Evenstate-wide,thepopulationofPagansexceedsthenationalestimateof

thenon-Paganinformantmentionedabove.Again,thisunderestimateisnotshocking,as

only5outofthe400totalPaganreligiousorganizationslistedinThePluralismProject’s

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databaseareinPennsylvania,andnoneareinPittsburgh(Eck).Basedonmyownresearch

andinteractionwiththePagancommunity,thisisestimateofthenumberofreligious

organizationsisinaccurate.Duringmytimeinteractingwiththecommunity,Ihave

personallycomeincontactwithmorethan10differentorganizationscenteredon

PaganismjustwithinPittsburghandrepresentedamongmy38informants.Thisleadsto

theconclusionthatthereareperhapsmanymorereligiouscentersnationallythanare

listedonThePluralismProject’swebsite.WhileIhaveinterviewedatotalof38members

ofthePagancommunity,Iwouldestimatethattherearearound1,000inthesurrounding

Pittsburgharea,basedonattendanceateventssuchasPaganPrideFestival,andthe

estimatednumberofreligiousgroups.However,anyestimateofthenumberofPagansis

subjecttoinaccuraciesasthereisaportionofpractitionerswhodonotinteractwiththe

communityatallandarethusrelativelyunreachableandunidentifiable.

Ingeneral,accordingtoTheAssociationofReligionDataArchive(ortheARDA),

Pittsburgh’smostpopularreligionisCatholicism,accountingfor460,672peopleoutofa

totalpopulationof740,979intheir2010report.Thislendsitselftoamoderatelyreligious

atmospherethroughthecityanditsoutskirts,andmanyofmyinformantshavestatedthat

theyfeelPittsburghisaveryreligiouscity.Outof25non-Paganswhowereinterviewed,all

butonestatedthattheydidn’tfeelthatPittsburghwouldbeaparticularlywelcomingcity

toPaganism,andoverhalfmentionedPittsburgh’sstrongCatholicbackground.When

Paganswereaskedthesamequestion,theyweregenerallymoreoptimistic:onascalefrom

1to10,25outof38ratedthecitybetweena5anda7.Thisdifferenceisperhapsbecause

thenon-PagansarevirtuallyunawareofanysortofPaganpopulationwithinPittsburgh,

andthereforeareignorantofthewaysinwhichthePagancommunityisalready

functioningeasilyandpeacefullywithinthecity’slimits.Insum,itseemsthatmy

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informantsgenerallyfeelthatPittsburghisneithertheworst(1)northebestarea(10)of

theU.S.foraPaganpopulationintermsofpossiblediscriminationbutrathersomewherein

themiddle.

1.3 RESEARCHINGDISCRIMINATION

MyprojecthasinvestigatedattitudesofreligiousdiscriminationagainstPaganism,howthe

faithislivedasaculture,andhowdiscriminationaffectsthisexperience.Ihaveclosely

examinedhowdiscriminatoryattitudesareexperiencedandunderstoodbybothnon-

PagansandPagansalike,aswellashowhowtheyhaveagencyoverPaganlivesonan

individualbasis.Theresearchprobleminitiallyinvolvedtwobasicpointsofaction:first,

identifyingactsofdiscriminationthatdoindeedexist,andthenobservingthewaysin

whichsuchactsaffectPagans’dailylives.Withthegoalbeingtoaddtocurrent

understandingsofreligiousdiscriminationandhowitcangreatlyinfluencePaganpractice

andculture,Iexpectedtoseeclear,concreteexamplesofcauseandeffectmovingfromthe

discriminationexhibitedbynon-PaganstothedetrimentaleffectsinPaganslives.WhatI

initiallyhadexpectedtofindwasalargecommunityofPaganswhoweremiserable

keepingtheirreligiousidentitiesasecretandwishedforawaytomakethemselvesknown

tothelargercommunity,aswellasastrongnon-Paganforceofblatant,outward

discrimination.However,insteadofdiscoveringwhatIpreviouslythoughtwouldbeacut

anddrylinearpathfromdiscriminationtodetriment,whatIfoundwasthatthereisa

deeplyingrainedcycleoffeedbackbetweenPagansandnon-Pagans:Paganscontinueto

practiceinsecret,keepingtheircommunityjustoutsidethelinesofmainstreamculture,

andthusnon-Paganscontinuetobeignorantaboutthereligionduetoalackofaccurate

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informationpresentedtothem.Simultaneously,insteadoffindingaveryclearandoutward

representationofdiscriminationagainstPagansinmyresearchwiththenon-Pagan

community,Ifoundthatmanysimplyhadnoideawhatthereligionactuallywas,and

substitutedinformationtheythoughtrelevantfromearlierlifeexperiencestocreatea

viablesenseofunderstandingforthemselves.Moreover,itseemsthatmyPagan

informantsdonotseekeepingtheirreligionasecretasaburden.Secrecyisingrained

withinthetraditionsofPaganism,anddoesn’tpresentanyimmediateself-perceived

barrierstotheirwell-being.Assecrecyandcompartmentalizationguardthemfromany

emotionalharmorsocietalstruggle,theyhavelittlemotivationtostopthisbehavior.

Withsecrecyandmysteryatthecenterofthereligion,itisnowonderthatmembers

outsideofthecommunityhavenootherunderstandingofanythingevenclosetothetopic

besideswhatispresentedtotheminliteratureandpopularcultureofwitchcraft.This

ignoranceandconcurrentsubstitution,Iargue,istherootofthemajorityofthe

discriminatoryattitudes,andcouldseeminglyberemediedifthePagancommunitywereto

bemoreopenandvisibletoitssurroundingsociety.Thereiscomparativelylittlecurrent

ethnographicinformationonthesubjectofPaganismcomparedtomostotherreligions,

andnearlyhalfofthosewhodostudyitaremembersofthecommunitythemselves.This

furtherinsulatesthecommunityintoitself.EthnographerslikeSarahPikeandTanya

LuhrmannintheirbooksEarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves,andPersuasionsoftheWitch’sCraft

respectively,provideusefulinsightsintohowPaganismfunctionsasacultureand

acknowledgethatdiscriminationinevitablyexists,yetwhatisnotdevelopedincurrent

worksisanyanalysisoftheexactconsequencesofreligiousdiscrimination.

However,theconsistentlackofvisibleinformationforthemajorityofthepublicisa

problemthatmustberemediedifthePagancommunityhopestogainrespectand

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acceptanceasareligion.Iaddressthisgapinknowledgebypresentingaresearchproject

thatisnotrootedsolelywithinthePagancommunity.Simplybyinterviewingnon-Pagans,

myresearchallowsanoutletformyinformantstoaskquestionsaftertheinterviewhas

beenconcluded,andall25askedformoreinformationaboutthereligionanditspractices.

Intotal,38Pagansand25non-Paganswereinterviewedoverthecourseofthisstudy,with

interviewsrangingfrom20minutesto1hourand40minutes.Theresearchwasconducted

usingstandardanthropologicalfieldworkmethods,includingparticipantobservationand

bothformalandinformalinterviews.Informantsweregatheredusingasnowball

technique,whichinvolvesaskingthecurrentintervieweeforcontactrecommendationsfor

furtherinterviews.Informal,anonymousonlinesurveyswereusedaswellandwere

administeredthroughemailinordertogaugeabettergeneralsenseforthesocialclimate

surroundingtheseissues.Theanonymoussurveyswereusefulinprovidingmewithan

outletforunderstandingwhatmembersfromthesamegeographicaldemographicwould

sayiftheirreputationorsocialrespectwerenotontheline.Thus,thesesurveysallowed

metocontrolforsocialdesirabilitybiaswithintheinterviewsettingwhichwillbe

addressedinfurtherchapters.Auniformsetofquestions,whichareavailableinthe

appendix,wereemployedduringtheseinterviewssoastoprovideastrongerbasisfor

comparison,butunplannedspeechalsotookplaceandwasencouraged.Foursmalllunar

cycleritualswereobserved,andalloftheseasonalSabbatsoverthespanofayearwere

observedaswell.IninterviewingbothPagansandnon-Pagans,thisresearchprovidesa

morecompleteviewofthecycleofdiscrimination,ashasnotbeenthoroughlyapproached

before.Theuseoftheresultsofthisresearchincludebutarenotlimitedto:furtherstudies

ontheculturalpowerofreligiousdiscrimination,theformationofgreaterpublic

understandingofnontraditionalreligionsandhowtheyareaffectedbymodernsocial

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climates,andtheadditionofaseldomheardvoiceintocurrentconversationssurrounding

religioustensionsinthemodernworld.

Throughoutthiswork,mylargerargumentisthatbothnon-PagansandPagans

exhibitbehaviorthathasbecomeacycleofmisinformationanddiscrimination.Pagans,

whoexhibitthreemaindefensivetechniques:compartmentalization,secretkeeping,and

downplayingemotionalresponses,usethesestrategiestoprotectthemselvesfrompossible

discrimination.Fueledbystoriestheyhaveheardfromothers,orpersonalexperiences,

Pagansattempttocreateasafeenvironmentfreefromthethreatofdiscriminationandits

effects.Byusingtechniqueslikesecretkeepingandcompartmentalization,theyare

essentiallylivinginhiding.Ifnon-PagansareunabletoidentifythemasPagans,thenthey

areunabletodiscriminateagainstthempersonallyandthusPaganseffectivelysafeguard

themselvesfromhardshipordiscomfort.Indownplayinganyemotionalresponseonemay

havetowardsactsofdiscriminationagainstthem,theyalsominimizetheeffect—or

perceivedeffect—thatdiscriminationhasontheiremotionalwellbeing.However,these

techniques,whicharemeanttosafeguardfromdiscrimination,inactualityserveto

increasetheprobabilitythatdiscriminationexists.DiscriminationagainstPaganismis

fueledinlargepartbyalackofinformationandunderstandingsurroundingthetopic.

Whennon-PaganslackrelevantandaccurateinformationaboutPaganism,theyfillthisgap

withknowledgetheyhavegleanedfromothersourcessuchastheirownreligious

backgroundandthemedia.Thisprocessistheexactreasonwhymanypeopleattribute

suchinaccuratenegativeimagesandpracticestothereligionofPaganism.Thedefense

strategiesthatPagansusethusincreasethislackofunderstandingbynotallowingpositive

andaccurateinformationtobevisible.Bykeepingtothemselvesandstayingawayfromthe

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publiceye,Pagansareguardingthemselvesfromdiscomfortandsimultaneouslyfortifying

theoutletsoftheirdiscomfortaswell.

Inthefollowingchapters,Iwilldiscussthisargumentindetail,analyzingthetopic

fromboththenon-PaganandPaganperspectives.Inordertoformacontextualbasisfor

myargument,therestofthischapterwillcreateabettersenseofhowtodefinePaganism

anditsconstituents.Combiningadiscussionofhistoricaloriginsandformerscholarly

definitions,IoutlinethedefinitionthatIreferencefortheremainderofthiswork.Chapter

2containsafurtherdiscussionofpreviousscholarlywork,andananalysisofthetrends

withinthefield.InChapter3,Idiscussthenon-Paganperspectiveonthisissue,using

informationfrommyowninformants.Itincludesananalysisofnotonlyhow

discriminationfunctionsbutalsowhereitsoriginslie.Thefollowingchaptermirrors

Chapter3,withadiscussionofthePaganperspectiveandtheeffectsofdiscriminationon

theirlivesandwillclosethisworkwithadiscussionofmyconclusionsandsuggestionsfor

furtherresearch.

1.4 PAGANORIGINSANDPRACTICE

1.4.1 HistoricalOrigins

Beforetouchingonanyanalysisincludedwithinthiswork,however,anunderstandingof

whatexactlyitisthatIamstudyingmustbeclear.Itisbesttobeginwiththehistorical

originsofthereligionandthetermsassociatedwithit.Toattempttocreatea

comprehensiveandstabledefinitionofPaganismwouldbetofightagainstsomeofthe

15

mostimportantaspectsofsuchareligion.Paganism—whichiswidelyprizedamongits

followersforitsfluidityandabilitytoadapt—hasadefinitionthatisnotonlychanging

fromtraditiontotradition,butalsofrompersontoperson.Paganismcontainsaclear

exampleofhowthebalancebetweenindividualandcommunityagencymayexist,andto

forcethereligionintoabsolute,universalparameterswoulddotheessenceofthisreligion

aninjustice.Withinthiswork,Iwilltakeamoreproductiveapproachanddescribe

Paganismthroughitshistoricalorigins,thebasicsimilaritiesamongtraditionswhichlie

undertheumbrellaofPaganism(touchingonitsvariousbranchesandnuances),andits

meaningfromtheperspectiveofitsfollowers.Usingthisapproach,itispossibletocreatea

moreaccuratedepictionthatstaystruetotheprinciplesofPaganism.

Justasthemajorityofitsfollowersplaceahugeemphasisonhistoricaloriginsand

the“OldReligion,”sotoowillthisworkemphasizeafewofthemostimportanthistorical

influencesthatcontinuetoaffectthemodernPaganmovementtoday.Thiscanbebetter

explainedthroughanunderstandingoftheoriginofthewordpagan.Stemmingfromthe

post-classicalLatinwordpaguswhichmeantaruraldistrictoutsideofthetown,andthus

paganusmeaningadwellerofsuchdistricts;PaganbegantobeusedbyChristiansasa

termforthosewhowerenotoftheChristianfaith,asthesepeopleintheoutskirtsof

societyweretypicallythelasttoembracethenewChristianwayoflifeandholdontotheir

oldreligionsandcustoms(Adler9).This,interestingly,couldpointtoamoreconservative

imageofearlyPaganism,astheyresistedreligiouschangeormoderninnovation.Theword

paganwasusedinasomewhatsimilarwayascontemporaryAmericansusethewordhick

andthewordwasevenusedbyShakespearein1600tomeanprostitute(OxfordEnglish

Dictionary).Therefore,thetermPaganfromitsverybeginningsencompassedawidearray

ofdifferentbeliefsandcustoms(andinsults)thathaveformedthroughalongstrainof

16

complexevolutionintothereligiontoday,andthecontemporaryuseofthewordto

describethereligionitselfiscontestedwithintheacademicworld.Becausescholars

disagreeaboutthereligion’sorigins,theyhavecoinedothertermstodescribeit,suchas

naturereligions,polytheists,orneo-pagans.However,duetothenatureofthiswork,Iwill

bereferringtothereligioninthewordsusedbyitsfollowers,andthatistypicallyPagan.

Today,Pagansreclaimthiswordfromitspreviousdefinition—muchlikeWiccansreclaim

thewordwitch—takingsomethingthatwasoncenegativeandredefiningitfortheirown

use.

ThereareafewhistoricalstrainsofPaganismthatremainfocalpointsforPagans

today,includingtherevivaloftheNorsetraditionsfromnorthernEurope,andCeltic

traditionsfromBritain.HoweverotherwidelypracticedtraditionsincludetheAlexandrian,

Anglo-Saxon,Dianic,Druidic,Faery,Shamanic,Strega,andWiccanpractices,simplyto

nameafew.Manypathsareintentionallyreconstructionist,attemptingtoreviveancient

traditionsintheworldtoday.Basedonmyresearch,manymodernPagans’choicesabout

whichpathtostudystemfromtheplacesinwhichtheirancestorsresided,andusetheir

familyhistoryasameanstostakeclaimontheirbeliefs.Oneinformant,Matt,statedwhen

askedwhatbroughthimtothereligion,thatonesideofhisfamilywasextremelyCatholic,

whiletheothersidewas

moreoflikethePaganfamily.Mygrandmotheronmydad’ssidenevertalkedaboutreligionreallybutitwaslikethisdiscordofthefactthatwe’redescendantsoftheSalemWitchTrials.My9th-great-grandmotherwastriedontheSalemWitchTrials,butwasneverhanged…shewasactuallythelastonetobetriedbeforetheyended(P210).

InbeingabletotracehisfamilyhistorybacktotheSalemWitchTrials,Mattfindsprideand

purposeinhispathofWicca.Anotherinformant,Maggie,statedthatshewasinitially

drawntoGardinarianWiccabecauseofherstrongCelticbackground:“Ilikedthewayit

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honoredmypastinawaythatIhaven’tbeenabletowithanythingelse.Ifeelconnectedto

myancestorswhenIpracticeCeltictraditions”(P204).

Generally,manyPagansintheareaofPittsburghwhotracetheirfamiliallinebackto

ItalypracticetheStregatraditionwhichcomesfromaquasi-Catholicorientedsorcery

foundincommonItalianfolktraditions.Thesameistrueformanymembersofthefaithin

theareawhotracetheirancestrybacktoBritainwhopracticethevariousCeltictraditions

likeMaggie.However,therearesomefollowerswhodonotpracticeaccordingtotheir

ancestry.ThisemphasisonancestryandpersonaloriginparallelsancientPagans’worship

oftheirancestors(andotherworldreligionsaswell)before3000BC,astheywouldbury

theminlongbarrowsandperformritualscenteredaroundthemtoinfluencethemundane

worldsuchastheweatherorharvest.Astheclimatechangedradicallyaround3000BC,

thereligionturnedawayfromtheirancestorsandtowardsnatureastheprimaryfocus,

thuscreatingoriginsforthenaturereligionthatexiststoday(Gibson173).AsGraham

HarveyexplainsinContemporaryPaganism:ReligionsoftheEarthfromDruidsandWitches

toHeathensandEcofeminists,Paganismhas“createdanddevelopedanidentityfrommany

threadswhichithaswovenintopatternsatonceoriginalandfamiliar”(Harvey172).

Harveyclaimsthatacrossthewiderspanofthemovement,historyisanimportantsource

ofidentityandself-understandingjustasIhaveseenwithinmyownresearch.Intriguingly,

thissenseoflegitimacyandauthoritybasedinhistoryperhaps,accordingtoHarvey,isa

responsetonon-Pagans’critiquesofthevalidityofthereligion.Itiseasytoseethisattitude

whenanalyzingmyownresponsesfromnon-Pagans,manyofthemmakingclaimssimilar

tothoseofanagingprofessor:

Ijustdon’tseePaganismasareligion,andIknowmanyotherswhodon’taswell.WheneverI’vecomeacrosstheideaofPaganism,it’salmostapproachedasasortofantithesisforreligion.Liketheoppositeofreligion.AsfarasIknow,thereisn’tany

18

sortofreligiousdogma,therearenochurches,itdoesn’thaveasolidbasisthroughouttime.Itjustdoesn’tsatisfywhatIwouldqualifyasareligion(NP120).Thiscomment,comingafteradiscussionofPaganrituals,seemstoalludetothe

prevalentideathatPaganismconsistsofnotmuchmorethancastingspellsanddoingstage

magic.Manynon-Pagansareoftheopinionthatthereisnohistoricalbackgroundforthe

Pagantraditions,andareinmanycasespredisposedbypopularnamingclassificationslike

“NewAge,”and“neo-Pagan,”tobelievethatitisareligionthathasbeenfabricatedinthe

recentpast.ItispartlyinresponsetothisthatweseePaganslegitimizingtheirfaith

throughhistory.

1.5 RECONSTRUCTINGADEFINITION

1.5.1 Animism

ThroughallofwhatweknowofthesevariousPaganperspectives,therepersistseveral

mainthemesthathavebeencarriedthroughtotoday.Oneofthemostvisiblethemesfrom

the“globalPaganperspective…isrespectfortheenvironmentasaspiritualentity”(Davies

10).ThePagandivine,asmanyPaganshavebeeneagertotellme,isthoughttobe

encompassedinallthings.Thissentimentisaversionofwhatscholarshavetermed

animism.“TheGoddessisineverything,she’sinthetrees,therocks,animals,andevery

humanbeing.WeareallapartoftheGoddess,likeitornot,”oneinformantclaimed(P

204).Anotherexplained,thatalthough“Wicca…isoftenwhattheparticipantdesirestobe,

atitsheartitisarespectfor—aworshipof—nature”(P218).Thedestructionofsuch

19

things,likecuttingdowntreesorpollutingtheenvironment,arethoughttobeactsof

desecration(Davies11).Accordingto“LivingWitchcraft,”apagandescribestheunifying

principleofthereligionassuch:

Wiccaseesnodiscontinuitybetweentheselfandother,betweenhumansandthedivine,betweenthespiritualandthenatural.Rather,eachofusactsasthecenterofcosmicforces;eachofusreflecttheentiremacrocosm;eachofus—plant,element,animal,orgod—isdivine(Scarboro,CampbellandStave42).

Readingapassagelikethisone,itiseasyseethewaysinwhichareligiousmovementof

thiskindcangainmomentuminasocietythatisbecomingincreasinglyobsessedwiththe

sustainabilityoftheenvironmentandeco-friendlypractices.Infact,manyPagangroups

explicitlyencourageenvironmentalinvolvement,liketheOrderofBards,Ovates,and

Druids,whoexplicitlyencourage“PersonalEnvironmentalResponsibility”(Harvey125).It

isthroughanunderstandingofanimismthatanon-Paganmaybegintograspwhy

somethinglikedoingharmtonaturewouldbesoseveretoaPagan.Eachaspectofthe

world“containsasparkofintelligence,”andeveryaspectissacredasisencompassedin

theideaofanimism.Thesacredmayhavedifferentmeaningsamongstthem,“tosomeit

meansallpartsoftheuniverseareprecious,andworthyofrespectandcarefulhandling.To

othersitimpliesafeelingofkinship,ofconnection…”nearlyallwouldagreethatnatureis

preciousandmustbeprotectedasonewouldprotectabrotherorsister(J.Higginbotham

andR.Higginbotham53).JoyceandRiverHigginbothamalsodescribethiskinshipto

natureinPaganism,AnIntroductiontoEarth-CenteredReligions,asa“cosmicbrother-or

sisterhood”(J.HigginbothamandR.Higginbotham40).Aneasywaytounderstandthe

complicatedidealsencompassedwithinanimismistoviewtheworldasa“radically

interconnectedlivingsystem.”Notonlyarethevariouspiecesofnatureconnectedasa

whole,buttheentiretyof“nature…isalive,ensouled”(Harvey87).

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1.5.2 IndividualandCommunity

However,althoughPaganism’sstrongfocusonthecommunal,interconnectivityof

experienceseemstobeclear,individualismplaysjustassignificantarole.Paganismlives

withinthedichotomyofindividualismversuscommunityorientedfunctioning,presenting

modernAmericawithawayinwhichthetwoideasmayworktogetherwithoutbeing

mutuallyexclusive.Asafundamentalpartoftheirspiritualgrowth,orwhatPagansreferto

astheirspiritual“path,”thereisaprofoundempowermentoftheself,whichbreedsan

acceptanceofindividualityandsolidarity.Membersofcovensandgroupsdonotneedto

believeexactlythesamethings,orpracticeinexactlythesameway,andarenotthoughtto

beanylessalikeincamaraderie.WheninterviewingmembersofalocalcovenofWiccans,

onestatedthateventhoughsheandanothermemberofhercovendifferedonsome

seeminglyfundamentalelementsofthereligion,suchaswhetherornotoneshould

worshipamaleGodaswellasafemaleGoddess,shebelievedthatthesedifferencesdidnot

hinderthegrowthorfunctioningoftheircoven,butratherenhanceditwithdiversity(P

220).AlmosteverylargepubliceventthatIhaveattendedoverthecourseofthisstudyhas

includedamemberofthecommunityspeakingpubliclyaboutthebeautyofthePittsburgh

community’sdiversityandthestrengththattheyfindwithinit.Thereseemstobea

constantmantrabehindeveryPaganPrideDayorfestivalthatyoucanhearechoedinthe

openingandclosingritual:theirdiversityiswhatmakesthemstrongerasawhole.This

seemstogoagainstthenegativityofwhatmanyothermodernreligionssuchasIslamand

Christianitywouldbelieveasanoutcomeofadiversityofbeliefs.Whenspeakingwith

Cathy,amiddle-agedadministrativedirectoratalocaluniversity,aboutthefundamental

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aspectsofPaganismafterIhadexhaustedmyscriptofquestions,shemadetheclaimthat

“thatkindofdiversityin,like,fundamentalbeliefsjustwouldn’tworkinachurchlikemine.

Idon’tthinkIwouldlikeiteither.Ireallyenjoybeingabletoknowthateveryonebelieves

exactlywhatIbelievewhenIstepintomychurch.It’skindofstrengthening,whichIdon’t

thinkyoucouldreallygetifnoteveryonebelievedthesamething”(NP113).While

PaganismwouldnotbeaperfectfitforCathy,manyothersenjoybeinginvolvedinthe

religionsspecificallyforitsdiversityofthought.BecausePaganismdoesnothaveaclear

“10commandments,”orsetofrulesordogmas,thereligionallowsformultiple

interpretationsoftheuniverseandthedivine,allwithoutcontradictingeachother.Thisis

whatcausedtensionfortheelderlyprofessorindefiningPaganismasareligionas

mentionedabove.WhileaChristianwhosays“Godisn’ttheonlydivinebeing,Ibelievethat

thereisagoddessaswellandIwanttoworshiphertoo,”wouldarguablynotbeaChristian

anymoreashewouldbeinconflictwithsomeofthefundamentalidealsofthereligion,a

Pagancansaythisandstillconsiderhimselfjustasmuchapartofthesamereligionasthe

personnexttohimthatonlybelievesinoneGoddess.

Thisperhapsstemsfromtheideathatthetruedivineiswhatunderliesallaspectsof

life,asPaganssimplyseethisasfindingdifferentlabelsforthesamethingasoneperson

callsaglassofwaterhalffullandanothercallsithalfempty.Bothdefinitionsofsaidglass

are,intheend,accuratelydescribingthesamethingjustfromdifferingperspectives.Itis

interestingthatPagansareabletonotonlybelievethingsthatareinconflictwithother

Pagans’beliefs,butthattheyarealsoabletoworshipdifferentversionsoftheirdeityinthe

samerituals.ForthepreviouslymentionedWiccanwhodisagreeswithherfellowcoven

memberabouttherepresentationofthedivineasamalegodaswellasafemalegoddess,

sheisabletoattendthesamerituals,gothroughthesamemotions,andrecitethesame

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incantationswithouteitherofthemfeelingasiftheyarecompromisingafundamentalpart

oftheirpersonalworship.

1.5.3 Magic

Anotherunifyingaspectofthereligionisthepracticeofspiritualmagic.Althoughthereare

manydifferentformsandwaystopractice,theunderlyingobjectiveofbothpersonaland

communalritualisinsomeparttoinvokethepowerofmagic.Traditionally,inthewordsof

AleisterCrowleyinhisbookMagickinTheoryandPractice,magicis“thescienceandartof

causingchangetooccurinconformitywithWill”(Crowleyxii).However,thisdefinition

doesnotilluminatethewayinwhichmagicworksforPagansinallitscomplexity.While

manydifferentpeoplecanexplainitinmanydifferentways,ageneralideaofitwouldbe

theactof“steppingintotheuniversalflowandchoosingtoparticipatewithitina

deliberatefashion”(HigginbothamandHigginbotham163).Theessenceofmagicisboth

naturalandrational.OneinformantdescribedPaganmagicsuccinctlyas“focusedintention

withprayer”(P205).AccordingtoPaganphilosophy,onemaynotusemagictoevokea

responseintheuniversethatisneithernaturalnorbeyondtheconfinesofrational

thinking,anditisgenerallylookeddownupontousemagicfortrivialpersonalgain.For

example,oneinformantstated:

Iwouldneverperformaspellforsomethinglittleortrivial…that’sawasteoftimeandenergy.Magicisforbigthings—thetruetasksoflife.Iwouldneveraskthegoddessforstrengthto,youknow,getupandwatermygarden.Isn’tthatalittleinsultingtomyself?AsifI’mincapableofdoingthatonmyown.It’sonlyforthingsthatyouwouldn’tbeabletoaccomplishwithoutalittledivinehelp(P201).

Thus,withareligionsofirmlyrootedinindividualstrengthandidentity,itseemsunnatural

toaskforsomethingthatonewouldbecapableofdoingoneself.

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AmoreappropriateuseofmagiccanbebetterillustratedinoneWiccan’s

endeavors.Maggie,alocalWiccanHighPriestessmentionedpreviously,hadfallenonsome

tougheconomictimes.Shefoundherselfunabletoprovideforherfamilyandwasfeeling

hopelessabouthereconomicpursuits.Seekingawaytoremedyherunhappiness,Maggie

setupanaltarinherhome,connectedtothefosteringofeconomicstabilitythroughits

symbolsandelementalpieces.Everyday,Maggiedevotedsometimetofocusonhergoal,

withherthoughtsdevotedtothisideaofstabilityandprosperity.Sheclaimsthataftera

monthorsoofthisfocusingofenergy,shebegantoseechangesinhereconomicsituation.

Herhomewasapprovedtoberefinanced;herpieceoflandinsouthwesternPennsylvania

suddenlybegantoproducegasroyalties,justtonameafew.Maggiebelievesthatitwasher

focusedenergy,intunewiththegoddess,thatbroughtabouttheseeconomicchanges.

Inmanyways,PaganmagicisnotunliketypicalChristianPrayer.Inthesameway

thataChristianwouldsitdowneverynightandfocusacertainamountofenergyonagoal

ordesire,thePaganfocusestheirthoughtsandthustheirenergyonagivengoalordesire.

Oneinformantreiteratedthissentimentinsaying,“ourideaofmagicreallyjustreminds

meofaformofprayer.Wedevotealargeamountofenergytofocusonaskingtheuniverse

forhelp”(P206).Manytimes,theprayerandmagicalactbothedntailaskingthedivineto

emotionallyfortifythem.WhileaChristianwouldaskGodforthestrengthtostandupfor

herselfatworkthenextday,aWiccanmightaskthepowersoffiretoinstillherwiththe

passionnecessarytobeabletodefendherself.S.ZohrehKermanidescribesasimilar

sentimentinthebookPaganFamilyValues,ChildhoodandtheReligiousImaginationin

ContemporaryAmericanPaganism,incitingacouplewho“discuss[ed]thesimilarities

betweenmagicandprayer,notingthat‘magicisaformofprayer’thatcanbemanifested

throughvisualizationandincantation”(Kermani39).However,Paganmagictendstobear

24

amoreindividualresponsibility;mostoftheburdenofmakingthiseventhappenisonthe

practitioner.AsPagansbelievethatthedivineiswithineverything,mostbelievethatthey

haveenoughpowerwithinthemselvestocarryouttheirownmagicalendeavors.Kermani

againdescribesthisinrecountingthestatementsofaPaganinterviewedforPaganFamily

Values:“Pagansinvesttheirownenergyintothechangetheywanttomakeandaskonlyfor

guidanceandsupportfromtheir[deity]”(Kermani40).Itisclear,then,thatmagicgoesone

stepbeyondprayerandinsteadofhopingandaskingfortheeventtohappen,Pagans

assumeagencyintheachievementofthisgoal.

1.5.4 Ritual

Asthesecommunitiesdonothaveanysortofconcretedoctrineforthewaysinwhichthey

oughttopracticeandinsteadrelyontraditionspassedthroughgenerationsortraditions

thatarerecreatedfromancienttexts,theytypicallydonotseeritualasstable,unchanging,

andinflexible.Whileinmanytraditionsthereisanaturalframeworkthatisfollowed

includingpurification,circle-forming,andeatinganddrinkingtogether,thereisnosetof

openingremarks,songs,orprayersthatarerecitedineveryritualasauniversalsymbolof

leavingbehindthemundanerealmandenteringthespiritualmindset.WhileaMuslimmay

hearthesamecalltoprayereveryday,nomatterwhatcitytheyarein,andassociatethis

withatimetoleavebehindtheireverydaylifeforashortperiod,Pagansdonothaveany

suchprayerorcalltoactionthatissaidateveryritual,oreveryprayer.Pagans,acrossthe

board,donotevenhaveaspecificsetofopeningandclosingremarksformagical

endeavors,likeChristianstypicallyemployinprayersuchas“amen,”—althoughIhave

witnessedinvariousWiccanritualsseveralrepeatedphrasessuchas“blessedbe.”This

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aidsinthefluidityofritualandmagicalacts,asthereisnoframeworkorprerequisite

phrasingforanythingtobeconsideredaviablereligiousendeavor.Catholicmass,oneof

themoststableandunchangingreligiousrituals,isrifewithpatternedphrasingand

habitualactionsinawaythatcanbedirectlycontrastedwithPaganritual.Althoughthere

areafewinterestingsimilaritiesbetweentheactionsofCatholicmassandPaganritual

suchastheburningofincenseandtheringingofbells,theabsenceofanysolidbasisof

words,songs,orprayersacrosstheboardofPaganismaidsinassertingasenseofvariation

fromritualtoritual.

FormanyscholarsoftheanthropologyofreligionsuchasDurkheim,thesesymbols

ofleavingthemundanerealm,themostpowerfulwayofwhichisintheformofwords,

phrasing,andsong,areimperativeforthepracticeofreligion.However,Iwouldarguethat

uniformactionstaketheplaceofuniformphrasingforthePagantraditions.Thetypical

ritualformat,intheopeningandclosingofthecircle,andthepartakinginfoodanddrink

togetherspansnotonlyvarioustraditionsbutalsoconnectspagansacrosstheworld.AsI

stoodonPrimroseHillinLondonwithagroupofDruidsobservingtheirritual,eating

scotcheggsanddrinkingmead,Icouldn’thelpbutbetransportedinmymindbackto

AmericaandtheritualsIhaveattendedthere.Itseemedtomethatthisnotionofsharing

themostbasicessenceofwhatgivesuslifespansfurtherandmorepowerfullythanany

wordorsong.Actionssuchasthistranscendculturaldifferenceandhistoryandtouchon

someofthemostbasicaspectsofwhatmakesusallhuman.Whilethesecommonritual

actionsconnectthemovementonawiderscale,eachtraditioninevitablyhasitsown

myths,itsownconnectionwithancientpeople,anditsownritualfocus.Eachritualactsout

themythsoftheirancestors,anditisinthisreligiousactionthattheirbeliefstakeon

visibleforms.

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1.5.5 AWorkingDefinition

Acrossitstimeasafocusofscholarlyattention,therehavebeenseveral“official”

definitionsofthereligion.SabrinaMagliocco,theauthorofWitchingCulture:Folkloreand

Neo-PaganisminAmerica,claimsthattheNeo-PaganmovementwasrevitalizedbyTim

“Oberon”Zellin1971,whichcouldbedefinedasanattemptto“revive,revitalize,and

experimentwithaspectsofpre-Christianpolytheism”(Magliocco4).Thispre-Christian

polytheisminvolvedintheoriginoftheveryword“pagan,”involvesconnectiontonature,

andadeepbeliefinanimismasdefinedpreviously.SomethingMaglioccobringsupthatI

don’tnecessarilyseeasanintegralpieceinthedefinitionisthegoalofadeepconnection

“withcommunity.”WhileIthinkthisisverytrueinsomecases,therearealsomanyothers

whomightdisagree.FrommyobservationsthusfarIhaveseenmanypracticingwitches

whoaresolitary,meaningthattheypracticealoneandhavelittletonoconnectiontothe

communityatlarge.TheabilitytopracticebyoneselfisauniqueaspectofPaganismthat

shouldnotbeignoredwithinitsdefinitionasIhavediscussedabove.

ForMichaelYork,theauthorofPaganTheology:PaganismasaWorldReligion,the

definitionofPaganismisnearlyimpossibletopindown.Yorkclaimsthatdrawingupa

“definitivelistofnecessarycharacteristicsforanygivenpracticetobeassessedaspagan”

wouldnotonlybeexceedinglydifficult,butitwouldalsobeunnecessary(York13).At

27

best,Yorkstates,wemaydeterminea“rangeofpossibilities”thatwemightbeableto

identifyinanygivenpaganexample.ForYork,these“possibilities”include,

polytheism,animism,idolatry,corpospirituality,localemphasis,recognitionsofgeosacredconcentrations,perceptionsofsoulduality,andeithernatureworshipornatureasachiefmetaphoricalregisterexpressiveofthedivine(York13).

Yorkthengoesontodescribealistoffivecommontraitsthathebelievesanyversionof

Paganismwouldinclude(contradictinghispreviousstatementslightly),narrowingdown

hispreviouslistofpossibilitiestoconsistof(1)havingbothmaleandfemalegods,(2)

involvingsomeaspectofmagic,(3)emphasizingritualefficacy,(4)asensethatthebodyis

asourceofwisdomwhichshouldbelistenedto,and(5)theplacingofgodsandhumanson

thesamelevelofcodependencyandimportance(York14).WhileIfeelthatthesepoints

arevalidandpanoramicinscope,IthinkthatYorkdoesnotemphasizetheimportanceof

naturesufficientlywithinhisdefinition.Ialsodonotbelievethathavingsuchrestrictive

parametersforareligionlikePaganismisproductive.Itsfluidityisoneofthemost

importantaspectsofthereligion,andtryingtoshoveitintoacookiecutterofthe“five

simplestepstopaganism,”isdoingthereligionanditsfollowersadisservice.Iarguethat

employingalessrigidsetofparametersforadefinitionofPaganismthatIhavegiven

abovemoreeasilyrepresentsthefluidityandvariationamongstitsvariousbranches.

However,somescholarslikeRonaldHuttoninPaganBritain,describePaganismas

simply“thepre-ChristianreligionsofEuropeandtheNearEast,”whichisfartoobroadofa

definitionandgivesthereadernotruedirectioninwhichtothinkaboutthetopic(Hutton

vii).Inusingthiswide-spanningdefinitionheisallowingthereadertoassumethatallof

thesereligionsmusthaveaconcreteunderlyingcommonality,whilenotreallyeven

touchingonwhatthiscommonalityevenis.Goingforward,Iwouldprefertocombineand

modifythedefinitionsofthesethreescholarsthatadequatelyrepresentthescholarlybasis

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thusly:Paganism,whichtracesitsoriginstothepre-ChristianreligionsofEuropeandthe

NearEast,encompassesadeepconnectiontonature,animism,andbothmaleandfemale

deities,withmanypaganreligionsalsoincludingaspectsoflocalemphasis,ritualworship,

andmagic.

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2.0 CHAPTERTWO

2.1 SCHOLARLYROOTSOFTHEFIELD

Inthecurrentscholarlyenvironment,Paganismisagrowingsubfieldofinterest.

Anthropologists,scholarsofreligion,andpractitionersalikehavebeguntobringthetopic

intotheforefrontofreligiousanthropology,beginningmostnotablywithRonaldHutton

andMargotAdlerinthelate1970sandearly1980s.Withinthelasttwodecades,therehas

beenawiderangeofauthorsworkingandstudyingadiversearraytopicsrelatingtothe

field.TheseworksspanfromexaminingthehistoryofPaganismlikeRonaldHutton’s

comprehensivework,TriumphoftheMoon,quantitativeresearchdonetooutlinethe

demographicofpeoplewhoareinvolvedinNewReligiousMovementsbyLorneDawsonin

2003,studiesonhowtheinternetaffectstheconstructionofFeministWiccabyConstance

Wisein2008,tostudiesofsecret-keepinginherenttothereligionsuchasKimberly

Kirners’workonPagans’interactionsinthehealthcaresystemin2014.Whileeachwork

makesstrong,valuableadditionstothegrowingfield,whatseemstobemissingisa

focuseddiscourseondiscrimination.Throughoutthelast40yearsthatPaganscholarly

workhasbeenpublished,onlyoneotherpublicallyavailableworkhasfocusedon

discrimination:ContemporaryPaganism,MinorityReligionsinMajoritarianAmericaby

CarolBarner-Barrywhichwillbeaddressedindetailfurtheroninthechapter.Scholars

acrossthespanofContemporaryPaganismhaveinvestigatedawiderangeofideasand

aspectsofthecommunityandreligionitself,movingmorerecentlytosurveysanddata

collectionthatrevolvearoundPaganismasitispracticed,ratherthandescriptionsofits

beliefsystem.WithinmyresearchIfocusonthereligionasitislived—meaningnotjust

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whatPaganbeliefsare,orhowtheyperformritualsandpracticereligiousceremoniesbut

ratherthewayPagansfunctionoutsideofthecontextofreligioussituations.Iamnotso

muchinterestedinhowaPaganexperiencesritualashowaPaganexperiencestherestof

theirlivesbesidesthatwhichisdirectlyrelatedtotheirreligion.Afoundationofdefinition

andpracticehasbeensufficientlyestablished,allowingme,likemanyotherscholarsinthe

last15years,tomovetowardsanemphasisonanalysisratherthandescription.

Manyearlierworks,suchasSarahPike’sEarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves,andMargot

Adler’sDrawingDowntheMoon,providescholarsofPaganstudieswithilluminating

accountsofhowPaganismispracticedandwhatPagansbelieve,butdonotmovemuch

pastdescription.This“definitionwork,”asIcallit,wasnecessarytoformabaselineupon

whichotherscholarsmaybuild.Adler’sworkfocusesondefiningtheindividualPagansand

Pikefocusesondefiningthecommunity,servingasusefultoolsforthefoundationofPagan

Studies.WithPaganismasarelativelynewstudyfocus(onlybeingproperlydevelopedin

themid-1980s),thetrendamongitsscholarsseemstomovefromformingafoundationof

scholarlyunderstandingtomoreintricateanalysisofthereligion’scomplexities.Scholars

likeRonaldHutton,MichaelYork,LorettaOrion,LorneDawson,andJoyceandRiver

Higginbothamallprovideaninsightfulfoundationforunderstandingthereligion,anddelve

deeplyintotheactofunderstandingwhatexactlyPaganismisonlevelsevenbeyondwhat

thebelieveandhowtheypractice.JorgensenandRussell’swork“AmericanNeopaganism:

TheParticipants’SocialIdentities,”whichlooksatPaganidentitiesoutsideofthereligious

settingisagoodexampleofthisastheworkgoesbeyondthetypicaldescriptionworkand

looksatPagansoutsideofareligiouscontext.Whilethelinescertainlyblurbetweenwhat

canbelabeled“definition”andwhatcanbethoughtofasan“intricateanalysisofthe

complexitiesofthereligion,”whatisclearwithintheseearlyworksistheperceivedneedto

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createaclearpictureofwhoaPaganisandwhataPagandoes.Itisnaturalforthe

membersofafieldtofirstfeelanoverwhelmingneedtodescribewhatexactlyitisthat

they’restudyinginordertoformagroundworkforfuturescholars.Asenseoftotalityof

understandingmustfirstbeachievedinordertomoveontobroaderanalysis.

TherearethreeperiodswhichIhaveendeavoredtounderstandandexaminewithin

thestudyofthereligionwhichIwilldiscussindetail.Theseperiods,whichIwillcall

“DefinitionandSynthesis,”“ConsolidationandCommunity,”and“AnalysisandEvolution,”

whichmovefromthebroadtopicsofhowtodefinethereligionasawhole,howthereligion

worksasalargescalecommunity,andfinallyhowthereligionfunctionsinternally.Starting

from1979whenAdler’sfirstversionofDrawingDowntheMoonwaspublished,to2013

withKermani’sPaganFamilyValues,Iwillexaminethewaysinwhichscholarlyapproaches

haveevolvedintheirinterests.

2.2 DEFINITIONANDSYNTHESIS(1980-1995):MargotAdler,(1979).DrawingDowntheMoon

MargotAdler,ajournalistbyoccupation,Wiccanbychoice,startedoutherjourneytothe

PaganfaiththroughajournalisticeffortinvestigatingthehistoryoftheDruidsinEngland.

Accordingtoherbiographyincludedinherpublishedbooks,Adlerspentmanyyears

devotedtoWiccaandeventuallybecameaHighPriestesswithinCovenantoftheGoddess,a

popularsectofWicca.Adlerisoneofthefirst,alongwithscholarslikeRonaldHutton,todo

whatmaybecalledPublicRelationswork.Inlightofthepublicfirstbecomingfamiliarwith

NewReligiousMovementsinthe60sand70s,therewasaneedtocreateanaccessible

outletforaccurateinformationinanattempttoredirectanymisinformationor

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misunderstandingthatmightarise.Adler’sbookservedasanoutletthroughwhich

membersofthecommunityasawholemaybetterunderstandPaganismandits

constituents.Manyofthebookspublishedduringthistime,suchasLivingWitchcraft:A

ContemporaryAmericanCoven,seemtobewrittenforandmarketedtopeoplewhoplace

themselvesfirmlyoutsidethecommunityandaimtodispelmisconceptions(Scarboro,

CampbellandStave).However,thesebooksduringthistimeperiodalsoservedasa

doorwayintotheworldofPaganismforpeoplewhowereinterestedinbecominga

memberofthecommunity.WorkssuchasEugeneGallagher’sAReligionWithoutConverts?

BecomingaNeo-Pagan,highlightthisfact.Adlerandothersduringthiseraprovidelater

scholarsofthefieldwithastrongbasisofdefinitionandunderstandingwhichdidnot

previouslyexist.InusingworkssuchasAdler’s,Iamabletomovefarbeyonddefinition

andusethisfoundationasmeanstobuildmyownargumentindirectionsthatwerenot

previouslyattainable.

Adler’sapproachtoPaganismitselfhasbeenonethatisemulatedandfrequently

discussed.AsbotharesearcherofPaganismandaPaganherself,thelinesblurredbetween

whatwasacademicandwhatwaspersonalinAdler’swork,acriticismnotedbyquiteafew

scholarsofthefieldsuchasMarkusDavidseninhisarticle,“WhatisWrongwithPagan

Studies?”Whatstartedoutasarelativelyunbiasedjournalisticenquiryendedupbeingthe

focusoftherestofherreligiousexperiences.Yet,itisperhapspreciselybecauseofthis

connectiontotheinnerworkingsofthereligionthatbeingamemberaffordsherthather

studieshaveproventobeparticularlypanoramicandinsightful.Thus,MargotAdler

occupies,amongmanyotherswhoparticipateinthestudyofPaganism5,thespacebetween

5NotablescholarsofthefieldwhoidentifyasbeinginvolvedpersonallywithPaganisminclude,amongothers,RonaldHutton,AleisterCrowley,HelenBerger,MichaelYork,andVivianneCrowley.

33

theoutsiderandinsiderpointofview,orrathertheemicandtheeticpointofview.AsI

havemyownpersonalconnectionstoPaganism,althoughIamnotapractitionermyself,

myresearchwassimilarlyenhancedbytherangeofcontactsIwasabletoamassandthe

trustthatwasmoreeasilybuiltbetweenmyPaganinformantsandI.

Adler’sstudy,DrawingDowntheMoon,wasfirstpublishedin1979,andthenwas

republishedseveraltimesuntilitsfinalcopywaspublishedin2006,just8yearsbeforeher

death.MargotAdler’searlyworkserveswithinmyanalysistohelpchartthebeginningsof

thestudy,andprovideanexampleofhowthefocusofstudyishandledbysomeonewhois

explicitlyamemberofthetradition.DrawingDowntheMoonprovidesastrongsenseofthe

origins,holidays,andbeliefsofPaganism,allwhileincludingawidearrayofopinionsand

responsesfromPagansinordertoformadiverseandwell-roundedideaofeachtopic.Her

workprovidesscholarslikemyselfwithacomprehensivefoundationtounderstanding

howthereligionfunctionsasawholeandhowitsmembersconceptualizetheworld

aroundthem.Furthermore,Adlerexemplifiesaproductivewaytotacklethewidelyvarying

andoftencontradictorynarrativessurroundingPaganismwithinherworkwithout

favoringoneviewovertheother.

However,itiswithinthechapter“TheCraftToday,”thatIfoundworkthat

resonatedmoststronglywithmyown.Inthischapter,Adlertakestimetodiscussthe

formationofadefinitionofPaganism,andwhoisallowedtodefineit—aparticular

discussionthatcontinuestothisday6.Adlercomestothedecisionthat“nosingledefinition

appliestoallWiccans,”—aconceptIhavebecomeexceedinglyfamiliarwiththroughmy

ownresearch(Adler97).Adleremphasizesthispointbyincludingfourdifferinganswers

6 Seeagain“WhatisWrongWithPaganStudies?”byMarkusDavidsen(2012)

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totheseeminglysimplequestion,“Whatisawitch?”Withinmyownresearch,Ihaverarely

foundtwoPaganswhowhollyagreeonanygiventopic—eventhoseasstraightforwardas

whatPaganismis.Basedonherapproach,Adlerseemstobelievethatthetrueand

accepteddefinitionofPaganism—oratleastWicca—shouldbedefinedbythemembersof

thereligionthemselves.

Withinthischapter,“TheCraftToday,”Adleralsoincludesinstancesofperceived

persecution,suchasawomanlosingcustodyofherchildinadivorcehearingafter

admittingtopracticingwitchcraft,andanotherwomanwhowas“setup”byapolice

informerandarrestedforperformingdivination.Shealsotouchesonsomethingwhichis

therootofmyinterestindiscrimination:thatthemoresubtleformofthisdiscrimination

comesfromimagesportrayedintelevisionshowsandinfilmslikeRosemary’sBabyandThe

Exorcist,7althoughtelevisionandfilmstodayprovideamuchwiderarrayofmaterial.Thus,

Adlerprovidesoneofthefirstlooksintothewaydiscriminationismaterializedinregardto

Paganism,howeverAdlergoeslittlefurtherthansimplystatingthattheseinstancesexist.

ThisisyetanotherreasonwhyAdler’sworkisparticularlypertinenttomystudy,asAdler

laysthegroundworkforthinkingaboutrepresentationsinvariousformsofmediathat

becomemisinformationforthosewhoarenotfamiliarwithPaganismorWicca.

Adler’sapproachtodefinitionworkliesattheforefrontofPaganStudies

scholarship,specificallyinitsabilitytoencompassadiverserangeofopinions.Acommon

themeforAdlerandothermembersofthefieldatthistimecanbesummarizedasfollows:

7 Whichshementionsdirectlyinthesubsection“WitchesandPersecutionToday,”ofthechapter5,“TheCraftToday.”

35

anemphasisondefinition,origin,andmechanics.8Adlerseemstobeinterested,basedon

thetopicscoveredinDrawingDowntheMoon,inthewaysinwhichPaganismfunctions:

howitisjoined,howitsmembersdefinethemselves,andhowitsmembersfunctionin

society.Herfocusisonthedefinitionoftheseaspects,andtheactofformingagreater

understandingofthereligionitself.Adler,muchlikethehistorianRonaldHutton,who

writeslater,workstohelpscholarswhohavenotfocusedonthesubjectpreviously

understandthefoundationofthereligion.Therootoftheworkthatscholarsofthistime

areproducing,isactingassomewhatofapublicliaison.Whatispertinenttorecognizehere

isthatthesepublicrelationseffortsareclearlystillneeded.WhiletheworksofAdler,

Scarboro,Gallagherandmanyothersareundoubtedlywellconstructedeffortstocreate

greatervisibilityandunderstandingofthereligion,Paganismremainstodayahighly

misunderstoodtopicasrevealedinmyownresearch.WhilethedefinitionworkofAdler

andherpeersmaybeleftinthepast,publicrelationsworkisongoingandremainsatthe

forefrontofnecessity.

2.3 CONSOLIDATIONANDCOMMUNITY(1995-2005):

SarahPike(2000).EarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves:ContemporaryPagansandtheSearchfor

Community

8 See“NeverAgaintheBurningTimes:PaganismRevived,”LorettaOrion(1995);“AReligionWithoutConverts?BecomingaNeo-Pagan,”EugeneGallagher(1994);“LivingWitchcraft:AContemporaryAmericanCoven,”Scarboro,Campbell,andStave(1994)

36

SarahPike,aprofessorintheReligiousStudiesdepartmentatCaliforniaStateUniversity,

Chico,representstheinvolvementofapurelyscholarlyinterestinthesubject,unmotivated

byanyprofoundpersonalconnectiontothereligionthatisapparentwithinthework.Itis

intheabsenceofanysuchconnectiontothesubjectthatPike’sbooktakesaclearlymore

scientificapproachtothestudyofthereligion.However,asthestudyisethnography-

based,emotionsandopinionsofmembersofthegroupstillformthebasisofthis

narrative’sargument,asmostethnographicmaterialdoes.Pikeusesaparticipantobserver

approachtocreatetheidealamountofinterpersonalconnectionsandthesimultaneous

abilitytomaintainthedistancethatisnecessarytoperformunbiasedanalysis.Myresearch

usesasimilarethnographicapproach,blendingtheaspectsinsiderconnectionpresentin

Adler’swork,withelementsofparticipantobservationfoundinPike’swork.Likeothers

duringthistimeperiod,Pike’sworkspecificallyallowsforfurtherunderstandingofthe

fluidityofthereligion,andprovidesabasisofunderstandinghowPaganismworksasa

communityratherthanjustindividuals.Otherworkspublishedduringthistimesuchas

“PaganTheology:PaganismasaWorldReligion,”byMichaelYork,“FindingaFolklore,”by

RonaldHutton,and“theStatusofWitchcraftintheModernWorld,”byWilhelmMannhardt

paralleltheworkofPiketoformagreatersensePaganisminalargercontextandasa

community.IndiscussingPaganismasitconnectstootherreligionsanditsborrowing

techniquesthataredescribedinPike’sworkandothers’,providethefieldasawholewitha

betterandmorewellroundedunderstandingofthefluidityofPaganismanditsmany

definitions.Astheattainmentofanimmobileandconcretedefinitionprovestobe

inappropriateforthistopic,scholarsthusmovetoattempttobetterunderstandtheways

inwhichthereligionmovesoutsideofastabledelineation.

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PikemovesbeyondthegroundworklaidoutbeforeherbyscholarssuchasAdlerin

thatsheintroducesananalysisofhowsomeofthecomplexitiesofthereligionfunctionand

introducesnewandinterestingwaystolookattheformationofmodernPaganism.Pike

conductedobservationsandinterviewsduringseverallargePaganfestivalsinWestern

America,providinginsightsintohowPagansinteractasacommunityastheycome

togetherforvariousevents.ContrastingAdler’sapproachofemphasizingthedifferences

thatexistwithinthereligion,Pikeallowsthereaderstounderstandthewaysinwhich

Pagansformacommunityandactwithinit.Thepracticeofgroundingherethnographic

researchintheattendanceoffestivalshasoccasionallybeencriticizedbecause“Quiet,

everydaypracticesandbeliefsmaynotberevealedintheheightenedcircumstancesof

theseboundedevents”(Noonan98).ItisinthiswaythatPike’sparticularapproachwould

notbeadequateforastudysuchasmine,whichexaminesthenuancesofinteractionand

information-flowbetweenPagansandtheoutsidecommunity.However,Iwouldargue

thatforPike’sspecificresearchtopic,thatofhowPagansformacommunity,theideaof

focusingonfestivalsseemsaptandpointed.WithsomanyPaganspracticingassolitaries

andothercovensprovingdifficulttocontactasIhaveoutlinedinChapter1,festivalsseem

tobetheperfectplacetoreachmanyofthesepreviouslyunreachablecorrespondents,as

theyhavebeenformyownresearchaswell.Otherworksduringthiseraalsoexplorethis

idea,andattempttobetterunderstandthereligionthroughaspectssuchasthewaythey

formcommunitiesratherthansimplytheirbeliefsystemssuchas“CivilReligionAspectsof

Neo-Paganism,”anarticlebyMichaelYorkpublishedinthePomegranate,apeer-reviewed

journalfocusedonPaganstudies,and“AModestLookatRitualNudity,”byRonaldHutton.

Theseworksandotherduringthistimemovetowardunderstandingthereligiononlarger

societalscalebyconnectingaspectsofthereligiontootheraspectsofsocietysuchasCivil

38

ReligionandModesty.Theseworksalsoseemlessinterestedinspendingalotoftime

participatinginthepublicrelationsworkofthepreviousera.

Pike,likeAdler,mentionstheinevitablepersecutionstoriesthatcropupwhen

speakingaboutPaganism,butlikewisedoesnotmoveforwardbeyondthemereassertion

thattheseinstancesexist.Whileadmittedlyitwasnotherpurportedgoaltodoso,Pike

doesnottakemuchofastanceonwhytheseinstancesoccurandinwhatwaysthe

communityresponds.Inordertocreateamorecomprehensiveviewofthecommunity,I

believeitisimportanttounderstandhowtheyareaffectedbyadversityandstressjustas

muchasitisimportanttounderstandhowtheyfunctionintimeswithoutthistension.AsI

willdiscussinChapter4,Pagansformcommunaltiesandfindsolidarityinsharingstories

ofdiscriminationandusetheexperiencesofotherstoformopinionsonhowoneshould

behaveasaPagan—forexample,whetheritisnecessarytokeeptheirreligionasecretor

not.

Thisbookandotherworksofthistimeshowanevolution(whileinnowaylinear)

ofthescholarlyattentioninthefield.Theyprovideuswithaninsightintohowthestudy

developedfromabasisofdefinitionworktobeginningtofeelcomfortablemovingonto

larger,morepanoramictopicssuchascommunityformationwhichisdiscussedinPike’s

work.However,Pikestillremainswithinthecategoryofdefinitioninthatsheseemstobe

onlyperipherallyconcernedwithsocietalimplicationsofherfindingsandisfocusedmore

adamantlyonattemptingtoformasolidoutlineofthePagancommunityasawhole.Prior

tothisera,scholarshadbeenfocusedprimarilyonthedefinitionofwhatanindividual

Paganmightbeandhowheorshemightfunction.EarthlyBodies,MagicalSelvestakesthis

understandingofPagansasindividualsandbuildsuponitbyformingafoundationof

knowledgeofhowPagansmaybedefinedandunderstoodtofunctionasacommunity.

39

Movingbeyondsolelyfoundation-formingdefinitionwork,scholarsnowshowinterestin

thevariouswaysPaganismfunctionsasasocietalmicrocosm.Thisinterestcontinuesinto

thenextera,inwhichscholarsnotonlylookatPaganismasamicrocosm,butalsothe

microcosmswithinPaganism.

2.4 ANALYSISANDEVOLUTION(2005–Present):S.ZohrehKermani,(2013).PaganFamilyValues,childhoodandthereligiousimaginationin

contemporaryAmericanPaganism

S.ZohrehKermanirepresentswhatIwouldcallathirdwaveofstudywithinthescholarly

worldofPaganStudiesofwhichthisstudyitselfisapart.Afteroverthreedecadesof

ceaselesseffortstodefinenotonlyPagansasindividuals,thecommunityofPagansat

variouslevels,andeventhestudyofPaganismitself,thefieldemergeswithavisibly

increasedsenseofconfidenceinitslegitimacyandrigor.Itisduringthistimethatonemay

see,throughvariousoutlets,theintroductionofworksfocusedentirelyontheimplications

ofvariousreligiouscomplexitiesandinspectionofsmallerdetailsofPaganlife.While

KermaniandIworkonverydifferenttopics,weshareasenseofnecessitytogetintothe

everydayexperiencesofPagansandhowtheirexperiencesaffectsthem,aswellasforming

abetterunderstandingofthewaystheymanagetheiridentitiesinthenon-Paganworld.

OtherworkspublishedaroundthistimeechobothmyownandKermani’sapproachto

Paganstudies,suchas“BecomingaVirtualPagan:‘Conversion’orIdentityConstruction?”

byJamesR.Lewis,“PaganPrayerandWorship:AQualitativeStudyofPerceptions,”by

JanetGoodall,EmyrWilliams,andCatherinGoodall.Scholarsatthispointduringthe

developmentofthefieldaremoreconfidentinitslegitimacyanddonothavetodoasmuch

40

groundworkandfoundationbuildingassomeonelikeRonaldHuttonorMargotAdlerwho

beganstudyingthereligioninthe1970s.WithKermani,thefieldalsoshowsaheightened

interestfromgraduatesofeliteuniversities,whichrepresentsasignificantchangeinits

statuswithintheacademicworld.

InPaganFamilyValues,the“firstethnographicstudyoftheeverydaylivesof

contemporaryPaganfamilies,”Kermanibringsanothersideoftheconversationtolight

(backcover).WhilePikewasabletoapproachPaganismasasocietalmicrocosm,Kermani

layssignificantgroundworkforapproachingthelayersofexperiencewithinPaganism

itself—suchaschildhoodwithinthereligionandhowPaganfamiliesfunction.Inobserving

thewaythatPaganfamiliesliveandfunctionasaunit,Kermaniallowsroomfor

examinationofthewaysinwhichPaganismispasseddownandinculcatedintofamilylife

andthelivesofyoungchildren.Formanydecades,Paganismwasreferredtotimeandtime

againasthe“religionofconverts,”meaningthatnearlyallofthemembersofthereligion

werenotbornintoitbutrathercametoitontheirown(Kermani8).Now,afternearlythe

fifthdecadeofPaganism’smodernpopularity,scholarsarestartingtonoticethewaysin

whichthereligionispassedontochildrenasthefoundationsandtiesofthereligion

strengthenwiththepassingoftime.

Kermanitakestheaccepteddifficultiesofthereligion,suchasitsvaryingdefinitions

amongitsmembers,andinspectshowthesefunctiononafamiliallevel,andhowitis

explainedtoandunderstoodbychildren.KermaniusesthegroupSpiralScouts,atroop

similartoaBoyScouttroopbutforchildrenfromPaganfamilies,toexaminehowthey

approachthedefinitionofPaganism.Although“thediversityofapproachestoreligionwas

evident…”thetroopleadersreconciletheaforementionedtensionofvaryingdefinitions

describedbyAdlerbyusingsimpleanalogiestoexplaintheseconceptsanddosorather

41

fruitfully—explainingtheelementsandtheirconceptswithideaswithwhichchildrenare

familiar(Kermani128).Theexistenceofsuchagroupalsobringsintotheconversationthe

ideathatthesegroupsarebecomingmorepublicallyacceptable,signalingthechanging

landscapeofhowpeoplebothenterandlivewithinthereligion.

KermaniexploresthecommonidealthatPaganismistherootofallotherreligions,

usingthepersonaltestimoniesofPagansasthemajorityofscholarsbeforeherhavedone.

KermanicitesonePaganmother,explaining:“IbelievePaganismistheoldestfaith,

reachingtothedawnofcivilizationwhenhumansrealizedtherewerepowersgreaterthan

themselves,”whosesentimentisechoedwithinmyownobservations,hearingmanytimes

theideathatthehistoricalrootsofPaganismoutlastthoseofanyotherreligion(Kermani

32).Thisseemstobearootoflegitimization,andaproductiveoneatthat.Withareligion

thatissohistoricallyandpersonallyrecent,itisunderstoodbythescholarlycommunity

thatthislegitimizationwithinhistoryisnecessaryformanypractitioners.9

Kermanialsoportraysthefield’srecentchangefromusingtermssuchas“Neo-

pagan”or“NewAge,”torefertothePaganreligion.Thisismostlikelytheresultofdissent

frompractitionersofthereligion,claimingthatthisideaofthenewnessofthereligion

illegitimatestheirsenseofidentityandimportancewithinthereligiousworld.Informants

ofmyownhavestatedthatthey“hatetheideaofcallingit‘Neo-paganism’becauseit’snot

new.It’sactuallytheoldestreligionintheworld,”reaffirmingtheideaofprideinits

historicalpresence,andtheirfirmassertionsthatthereligionwhichtheypracticetodayis

oneandthesame(P201).

9 Barner-Barryreferencesthisideainherworkduringthisperiod,citingalackoflegitimizationasapossiblesourceofdiscrimination.

42

KermaniandherpeersinPaganStudiesduringthisera,suchasCarolBarner-Barry,

PegAlio,andHannahJohnston,providemystudywithabasisfromwhichImayformmy

ownapproachtothecomplexitiesandimplicationsofvariousaspectsofPaganism.Inthe

samewaythatKermaniusesthelensoffamilialconstructsthroughwhichtoanalyze

essentialpartsofPaganism(suchasthefield’sfirsttopic;itsdefinition),Ianalyzereactions

todiscriminationasawaytofurtherunderstandthereligionanditsfollowersasawhole.

Herwork,alongwiththescholars’mentionedabove,hasprovidedmeaclearperspective

onhowPaganidentitiesareformedandhowtheyinteractwiththenon-Paganworld

outsideofthetermsofdiscrimination.Inordertocomprehendthewaysinwhich

discriminationaffectsthePaganidentity,Imustalsounderstanditwithinothercontexts,

suchasthecontextofPaganfamiliesandchildrenwhichKermaniprovides.Thisworkand

otherfromthiseraprovidemewiththetoolsnecessarytoperformmyanalysismore

thoroughlyandaccurately.

2.5 PreviousWorkonDiscrimination

Whiletherehavebeenfewindepthinquiriesintoinstancesofdiscriminationwithin

Paganismandhowtheymanifestthemselves,theonlymajorexistingstudyinthisareais

presentedinCarolBarner-Barry’s2005publication,ContemporaryPaganism,Minority

ReligionsinMajoritarianAmerica,whichfocusesonthewaysinwhichlesser-practiced

religionsfunctioninasocietydominatedbyChristianity.Barner-Barrycentersheranalysis

onPaganismandclaimsthattheseideascanbeappliedtoabroaderrangeofreligionsas

“allnon-ChristiangroupsinAmericahavetheseexperiences[ofdiscriminationand

43

subjugation]inonewayoranother,”duetothedominatingnatureofChristianitywithin

Americansociety(Barner-Barryix).Sheworkswiththeideathatlarger,majoritarian

communitiesfunctioninawaythatthecreationofminoritiesisinevitable.Thereare

alwaysbothmembersofacommunity,andthosewhodonotqualifyasapartofit.Barner-

BarryusesAmericanmainstreamChristianityinordertoexaminethewaysinwhich

Paganismformsasocietal“other.”Whilethisapproachisusefulandclearlyfruitful,I

wouldarguethatlookingatdiscriminationsimplyfromtheChristianperspectiveislimiting

anddoesnotprovideanadequatelyencompassingviewoftheproblemastherearemany

otherculturalaspectsthatleadtothediscriminationofPaganismwhichwillbediscussed

inChapter3.

ContemporaryPaganism,MinorityReligionsinMajoritarianAmerica,likevirtually

everyoneofitspredecessors,beginsthediscussionwithadefinitionofitsterms:what

discriminationmeansinthiscontextandwhatactionsareconsidereddiscrimination.Inthe

firstchapter,Barner-Barrylaysoutthetermsofherstudy,whichisoftennecessarytogeta

diverseaudience,liketheaudienceofPaganpublications,onthesamepage.Shereaffirms

thecovertideasofmanyauthorsbeforehersuchasAdler,Pike,andYork,incitinganeed

tofindlegitimacywithinPaganism.Assertingthatalackoflegitimacy,alongwithalackof

understandingandlackofgroup-wideorganizationleadstodiscrimination,Barner-Barry

furtherexplainsthisideaintermsofChristianity.Thisworkprovidesmyresearchwitha

basisforbetteridentifyingthesediscriminatoryactionswithinthecommunityIam

studyingandalsorecognizinghowtheyaffectthePagancommunity.Accordingtoher,

therearethreemainwaysthatreligiousdiscriminationgetscarriedoutbyChristians:

(1)“harmfulactionsthataretakenthroughdisinterestandlackofunderstanding,”(2)“attemptstoconvertorforceChristianityonpeopleespousingminorityreligions,”and

44

(3)“outrightandmaliciousattemptstotrytodriveminorityreligiouspeopleandtheirorganizationsfromcommunities”(Barner-Barry5).

Thisoutlineispertinenttomystudy,specificallyinthatitprovidesmewithaconcrete

basisaccordingtowhichImayqualifyactsasdiscriminatoryalthoughtheymaynot

directlybephysicallyoremotionallyharmful.Specifically,initialdisinterestand/orlackof

understandingcoloralmostalldiscriminatoryattitudesofnon-Pagans.Withherwork,Iam

thusabletobetterunderstandhowtheseactsofdiscriminationcanberootedwithinthe

cultureofChristianity,whichisamainfocusinmyanalysis.

Whatisparticularlyuniqueaboutthiswork,however,isitsemphasisoncreatinga

legalbasisforwhatisbeingsaid.Barner-Barrydevotesanentirechaptertothediscussion

ofalegalfoundationthathasfosteredanenvironmentabundantwithreligious

discriminationthatisinterestinglyplacedbetweenthetwobeginningchaptersfocusingon

definition.ItisclearthatBarner-Barryfeelsthatadiscussionofthislegalrealmisintegral

inadiscussionofidentityandpublicunderstanding.Shespendsanentirechapter—the

firstofthework—discussingthelegalbackgroundofreligiousdiscriminationagainst

Paganism(Barner-Barry9-29).Infact,shefindsawaytoincorporatelegalcasesintoevery

topicshebringstolight,includingwhetherornotPaganismqualifiesasareligion,andthe

topicofaccusationsofdevil-worship.

Fromalegalstandpoint,thereaderisprovidedwithaslewofpolicies,amendments,

appeals,andthelike,inordertobetterunderstandhowminorityreligionsareacceptedor

notacceptedwithinAmericansociety.Movingfromthehistoricalbasisofreligious

freedom,citingthenarrowscopeofthefirstamendmentwhichappliedonlytovarious

formsofChristianity,totheReligiousFreedomRestorationActsthatbeganin1993,

Barner-BarryshowsthatasthescholarlycommunitysurroundingPaganismhaschanged

45

andevolvedovertheyears,sotoohasthelegaldiscoursesurroundingthetopic—albeiton

amuchlongertimescale(Barner-Barry19).Constantlyqualifyingherchoiceofstudy,

Barner-BarryagainassertsthatshespecificallychosetostudyPagansasthey“representan

extremeexampleofthekindsofsituationsthatwillcontinuetoariseasmoreandmore

Americanspracticereligionsthattheirfellowcitizensdonotunderstandandmayeven

fear,”(Barner-Barry27).

Throughoutherwork,Barner-BarryisalsoabletoanalyzeaccusationsofSatanism,

whichisthebasisofdiscriminationformanymisinformedChristians.Withoutworkingina

viableframeworktoextensivelydiscussthis,manyscholarsbeforeherhaveignoredthe

topicalltogether.Barner-BarrycitesthewordsusedbyPaganstodescribetheirpractices

asparticularlycondemning,suchaswitch,andwitchcraft,whichhaveovertlynegative

connotations,thusleadingtheword“pagan”tocarry“vaguelynegativeovertones,”aswell

(Barner-Barry58).Barner-Barrymovesfurtherthansimplyclaimingthatthese

accusationsexistaswasthetypicaltrendinstudiesbeforehers,andexplainshowPagans

respondtotheseaccusations,citingthat“withinthemainstreamofcontemporaryPagans,

thereisaninsistencethatSatanisnotevenrelevanttoPaganism,”andthat“Satanists

usuallyturnthepentagramupsidedown,but(asPaganspointout)thisisnodifferentfrom

Satanists’tendencytoinvertthecross”(Barner-Barry60).Thiscomparisontothe

inversionoftheChristiancrossisastatementthatIhaveheard,verbatim,inseveral

interviews.

Barner-Barryalsoincludesanentirechapterfocusedon“outwarddiscrimination,”

somethingthathas,inmostcasesbeforeher,beenlessadequatelyaddressed(Barner-

Barry147).However,asIhavereiteratedmanytimeswithinthiswork,Barner-Barrydoes

notgofurtherthantostateinstancesofdiscriminationagainstPagans,ratherthan

46

analyzinghowtheseinstancesaffectthepracticeofPaganismasawhole.Barner-Barryalso

focusesontheseinstancesfrommoreofalegalstandpointratherthanthatofacultural

analysis.Thisapproachisinvaluabletomyownresearchaswellasthefieldasawholein

formingabetterunderstandingofthetypesofdiscriminationatstake.However,the

broaderculturalsphereiswhererealchangesinattitudeandtheiraffectsmaybe

observed,andthusitisequallyimportant—ifnotmoreso—toexaminetheprocessesat

workinthatrealmaswell.

Heroverallemphasisonlegalissuesbringsup,again,thetopicoflegitimization.Is

Barner-BarryherselftryingtolegitimizethestudyofPaganismandreligious

discriminationthoughadiscourseoflegalaction?Throughoutthebook,therearemany

instanceswhereitseemsasifBarner-Barryfeelstheneedtoqualifyherchoiceofstudying

Paganism,suggestingpossibleanxietysurroundingtheperceptionoflegitimacyofsucha

choicebyherpeers.Itseemsperhapsmorelikelythatthisneedtolegitimizeastudysuch

asthisstemsfromaphenomenonI’vealreadymentioned—namelythatthemajorityofthe

populationseemsunawareofPaganismasareligionandthusequallyunawareofthe

problematstake.

Ibuildoffofthisfoundationandtakemyunderstandingofthefieldinadirection

notpreviouslyemphasized:thatoftheeffectsofdiscrimination.Thereisrelativelylittle

closeethnographicexaminationofthediscriminationagainstPaganism,andevenless

discussionofthisissueasaseriousproblemforPagans.EthnographerslikeSarahPikeand

TanyaLuhrmannintheirbooksEarthlyBodies,MagicalSelves,andPersuasionsofthe

Witch’sCraft,respectively,provideusefulinsightsintohowPaganismfunctionsasaculture

andacknowledgethatdiscriminationinevitablyexists,yetwhatisnotdevelopedinmany

currentworksisanyanalysisoftheexactconsequencesofreligiousdiscrimination.

47

Barner-Barry’sstudyisastepintherightdirection,butscholarsinthisfieldhavenot

yetadequatelyaddressedhowexactlycurrentdiscriminationhasaffectedthewayinwhich

Paganismispracticedandfunctionsinasocietyofdiversereligions,theymerelyprovethat

thisdiscriminationandcommunityexist,whilecurrentlyexpandingonotherfocusesof

analysissuchasconversionandfamilyvalues,howtostudythetopic,andtheeffectsofthe

internet.Mystudyaddressesthistopicinawaythathasnotyetbeenapproached.Building

offofthefoundationthesescholarshavelaidbeforeme,thisresearchgoesbeyond

descriptiontouncoverthehiddeninnerworkingsofsystemsofdiscriminationand

misinformation.AsIhavestatedpreviously,acycleofsecrecyandmisunderstandingfirmly

linksnon-PagansandPaganswithintheculturalcommunityofPittsburghandonalarger

scaleaswell.Inanalyzingthewordsandactionsofbothpartsofthecommunity,Iamable

tobetterunderstandtheoriginsofdiscriminationandwaysinwhichthecyclemaybe

addressedtofosteragreatersenseofreligioustolerancewithinthecommunityatlarge.

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3.0 CHAPTERTHREE

3.1 DEALINGWITHDIFFERENCE:THENON-PAGANVIEW

3.1.1 ConceptualizingtheUnfamiliar

DuringthetimethatIhavespentstudyingthistopicandthepeopleinvolvedinit,Ihave

interviewedpeopleacrossvaryingagerangesandsocioeconomicbackgrounds.Mydiverse

poolofinformantsincludesmembersofthenon-Pagancommunityasoldas67andas

youngas18,with23otherinformantsevenlydispersedbetweenthoseages.Their

occupationsvary,butduetoresidinginaheavilyuniversity-orientedarea,thereissome

stratificationtowardscareersinacademicfieldsorstudents.Myinformants’occupations

rangefromanEmeritusProfessor,anAdministrativeDirector,anewlyhiredmemberof

thehealthprofession,andafirstyearcollegestudent.Ofthe25informants,21identified

withanabrahamicreligion—theother4identifyingasagnosticoratheist.Allofmy

informantshaveHighSchooldiplomas,and19have,orareworkingtowardssomelevelof

highereducationsuchasanassociatesdegree,atechnicalcertificate,oradoctorate.While

thediversityofmyinformantsisclear,whatisintriguingisthatdespitetheirdifferent

backgrounds,experiences,andreligions,acommonnon-Pagannarrativeappearstoexist

regardingtheirunderstandingofPaganism.Regardlessofthefactthatonlyoneperson

whodidnotidentifywiththePagancommunityhadeveractuallymetaPagan,each

informanthadaclearideaofwhattheythoughtwitchcraftwouldbe.Theseideashave

similarorigins,mostnotablyfromreligiousandpopularculturesources.Inlieuofany

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easilyaccessed,accurateinformation,thepolarized,fantasticalimagesfoundinthemedia

andinreligiousdepictionscolortheopinionsofnon-Pagansinahighlydetrimentalway.

Keepinginmindanypossibleinaccuraciesbasedontheinfluenceoftheinterview

processwhichwillbeaddressedbelow,itremainsclearthattherearethreemain

touchstonesonwhichtheinformantsbasetheirideasofandsubsequentreactionto

Paganism:referencesfoundinpopularculture,religiousdoctrine,andtheirideasof

normativity.Intheabsenceofanyrealfamiliaritywiththereligion,theinformantslook

backtopointsintheirexperiencewheretheyhavecomeacrosssomethingrelatedtothe

wordsbeingused(like“witch”or“witchcraft”)anddrawuponthesetosupplementtheir

understandingoftheunfamiliar.Fromimagesthey’veseeninmovies,thingsthey’vebeen

toldinreligioussettings,orsimplyrecognizingsomethingaslyingoutsidetheirideaof

“normal,”theyforminferencesaboutwhatthereligionofPaganismis,whatarealwitch

mightbe,anddiscernwhetherornotitissomethingthatshouldbetakenseriously.As

thesepatchworkopinionsresultfromagapinknowledge,thetruerootofdiscriminationin

thecaseofPaganismisalmostundoubtedlyignorance.Becausethereisalackofvisibleand

accurateinformationregardingthereligionandhowitispracticed,peopleoutsideofthe

communitysimplydon’thaveanoutlettoreplacethefalseimagespresentedtotheminthe

sourcesmentionedabove.However,beforedelvingtoodeeplyintothisanalysisitis

importanttoaddresswhatseemstobelostintranslation.

3.1.2 TranslatingFictionalImageryintoReality

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Whatisstriking,whenspeakingtothenon-Pagansubjects,isthattheyseemtobetalking

aboutalmostacompletelyseparatetopicalltogether.Whenanon-Paganhearstheword

witch,themajoritydonotthinkofreligioninanyway,shape,orform.Tothem,religionis

placedfirmlyinchurchesandinthehandsofwellestablishedandadvertisedbelief

systems—allthingsthatthePaganreligiondoesnotinclude.Whenaskedwhatthey

thoughtawitchmightbe,23outof25informantsreferencedpopularimagesfabricated

solelyfortelevisionandentertainmentthathadnobearingonthePaganreligionatall.Itis

inattemptingtotranslatetheirknowledgeoftheword“witch”toreallifethatthepotential

fordiscriminationexists.

ThewayaPagantalksaboutwitchcraftorwitches,haslittlesimilaritytothewaysin

whichanon-Paganexplainsthesametopic.Itisspecificallywithinthewordswitchand

witchcraftandtheirchargedhistorythatthereseemstobeadisconnectbetweenreality

andperception.OnePagan,a48-year-oldwhohasbeenpracticingfor20yearswould

explainherworshipor“witchcraft”as“focusingalltheirenergyonachievingagoaland

askingtheGoddessandelementsforthestrengthtodoso,”muchlikepraying,echoingthe

sentimentsofthemajorityofotherPaganswithwhomIspoke(P201).Simultaneously,

almostallnon-Pagansreferencedsomesortof“blackmagic,”whichbarelyevenexistsin

thePaganworld,andmanynon-Pagansusewordslike“manipulation,”“otherworldly

powers,”“potions,spellsandmagic,”andeven“demonstuff”(NP113)(NP115)(NP114)

(NP101).Suchlanguagedemonstratesthestronglypolarizedfeelingsandideas

surroundingtheword“witchcraft”whichthusbecomesequatedwithPaganismby

association.ThisideaofblackmagicanddevilworshiphasnorealbearingwithinPagan

ideology,andimpliesalargegapbetweenrealityandmisinformation.Oneinformant,John,

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a28-year-oldemployeeatalocalrestaurantwhoidentifiesasCatholic,explainedthis

sentimentclearly:

WhenIheartheword‘witchcraft,’Ialmostimmediatelygetthisfearinmystomach. Ithinkofpeopleraisingthedead,puttingcursesonpeople,thatkindofstuff.Using thingsliketoadsandratstomakegreenpotionsinabigcauldronandalsostuffI’ve seenonT.V.Iassociateitwithevil(NP125).Anotherinformant,Rick,arecentgraduateofcollegeandnewlyhiredhealthcareworker

defensivelyechoedthissentimentofevil:“Imean,historicallyit’salwaysbeenportrayedas

evil.So,it’snotlikeit’swrongtoseeitthatwaybecausethat’showit’salwaysbeen

portrayed”(NP123).Rickexemplifiesthecommonjustificationofmassdiscriminationby

rootinghisopinionsintheopinionofthemajority.AlthoughPaganismitselfisnota

religionbasedonevil,thefactthatothersbeforehimhavethoughtthisway(anextremely

powerfulsocialforce)allowshimjustificationforhisunfoundedopinion.Theidealof

conformitythatexistswithinRick’sstatementshedslightonwhyshowingnegative

portrayalsofwitchcraftinthemediamightservetoreifydiscriminatoryopinions.

Juxtaposingthesedefinitionsandkeywords,aPaganoffersanentirelydifferentset

ofdescriptionssuchas“connection,”“focus,”and“energywork”(P212)(P213).One

PaganreferencesapopularoccultauthorDionFortunetobetterexplaintomethewayshe

conceptualizeswitchcraft:

Itakeahighlypsychologicalandspiritualviewofwitchcraft,bestsummedupbyDionFortune'sdefinitionofmagicas‘theartofcausingchangesinconsciousnessinaccordancewiththewill.’10Philosophically,forme,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatmagicisallinyourhead,althoughIdobelievethatcertainquirksofhumanpsychologycontributeto‘magicalthinking.’Instead,Ibelievethatchangesinconsciousnessfacilitateamagicalmindset,providingtheawareness,openness,sensitivity,focus,andreceptivitynecessarytoexperiencemagic,ifitistohappen(P227).

10 This quote is originally attributed to Aleister Crowley, and has been adapted many times by various Pagan authors.

52

Thisexplanationismilesawayfromtheopinionsandconceptionsofthenon-Pagansabove.

Becausewordslikewitchandwitchcrafthavesuchaninaccurateandnegativemeaningfor

membersoutsideofthereligion,thisbreedsideasthathavealmostnothingtodowiththe

realreligionandwhichseemtobethesourceofthenatureoftheprejudiceatstake.What

furthercomplicatesthisideaisthefactthatPagansconsciouslychoosetoreclaimwords

suchaswitchandwitchcraftandthewordPaganitselfisthoughttobeareclaimed

derogatoryterm.Thus,themodernPagancommunityconsciouslychosestograpplewith

thesepreconceivedimagesandideas.

3.1.3 “Witchcraft?LikeCauldronsandFlyingBroomsticksandPointyHatsand

Stuff?”

Throughoutthemajorityofinterviews,referencetopopularcultureisoftenbroughtup

withoutprompting,asisalreadyevidentfromthequotesabove.Whenaskedthesources

fortheirideasofPaganismandwitchcraft,18outof25citedacombinationoffilm,books,

T.V.,orsimply“themedia.”Aportionoftheseinformantsevenciteparticularworksfrom

whichtheirideasstem,suchasthepopularT.V.showSupernatural,theclassicfilmThe

WizardofOz,orthepopularbookseriesHarryPotter.Allthreehavebeenexplicitly

referencedbymanyofmyinformantsandallfeaturevaryingdegreesofinterpretationof

theideaofwitchcraft.

Theseworksofpopularculturearealikeinthateachoneincludesastrong

connectionbetweenwitchesanddarkmagic.Sarah,a20-year-oldstudentatalocal

universitywhoidentifiesaslooselyChristianexplainedwitchcraft’spresenceinthe

populartelevisionseriesSupernaturalwhenaskedwhatshethoughtthepracticeof

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witchcraftmightbe,makingthelinkbetweenfictionandherrealideasofPaganism

apparent:

I’dprobablyguessthatwitchcraftisanegativething.IntheshowSupernatural,witchesaretiedheavilytobeingevil,andeventhoughtherearewitchesontheshowwhoarelessevilthanothers,theyareonlylessevilbecausetheydon’tpracticetherituals.Sointheshow,goodritualsdon’texist?Yeah.Theonlywayagoodwitchcanbegoodisiftheydon’tpracticerituals.Thespellbooks,incantations,andallofthatarealljustusedfornegativethingslikenecromancy.SoIguesstherootofwitchcraftisevil.There’salwaysasortofspookinessaroundthosescenes(NP101).

ForSarah,themostmemorableandimportantimageofwitchcraftthatshehasexperienced

isthatwhichportraysthepracticeofwitchcraftasinherentlyevil.AsSarahimmediately

broughtthisupwhenaskedaboutherreal-lifeopinionsaboutthetopic,theconnection

betweenfictionandrealityforherseemstobeblurred.Whenaskedwhatshethoughta

real-lifewitchmightbelike,Sarahresponded“Wait…dotheyactuallyexist?”(NP101).

Becausethewordswitchandwitchcrafthaveneverbeenanythingotherthanobjectsof

fictiontoher,understandingtheirplaceinrealityisdifficult.Thisdifficultystemsdirectly

fromthelackofasourceofviableinformationonthereligionitself.

IntheWizardofOz,thereisagaintheideaofthe“badwitch,”thistimeportrayedto

anevenmoreridiculousextentcompletewithflyingmonkeys.HarryPotterisamore

intriguinglyneutralportrayalofwitchcraft,howeverthefantasticalityofthestoryfallsfar

fromreality.Whatisinteresting,however,isthatthesethreeexamplesthatwerecited

includepositiveportrayalsofwitchcraft,butforthemostparttheimagesthatstickinthe

viewers’memoriesarethenegativeones.Forexample,Jacob,aprofessoratalocal

university,echoedthissentimentdirectlywhenaskediftheWizardofOzincludesa

benevolentwitchaswell:“yes,butdoesanyonerememberthatone?”(NP117).Rick,the

recentgraduatementionedpreviously,alsomentionedtheproblemofmemorabilityin

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termsofthenegativestereotypes.Whenaskedaboutthepositiveportrayalofawitchin

theWizardofOz,hestatedthat

Galindaisn’ttheimagethatstickswithyouatall.Lookingbackinmymemorytothemovie,IcanhardlyrememberwhatsheevenlookedlikewhereasIcoulddrawyouapictureofthebadoneprettyaccurately,facialfeaturesandall.Galindadidn’tdoanythingexcitinginthemovie,buttheWickedWitchhadalltheintensemoments(NP123).

Itseemsthatthereasonthesenegativeportrayalsbecomesopopularisbecausethatis

whatisexcitingand/ordisturbingandfearful.TherealityofPaganismanditspractices

maynotquiteliveuptothesefantasticalimagesofwitchcraftandthusisnearlynever

showninthemedia—especiallynotforashowwhosegoalistobeexciting,eye-catching,

andmysteriousliketheWizardofOzorSupernatural.Whatmakesasuccessfulmovie,

televisionshow,orbookisincludingthingsthatengagetheaudience’sattention.Judgingby

multipleinformants’reactionstoGalindatheGoodWitchintheWizardofOzasopposedto

theWickedWitchoftheWest,benevolentmagicdoesn’tprovidethepotentialforcreating

momentsthatexcitetheaudienceaseasilyasdarkmagicdoes.

Beyondsimplyportrayingwitchcraftasnegative,themajorityoftheseworksof

popularculturethatincludewitchcraftarealsomarketedtoeitherchildrenoryoung

adults.FilmssuchasHocusPocus,whichwasmentionedby5informantsbetweentheages

of19and25-years-old,wasproducedbyWaltDisneyPicturesandwasoriginallyseenby

themajorityofthosewhomentioneditonthepopularchildren’stelevisionchannel,The

DisneyChannel(NP102)(NP103)(NP115)(NP118)(NP121).HocusPocus,asIwill

discussinfurtherdetailinChapter4,includesthepopulartropeofchildrenbeingstolenby

witcheswhichismostnotablyincludedinthefairytalesRapunzelandHanselandGretel.It

isnosurprisethatthepeoplewhogrewupwatchingthesekindsoffilmsandtelevision

showsnowdescribewitchcraftusingwordslike“devil’spractice,”ordescribingitas

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“naughty”(NP112)(NP107).Thesecommonwitch-tropesthatarefoundinpopularmedia

likethefilmHocusPocusandtheWizardofOzseemtobe,forthemostpart,most

commonlyrecycledideasfromchildren’sfairytales.Cinderella,SleepingBeauty,Rapunzel,

SnowWhite,HanselandGretel,areallhouse-holdstoriestoldtochildrenoverandover

again,aremadeandre-madeintofull-lengthfilmsandstorybooks,andallinclude

witchcraftandmagicasacentraltheme—whetherit’sthewickedoldwitch,orthefairy

godmother.Itisfromthesestoriesthatthepopulardescriptionofthehideousoldwoman,

aswellastheideaofthebeautiful,“bewitching”versionisbroughtintothemindsof

childrenveryearlyon.Imagesfromthesestoriesshowthetypeoffantasiesthatexisted

surroundingvariousaspectsof“witches,”whetheritbetheterrifyingoldwomanwho

wantedtocookandeatchildrenfromHanselandGretelorthestunningandevilwoman

whowouldperformanymagicshecouldtomaintainheryouthandbeautyfromSnow

White.Withtheindoctrinationofsuchideasearlyoninchildhood,itisnosurprisethatthe

majorityofnon-Paganswoulddescribewitchesthewaythattheyhave:“Creepyold

woman,”“spooky,evil,”“naughty,inawhimsicalway,”allresonatewiththeimageryof

thesefairytalevillainsandwithalmosteverydepictioninpopularculturetoday(NP101)

(NP104).Thisimageryhasbeenrepeatedandreplicatedthroughoutthecourseofour

modernhistory,ingrainingitselfintothemindsofthemajorityofAmericanculture.There

areonlyafewmoviesthatPagansarewillingtociteasmoreaccurateportrayalsoftheir

religion,withthefilmPracticalMagicbeingamongthem.Withjustafewfilmsamongasea

ofthousandsofinaccurateportrayals,itisnosurprisethatthemajorityofnon-Paganshave

minimalunderstandingofthereligion,andoftenascribeaspectstheyseeinpopular

culturesportrayalofwitchesandwitchcrafttotherealreligionitself.Thus,apatternof

associationoccursthatisclearineveryinformant.Witch,firstandforemost,regardlessof

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theleveloftheirfamiliaritywiththereligion,callstotheirmindstheimagethathasbeen

fixedintotheirpsychethroughpopularculture’srepetition.

Whiletheimageryfoundinthemediaclearlypromotesmisinformationand

sensationalization,CarolBarner-Barrydisagreeswiththepolarityofmystatement.Infact,

Barner-BarrycitesthissortofmediapresenceandtheHarryPotterseriesitselfaspartof

thereasonwhyitiseasiertobeaPagantodaythanitoncewas.The“formidable”media

presence,“[has]increasedthenumberofpeoplewhoarecuriousandopentomore

accurateinformationaboutPagans,particularlyaboutWitchesandWiccans”(Barner-

Barry4).Whileinsomerespectsthisisindeedpossible,Ihavefoundthatwithoutany

actualvisiblyaccessiblesourceofinformation,this“curiosity”doeslittletoadvancethe

statusofPaganismwithinthesocialworldtodayasBarner-Barrysuggests.Althoughevery

non-Paganinformantdisplayedthiscuriositybyaskingfollow-upquestionsafterthe

interviewhadended,noneofthemmentionedbeingdrawntoknowmoreaboutPaganism

basedonwhattheysawontelevision.Inshort,thiscuriositydoesnotnecessarilyleadto

action.AsIhaveexplainedpreviously,thepresenceofsuchimagescontributestothelevel

ofdiscriminationthatoccursforPagans,particularlyinattributingthesenegativevaluesto

thePaganidentityinreality.AstheaforementionedstatementmadebyRickattemptingto

justifythenegativeportrayalofPaganismexemplifies,thepresenceofsuchstrongnegative

imagesattributedtowitchesreinforcestheseopinionsinreallife.ThusIwouldarguethat

themediapresencedoesfarmoreharmthangood.

3.1.4 “I’mPrettySureIt’sDevilWorship.”

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Alongsidepopularculture,manyinformants,liketheonequotedabove,relatePaganismto

theantithesisofChristianity(NP103).Manydirectlycitetheirownreligiousbackgrounds

asoriginsfortheirideasofPaganism,statingthatthey’ve“touchedonitduringbible

school,”or“readaboutitinthebible”(NP108)(NP124).As21outof25informants

identifiedasfollowersofAbrahamicreligionssuchasJudaismandvarioussectsof

Christianity,manyconnectideasofwitchcraftwith“worshipingevil,”andattemptto

explaintheideawithintheirownreligioustermssuchasitmayrelatetotheDevil,which

(asmostpaganswillbeeagertotellyou)doesnotevenexistasarelevanttopicinthe

Paganreligion.APaganinformantwhowaspreviouslyaChristianministerexplainedthis

connectionthroughherexperiencetrainingtobecomeaminister:

Weweretaughtinministerialschoolaboutthingslikechildsacrificethatthe Israelitesfoughtbackintheday,andwarnedagainstthedemonicactsofwitchcraft, channeling,workingwiththedeadandallthat,butnoneofitwaseverspokenabout indetail.Eventhingslikemeditationandyogawereconsidereddemonic(P216).This,perhaps,againstemsfromthehistoryoftheword“witchcraft,”whichwasoriginally

usedtorefertomembersofsocietywhowentagainstthechurchofthetime,orthosewho

wentagainstmajoritariansociety.Additionally,asIhavestatedpreviously,theoriginofthe

wordPaganisdirectlyrelatedtoChristianity,asitwasmeantasaninsultforsomeonewho

wasslowtoacceptthenewreligionanditswaysoflife.

InContemporaryPaganism:MinorityReligioninMajoritarianSociety,CarolBarner-

BarrycitestheproselytizingaspectofChristianityasasourceofhegemonyandconflict

withPaganism.AsChristiansspendasizableamountoftimeandmoneyattemptingtowin

overthosewhodonotsharetheirreligiousbeliefs,itseemsobviousthatanyonewhodoes

notfollowthereligionisatargetinmanyways.AsmostAbrahamicreligionsholdthefirm

beliefthattheirreligionisthe“OneTrueReligion,”itisnaturalthenthatanyonewho

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believesanythingelseisthoughttobeeitheraninnocent,uninformedpersonwaitingfor

someonetoshowthem“thelight,”orsomeonewhoisdirectlyagainstthatforwhichthey

stand.WhatBarner-Barrytermsthe“Christianproselytizingimperative,”comesfroma

sourceofgenuineconcernthatcanquicklyturntoangerwhenthis“giftthatisbeing

offered,”isrefused.Thepeoplewhorefusedthe“gift”ofChristianitywerethefirstpeople

tobenamedPagans.Andeventoday,formoderateandliberalChristiansalike,theword

Pagan“carriesvaguelynegativeovertones”(Barner-Barry58).Shealsodiscussesthe

differencebetweenwitchandPagan,butdoesnotquitereachaproperexplanationofwhy

ChristiansreactmorenegativelytothetermwitchthantheydoPagan,exceptforthebible

verse“thoushaltnotsufferawitchtolive”(Exod.22:18).Iarguethatthisdifferenceis

thankstotheconstantverificationfoundwithinpopularculturethatthewordwitchis

negative,andamuchsmallerpresenceofanyverificationforthewordPagan.Forinstance,

Cathy,a49-year-oldadministrativedirectorstatedthatwhile“thewordwitchconjuresup

aclearimageinmyheadandIfeellikeIknowwhatitmeans,thewordPaganisalotless

familiartomeanddoesn’tcomewithaconcreteimageorideaofwhatexactlyitis”(NP

113).Theimageofwhichshespeaksistheimagefoundinthemedia,andthuscausesher

tofeelmorestronglyaboutonewordovertheother.

TheformidablelinktoSatanismthatisdisplayedinthemediaandthroughreligious

outletscanbestronglyfeltintheresponsesofmynon-Paganinformantswiththeir

referencesto“devilworship,”“blackmagic,”and“devil’spractice”(NP103)(NP110)(NP

112).ThisconnectionisfurtherdiscussedinBarner-Barry’swork,aswellasseveralother

articles.Shediscussesthe“stunning…powerofwords”inthat“Ifyouareapagan/witch,

you,therefore,mustworshipSatan,killbabies,holdBlackMasses,usespellstoharm

Christians,andsoon”(Barner-Barry60).BecauseoftheassociationthatmanyChristians

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seebetween“witch”and“devilworshiper,”andthusviolenceandevil,intheireyesheor

sheisthereforerequiredtobesuch.Thisconnectionhasbeenthesourceofmuch

persecutionthroughouthistory,aswellasthesourceofmuchofthediscriminationthatmy

Paganinformantshaveexperienced.Judy,amemberofthePagancommunityinPittsburgh,

astutelyexplainstheironythatcomeswiththeseaccusationsofviolence,devilworship,

andevil:“Magic,Paganism,traditionalpre-ChristianbeliefsofEuropeandtheworldarenot

evil,arenotofthedevil,wedonothurtpeople.However,theChristianorAbrahamic

reactiontowitchcraftandPaganismisextremelyviolentandwelldocumented”(P211).

WhilethisargumentdoesnotmeanthatthereisnosuchthingasSatanism,thepointhas

beenmadetimeandtimeagainbyPagansacrosstheU.S.thatSatanisaJudeo-Christian

constructthathasnobearingonPaganismwhatsoever.Thearticle“Satanismand

Witchcraft,”byJamesT.Richardsonin“NewReligiousMovementsandReligiousLibertyin

America,”alsodiscussesthemassconfusionsurroundingthetopic.Richardsoncitesthe

historicallystronglinkbetweenthetwowords,WitchcraftandSatanism,stating:

thisclaim[ofaconnectionbetweenwitchcraftandSatanism]ismadeandhasbeenmadeforcenturies,firstasapartoftheconflictbetweenearlyChristianityandPaganism,aconflicteventuallywonbyChristianity.LaterinthehistoryoftheWest,claimslinkingSatanandallegationsofwitchcraftweremade,todevastatingeffect(DavisandHankins79).

TheauthoritywithwhichChristianitywieldstermslikewitchcraftanddevil-worshiphas

hadadetrimentaleffectforPagans,specificallywithintheJudeo-Christian-centricsociety

ofcontemporaryAmerica.Thesetiesareseennotonlywithincontemporaryresponsesto

theideasofwitchcraft,butalsohistoricallythroughtheactionsofpersecutionandhysteria

acrosstime.

Itisinthiswaythatthesenon-Paganinformantsarenotintentionallymaliciousin

associatingthetwoideas,howeverthelackofmodernknowledgeofthereligious

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movementisproblematic.Thisiswidelyduetothecycleofmisunderstandingthatis

cementedinplacebythedefensivestrategiesemployedbyPaganswhoshieldthemselves

frompublicrecognition.Therepersistsalackofaccurateinformationreadilyavailableand

visibletothecommunityoutsideofPaganswhichinturncausesareinforcementofthese

negativeideas.

3.1.5 “They’reJustaBunchofWeirdos.”

Itisimportant,whilediscussingthistopic,torememberthatignorancedoesnot

necessarilymeanbadintentions.Althoughmanyoftheseinformantswillinglyadmit

ignoranceaboutthetopicandseemtobehumoringmebyevenattemptingtoformsome

sortofopinionaboutit,thisdoesnotmeanthateachoneactivelyandconsciously

discriminatesagainstPagans.Iwouldargue,though,thatalthoughonemaynotactively

discriminateagainstagroup,subconsciousdiscriminationisstillpossibleandisvisiblein

theiranswers.Eventheactoflabelingthegroupas“weird”and“crazy,”couldbe

consideredcovertdiscrimination.OneofthemostwidelyseenreactionstoPaganismin

publicistotreatthemasspectaclesofidiosyncrasy.Becausethereligionisnotapartof

mainstreamculture,thethoughtthusfollowsthatthemembersofthisreligionmustalso

resideoutsideofmainstreamculture.OnePaganexplainedthatsheonceheardthereligion

explainedas“mentallyillpeopledressingupfunnyinparks”(P210).Thisopinionwas

paralleledbyanon-Pagan’sexperiencestumblinguponaPaganritualwhilstonabikeride

withhiswifeintheEnglishcountryside:

MywifeandIweretakingavacationinEnglandandwerestayinginOxfordwhen wedecidedtotakeabikeridethroughthecountryside.Aswewereridingalongwe endedupnearoneofthoseministonehengetypestructuresandsawthattherewas

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somekindofritualgoingon.Weknewitwasaritualbecausetheywereallstanding insomewhatofacircle,andtherewasaguydressedinwhitethatseemedtobe leadingeverything.Butotherthanthatitdidn’tseemveryorganized.Westayedfor awhilebytheroadandwatchedtheceremony,butitwasn’tthatimpressive.There wasn’treallymuchorganizationgoingon,andnooneseemedtoreallyknowwhat theyweredoing.Oneofthemlookedkindofdrunk,anditdidn’tlookthat impassionedtomelikeIwouldhavethoughtaPaganritualwouldbe.Mostlyitjust lookedlikeaveryoddgroupofpeople(NP118).Whenaskedhoworwhythesepeoplewouldbeconsideredweirdheexplainedthat“it’s

justthewaytheyweredressed,thewaytheyconductedthemselves.Theyalllooked

pretty…well…weird.Youcouldtelltheywerethepeopleontheoutskirtsofsociety”(NP

118).YouevenhearsimilarsentimentsfromPagansthemselves,surprisinglyenough:“the

peoplewhowillclaimthattheyarediscriminatedagainstarenotreallydiscriminated

againstbecausethey’rePagans,perse,butthey’rejustweirdpeople.Thisreligionattracts

the‘weirdies,’sometimes”(P210).Thisseemstoalmostbeajustificationofdiscrimination

insomeways.Itisasifbeingweirdornon-normativeisanacceptablereasontobethought

ofinanegativeway.ThejustificationhasbeeninculcatedintosomeofthePagans’

thoughtsandideasofwhythegroupmaybediscriminatedagainstasalmostawayof

saying“it’snotthereligionthat’sweird,ornegative,it’sthepeoplewhosometimestryto

practiceitthatgiveusabadname.”Justaswithanyreligion,therearevaryingdegreesof

commitmentanddevotion.WhilesomeareleaderswithinthePagancommunityandtake

theirreligionanditsimagewiththeutmostseriousness,therearealsopeoplewhoshow

uptoanopenritualortwobecausetheyaredrawninbythenegativeactivitiestheysee

portrayedontelevision.

Inmakingthereligionintoaspectacleofidiosyncrasy,themembersoutsideofthe

PagancommunityminimizetheimportanceandpowerthatthePaganreligionmayhave.It

takesawayanyviabilityoftheirbeliefsandpracticesbyinsinuatingthattheyarementally

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ill,ordoingitforattention.Thismakesanon-Paganmorecomfortablewiththeideathat

realPagansevenexistoutsideoffiction.Insteadofsomescary,powerfulgroupofwitches

chantingaroundahugefireinthemiddleofthenight,theyperhapsimaginemisfitadults,

awkwardlygoingaboutanunorganizedceremony.Itiseasytosee,then,howmuchofa

comfortthatmaybetoanoutsider.Forpeopleoutsideofthecommunity,ridiculingthe

communityisalotmorecomfortablethanbeingafraid.Thus,justasPagansthemselves

ridiculetheignoranceofnon-Pagansasawaytodefendthemselvesagainstemotional

harm,non-Pagansridiculemembersofthereligionasawaytodefendthemselvesagainst

fear.

3.2 MASKINGDISCRIMINATION

ThroughoutmyworkwithinPittsburgh,ithasbecomeincreasinglyobviousthattheactof

ethnographicinterviewingpresentsbothethnographerandtheinformantwithacomplex

systemofpreviousassumptions,protocols,andrelationships.Whensomeonetakesonthe

roleofsomeonewhoisbeinginterviewed,therearecertainexpectationsandassumptions

thatcomewiththisbriefsocialidentity.Theseassumptionsinclude,amongmany:thatthey

havevaluableinformationthattheinterviewerisinterestedin,thattheyaregoingtobe

honest,andthattheywillbeinasomewhatprofessionalsetting.Evenwhenthese

interviewsaredoneinlivingroomsorcoffeeshops,theactofinterviewingandbeing

interviewedisliftedfromcasualconversation.Ithasbecomeapparentwithinmyresearch

thattheactofinterviewing,andaninabilitytofulfilltherolesincluded,causesanxietyand

discomfortforeachpartyandthusfacilitatesaneedforwhatmanyethnographershave

understoodasdeceitfulavoidances

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3.2.1 PerformancesandHowtoSpotThem

Withitsroles,objectives,andprotocol,theactofinterviewingcouldbeexplainedasanact

ofperformance.Ifaperformanceisdefinedas“anactivitythatapersonorgroupdoesto

entertainanaudience,”theactivityofbeinginterviewedcancertainlyfitintothese

confines.While“entertain”maybealoosefitinthissituation,therolesofthespeechact

aremuchthesame:thereisa“performer”whoistheconveyorofinformationtothe

“audience”whoarethereceivers.Thisinformationconveyedtotheaudienceisforthe

audience’spleasureandtheaudiencetypicallydecidesiftheperformanceissuccessful.

Thisisparticularlyimportantintermsofmyresearchbecauseofthetopicwhichweare

discussing.Discriminationisnotadesirableaction,andpartofhavingasuccessful

performanceisportrayinghimselforherselfinapositiveanddesirableway.Thisiscalled

thesocialdesirabilitybias,whichwillbediscussedinfurtherdetaillater.

Bauman,inhisworkDisclaimersofPerformance,usesthiscomparisoninorderto

understandmorefullythewaysfolknarrativesareconveyedduringinterviews.Withinthe

firstfewparagraphs,BaumanintroduceshisdefinitionofperformancewhichIwillreferto

throughouttheremainderofthissection.“Inordertounderstandthedynamicsof

performanceinallitscomplexity,”Baumanclaims,“wemustextendourinvestigationsto

performancesthatarehedged,ambiguous,negotiating,shifting,orpartial—instances

wherespeakersmaynotwishtotakefullresponsibilitytotheiraudienceforadisplayof

communicativecompetence”(Bauman183).Baumanspendstherestofhiswork

explainingwhatexactlyhebelievesthereistobegainedfromextendingouranalysisto

theseambiguousexamplesofperformance,inwhichheexplainsthatitiswithinthese

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instancesthatonemaybegintounderstandthetruemetalinguisticand

metacommunicativeaspectsofinterviewingandhowthesecanbeusedtobetter

understandthesubjectthatisbeingresearched.Thesemetacommunicativeaspectsare

relevanttomyresearchaswell,whichwillbediscussedinfurtherdetailbelow.

BaumanbaseshisanalysisontheexampleofMr.Bush,anelderlymanfromtheLa

Haveislands,fromwhichthetraditionoftelling“yarns”originates.A“yarn”isanorally

performednarrativewhoseeffectivenessisvaluedforitsbasisintrueevents,muchlikethe

opinionsandexperiencesmyinformantsareaskedtoconvey.Narratorsof“yarns”use

thingssuchaspersonalexperienceandeyewitnessaccountstocreateanairofcredibility

surroundingthesestorieswhichattimesincludeinstancesofmagicorthesupernatural.

DuringMr.Bush’sinterviews,hewasaskedtorelatevariousstoriesthathavebeentold

overthecenturiesas“yarns.”Duringhisretellings,Mr.Bushrunsintoseveral

metanarrativecomplicationsthataffecthisstorieswhichincludetheinabilityto“sustain

thenarrativelineandtheflowofnarration,”andhislackof“knowledgeconcerningthe

outcome”ofthestorywhichhewasrelatingtoBauman.Theseinstancescanalsobeseen

amongmyinformantsandtheirlackofknowledgeonthetopicofPaganism.Thesehiccups

innarrationalflowaremarkedbyMr.Bush’sdeviationfromhismarkedstoryline.Inthe

firsthiccup,Mr.Bushacknowledgesmid-sentencethatheis“workedup,”andnervous,and

hastotakeanelevensecondbreak.Mr.Bushthencontinuestorelateapieceofback

informationaboutthesituationhewasdescribingthatherealizedBaumanwouldnotbe

familiarwith.“Theproblem,apparently,layinconstructinganadequatenarrationfor

[Bauman],theoutsider”(Bauman189).

Thenextinstanceofmetanarrationalspeechisonethatrestsevenmorecloselyto

myownwork.WhenMr.Bushcomestotheendofthestory,herealizeshedoesn’tactually

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knowhowitends.Inanxietyabouthisperformance,Mr.Bush“fulfillstheneedhefeelsfor

moredetailbyspeculating.”Inbothcases,thereadercanseethatthese“disclaimersof

performance,”excusehimfrom“fullcompetenceandthusfullresponsibilityinrecounting

thetale”(Bauman191).WhatisperhapsmostinterestingaboutBauman’swork,however,

isnotthatheacknowledgesthatthesedisclaimersofperformanceexist,butratherthathe

citesthesourceofthisdiscordasan“emergentproductof[his]casting[Mr.Bush]inthe

roleoforalnarrativeperformer,and[Mr.Bush’s]ownambivalenceaboutassumingthat

responsibility”(Bauman191).Withinmyownresearchitcanbeseensimplyinthewords

manyoftheintervieweesusetocodetheirresponses,suchasthemodifyingand

equivocatingterms,“I’mprettysure,”“Ithink,”“Probably,”“Personally,”and“Iguess”(NP

101)(NP104)(NP115)(NP106)(NP108).Others,likeSam,astudentatalocaluniversity,

whoclaimtounderstandsomesemblanceofseriousnesssurroundingthereligionwhile

notfullygraspingthebasisofwhatitisaswecanseefromhisstatementssuchas

“Paganismisafaiththatbelievesthatyoucancommunicatewithspiritsafterphysical

deathI’mprettysure,”areabitmorehonestwhenaskedquestionsabouthowtheywould

pictureatypicalwitch:“theterm[…]definitelyconjuresupimagesofcartoonsforme.Not

onespecificonebutjusttheimageofthepointyhatandtheblackdressandallofthat,ya’

know?”(NP111).Withinhisresponseweseealackofmodifyingtermsandnegation,ina

waythatcreatesasenseofalackofdeceit.Inthisway,theactofinterviewingitself,anda

disagreementabouttheroleseachwillplay,madetheseinteractionssomewhat

unsuccessful.Icastmyinformantsintheroleofprimaryinformer,whetherornottheyfeel

thattheypossessenoughknowledgetobeuptothetask.

However,manyotherscholarsinthefieldofLinguistics,Sociolinguistics,and

Anthropology,addressthesituationdifferently.Forinstance,KatherineEwing,aCultural

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AnthropologistandReligiousStudiesscholarclaimsthatonly“identifyingunderlying

patterns,semanticconnections,andregularitiesthatplayasignificantroleinthe

negotiationofmeaning…ignoreskeyaspectsoftheinteractiveprocess,”(Ewing90).Ewing

arguesforamorepersonalanalysisoftheseinstancesofdiscordancewithinspeechacts,

claimingthatthemainfocalpointaroundwhichanyactisperformedistocreate,sustain,

ordisruptrelationships.Whensomethinglikeaninterviewisperformed,themetalanguage

ofwhatisbeingsaidrevolvesaroundtherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandhearer.

Ewingarguesforamorepsychoanalyticapproach,inwhicheventhethoughtsand

feelingsoftheintervieweraretakenintoaccount.This,Ibelieve,isamoreadvantageous

approachforthetypeofresearchwhichIconduct.Regardlessoftheleveloffamiliarity

withthetopicorsituation,Ewingclaimsthatthereisalevelofcontextualizationandan

understandingofmetacommunicationthatisintuitive.This“metacommunication”or

communicationaboutcommunication,workstomanagetheroles,expectations,and

feelingsofbothpartiesduringaninterview.Forexample,whenBauman’sMr.Bushclaims

thathecan’tremembertheendingofhisstorybutgoesontospeculate,Mr.Bushis

performinganinstanceofmetacommunicationinordertomanagetheexpectationshe

feelsBaumanhas.Contextualization,whichistheunderstandingofsubtextsand

backgroundinformationinvolvedwitheitherpartyorthesituationathand,furtherworks

toalterthelandscapeoftheperformanceofinterviews.Mr.BushunderstoodthatBauman

wasaFolkloristandthatBauman’sgoalwastounderstandthesestoriesandthewaysthat

theyweretold.Whilethisisnotovertlysaid,thisisacontextualizationofhisinterviewer

thataffectsthewayheactswithinthesituation(Bauman187).

Theseinstancesofcontextualizationandmetacommunication,however,canfogthe

lensofthetruethoughts,feelings,andexperiencesoftheinterviewer.ToEwing,

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“interactionisalwaysaprocessofnegotiation,[therefore]datagatheringinvolves

managingmistrust,disinformation,blindspots,[and]politics”(Ewing90).While

anthropologiststoday,accordingtoEwing,certainlyrecognizethisandunderstand

knowledgetobe“constructedandpositional,”sheclaims,asAntoniusRobbendoes,that

anthropologistssimplydon’thaveatheoryofconcealment.Thistheoryofconcealment,ifit

existed,would“transformtheseobstructionsintoadeeperculturalinsight”(Ewing91)

(Robben74).WhileIdonotpurporttoconstructageneraltheoryofconcealment,

throughoutthisanalysisIformabetterunderstandingofthewaysinwhichthis

concealmenthasfunctionedwithinmyownresearch.

WhileBaumanprimarilyassociatesthisformofanalysiswiththeperformanceof

Folklore,Iwouldarguethatthisapproachcanbeextremelyusefulinregardstothe

analysisofinterviewwork,specificallyintheroleofthehearerandsociallyconstructed

reality.Thisideaisalsoasalientoneintermsofwhetherornottheseavoidancescanbe

accuratelytermeddeceitful.Whiletherearevaryingdefinitions,StevenNachman,inhis

article“LiesMyInformantsHaveToldMe,”describesalieasa“falsestatementoraction,”

andanythingthatis“meanttogiveafalseimpression”(Nachman536).Underthese

outlines,thesedefensivetendenciesofinformantstospeculate,avoid,andembellishwould

certainlyqualifyaslies,howeverIamstillleftfeelingthatthetermdoesn’tfit.Perhapsthis

isbecauseofthecolloquialunderstandingthatmostliesaretoldwiththeintenttotellsuch

alie,whereasthespeechactsinvolvedininterviewssuchasdisclaimersofperformance

arenotintendedtodeceivethelistenerbutratherareinanattempttobemoreaccurate.

Forinstance,James,thelocaluniversityprofessormentionedaboveclaimedearlyoninthe

interviewthathehadnorealknowledgeofthereligion,andyetinactualitywasmuchmore

informedthananyotherinformantIcameacross(NP118).This,doesnotmeanthathe

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consciouslyliedtomeinordertoperformadeceitfulaction.Itishighlyplausiblethat

Jamesdidnotfeelthattheinformationhedidpossesswasenoughtoconstitute“real

knowledge,”orthathesimplywasunsureofhowaccuratewhathehadexperiencedbefore

was.Clearlythen,thetermlieseemsliketoonegativeatermforwhatisreallygoingon

behindthesurface.

Miall,Pawluch,andShaffiroutlineahelpfulsetofcriteriaintheirworkDoing

Ethnography:StudyingEverydayLifeinwhichaninterviewermaybeabletoknowwhena

face-savingdeceptionactisoccurring.ThisresonatesagainwithBauman’saforementioned

workintheLaHaveislands.“Accounts,”thesectiondetails,“arelikelytobedeceptive

when…thespeakerdemonstratesalackofconvictionabouthisorherownassertionsby

usingavarietyoftechniques”(Miall,etal.81).Thetechniques,whichcanbeseeninmy

ownresearchwhichIwilloutline,include“modifyingorequivocatingterms,denialor

negations,abjuration,weakenedassertions,andstalling.”Forexample,amodifyingor

equivocatingtermwouldbesomethingalongthelinesof,“Iguess,”“Ithink,”“I’mnotsure,

but…”“Apparently,”and“Maybe.”Theuseofthesetermsallowthespeakerto“evadethe

risk”ofcommitment.Denialandnegationarealsoseeninthe“defensivemechanismthat

disavowsordeniesthoughts,feelings,wishes,orneedsthatcauseanxiety”(Miall,etal.82).

3.2.2 MyOwn“Liars”

ExamplesofthesemethodswithinmyresearchonPaganismareseenregardlessof

informants’knowledgeofthesubject,age,gender,orsocioeconomicbackground.Despite

thefactthatonlyoneofmynon-Paganinformantshadbeenacquaintedwithapracticing

Pagan,eachinformantconveyedtomeaclearideaofwhattheythoughtwitchcraftwould

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be.WhiletheyusedthetechniquesoutlinedbyMiall,Pawluch,andShaffirtoavoid

responsibilityanddiscomfort,itisimportanttoacknowledgetheshortcomingsofthiskind

ofinterview,whichdealswithasensitivetopic.Religionisperhapsoneofthefewthingsin

thisworldthatapersonisallowedtobelievewithouthavingtoprovidealogicalbasisfor

thatbelief.Beliefofthiskindliesoutsideofexplanation,andthepeoplewhoholdsuch

beliefstypicallydonotfeelobligatedtoexplaintheexactreasonsofwhytheydo.

Furthermore,Religionistypicallyconnectedtohighlypersonalexperiences,andiswidely

understoodasapersonalchoicebymostreligions.Atthesametime,religionisthebasis

forquiteafewpopularlydiscriminatoryviews(likehomophobia),andthesefeelingscanbe

extremelypersonalanddifficultforthemtoexplain.Itwouldbenaïveofme—likeBleek

explained—toassumethatIcanmeetwithapersonIhavenevermetbeforeandexpect

themtobecompletelyopenandforthrightaboutasensitivetopiclikediscriminationfor

bothnon-PagansandPagansalike.

Transparencyoftheethnographerisessentialsurroundingthetopicofdeceitful

informants,astheyare“themselvesliarswhentheydonottellthewholetruthaboutthe

wayinwhichtheycollectedtheliesfromtheirinformants”(Bleek).Itmayverywellbethat

thewaysinwhichIquestionedmyinformantswastheverythingthatcausedthemto

fabricatetheirresponses.AsItypicallyusedphrasinglike“howwouldyouunderstand…”

and“ifyouweretopicture…”thisleftroomforinterpretationabouttheleveltowhichthey

wereexpectedtotellthetruthandtheleveltowhichfabricationwasacceptable.

Regardless,theinformantsmadethechoicetodisclaimtheirperformancesregularlyasa

waytolessentheirresponsibility,whichisnotrelatedtothesequestionprompts.

Inaccuracyofreportingisacommonproblemdealtwithinmanyresearchprojectsthat

dealwithsensitivetopicssuchasreligionandpersonalopinionsascanbeseenfrommy

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workabove.RegardlessofwhetherornotIamresearchingthetopicofreligion

scientifically,itremainsatypicallyunscientific,personal,andemotionalexperiencefor

manythatmaybedifficulttorelateinthissetting.

However,despitethesesetbacks,oneofthebiggestinferencesIhavebeenableto

makethroughtheinspectionofmyresearchistheaffectofsocialdesirabilitybiasonmy

informants.Socialdesirabilityisbasicallyunderstoodasthetendencyofintervieweesto

reportinaccuratelyonsensitivesubjectsinordertoportraythemselvesinamorepositive

light(Fisher303).Thisisaconciseandclearexplanationofthefaceworkthatisinvolved

indisclaimersofperformanceandhowitfunctionswithinalargercontext.Specifically

relatingtomyresearch,Socialdesirabilitybiasaffectsmyinformantsbecausebeing

discriminatoryintoday’ssocietyisgenerallylookeddownupon.AsIamclearly

conductingresearchonthediscriminationagainstPagans,itseemsthatthesubjectsmay

haveatendencytounderplaytheirfeelingsaboutthesubject(denial),orformideaswhere

nonetrulyexistedpreviously(fabrication)justasMr.Bushfabricatedtheendingofhis

storyforBauman(Bauman189).Inanefforttolessenanyanxietyaboutprovidingvaluable

informationtome,astheinterviewer,itisquitepossiblethatthesesubjectsmaybe

fabricatingopinionsandembellishingonattitudesthatpreviouslywerenotasstrongor

concretelyfelt.Forexample,althoughonenon-Paganclaimsthatshehasneverheardof

Paganismbeforethisinterview,shestillattemptstoarticulateheropinionsonthereligion,

bysayingthingssuchas“magicisdefinitelyrelatedtodevilworshipandstuff.Iwouldn’t

relateittoanythinggoodreally,butIdon’tbelieveinitsoit’shardtosay,”and“whenI

thinkofawitchIpictureacreepyoldladywithalongnose,warts,maybegreenskin.She’d

haveapointyhatandrideabroomstick,andshe’dbeugly,forsure”(NP102).Itisnot

clearfromwherethisparticularpersongetsheropinions,orhowtheyarefabricated,butit

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isinterestingthatalthoughsheclaimstoknowlittletonothingaboutthesubject,shestill

relatedratherstronganddetrimentalopinions,suchasthoserelatedintodevilworship.

This,however,couldworktheotherwayaround.Perhapsitisnotthatsheknows

nothingaboutthesubjectandholdsnoopinionssurroundingthetopic,butratherthatshe

usesthedisclaimerofknowinglittleaboutthesubjectasadefensemechanismforany

questionsthatareaskedinthefuturethatmaystumpher.Insteadofinaccuratelyreporting

opinions,itispossiblethattheintervieweeinaccuratelyreportstheextenttowhichthey

arefamiliarwiththesubjectasadisclaimerofperformance.AsImentionedabove,James

usedasimilartactic.Whenoriginallyintroducedtothetopicthatwewouldbediscussing,

heclaimedthathe“didn’tknowtoomuchaboutitatall”butastheconversation

progresseditturnedoutthathewasactuallywellversedinthePaganholidays,knew

generallywhattheydid,knewtheexactdateofafewofthemsuchasOstaraandthe

summersolstice,andhadevenmetaPaganinhispersonallife(NP118).Thedefense

mechanismutilizedhasbeenoutlinedbythescholarsmentionedpreviously,andis

employedinordertolessentheresponsibilitythattheinformanthaswithinthis

performanceandtolessentheinformant’sresponsibilitytoperformhisorherrole.

Thefactthattheyfeeltheneedtolieatallmayprovidevaluableinsightsintohow

theyconceptualizethetopicandhowtheyunderstandtheirrelationshiptome,the

interviewer.Whereasaclosefriendmightbeabletosaytomeinconversation“Ireally

havenoideawhatthatis,”duringaninterviewthiskindofresponsewouldmostlikelybe

seenastheirinabilitytofulfilltheroleasinformation-giver.Inordertokeeptheirego,

confidence,andsenseofselfintact,theseinstancesofself-editing,modification,

equivocation,anddenialarenecessary.Astheycannotrelyonme,astheinterviewer

seekinginformation,toassistinthemaintenanceoftheir“face,”agreateramountof

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pressureisfelttodecreasethepossibilityofembarrassment.ItisinthesewaysthatIhave

formedanunderstandingoftheinterviewasanactofperformance,aswellasthe

disclaimersofperformanceinvolvedwithintheact.BlendingSociology,Psychology,

Linguistics,andAnthropologyisextremelyintellectuallyrewarding,andfurtherwork

couldbedone,ifIwerequalified,throughpsychoanalysisofmyinformantssurrounding

theiranxietiesofrolefulfillment,inadequacy,anddiscrimination.

Thisapproachcanbealsoappliedtomyresearchconductedwithmembersofthe

Pagancommunity.Theirresponses,whichwillbediscussedinthefollowingchapter,mimic

thissenseofdesiretofulfillaperformanceandreactionstosocialpressures.Whileinstead

ofneedingtopresentaversionofthemselvesthatissociallydesirableinthattheydonot

discriminate,Pagansareaffectedinthattheymayfeelaneedtoseemlikeaviablesourceof

informationandarespectedinformantbyprovidingmewithrelevant,powerful

experiencesandopinions.However,beforedelvingtoodeeply,Imustfirstdiscusswhat

exactlyitisthatthesePagansaresayingandhowtheirresponsesfitintoalargerpicture.

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4.0 CHAPTERFOUR

4.1 UNCOVERINGTHECYCLEOFDISCRIMINATION

Overthecourseofthisproject,atcoffeeshops,esotericstores,PaganPrideFestival,public

parks,rituals,andpaintingclasses,Ihavebeenabletointeractwithandbetterunderstand

animpressivelywidearrayofPagansandtheintricaciesoftheirexperiences.My

informantshaverangedinage,socioeconomicstatuses,andbeliefs,fromthe20-year-old

studentwhopracticeseclecticPaganism,tothe59-year-oldnurseandlocalstoreowner

whopracticesFaeryWicca.Thisdiversityisoneofthecommunity’sproudestfeatures,asI

havementionedpreviously,anditiswheretheylocateoneofthecommunity’sgreatest

strengths:adaptabilityandopenness.Formanyofmyinformants,thediscriminationthey

describedtomewasnotsomethingthatcouldbereportedtothepolice,ortakenupwitha

humanresourcesrepresentative,butrathersmaller,moreordinaryoccurrencesthatmade

theirlivesmoredifficultorunsatisfying.Becauseoftheseinstances,orhearingofsuch

instancesfromtheirpeers,myinformantstailoredtheirbehaviortoavoidsuch

occurrencesandthusseeminglymaketheirliveseasier.Theymodifytheirbehaviorin

workenvironments,withtheirfamily,andontheInternetinordertoavoidbeingbothered

bytheinconvenienceofreligiousdiscrimination.Thediscriminationmanyofthemfeelis

notsomethingtobeactivelyaddressedbutrathertobedealtwithquietly.

Throughmyconversationswithmembersofthecommunity,ithasbecomeclear

thatjustastherearemultiplefuelsfordiscrimination,therearealsomultiplewaysin

whichthesePagansrespondtoandexperiencetheseattitudes.Thiscontributestothecycle

ofmutualreinforcementforthiskindofdestructiverelationshipofsecrecyandignorance

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betweenPagansandnon-Pagans.Pagansperformvariouspreemptivestrategiesasabuffer

fromexperiencingoutward,violent,anddisruptivediscrimination.Thesestrategiesinclude

secretkeeping,downplayofemotionalresponsestoevents,andcompartmentalization.

Eachofthesestrategiestypicallyworkintandemwithoneanother,andarevisiblein

nearlyallofmyinformants.Oneinformant,a40-year-oldbusinessowner,describedthe

tensionthatcomeswithbeingamemberofaminorityculturewhichleadstosecret

keeping.“AlthoughthepeoplewhoIhavetoldhavebeenverysupportive,Istilllivemylife

atthecostofacertainparanoia.NooneatmyoldjobknewwhatIgotuptoduringfull

moons,evenwhentheyengagedmeinreligiousconversations.Iwasapublicagnosticand

aprivatepagan.Myfamilyalsoremainsignorantforharmony’ssake”(P227).Manyother

informantscontinuetheinsularsecrecybyonlysocializingwithPagans.Thisisatypeof

compartmentalizationinwhichtheykeeptheirsocialandreligiousidentitycompletely

separatefromtheircareer,family,andevenroommates.InformantslikeKaren,a49-year-

oldartistwithaPhDinarthistory,maintaincompletelyseparateFacebookprofiles,“one

forfamilyandarthistoryfriendsandanotherforallofmypaganfriendswhoIassociate

withmoreoften”(P220).NineotherinformantsmentionedtheuseofaseparateFacebook

profiletoconnectonlywithPagansaswell(P201)(P211)(P212)(P221)(P222)(P225)

(P226)(P227)(P230).Agapsuchasthis,betweenone’sPaganidentityandone’s

“everydaylife”createsabifurcatedrealitywithinherlifeandmanyothers—thePaganhalf

oftheirlivesandtherestofit,insomecases,nevercomingintocontactwitheachother.

Thisideaofabifurcatedsenseofrealitycreatesthepotentialforfeelingsofunfulfillment

andserioustensionsofidentity.Inadditionto,thesesecretkeepingand

compartmentalizationstrategies,informantsalsoexhibitaminimizationoftheiremotional

responsestoinstancesofdiscriminationwhichtheyhaveexperienced,inwhichtheyuse

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phrasessuchas“Iwasn’tsurprised,really,”“Theyseemtofindmethreateningforsome

reason,”andevendescribingtheiraggressorsas“Batshitcrazyevangelicaltypes”(P201)

(P215)(P219).Indiminishingtheiroutwardemotionalvulnerabilitytotheactsof

discriminationagainstthem,theyarerejectinganyvalidationofsuchopinionsaswellas

attemptingtoprotectthemselvespsychologically.Likesecretkeepingand

compartmentalization,downplayingemotionalresponsesmakeslivingthelifeofaPagana

littleeasier.

4.1.1 InterviewingandEffects

Theseresponsesandstrategies,asImentionedattheendofthepreviouschapter,are

affectedinmanyofthesamewayswithintheinterviewprocessasnon-Pagansare.Justas

non-Paganswerelikelytobeaffectedbytherolesthatareinculcatedintotheprocessof

interviewing,itisalmostinevitablethatPaganswouldbelikelyaffectedaswell.Whilenon-

Pagansfeltpressuretoprovidemewithdetailed,knowledgeableanswers,andtopresent

themselvesasnon-discriminatory,Pagansperhapsfeltevenmorepressuredtoprovideme

withvaluablematerialasitwasclearthattheircommunitywasthemainfocusofthis

research.Itseemsthatwithinmyideaofthethreecoredefensestrategies(mainly

downplaying),pressurestoproduceanimageofacommunitythatisstrong,andanoutlook

thatismaturecertainlycomeintoplay.Itishighlylikelythatmanyofmyinformantsfelt,in

someway,theneedtopresenttomeacommunitythatwassecureanddeveloped,andin

thiswaymanyofthenegativeattitudesandlessresilientresponsestowardsbeing

discriminatedagainstwereunderrepresented.Moreover,manyofmyinformants

presentedalevelofself-deceitthatcontradicteditselfwithinthespanofafewsentences,

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asIwilladdressingreaterdetaillaterinthechapter.Thefactthatapersoninonesentence

canbeexplainingthattheydon’tthinkthediscriminationisthatbad,andthenextrelatea

storythatincludesablatantactofprejudiceissurprising,althoughunderstandable.In

ordertodealwithtopicssuchasdiscrimination,membersofthecommunityoftenfind

waystoeitheravoidencounteringtheideaalltogether(bycreatingseparateFacebook

pages,keepingtheirreligionasecret,etc.)orwaystomakeitseemoutwardlyliketheyare

notaffectedemotionally.Insayingthingslike“it’snoneoftheirbusiness,”“allofthese

ignorantpeopleknownothingabout[Paganism],”and“Igaveuponpopculture’sopinions

agesago,”theyareplacingthemselvesabovethe“uninformedandunintelligent”masses(P

204)(P206)(P220).Thisformofconfidenceandpridecanbeconsiderednotonlya

copingmechanismbutalsoaformofself-comfortanddeceit.Inconvincingthemselvesthat

thepeoplewhodiscriminateagainstthemareneitherassophisticatedornoras

enlightenedastheyare,theyplacethemselvesoutsideofthediscriminatorsrealmof

influence.

Aswewillseefurtherinthechapter,thesedefensemechanismsagainst

discriminationofferinsightsintohowPagansconceptualizetheirrelationshipwiththe

worldaroundthem,andalsohowtheyconceptualizetheirownidentities.Lookingathow

self-deceitcomesintoplayprovidesadeeperoutletforanalysisthatmaynotbeinitially

visible.Inmorefullyunderstandingtheprocessofinterviewinganditseffectsonmy

informantsIamabletonotonlygetabettersenseofwhatliesbeneaththesurface,butalso

whatkindofsocialpressuresmayaffectthesituationatlarge.

4.1.2 CreatingaCycleofIgnorance

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UnbeknownsttomanymembersofthePagancommunity,thesestrategiesthatare

intendedtobufferdiscriminationcaninadvertentlyendupfuelingthekindof

discriminationthatIamparticularlyinterestedin:thenon-legal,culturalattitudesthat

affecttheireverydaylives.Becausethesediscriminatoryattitudesarefueledbyignorance,

thespaceofwhichisfilledbyinferencesandattitudesderivedfrompopularcultureand

religiousreferencesIhaveoutlinedpreviously,thesepreemptivestrategieshelpto

maintainthelevelofignorancewhichisrootedinmainstreamsocietywhichlargelydoes

notofferanypositive,visibleexamplesofthereligionofPaganism.Thesestrategiescanbe

seeninalmosteveryinformantthatIhavespokenwith,whetherornottheyareactively

awarethattheyareinvolvedinthem.Whileitseemseasytoremedythesituationbysaying

“justtelleveryone,then!”thisanswerisalotmorecomplicatedthanitmayseematfirst

glance.Infact,mostPagansseemtobecomfortablewiththefactthattheylivepartoftheir

livesinsecret,statingthatit’seasier,andnotanyoneelse’sbusiness.Anotherproblemthat

onemayrunintowhenaddressingasolutiontothecycleofdiscriminationisthatthere

simplyisn’tabigenoughcommunitytowarrantanymassattentiontothereligionasa

whole.

WhileitisundeniablethatthePaganpresenceinthePittsburghareaisstrong,given

theattendanceateventssuchasPaganPrideFestivalandvariouspublicritualsthatIhave

attended,ofthe38informantsthatIinterviewed,13preferasolitarypracticeratherthan

asapartofagroup.UnlikethewayinwhichonecanwalkdownFifthAvenueinPittsburgh

andinthespanofonemileseefivechurches,thetypeofPaganpresencewithinthecity

limitsisnearlyinvisibleduetothewaysinwhichPagansprefertopractice.

Simultaneously,whatareseenarethevariousesotericshopsaroundthecity,boasting

nameslike“HocusPocus,”astorejustoffofthesameFifthAvenuethatisteemingwith

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churches.Whilemanypassersbywillneversetfootintheseestablishments,thejudgment

ismadeonstorefrontsalone.Oneonlyhastohearthenameofthelocalstore“Hocus

Pocus,”toconjureupimagesofthe1993children’sfilmofthesamenamefeaturingthree

dubiousanduglywitcheswhoareburnedaliveinthefilm.Itisintheseinadvertentways

thattheabsenceofpositive,religious-orientedmaterialforthegeneralpublicbecomesa

seriousproblem.

Regardlessoftheirage,occupation,orsocioeconomicstatus,thisattitudeseemsto

persist.Theoccupationsofmyinformants,whileheavilyweightedtowardthehealthcare

field,alsoincludeamemberoftheArmy,atrafficcontrolcrewleader,aprofessional

engineer,severalteachersinvariouslevelsofeducation,twomembersofthefinanceand

accountingprofession,anauthor,andaPhDholderinarthistory—amongmanyother

eclecticlivelihoods.Outofthe38informantsIinterviewed,12identifiedasbeinga

memberofthehealth-careprofessionincludingbehavioralhealththerapy,nursing,mental

healththerapy,andmedicalsocialwork.Afterinquiringaboutthestratificationtowards

health-careoccupations,onewomannamedMaggie(a53-year-oldbehavioralhealth

therapist,workingforasocialworkcompany)statedthatitwasbecauseofherbackground

inWiccathatshefeltsuchastrongpulltowardsbeingapartofthehealingprocessof

others.Maggie,whostartedoffasapsychotherapistandmovedtowardsthesocialwork

sideoftheoccupation,saidthatwhileherspiritualitymakeshermoresensitivetobeing

affectedbythenegativeenergiesthatcomewiththiskindofwork,heracuteabilitytobe

in-tunewithothers’emotionsthatshederivesfromherPaganrootsmakesherthe

therapistthatsheistoday.Othershaveexpressedsimilarfeelingssurroundingthecareof

othersanditsconnectiontofundamentalaspectsofPaganism.

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However,inhealthcare,anindustrythatseemsnaturallytailoredtothenurturers

andhealersofthePagancommunity,themembersofthisprofessionhavefeltthestrongest

pushbackfromtheircolleaguesregardingreligion.Infact,aninsightfulstudydoneby

KimberlyKirnertitled“HealingCommunity:PaganCulturalModelsandExperiencesin

SeekingWell-Being,”outlinesveryclearlythebarriersthatarepresentedtoPaganswithin

thehealthcarefield(Kirner).Inmyopinion,however,thisisnotsurprising.Barringretail

workers,cashiers,andfoodservicepersonnel,registerednursesmadeupthelargest

percentageofworkersintheUnitedStatesaccordingtonationalemploymentprojections

from2012-2022(U.S.BureauofLaborStatistics).Withemploymentnumbersnearing3

million,itisnosurprisetomethattensionswouldbepresentforaminorityculturebased

onthestatisticallyinevitablediversityofbackgroundsfoundwithintheprofession.

Althoughdiversityleadstoahigherdegreeoftoleranceinmanycases,tolerancemustfirst

beprecededbyaleastsomelevelofunderstanding,whichthePagancommunityis

typicallynotafforded.

4.2 THEPAGANPERSPECTIVE

4.2.1 LisaandTara

OnelongtimememberofthePagancommunity,Lisa,whohasbeeninthehealthcare

professionasanurseforthelast20yearsandamemberofthePagancommunityforjust

aslong,statedinresponsetothequestionofhowshethinksherco-workerswouldreactto

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herbeingopenaboutherreligionthat,“theywouldsuffermetodie.Theywouldprobably

sprinkleholywateronme.Attheveryleast,Iwouldriskbeingostracizedinmysmall,

religiousworkplace,”(P201).Incontrast,herdaughterTarawhoisalsoamemberofthe

Paganreligion,whowaspreviouslyateacherandisnowenlistedinthemilitary,statedthat

herexperiencewasdifferent:“atmycivilianjob[asanelementaryschoolteacher],they

wouldn’tcare,Idon’tthink.Theywould—andhaveinthepast—justbrushoffthevague

commentsImakeas‘Oh,that’sjustTarabeingweirdagain,withallhertattoos.’Whereasin

themilitary,Ibelievetheirattitudesaremoreonthelinesof‘whatever,Idon’treallyknow

whatthatisbutgoodforyou.’OneSergeantMajor,though,oncemadeacommentwhen

goingthroughthereligioustolerancespielwhenwejoinedaboutsacrificingchickenswhen

talkingaboutPaganisminaveryderogatoryway,”(P202,2015).Tara’sresponsepresents

aclearexampleofthetypeofdownplayingthatexistsinmanyPagansresponsesto

discriminatoryattitudes.TaradescribedherideaoftheattitudestowardsPaganismwithin

themilitaryasverynonchalant,eventhoughdirectlyafterthissheprovidedaclear

exampleofatimewhenahighrankingofficialmadeaderogatoryremarkagainstthe

religion.Eveninthefaceofadirectdiscriminatoryremark,Taramaintainstheattitudethat

discriminationismoreofanon-issuewithinhercareer.TheattitudeoftheSergeantMajor

isaperfectexampleofthesortofsensationalistviewsofPaganismthatexistinalmost

everycornerofAmericansociety.Intriguingly,thisattitudecomestothesurfaceevenin

themidstofaconversationthatoccursduetothefactthatthemilitaryrecognizes

Paganismasarespectedreligion.Thisfurtherprovesmyargumentthatwhilemovescan

bemadeonalarger,legalscale,thesechangesinnowayreduceeverydayinstancesof

discriminationthatgoundertheradaroflegalactionandcontinuetodiminishthequality

oflifeformembersofthereligion.

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Bothwomentouchedontheideaofthevisibilityoftheirreligion,andwhileTarafelt

comfortablewithhavingtattoosofbroomsticksandcauldronsonherbody(playingthe

popcultureimagesagainsttheirrealsymbolicmeaning),Lisafeltonguardatwork

wearingasmallpentaclering.Although,accordingtoLisa,thehospitalsheworksfor

officiallyrecognizesPaganismasareligionandthusshewouldbesafefromdiscrimination

withinthelegalrealm,itisthesmaller,everydaytensionsofdiscriminationthatcontinue

toaffectherregardlessofacknowledgementinthefineprintoflegalpaperwork.Sitting

withthesetwowomenandlisteningtotheirstoriesinconversationwithoneanotheratthe

verybeginningofmyresearchmadeitapparentthattherewereverydifferenttypesof

reactionstodiscriminationatplay,evenjustwithintheirworkenvironments.Whilethe

questioncertainlyallowedforspeculation,Lisa’sfear,andthestrongwordsthatsheused

shouldnotbeunderestimated.Tara’sattitudesurroundingherPagantattoosand

idiosyncraticstylechoiceswashighlightedinasinglesentence:“Imakethechoiceto

presentmyselfthatwaysoI’mmakingthechoicetoallow[thosereactions],”(P202,2015).

ItseemsthatTara,inacceptingheridentityasaPagan,isinherentlyacceptingthe

discriminationthatitpresents.PerhapsthisispartofthereasonwhymanyPagansseem,

onthewhole,relativelyunperturbedwiththediscriminationtheyfaceintheirdailylivesas

theyhavealreadycometoacceptthatit“comeswiththeterritory.”

4.2.2 Matt

Anotherinformant,Matt,a26-year-oldwhoispursuingadegreeincriminaljusticewhile

workingonalocaluniversitycampus,hasexperienceddiscriminationandpracticed

avoidancetechniquesinwaysunlikehispeers.ForMatt,hismostsalientexperienceswith

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discriminationhavebeenwithintherealmofhisfamily’sandhometowncommunity’s

extremereligiousbackground.TheareainnortheasternPennsylvaniainwhichMattgrew

upwasmadeupofanextremelyhighpercentageofCatholics,andMatthimselfwasforced

toattendCatholicChurchandCatechismuntiltheageof18.

Asahomosexualteenager,thisenvironmentwasdestructivetohissenseofself,and

hestillliveswithitseffectstoday.Growingupinsuchanenvironmentcultivatedastrong

willwithinhimtopushbackagainstthesekindsofattitudes,beginningwithhomophobia

heexperiencedinhighschool,andrecentlyinvolvingdiscriminationagainstPaganismin

hisSpiritualistchurch.WhenIaskedwhetherornothefeelsthattheviewsheaccepted

previouslyaffecthimtoday,hewentontoexplainhisfirstoutwardactofrebellionagainst

hisreligiouspeers.Hisupbringing,hesays“openedmyeyestotruehatred,to

brainwashing…itopenedmyeyestoalotanditmademealotstronger”(P210).When

Mattbegantobeconfrontedbyhisdevoutlyreligiouspeersinhighschoolforbeinggay,he

decidedtoembracetheaccusationsandusetheirfearsashisdefense,turning“gothic,”and

playingintohispeers’rumorsthathewaspossessedbythedevil.“Ithoughtitwasso

funny,andIwouldgouptopeopleandbelike‘thedevilsaidhehatesyou.’[Laughter]”

Insteadofpassiveavoidancetechniques,Mattusedtheexactoppositebehaviortoreclaim

hisidentitydespitethejudgmentofhispeers.Althoughheneverbelievedhewasevillike

hispeerssaid,heusedthisasfueltoreaffirmhissenseofpowerinthesituationathand

andshifthisagencyinthesituationfrompassivetoactive.

Thissortofbehaviorcanbeseenagainwhenheisconfrontedwithasimilar

situationathisSpiritualistchurchinPittsburgh.Spiritualism,asMattexplainedtome,is

“moreofaphilosophy.It’saboutcommuningwithpeoplewhohavepassedovertothe

otherside.Itdealsheavilywithmedium-shipandtalkedtodeadpeople.”Althoughthis

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seemslikeacommunitysimilartoPaganisminitsembraceofthemysticalandmagical,“it’s

becomeChristian-basedandalotofpeopleinthecommunityareChristians,”accordingto

Matt.InitiallyheldbackfromopeninguptothiscommunityabouthisPaganleaningsby

theirstrongChristiantiesbecausehedidn’t“wanttorufflefeathers,”hequicklyaddedthat

hedecided“weshouldrufflefeathers”(P210).Thus,hewenttothepastorofthechurchto

explainthathehadbeenattendingWiccanritualsandtakingclassesonthesubject.His

pastorwaswelcomingandopen-minded,invitingMatttohostaneventatthechurchto

introducethemembersofthechurchtohisreligion.Aftertheevent,Mattreceivedstrong

backlashwithinthecommunityforhisPaganbeliefs:

Thiswomancomesuptomeandsays‘So,whatareyou?’ andIwaslike,‘Whatdoyoumean?’andshesays‘Well,areyouaChristian?’andIexplained‘WellIthinkthatsayingthatI'maChristianwouldbeverylimiting,I’machildoftheearth,Iidentifywithaspectsofeveryreligion.Ijustidentifyalittlebitmorewithpaganism.SoIwouldsaythatIam,ifyouwanttoputtermsonit,I'maPagan.’Andshelooksatmeandshegoes,‘Wellyoucan'tbeaPaganandaSpiritualist.’andIwaslike"Ohreally?Accordingtowho?Accordingtoyou?Okay,that'sfineIrespectyouropinion,buthere'salistofpaganspiritualist…"andIgaveheralist…andsheresponded,‘WellIjustdon'tthinkthatyoucandothis.EveryonehereisChristian.’AndI'mlike‘Wellthat'sfine,butyouhavetounderstandthatweliveinapluralisticsocietyandIwouldn'tjoinagroupiftheywerestrictlyChristian.Italkedtothepastoraboutitandshesaid‘it'sfinethatyou'relikethisandweaccepteveryone.’But,there'sstillthislike,conservativewave…It'ssolimitingandIwaslikeshocked.Idon'tliketofightwithpeopleoverstufflikethat.It'swaytoohardandyoucan'tconvincepeopletochangetheirbehavior. Theperspectivedefinitelychanged[afterthat].ThedynamicdefinitelychangedandImeanpeopleweretalkingaboutme,callingme‘dark’(P210).

Throughoutthedescription,Mattspokeconfidentlyandanimatedly,pausingonlytofind

waystoelaborateonthesituationfurther.Afterthisincident,Mattwasinspiredtotakea

morediplomaticstanceasPaganwithinhiscommunity,explainingthathewouldnever

wanttomakeanyonefeel“pushedoutorcrucifiedinasense.”WhenIinquiredabout

whetherthatwassimilartothewayhewasmadetofeelbytheSpiritualistcommunity,he

explainedthathedidn’t,andexplainedthat,“EvenifIdid,Iwouldn’tcare.I’mverystrong

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inwhatIbelieveinandI’mabletohavetheseconversationsandtheseargumentsina

politicalanddiplomaticway…becauseI’veresearchedthisandI’mnotgoingtobackdown

fromit”(P210).ItseemsthatMatt’supbringingmadehimfearlessinsomeaspectsofhis

experienceasaPaganandinfightingthediscriminationagainstitwithinhisreligiouslife

asbothaSpiritualistandaPagan.However,itisquitepossiblethattheseinstancesaffected

himmuchmorethanheleton.Althoughheclaimedthathewas“shocked,”atthewoman’s

response,hegoesontosaythathewasnotaffectedinanyway.Thisperhapspresentsan

instanceofself-deceitbydownplayinghisemotionalresponse.

Interestingly,despitehispurportedfearlessness,Mattwasoneofthemostadamant

ofmyinformantsaboutbeingcompletelyanonymousduetofearsabouthisfuturejob

prospectswhichmayreaffirmmyaforementionedclaimofself-deceit.Itseems

counterintuitivethatsomeonewithsuchastrongsenseofidentityandwilltofightagainst

misunderstandingwouldbesoadamantaboutkeepinghissecrecyinregardtohisjob.It

seemsthatforMatt,therearesomerealmsoflifethatare“untouchable”intermsof

negotiatingandmitigatingdiscrimination.Forhim,hisjobincriminaljusticewasanon-

negotiableareaofhislifewherehecouldnot,andwouldnotputhimselfintheposition,to

betransparentabouthisreligiousbeliefs.Whilemanyotherinformantsenthusiastically

encouragedmetoincludetheirrealnamesandpersonaldata,Mattwashesitant,even

inquiringaboutwhereIkeptmyinformationandhowsafelyitwasstored.Whilethis

meticulousnesscouldsimplybeasymptomofhiscriminaljusticebackground,italso

showsjusthowdifferentlyhehandlesthesesituationsfromhisreligiouslifetohis

occupationallife.Insteadoffacingallaccusationsheadon,andevenusingthemagainsthis

accusersashehasinthepast,hechoosestogotoallmeasurestoavoideventhepossibility

ofsuchasituationinrelationtohisprofessionallife.PerhapsthisisbecauseMattholdsthe

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widelyacceptedbeliefthatoneshouldn’tbringtheirreligionintotheworkplace,however

ifthatwereso,therewouldn’tbesuchaneedtohidehisidentityratherthananeedforhim

simplynottobringitupintheworkplace.Asbackgroundchecksaretypicallyrequiredfor

membersofthecriminaljusticesystem,thissuggeststhatassomeonewhowasgoingtobe

enteringthefieldasafull-timemembersoon,hefeltthiswouldbedetrimentaltohis

chancesatsecuringaposition.However,workandreligiouslifearetwoverydifferent

realms,andthusitisnotsurprisingthatMattwouldfeelmorecomfortableopeningup

aboutsomethingtohispeerswithinhisreligiouscommunity,asitseemsmoreappropriate

tohim.

Mattprovidesanexampleofthewaysinwhichthecompartmentalizationofhis

Paganidentityhasaffectedhislife.Evenwhenhedecidestobreakdownthewallbetween

hisSpiritualistidentityandhisPaganidentity,therepercussionsheexperiencedserveas

anotherreasonwhythePagancommunitywillcontinuethispractice.Matt,intellinghis

storyofdiscriminationtohisPaganpeers,undoubtedlyreinforcestheirreasoningabout

whycompartmentalizationisuseful.OneofthemaingoalsofmanyPagansseemstobeto

avoidthissortofbacklashfromtheirpeersinotherpartsoftheirlives,and

compartmentalizationachievesthisgoal.

4.2.3 Janet

WhiletheexperiencesofLisa,Tara,andMatthaveallexemplifiedthewaysinwhich

discriminationmaybeseenonamundanelevel,Janet(amiddle-agerealestateworker)

experiencedmoredetrimentalconsequences.WhenJanetfirstbegantoidentifyasaPagan,

shedecidedlystayed“inthebroomcloset,”acommonexpressionamongPagansfor

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keepingone’sreligiousidentitylargelysecret.HerfamilyisfundamentalistChristian,and

manyofherfriendsoutsideofthePagancommunityareChristianaswell.However,as

timewenton,JanetbegantofeelmorecomfortablelivingwithherPaganidentityand

decidedthatitwastimetostartacceptingherselfpublicly.Tohersurprise,herimmediate

familyacceptedher,evendefendingheragainstthediscriminationofothermembersof

theirfundamentalistcommunity:

WhenItoldmymom,shewasprettyaccepting.Shewasreallyupset,youknow,becausesheprobablyfeelsthatI’mgoingtohell,butherultimateresponsewasthatoflove,notofhate.Ireallyappreciateherforthat.Theothermembersofhercommunityfoundoutsomehowthough,andonewomanshoweduponmymom’sdoorstepthedayaftertalkingabouthowIwas“withthedevil,”andaccusingmymomofhousingevil.Thewomanwouldn’tevencrossthedoorwayshewassoafraidofme(P236).

Althoughhermotherdefendedher,Janetexplainedthattherewasalsoalotofshamethat

beingaPaganbroughtherparents.Afterthis,shedecidedtokeepherreligiousidentity

private,inpartduetothebacklashagainstherparents,andinpartduetothefearthatone

daysomeonemightshowupatherdoorstep,nothermother’s.

Astimewenton,thatmomentbegantofeelfarawaytoJanet,andshebegantofeel

morecomfortablebeingopenaboutherreligiousidentity.“AsIgrewupmore,IfeltthatI

wassurroundedbyamoreopenmindedcommunitywithinPittsburgh,andIfeltmore

comfortablepostingthingsonFacebookandbeinganactivememberofthecommunity”(P

236).Ittookalotofcouragetodecidethatshewouldbeopenwithherpeersabouther

religion—somethingmanymembersofthecommunitycouldnotdo—andshewasproud

tobeabletodoso.Inherconfidence,however,cameoneofthemostdamagingactsof

discriminationthecommunityhasfelt.Havinganestablishedcareerworkinginalocalreal

estateoffice,Janetbegantobeopenwithherpeerswheneverthesubjectofreligioncame

up.Theirreactions,Janetexplained,werevaried,butforthemostpartnoonehadsaid

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anythingdirectlyderogatorytoher.“Icouldtelltheyweretalkingaboutmebehindmy

backthough.Thingsgotawkwardafterthat,butIneverexpectedwhatwaseventually

coming.”Oneday,asJanetwasusingthecopieratworktomakecopiesofaflierforan

upcomingeventinthePagancommunity,herbosswalkedbyandaskedheraboutwhatit

was.

Thenextday,withoutanywarning,hecalledmeintohisofficeandfiredmefor‘improperuseofofficefacilities.’Now,thisguyisasuperChristian,andIknowforafactthatitwasmorethanjustusingthecopier.Peopleintheofficeusethecopierforsmallpersonalstuffallthetime,andnoonehaseverevengottenwrittenupforit.Lookingback,IwishIhadhadtheconfidencetodosomethingaboutit,butatthetimeIwasjustsobeatendownandshockedbyitthatIjustpickedupmystuffandleft(P236).

Whenaskedwhetherornotshereportedtheincidenttohumanresources,Janetexplained

thatherimmediatereactionwassimplytonottocallanyfurtherattentiontoherself.“I

didn’tthinkanyonewasgoingtogivemethetimeofdayaboutit,becausenoonereally

respectedthatpartofmeinthefirstplace”(P236).Janet’sexperienceandsubsequent

reactionistheamalgamationofdecadesofinadvertentdiscriminationandsuppressionof

Paganidentity.Followingthisevent,Janetrevertedtoheroldwaysofsecrecy,“afterthat,I

tendtokeepmyreligiouspreferencestomyself.IlovemyselfandmyidentityasaPagan

butitisnotworthittometoexperiencesuchbacklashandlosswhenIcouldjustavoidit

altogetherbynotsayinganything”(P236).Evenwhenshebegantoanswerquestions

whenwefirstmetinabackcornerofalocalcoffeeshop,herresponseswerehushedand

self-conscious.Therewasvisibletensionforherinrelatingtheseeventstoastrangerand

sheseemedtobeconsciousofbeingoverheard.Herstoryisanotherthatfuelsthedesire

notonlyforherself,butforthebroaderPagancommunityinPittsburghaswell,tokeep

theirreligiouslifeprivate,unfortunatelycontributingtothecycleofignoranceand

subsequentprejudice.

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4.3 ACOMMUNUALRESPONSE

Thesestoriesofdiscriminationcyclethroughthecommunity,andeventuallybecomeapart

ofthecommunalnarrativesurroundingdiscriminationandthewaysinwhichoneshould

addressit.StoriessuchasJanet’sandMatt’sreinforcethedesiretocompartmentalize

themselvesandjustifiessecretkeeping.AsthecommunityofPaganswithinPittsburghis

relativelysmall,itisinevitablethatstoriessuchasthesearewidelyknown,andhavebeen

referencedbyseveralotherinformantsnotincludingtheinformantsdiscussedabove(P

201)(P204)(P221).SeveralPagansmakereferencetotheseinstancesasreinforcement

andexplanationwhenaskedaboutwhytheyprefertokeeptheirreligiousidentityprivate.

Maggie,themiddleagedhealthcareworkingmentionedabove,mentionednotjustonebut

bothMatt’sandJanet’sstorieswhenexplainingwhyshefelttheneedtokeepherreligious

lifeprivate.“Iheard[Janet’s]storyandIwasjustappalled.Ican’timagewhatIwoulddoin

hersituation.Evenhearingherstorymakesmeafraidforsomethinglikethattohappento

me.”AnotherinformantusedMatt’sstoryasawaytoexplainChristianity’sholdon

mainstreamculture:

Christiancriticismsshouldn’taffecthiminthosesituationsbecauseasanAmericanhisfreedomofreligionisguaranteed.Butthey’resooftentreatedasvalidbysociety.Obviously,theircriticismsofPaganismareatbestuninformed,buttherealitiesofAmericansocietymeanwehavetodealwiththesecriticismsheadonlike[Matt]did,evenifitsunfair.Oursocietyissobiased,weareatoddswithapowerfulandvocalsegmentthatmakestheirspiritualandtheologicalcriticismsofussomethingwedohavetoanswer,againstourwill.WearenotChristians,orevenmonotheists.Thatshouldnotbeaproblem.Butweareoccasionallyforcedtoactlikeitisone,andthatit’sourresponsibilitytoaccommodate(P227).

ThisinformantastutelyechoesthestakesofsuchdiscriminationdiscussedinBarner-

Barry’sworkaswellasmyownandhowitisunderstoodanddealtwithbyaPagan.Italso

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outlinesthebeginningsoftheprocessesofdownplayingemotionalresponses.Itisclear

thatnotonlydootherPagansusethesestoriesasreinforcementfortheiravoidance

behavior,buttheyarealsoserveasatouchstonefromwhichothersdefineandunderstand

theirownviewpointsondiscriminationevenwhentheyhavenotexperiencedanydirectly

themselves.ItisthusthatnoteverymemberofthePagancommunitymustexperiencean

actofoutwarddiscriminationinordertofeeltheneedtousethedefensestrategies

consideredearlierandmaintainthecycleofmisinformationandprejudice.

Thedeepironywithinthissystemofcauseandeffectisthatoftenitistheir

avoidancestrategiesthattheyconsidermostdetrimentaltotheirwellbeing.Ononehand

theydonotwanttohavetokeeptheirlivessecretnorfeelthat,inaperfectworld,they

should;andontheotheritisexactlytheperpetuationofkeepingtheirexistenceasecret

thatsustainstheignorancethatfuelsdiscriminationsurroundingPaganism.Itseemsthat

thereisnowayto“win”formanyPagansinthePittsburgharea.Iftheydonotwanttoface

immediateoutwarddiscriminationandostracizationintheirdailylives,theymustkeep

theirreligionasecret;however,indoingthistheyaredirectlyfuelingfurther

discriminationwhethertheyareawareofitornot.Sinceignoranceandmisinformation

are,farandaway,themostpertinentfuelofmoderndiscriminationagainstPaganismand

thecauseofsuchatensesocialclimatesurroundinglivingasaPagan,theinevitable

solutionseemstobeinformation.Contrarily,however,multipleinformants,likeMatt,have

describedsituationsinwhichtheyattemptedtoinformthosewhodiscriminateagainst

them,onlytocomeheadtoheadwiththeseeminglyunarguabletrumpcardofreligious

ideology(P203)(P227)(P236)(P238).Mattprovidesadirectexampleofexactlyhow

andwhyprovidinginformationtothemassesdoesn’talwayssolvetheproblemof

discrimination.Therootsofreligiousandculturalideologygrowmuchdeeperthan

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knowledge,andoftenareimpervioustonewinformationandwaysofthinking.Itisforthis

reasonthatmanyPaganslikeLisa,Tara,Matt,andJanet,nowavoidtheideaofinforming

themassestocreategreatertoleranceinfavorofaquieterexistence.Storiessuchasthese

enforcethisideologywithinthecommunityandthuscementthecycleofignoranceinits

place.

5.0 CONCLUSION

Theexperiencesofbothnon-PagansandPaganshaveprovidedinvaluableinsightsinto

whatliesbeneathoutwarddiscriminationandhowitaffectseachcommunity.Initially,

whenIbeganthisstudy,Ihadnoideathatthereevenwasan“underneath,”ofwhichto

speak.Beforetrulystartingtounderstandthedelicatebalanceandcyclethatlieinfrontof

me,Iexpectedtoseeacut-and-drypathfrommediasourcesandreligiousimageryto

misunderstandingtodiscriminationandthustotheseveredetrimentofPagansatlarge.

However,whatbecameapparentlyshortlyafterspeakingwithseveralPagansinthe

Pittsburghcommunity,wasthattheywereperformingactionsthatactuallyincreased

misunderstandingandtheprevalenceofmisinformation.Thetangledwebofactionand

reactionanchorthecycleofdiscriminationinplace.Whilemyassumptionsaboutthe

sourcesofmisinformationfornon-Paganshadbeenpartiallycorrect,whatIcouldnothave

understoodbeforeconductingthisresearchwasthatanequallylargesourceof

misinformationwasPagansthemselves.

Whiletelevisionshows,movies,books,aswellasreligiousoutletssuchasreligious

textsandreligiousinstruction,remainattheforefrontofsourcesformisguidedopinions

regardingPaganism,whatallowstheseoutletstomaintaintheirstrengtharethedefensive

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mechanismsofthePagancommunity.Religiousinfluencesandmediaimageryarewhat

initiatethemisinformationandthusdiscrimination,howeverthecycleofdiscrimination

uncoveredinthisstudyiswhatperpetuatesthisclimateofmisunderstanding.Pagans;

actionssuchashavingseparateFacebookaccountsfortheirPaganidentity,keepingtheir

religiouspreferencesasecret,andoutwardlyminimizinganyemotionaleffectthat

instancesofdiscriminationmayhave,allcontributetopromotingacycleof

misunderstandingandmisinformationthatcementsthediscriminationofnon-Pagansinits

place.AsBarner-Barrylaysoutinherwork,inorderforareligiontoberespectedand

avoiddiscrimination,itmust—attheveryleast—bebothvisibleandunderstood.Dueto

thedefensemechanismsofPagans,theseprerequisitescannotbefulfilledleadingtothe

cyclethatremainsinplacetodayofsecrecyandmisinformation.Thecycleisfurther

cementedinplacebythefactthatmostPaganshesitatetorecognizetheirdefense

mechanismsasdetrimentaltotheirwell-beingandlifestyle.Actionssuchashavingtwo

separateFacebookprofilesorkeepingtheirfamiliesunawareoftheirreligiouspreferences

arenotconsideredextremelystressfulorharmful,butratheraremostoftenseenasa

somethingthatmakeslifeeasier.

Uncoveringthis“cycleofdiscrimination,”however,doesnotmeanthatIhavebyany

meanssolvedtheproblem.Thebiggestobstacletoasolutionliesinthefactthatmany

Pagansfindanotableamountofcomfortinbeingabletoperceivablyguardthemselves

fromthediscriminationofothersasImentionedabove.AsbeingaPaganiseasily

concealed,theeaseofcreatingthiscomfortdoesnotoftenoutweighthediscomfortof

puttingoneselfintoharm’sway.Furthermore,manyperceivethereligioustolerance

climateoftheirareatobeoflittleimmediateconcern.Therearenomodernwitchhunts,

thereisnoprotestingatlocalPaganfestivalsandevents—infactsomePagansmaynever

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faceanysortofoutwarddiscriminationthemselvesiftheyperformthesedefense

mechanismswellenough.PerhapsifthePagancommunityasawholefeltmore

immediatelythreatenedbythepossibilityofdiscrimination,thiscyclewouldbemore

readilyaddressed.ManyPagansareevenignorantofthepolarizedopinionsofmembersof

thePittsburghcommunityatlarge,thinkinginsteadthatbecausetheremaybefewpeople

whodiscriminateagainstPaganismoutwardlyintheirdailylives,thattheremustthusbe

relativelylittlenegativelypolarizedopinionssurroundingthetopic.However,because

manynon-PagansdonotevenknowthatPaganismandWitchesexistinreality,theydonot

takethetopicseriouslyandthusdonotrealizetheyarediscriminatingagainstarealgroup

ofpeoplethatexistwithintheircitywhentheyholdtheseideasandprejudices.Iamalso

leftwiththequestionofwhetherornotthenon-Pagancommunitycanbeevensaidtobe

activelydiscriminating,asonecouldarguethattheyarenoteventalkingaboutthereligion

atall,butratherasourceoffiction.Myimmediatesolutionistounderstandtheseactions

notnecessarilyasimmediatelyoutwardlydiscriminatory,butratherpossessingthe

distinctpotentialfordiscrimination—thekindthatsentencedDamienEcholstodeath.The

disconnectbetweenthegravemisunderstandingsofnon-Pagansandthecomplacencyof

thePagancommunitywillbeadifficultobstacletotraverseshouldthedesiretoendthis

cyclecometobe.Thesedefensemechanisms,coupledwiththenaturalelementofsecrecy

anddecreasedvisibilitythatisinherenttothereligion,makeanyimprovementsinthe

reputationofPaganismwithinthecommunityofPittsburghextremelydifficult.However,

thisdoesnotmeanthatthecyclecouldnotbeendedifsignificanteffortwasexerted

towardsagreatersenseofunderstandingandtolerance.Certainly,witheffortstomakethe

communitymorevisibleandtoeducatemembersoutsideofthePagancommunity,a

greatersenseofrespectwouldbefostered.Unfortunately,however,itisinevitablethat

93

somediscriminationwouldstillexist,becauseunlikesimplemisinformationthatmaybe

easilyremediedlikethatwhichiscausedbythemedia,thediscriminationrootedin

religiousbeliefssuchasChristianityaresodeeplyingrainedthateducationaleffortscould

nottotallyrectifythesituation.

Infurtherstudiesofthistopic,Ifeelthatanunderstandingofthecycleandits

effectswouldbeincreasedwithamoredevelopedpsychoanalyticalapproach,intermsof

bothanalyzingtheprocessofinterviewingandhowitaffectsresponsesfrominformants,as

wellashowthecyclemaintainsitselfandaffectsthecommunityasawhole.Further

researchneedstobedonetouncoverhowPagansunderstandthiscycleandhowthey

conceptualizeboththeirdefensivetechniquesandthecomforttheyprovide.Comparative

studiesshouldbedonetodiscernhowmuchournationalculturecomesintoplaywithin

thecontextofdiscrimination,religioustolerance,andtheparticularcycleofdiscrimination

inquestion.Althoughadireneedtoendsuchacyclemayneverpresentitself,an

awarenessoftheeffectsofeachgroup’sactionswouldbebeneficialtobothpartiesinthat

itallowsthemtobetterunderstandtheideologicalworldwithinwhichtheyliveandthe

consequencestheiractionscause.Whilethissystemofreinforcedignorancemaynotseem

immediatelyharmfultomany,thisexactignoranceiswhatsentencedDamienEcholsto

deathin1994.WhilesomeprogresshasbeenmadesinceDamien’sverdictwasreached

some20yearsago,ashisappealwasacceptedandhewasreleasedfromprisoninthelast

10years,myresearchshowsthattherootsofsuchdiscriminationremaininthenon-Pagan

communityatfullforce.However,amovementtogaingreatervisibilityandrespectfor

Paganismanditsmanyformswithinthelargercommunitycouldbeexactlywhatisneeded

tobreakthecycle.WithgreaterawarenessandunderstandingofPaganismasareligion,it

ispossiblethatafatesuchasDamien’smayneveroccuragain.

94

95

APPENDIXA

SAMPLEPAGANINTERVIEWMATERIALStatement:YouwerechosenasaparticipantinthisinterviewbasedonyourinvolvementinthegreaterPagancommunityofPittsburgh.YourthoughtsandopinionsareincrediblyvaluableinconductingthisstudyandIthankyouforvolunteeringyourtime.Pleasemakesureyoureadovertheconsentformcarefully,andaskanyquestionsthatyoumighthave.Afteryouhavereadandsignedtheconsentformwewillbegin.IhaveafewquestionsinparticularIwouldliketoaskoverthecourseofthisinterview,butfreespeechisalsohighlyencouraged.Pleasedonotfeelobligedtoansweranyquestionthatyoudonotwishtoanswer.Iunderstandthatreligionisasensitivetopicformanypeople. Q:Canyoutellmebrieflyaboutyourbackground,andhowlongyouhaveresidedinPittsburgh?

Q:HowlonghaveyouidentifiedwiththePaganCommunity? Q:Howwereyoufirstintroducedtothisreligiousmovement? Q:Didyouhaveanypreconceivednotionsaboutthereligion? Q:Doyoufeelthatthesenotionswereinaccurate?Towhatdegree? Q:HowdoyouperceivePaganrepresentationinpopularculture? Q:Areyousatisfiedwithhowyourreligionisrepresentedbypopulartelevisionshows,movies,literature,andnewschannels?

Q:Doyouhaveaparticularexamplethatbotheredyou,ifany? Q:DoyoubelievethattheserepresentationshaveaffectedthegeneralattitudestowardsPaganism?

Q:Doyouthinktheseattitudeshavegottenmoreorlessaccepting,orremainedthesameoverthetimethatyouhavebeenaPagan?

Q:Canyoubrieflytellmeyourunderstandingofanyhistoricaltensionsthatexistforthereligion?

Q:DoyoufeelthatthishistoricalcontextaffectsthePittsburghcommunity?Ifso,inwhatways?

Q:Haveyoupersonallyexperiencedanydiscriminationbasedonreligion,eitherinyourworkplace,inyoursociallife,orotherwise?

Q:Ifyes,didyoureporttheseinstancestotheproperauthorities? Q:Haveyouchangedthewayinwhichyoupracticeyourreligionduetoanytensionyoumayhaveexperiencedbasedonyourinvolvement?

Q:DoyougenerallyfeelcomfortabletellingyouracquaintancesthatyouareamemberofthePagancommunity?Howaboutyourcoworkers,friendsorfamily?

Q:Basedonyourpersonalknowledge,doyoufeelthatPittsburghanditsvariouscommunitiesareacceptingofPaganism?Ifno,why?

Q:DoyouknowanyoneelseinthePagancommunitywhomightbewillingtospeakwithme?Wouldyoufeelcomfortableprovidingmewithinformationtocontactthem?

APPENDIXB

96

SAMPLENON-PAGANINTERVIEWMATERIAL

Statement:YouwerechosenasaparticipantinthisinterviewbasedonyourinvolvementinthePittsburghcommunity.YourthoughtsandopinionsareincrediblyvaluableinconductingthisstudyandIthankyouforvolunteeringyourtime.Pleasemakesureyoureadovertheconsentformcarefully,andaskanyquestionsthatyoumighthave.Afteryouhavereadandsignedtheconsentformwewillbegin.IhaveafewquestionsinparticularIwouldliketoaskoverthecourseofthisinterview,butfreespeechisalsohighlyencouraged.Pleasedonotfeelobligedtoansweranyquestionthatyoudonotwishtoanswer.Iunderstandthatreligionisasensitivetopicformanypeople.Q:Canyoutellmebrieflyaboutyourbackground,andhowlongyouhaveresidedinPittsburgh?

Q:DoyouidentifywithanyreligiouscommunityinPittsburgh?Q:Ifyou’recomfortable,wouldyoumindtellingmewhichcommunitywithwhichyouareinvolved.

Q:HaveyoueverbeenacquaintedwiththeideaofPaganism?Q:TowhatdegreedoyoufeelyouhaveknowledgeofPaganism?Q:Whatisyourunderstandingoftheword“witchcraft?”Q:Ifyouweretoguess,whatmightbeatypicalwitch?Q:Basedonyourpersonalknowledge,howwouldyoudescribethepracticeofWitchcraftorPaganism?

Q:Doyoufeelthatwitchcraftisgenerallybenevolent,harmful,orneutral?Q:DoyoubelievethatthePittsburghcommunitywouldbeacceptingofthisreligion?Whyorwhynot?

Q:Canyoubrieflytellmeyourunderstandingofanyhistoricaltensionsthatexistforthereligion?

Q:HowmuchofyourideasofwitchcraftandPaganismdoyouthinkcomefromitsportrayalinthemedialikeTVshows,movies,ornewsmedia?

Q:IfafriendorfamilymemberidentifiedwithPaganism,doyoufeelthatwouldnegativelyaffectyourattitudestowardsthem?

Q:DoyouknowanyoneelseinthePittsburghcommunitywhomightbewillingtospeakwithme?Wouldyoufeelcomfortableproviding mewithinformationtocontactthem?

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