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8/14/2019 DISCOVERING INCONSPICUOUS EXPLOITATION: APPLYING THE THEORIES OF W. E. B. DuBOIS TO AMERICAN SPORTS
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DISCOVERING INCONSPICUOUS EXPLOITATION:APPLYING THE THEORIES OF W. E. B. DuBOIS TO
AMERICAN SPORTS SOCIOLOGY
ABSTRACT
Building upon sociological theories developed by W. E. B. DuBois,this article articulates how racial identities play a historical rolein the development of American sport. This examination of thecurrent debate regarding racial consciousness of athletes is basedupon DuBois's writings, including an analysis of his two mainconcepts: the Veil and Double Consciousness. Previous researchhas expressed how racial and ethnic identity are critical partsof the overall framework of individual and collective identity.(Chvez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999) In this article, I will provideexamples of how the Veil and Double Consciousness play out incurrent professional sports.
INTRODUCTION
American domestic race relations have progressed dramatically
during the last century. The nation once played host to slaveholders
who did not believe that Negroes could advance in freedom. This same
nation most recently elected a black man to serve in its highest office.
The question remains, how much change has America undergone in the
past one hundred years? The contemporary debate on race relations
can be exemplified through an application of the theories of W. E. B.
DuBois to athletics in the United States. With a focus on professional
sports, the study of sociology will benefit from a contemporary debate
of racial advancement through a discussion of how the contributions of
W. E. B. DuBois can be applied. Using theories that DuBois developed,
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inconspicuous exploitation can be seen involving the black athlete in
American sports today.
The Contributions of DuBois
If there ever was a vote as to who made up the canon of American
sociologists, W. E. B. DuBois would be the first name many would write on
their ballot. It is the consensus held by sociologists that DuBois contributed
greatly to the field. Some arguments could be made as to the limits of
his subject matter, but the same could be said for Marx, Weber, and
Durkheim. DuBois concentrated on what he knew best through pragmatic
observation. Of course, he contributed greatly to the discussion of
colonialism, but his best work was based on American racial identity,
development, struggle, and progress.
Possessing the same pioneering qualities of the early American
settlers, DuBois was a trailblazer in the field of sociological study. He was
a constant student of new methods that could be used to analyze the plight
of black Americans. "He was an empirical sociologist over two decades
before the Chicago School became noted for the practice of empirical
sociology. His study of black Philadelphia is the first community study
by an American sociologist." (Green & Smith, 1983) He was the first to
study subject matter of this type and in an empirical manner. His raw
descriptions of identities within the black American social group can be
applied to current individual racial identities, including the black athlete.In current terms, the study of sociology hinges on a tridental
framework consisting of theory, method, and data. Prior to it being
expressly scientific, the study of sociology could be described as a
structured arrangement of research. DuBois clearly projected four
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approaches to the study of the Negro as a social group: (1) historical
study; (2) statistical investigation; (3) anthropological measurement; and
(4) sociological interpretation. The fact that these social scientific domains
- now departmentally separated at most United States universities -
constituted a single unit for DuBois reflects the degree to which the young
scholar valued and used a cross-disciplinary approach in his work. (Lange,
1983) Interdisciplinary studies are now propagating throughout the country
in institutions of higher learning.
Often, the latent absorption of relevant theories revolves around
the fact that the theorist himself is viewed as outside the normal school ofthought. In the case of DuBois, his acceptance into the global sociological
canon is only a matter of time. Aside from the failure to recognize DuBois
as a founding father of sociology, his influence exists in many recent
examinations of race as applied to the group and individual. In this
discussion of race and sports, I will concentrate on two of the four
approaches DuBois expressed were vital: historical study and sociological
interpretation of American sports.
Because he was himself a black man, DuBois cast a new
perspective on race in America. Many theorists have debated the pros and
cons of neutrality, objectivity, and subjectivity within the study of sociology
and its derivatives. (Blum, 1944; Carey, 1982; Riemer, 1949; Znaniecki,
1945) Perhaps this article is biased because I am of a certain race. One
might say that even the study of history remains subjective due to the
influence of the author's racial identity. However, that discussion is beyond
the matter of this article. I can only posit a sociological interpretation of
American sports derived from an assembly of my training. Maintaining
neutrality is simply a cerebral struggle.
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In DuBois's situation, his racial identity was at the forefront of his
work. Whether it influenced his propensity to continually discuss race is
of minimal debate. "It was the struggle against racism and its peculiar
manifestations in America that led him to do what no other American social
scientist of his time - in direct contradiction to the principles of the science
of society and culture - was either willing or able to adequately do: seriously
study black culture and history." (Lange, 1983) In this article, I will study
black culture and the history of the black athlete in American sports.
BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM
Sports play a predominant role in the majority of American lives.
In 2006, about 87% of 8th graders were in schools that required them to
take a course in physical education. Principals estimate that over 90% of
8th graders actually take a course in physical education. (Johnston, Delva,
& O'Malley, 2007) In regard to the distinct elements that make up this
research, race and sports, it appears on the surface that the subject matter
of sport is more relevant to the majority of Americans since only 12.3%
of the population is black while a distinct majority, no matter the race,
participate in sports. However, we must not forget that 100% of Americans
have a racial identity. In regard to race and sport, collectively, the subject
matter applies to all Americans.
Because all individuals possess a racial identity, biases may be
implicit. However, the study of sociology is scientific and seeks to eliminatepersuasive influence and bias. Yet the sociologist cannot escape a raised
eyebrow when examining race relations in America. "To study race in
the United State is to enter a world of paradox, irony, and danger." (Omi
& Winant, 1994) It is impossible to determine whether an analysis of
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race relations in 1900 was expected to hold more irony than a similar
examination in 2009, however, it can be expected that the world as it was
in the early twentieth century posed more dangerous for the sociologist.
It is a wonder that any sociologist dives into the study of race
relations in America. Perhaps the reasoning is the omnipresence of the
subject matter. "Race theory [has] become deeply embedded in the
national consciousness. If the (scientific) definition of blacks was correct,
then the justice of their position in American society was unassailable.
In order to challenge the validity of social and political discrimination, it
was necessary to argue that blacks were not what [America] said theywere... In his editorials in 'The Crisis,' DuBois developed an extensive
rationale for challenging whites' definition of blacks. As DuBois saw it, no
one, including blacks themselves, was denying the current assumptions."
(Taylor, 1981) The study of discrimination is imperative to a complete
history of American society. It is important to note that racial discrimination
is sometimes blatant, often hidden.
American Racial Antagonism
Whether apparent or not, the racial groups in America have forever
been viewed as separately valuable. Early in its history, America clearly
distinguished the rank of blacks and whites. That categorization perhaps
prompted DuBois's ambition. "Acceptance of racial antagonism presumes
the inferiority of one race, and DuBois attacked that presumption." (Taylor,1981) It can be said that racial antagonism was clearly more apparent in
the early twentieth century than it is today.
However, the animosity toward minorities still exists within the
borders of the United States. I will show how it maintains a stronghold
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on American athletics. Even in pro sports, there remains an organized
rank and file. "DuBois's view of the collective racial interest in the black
community's generation of its own spokesmen at least coincided with the
hegemonic interest of the elite. However, although this position
acknowledges a need for intraracial organization that at least qualifies
opposition to separation in principle." (Reed, 1985) Again, this exemplifies
an implied antagonism. In other words, segregationist practices and the
use of black athletes for monetary gain are examples of the existing
hegemonic interest of the elite that DuBois speaks of.
THESIS STATEMENT
Building upon sociological theories developed by W. E. B. DuBois, I
will examine how racial identities play a historical role in the development
of black professional athletes. This examination of the current debate
regarding racial consciousness of athletes is based upon DuBois's
writings, including an analysis of his two main concepts: the Veil and
Double Consciousness. Previous research has expressed how racial and
ethnic identity are critical parts of the overall framework of individual and
collective identity. (Chvez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999) In this article, I will
provide examples of how the Veil and Double Consciousness play out in
current professional sports.
TWO THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS
The Veil
DuBois highly regarded the power implicit to being a black man.
However, this form of endowment is not as easily described as, for
example, economic power. "The Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with
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a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world, a world which
yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through
the revelation of the other world." (DuBois, 2007) The Veil is one of the
most often analyzed concepts that DuBois developed.
The discernment between perception of the other and its relation
to internal psyche can be viewed as either a situation of DuBois's veil
concept, double-consciousness, or both. "One ever feels his two-ness, an
American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings;
two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it
from being torn asunder." (DuBois, 2007) In any event, DuBois put greatemphasis on the distinction between internal and external perceptions.
This is a very important approach to analyzing the struggle of the black
athlete. In the arena of American sports, it is quite clear but often
dismissed how prevalent double-consciousness is among black athletes.
Double Consciousness
When a star athlete sits on the bench of a packed arena, he often
has over 50,000 sets of eyes gazing upon his every move. He is the focus
of the night's entertainment. Dressed in uniform, the athlete plays a much
different role at work than at home. At home, the black athlete might be
viewed as father, son, or friend. During the game, the fan knows only the
running, jumping, throwing shell of a man. "It is a peculiar sensation, this
double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one's self throughthe eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that
looks on in amused contempt and pity." (DuBois, 2007) To be a successful
athlete, the black man must show athletic prowess on the field. Character
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flaws are often overlooked and dismissed (in terms of financial impact),
although usually the source of tabloid fodder.
The black athlete is under the microscope of the fans, media, and
himself. Yet, rarely is he examined internally, through looking at his psyche
and mind. "The examination of the treatment of 'double-consciousness'
in DuBois' novels must consider at least three critical issues addressed
by DuBois in his non-fiction and/or by other scholars who have written
about the psyche of black Americans: (1) the extent to which 'double-
consciousness' provides blacks with vantage points unavailable to
nonblacks and whether this unique vision exists universally among blacks;(2) the nature and strength of the cultural ties that bind blacks together; and
(3) the process by which the liberation of the psyche of blacks is achieved."
(Stewart, 1983) I will discuss these three critical issues throughout this
article.
ANALYSIS
First, I will critique the concept of identity as it is applied to the
black athlete. Second, I will examine the "others'" perceptions of the black
athlete that influence his own identity development. Throughout, I will
cite the interplay of identity formation and reciprocal understanding of that
identity.
I begin with a critique of the concept of identity as it is applied to
the black athlete. Previous research has expressed how racial and ethnicidentity are critical parts of the overall framework of individual and collective
identity. (Chvez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999) This framework, both individual
and collective, has historical roots that must be examined.
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Slavery and racism are historically viewed as atrocities on
humanity. "No student of black culture in America can escape the
melancholy conclusion that, amid the wide range of human tragedy slavery
and racism have inflicted on an entire race, black men of talent and
genius have had to suffer in more complex ways than their less-gifted
brothers." (Brodwin, 1972) It is imperative that the sociologist examines
certain implicit acts, rather that the simply blatant tragedies. Most everyone
can agree that oppressing an entire race through enforced slave trading
and abusive labor practices is wrong. As Channing said in 1836, what
is profitable is not always right. Slavery was arguably profitable but lessdebate is held as to whether or not it was a horrible wrong.
There is no escaping the fact that slavery once prevailed in
America. But, can America escape a future consisting of a racially
segregated economy? DuBois expresses that the separation of blacks and
whites is likely to continue. He states that no matter how keen an eye
views the American condition, it cannot escape a glance at the aspect of
race. "The white man, as well as the Negro, is bound and barred by the
color-line, and many a scheme of friendliness and philanthropy, or broad-
minded sympathy and generous fellowship between the two has dropped
still-born because some busybody has forced the color-question to the
front." (DuBois, 2007) Perhaps DuBois himself would not be fond of the
subject matter contained in this article.
A predominant concept created by DuBois, the Veil of Color, sheds
light on such an examination. The Veil of Color exemplifies a "double life,
with double thoughts, double duties, and double social classes, [and
gives] rist to double words and double ideals, and tempts the mind to
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pretence or to revolt, to hypocrisy or to radicalism." (DuBois, 2007) Thus
begins the first look into the identity formation of the black athlete.
Vantage Points
The black athlete must ask himself, "Who am I and what role do I
play in American culture?" He must also wonder, "What am I getting paid
to do?" The answers to these questions develop in several different ways.
First, the athlete is paid to perform in games. Second, the athlete is an
endorser of products. Third, the athlete is a brand himself. Never before
has a profession held such a differing set of distinctive roles.
As a paid performer, the black athlete is both an employee and a
servant. Arguments can be made either way. Recall that it is most difficult
to envision those situations that are least conspicuous. In professional
sports, although the salary is much different for the player in relation to
the audience than the servant relative to the guest, athletes must run
and sweat while some wealthy onlookers dress flashy and sit in the front
rows of arenas to be seen, eat, and drink. However, the inflated salary
of the black athlete often disguises his servitude. How can someone like
Kobe Bryant, who has earned close to $150 million in the past thirteen
years be spoken of in the same sentence as the slaves who picked cotton
on early plantations? (Kobe Bryant NBA & ABA Statistics | Basketball-
Reference.com, n.d.) Maybe that is not the best analogy.
Perhaps another vein of servitude is more appropriate. In additionto field labor, plantation owners held slaves as house servants. DuBois
speaks of "the servant" in "Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil." (1975)
He explained that the work of the servant "was easy but insipid" and he
"stood about and watched overdressed people gorge." (DuBois, 1975)
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Someone like Tracy McGrady, a professional basketball player who has
earned roughly $39 million in the past two years, has done his share of
standing and watching overdressed people gorge. (Tracy McGrady NBA
& ABA Statistics | Basketball-Reference.com, n.d.) However, McGrady
was injured at least five times in two years, between 1997-1998. (SI.com
- NBA - Tracy McGrady Injuries, n.d.)
Even while sitting on the bench and not playing, McGrady had to
watch the fans indulge. One sporting venue recently added two value
meals to the menu. Guests can choose from a hot dog, fries and a
20-ounce Coke for $8 - a $2 savings if purchased separately. A hamburgervalue meal is also available for $10 - also for a $2 savings. (MIS,
Americrown to offer lower concession prices for 2009 - Michigan
International Speedway, n.d.) It can be easily said that pro athletes may,
on the surface, be similar to the servants that DuBois described in
"Darkwater," since they hold similar descriptions.
However, I would posit that it is not the athletes who are closely
related to the servants that DuBois describes. Those low wage earning
concessions workers serving the beer and hot dogs to professional sporting
event patrons are more in congruence with what DuBois referred to.
Genteel patrons, even movie stars (NBA.com - Top 10 Celebrity Lakers
Fans, n.d.), can unequivocally be analogized to the overdressed people to
whom DuBois refers.
It is neither the event patrons nor the concessions workers who
are of concern for this commentary. It is the black athlete. The identity
of the black athlete is much more difficult to define than is the proletariat
kitchen aide or bourgeois sports fan. "The history of the American Negro
is the history of this strife, this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to
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merge his double self into a better and truer self." (DuBois, 2007) To better
explain this strife and quest for self-consciousness, I will examine next the
athlete's function as role model.
Athletes are considered role models whether they like it or not.
Whether purposely, like Andre Agassi's standpoint that "Image is
Everything," or inadvertently as is the case of Charles Barkley ("I am NOT a
hero"), athletes are viewed as role models. (Wenner, 1998) Occasionally,
marketing efforts clearly express how this is true. For example, a Gatorade
campaign during the 1992 Olympics sang the following:
Sometimes I dream. The key is me. You've got to see that'show I dream to be. I dream I move. I dream I grew. Like Mike.If I could be like Mike. I'm gonna be, gonna be like Mike. LikeMike. If I could be like Mike. Be like Mike. If I could be like Mike.(Wenner, 1994)
The references to "Mike" are specifically to Michael Jordan, perhaps the
best professional basketball player of all time. He is an African American.
During the commercial, a variety of basketball-playing textual surrogates
are seen including a teen-aged Black boy with a Jordanesque tongue
hanging out. The function of role model is almost always tied to a product,
as the athlete is commonly an endorser of goods.
Cultural Ties
On one hand, the black athlete can be glorified through
advertisements and the media as a role model. Conversely, American
athletes are often viewed with contempt and jealousy by the general
American public because of the high financial gains the athletes receive in
the form of salaries and endorsement contracts. A culture of high salaries
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and extravagant lifestyles are what athletes tend to portray. (Smith & Beal,
2007) On the surface, the life of the athlete seems grand. Most Americans
dream of such a lifestyle, one that has been commonly referred to as the
"American Dream." It takes a keen eye to understand the sacrifices that
the athlete undergoes to obtain this lifestyle.
The fancy house and fast cars do not come without a price.
Furthermore, that lifestyle is often temporary. More often than not, athletes
receive advanced signing bonuses. (Kohn, 1987) Waving the bait in front
of young athletes' faces in the form of lump sums of advanced bonuses is a
way of concealing exploitation. It is often forgotten that many black athletesdo not come from wealthy backgrounds. "There was among us but a half-
awakened common consciousness, sprung from common joy and grief...
from a common hardship in poverty, poor land, and low wages; and, above
all, from the sight of the Veil that hung between us and Opportunity. All
this caused us to think some thoughts together." (DuBois, 2007) When
presented with the opportunity to obtain newly found wealth, it is the
consensus commonly held by young black men that passing on such an
opportunity would be insane. While this quest for opportunity has often
provided wealth for the black athlete individual, it has stimulated another
damaging element in the form of opportunity for the other: exploitation.
In the past, during the time that DuBois wrote, the exploitative
relationship was most easily viewed within the relationship between slave
and slave owner. "In the rural South, wages were characterized as money
'advanced' to the laborer, he is charged high interest on it, and the
transaction is made the basis of a contract which not only puts the
unfinished product under the control of the undertaker, but which in many
cases even makes the laborer liable to criminal prosecution if he leaves
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his job and makes the capitalist the sole judge as to whether the contract
is kept." (DuBois, 1912) In today's game, athletes fall under similar
controlling mechanisms. Payday advances in the form of contracts riddled
with high signing bonuses are just one of those mechanisms contributing to
the overall social problem of black athlete exploitation.
Adhering to an image created by advertisers is another controlling
mechanism. "From the double life every American Negro must live, as
a Negro and as an American... from this must arise a painful self-
consciousness, an almost morbid sense of personality and a moral
hesitancy which is fatal to self-confidence. The worlds within and withoutthe Veil of Color are changing, and changing rapidly, but not at the same
rate, not in the same way..." (DuBois, 2007) It is my opinion that this
constant recreation of identity (servant, role model, brand) inhibits clear
recognition of racial consciousness by athletes. The changing of these
simultaneously held identities is an ongoing process developed in the
psyche of the black athlete.
The Process by Which the Liberation of the Psyche of Blacks is Achieved
As I have conveyed, the black American professional athlete holds
at least three potential identities: servant, role model, and brand. Since
athletes hold these three identities simultaneously, it is likely that they
intrinsically seek ways to maintain all three. In addition, the athlete can
use all three identities to enhance the others. But, to whose good fortune?
First, elevating the three identities might benefit the administrators1.
However, white administrators do not automatically gravitate to the black
athlete just because there are resulting profits. DuBois explains how in
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certain situations, "one of the great postulates of the science of economics
- that men will seek their economic advantage" is sometimes discredited
because "men will not do this if it involves association, even in a casual and
business way, with Negroes." (DuBois, Anderson, & Eaton, 1995) Yet, this
is not the case in professional sports.
Administrators of professional sports allow themselves to associate
with African Americans because of the benefits, including those of a
financial nature. As was previously stated, elevating the three identities
(servant, role model, brand) benefits the administrators. But, the athlete
also benefits. This secondary benefit exemplifies the epitome ofreciprocity.
It is the choice of the black athlete, and in his best interest, to further
economic partnerships with sports administrators. Current athletics are not
a situation of compulsory labor, which was prevalent during the period
in which DuBois theorized. Then, in the South, all people were aware
that the reason that the South [built] industry so largely on compulsory
labor, ignorance, discrimination in the courts, lack of organized justice, and
disfranchisement is because these weapons are excused by the Negro
problem. (DuBois, 1912) Today, it seems as though the labor is not
compulsory and there are fewer and fewer instances of blatant political
discrimination. But again, it is not the blatant techniques that I am seeking
to unearth in this article.
Participation in sports is not wholly forceful. Most Americans believe
that sports are a path to upward social mobility. This belief is based on
the obvious examples we see as poor (black) boys from urban areas
sometimes leap to fame and fortune through success in sports.
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Sometimes the financial reward has been astounding, such as thehigh pay that some African American athletes received in recentyears. In 1997 Tracy McGrady, an NBA-bound high school star,bypassed college, signed a $12 million deal over 6 years withAdidas.2 Golfer Tiger Woods in his first year as a professional
made $6.82 million in winnings (U.S. and worldwide) andappearance fees plus signed a series of five-year deals with Nike,Titleist, American Express, and Rolex worth $95.2 million. In1998 Woods's earnings from endorsements totaled $28 million.Boxer Mike Tyson made $75 million in 1996. It is estimatedthat Michael Jordan made over $100 million in 1998, includingsalary, endorsements, and income from merchandise and videos.(Eitzen, 1979)
Such financial gains simply cannot be the result of forced labor.
The current situation in pro sports is starkly different from "the practice of
peonage in the rural South where not less than a quarter of a million black
laborers [were] held to service on plantations by force in direct defiance of
laws and wise industrial policy [were] buttressed by a system of statutes
and administration that applied to all rural labor, black and white, and which
made a body of legislation positively astonishing in its reactionary and
medieval aspect. The contract labor laws... made a body of law whichcarried force and fraud on its very face and which covered a large part of
the rural South." (DuBois, 1912) It is inarguable that the labor is not forced
on pro athletes. But, as is the charge of this commentary, I seek to bring
forth less conspicuous connections between pro sports and the situation of
the black laborer during the times that DuBois experienced.
DISCUSSION
Why Continue to Study the Class of the Black Athlete?
Social problems can be examined through an analysis of the class
of the black athlete. DuBois studied class differentiation among black
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Philadelphians, and developed a class analysis of the social problems
confronted by blacks in a Northern urban ghetto. In "The Philadelphia
Negro," (1995) after analyzing the class structure of black Philadelphia,
he noted that whites consistently failed to recognize the important social
distinctions in the black world and chose, instead, to judge blacks by their
poorest example, the lower class. (Green & Smith, 1983) It was DuBois's
stance that recognition must be given to social distinctions in the black
world. The blatant or inconspicuous nature of such distinctions was of little
differentiation to DuBois. Like Malcom X said, it is important to hold interest
in every sapect of the plight of the black man, and to study the struggle forfreedom from every angle. (X & Breitman, 1990)
DuBois had much to say in regard to the plight of the black man,
struggle, and particularly the relationship between exploited versus the
exploiter. "There can be no peace between these two classes, [DuBois]
notes, because the capitalists' profit is contingent upon the amount of
surplus value that they can extract from the laborers' work." (Green &
Smith, 1983) Studying the sociology of sport is an applicable venture of
analyzing the plight of the black man, struggle, and exploitation. However,
sports sociology is not often given the credit it deserves as part of the
discipline.
American Exploitation of Blacks
With some notable exceptions there has been an extraordinaryneglect of sport as a social and cultural phenomenon among the social
science and cultural studies communities, who have largely ignored what
is arguably one of the central components of pop culture. (Hargreaves,
1982) DuBois felt the same way about the study of race. In "Phylon:
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Science or Propaganda", (1944) DuBois states that "the modern social
student assumes that the English conditions and beliefs are known and
normal and need no especial study." (DuBois, 1944) However, social
norms are blatantly disregarded and deviated from in pro sports and the
casual onlooker glances over these deviations.
Racial inequalities in pro sports are easily dismissed in part due to
the immense salaries that star athletes receive. But, the short length of
career tenure for pro athletes and some health repercussions for certain
contact sports offset the short-term big paychecks. Continually,
sociologists assume that the conditions in pro sports are known and normaland need no special study.
Although some of the more blatant instances of racial oppression
are known in the United States, those of lesser conspicuousness are
often overlooked. It is the duty of the sociologist to examine those hidden
exploitations with fairness and direction. DuBois confronted the same
problem. "Some of the founders [of the NAACP] like Villard were simply
unable to accept Dr. DuBois's insistence upon absolute candor and
forthrightness of equality of white and colored." (Brewer, 1968) In that
case, even some African Americans failed to see the importance of
searching for subtleties of oppression and exploitation.
Other black figures have considered the plight of the black man
in America as very clear. Malcolm X professed that the American white
man propagandizes that the black man in Africa is not interested in the
plight of the black man in America. (X & Breitman, 1990) This analysis of
separatism can be applied to pro sports. It could be said that wealthy black
American athletes are uninterested in the plight of the poor black boy in the
inner city. Such alienation is possible, alienation of the black athlete from
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his race due to economic separatism, but limitations of this article provide
a sole focus on Dubois's principles of the Veil and Double Consciousness
rather than an in depth analysis of Marx's concept of alienation.
However, alienation cannot be dismissed from being applicable to
DuBois's theories. Historically, America was early on considered "a rich
new land, the wealth of which was to be had in return for ordinary manual
labor. Had the country been conceived of as existing primarily for the
benefit of its actual inhabitants, it might have waited for natural increase or
immigration to supply the needed hands; but both Europe and the earlier
colonists themselves regarded this land as existing chiefly for the benefitof Europe, and as designed to be exploited, as rapidly and ruthlessly as
possible, of the boundless wealth of its resources. This was the primary
excuse for the rise of the African slave trade to America." (DuBois, 1969)
Exploitation of the African American was what America was built on. It
is imperative that cases be examined in which such exploitation might
possibly be perpetual and going unnoticed.
In a book to which DuBois contributed, Booker T. Washington
exclaims that "the average white man of America, in passing judgment
upon the black race, very often overlooks the fact that geographically and
physically the semi-barbarous Negro race has been thrown right down in
the centre of the highest civilization that the world knows anything about.
Consciously or unconsciously, you compare the Negro's progress with
your progress, forgetting, when you are doing it, that you are placing a
pretty severe test on the members of my race." (Washington, 1907) In
Washington's opinion, analyzing the progress of the black athlete in pro
sports will only be viable if compared with other members of the black race.
This analysis will contribute to the plight of the African American in general.
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How to Progress
It is imperative that credence be given to the study of the black
athlete to have a clearer picture of the plight of the African American
in general. Recalling as far back as former slaveholders' disbelief that
Negroes could advance in freedom, historical instances can be examined
to show how white men and blacks cooperated. (DuBois, 1975) Such
cooperation still exists, and it is the duty of the sociologist to explain any
progress and change in such cooperation that might be exploitative of one
side.
Probably as a result of having witnessed the exploitation of the
black slave, at some point DuBois felt that "employment for colored men
and women, colored boys and girls must be supplied by colored people."
(DuBois, 1971) Many would argue that separatism and the segregationist
viewpoint are not the answer. Regardless, some professional sports teams
today are owned by white men and those men employ black athletes.
Therefore, the sociologist has the duty to examine such instances for
evidence of exploitation.
DuBois would influence the sociologist's evaluation of the black
athlete after retirement. "It is exceedingly rare that [the wage-earner] can
retire from labor and spend an old age of leisure with dignity. It is usually
the case that their last and feeblest days mark their most desperate
struggle for sustenance. At that time of life when men ought to be mostable to provide for themselves and others, these men are least able."
(DuBois, 1971) With all of the current focus on concussions in pro sports
(Mihoces, 2007), DuBois would definitely be interested in what aftereffects
the athletes experience after participating in professional sports.
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In the section on "The Movement against the Slave-Trade Laws,"
(DuBois, 1896) he explains that "an economic system based on slave labor
will find, sooner or later, that the demand for the cheapest slave labor
cannot long be withstood... There is but one limit below which his price
cannot be reduced. That limit is not his physical well-being... the limit is
simply the cost of procuring him and keeping him alive a profitable length of
time. Only the moral sense of a community can keep helpless labor from
sinking to this level; and when a community has once been debauched
by slavery, its moral sense offers little resistance to economic demand."
(DuBois, 1896) Here again, DuBois would be intrigued by what effectsprofessional sports have on athletes after their brief careers are finished.
Even during his time, DuBois experienced situations in which business
owners exploited the laborers for the brief period during their employ.
The social condition of the black athlete does not begin when he
signs his first contract. Nor does it cease upon retirement. "It is not enough
for the Negroes to declare that color-prejudice is the sole cause of their
social condition, nor for the white South to reply that their social condition is
the main cause of prejudice. They both act as reciprocal cause and effect,
and a change in neither alone will bring the desired effect. Both must
change, or nether can improve to any great extent." (DuBois, 2007) The
study of sociology would benefit both from further analysis of the changing
black athlete and also more information in regard to white team owners.
CONCLUSION
Since the time of W. E. B. DuBois, American domestic race relations
have progressed dramatically. A century ago, slaveholders did not believe
that Negroes could advance in freedom. I have given thought here as to
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how much change America has witnessed during the past century. I have
presented an application of the theories of W. E. B. DuBois to athletics in
the United States. The study of sociology will benefit from further debate of
racial advancement through continued discussion of how the contributions
of W. E. B. DuBois have influenced the sociology of sports.
It must be said that, although America has seen great progress,
the plight of the black man has not disappeared. Double consciousness
still exists and can be exemplified by looking no further than the black
pro athlete. The black pro athlete serves as a perfect example of how
black struggle endures, and continues to be overlooked. Now more thanever, the Veil is transparent. And, instances of exploitation are harder to
pinpoint. As long as there are black men in America, there will be racial
identities to discover.
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Footnotes
1 Throughout this article, "administrator" refers to professional sports team owner,league commissioner, brand managers, general management, or and other similar
source of power holding administration.
2 This figure only includes McGrady's endorsement deal. His salary for playing prosports is discussed earlier in this paper.
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