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DiscourseAnalysisinForensicLinguistics:DefamationasaLinguisticMatter
MEANING EXPRESSION
CONTEXT
InterpretationReliesonContext
MEANING EXPRESSION
CONTEXT
InterpretationReliesonContext
CONTEXT
MEANING EXPRESSION
CONTEXT
ExpressionHelpsBalanceContexts
InterpretationReliesonContext
JohnwasonhiswaytoschoollastFridayandwasreallyworriedaboutthemathlesson.
Lastweek,hehadbeenunabletocontroltheclass.
JohnwasonhiswaytoschoollastFridayandwasreallyworriedaboutthemathlesson.
Lastweek,hehadbeenunabletocontroltheclass.
Itwasnotfairforthemathteachertoleavehimincharge.
RobertLeonard,quotedbyJackHitt,NewYorker 7/23/12
“Thereisnolawyer’sParadisewhereallwordshaveafixed,preciselyascertainedmeaning;andwhereifthewriterhasbeencareful,alawyerhavingadocumentreferredtohim,maysitinhischair,inspectthetext,andanswerallquestionswithoutraisinghiseyes.”
J.B.Thayer,APreliminaryTreatiseonEvidenceatCommonLaw (1898),428-29(parSamiJerby, العقدتفسیر Tafsir Al’aqd ‘ContractInterpretation,’121.)
Expressionsgenerallyhavemultiplepossiblemeanings
Expression E 1MeaningA2MeaningB3MeaningCMeaning...Meaning...
• Noclear,preciseboundaryenclosestextmeaning.• Meaningisnotlimitedtothemeaningsofatext’swords.
• Everytextmustbeinterpretedbymovingthemindbetweenthetext,thecontext,andworldknowledge.
Howdoescontext(co-text,multi-modalrepresentation,worldknowledge)interactwithtexttoconveyadefamatoryeffecttoreaders?—evenwheneverysentence,consideredindependently,maybefactuallytrue?Howcantextitselfbemanipulatedtoconveyadefamatoryimpressionwhileclaimingtobetrue?
Defamation,LibelandSlander
Defamation—issuingafalsestatementaboutanotherperson,whichcausesthatpersontosufferharm
Defamation—termbroadlyusedforbothprintedmedium(“libel”)andtransitoryorspokenmedium(“slander”)
PremisesforaLinguist• FLrequiresattentiontocontext(co-text,worldknowledge,multi-modalrepresentation).
• Advocatestelllinguistsonlyselectedfactsaboutacase.
• Expertopinionsaddressonlynarrowquestions--notbasicquestionsofdisputeresolution(orjustice!),whicharetheprerogativeofthefinderoffact.
• Expertsserveasconsultants,notadvocates.• Courts,juries,litigantsdecideoutcomes—notlinguistic(orother)experts.
PremisesforaLinguist• Justoutcomesdon’tfallwithinanexpert’spurview.• Bothdraftingandrebuttinganexpertreportcanadvancemethodsofanalysisandthestatusofthefield,aswellasjustice.
• Rebuttalopinionshelpminimizeeffectsofframingbyadvocatesandshouldnotberegardedaspersonal.
• Bewise:imaginealinguistretainedtorebutyouranalysisandanticipatethecritique.
What’saspeechact?
Anutterance/locutionthatdoes something—compliments,declares—apologizes,swears,congratulates—impeaches,orders,offersajudgment—claims,accuses
ScriptedSpeechActs“Performatives”(J.L.Austin)
• Objection,yourhonor!• Wefindthedefendantnotguilty.• Overruled!• Casedismissed!• Foulball!• Safe!• Out!
Grice’sCooperativePrinciple
“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”
MaximofCP:Quality
• Betruthful.Sayonlywhatyoubelievetobetrueandhaveevidencefor.
• Speakersareawarethathearersexpectthemtohonorthemaximofquality.
• Thatexpectationiswhatmakeslyingpossible!
MaximofCP:QuantityBeappropriatelyinformative
Culturallydefinedexpectationsthatrelevantinformationwillnotbeconcealed.
InWesterncultures,listenersexpectspeakerstoabidebythismaxim.(Alsoreaders/writers)
Speakersrelyonthefactthathearersbelievethespeakerisactinginaccordancewiththemaxim.(&writers/readers)
Restingonculturallyunderstoodexpectations,theunspokencooperationcreatesconversationalimplicatures.
QuantityBeappropriatelyinformative
“Doyouhaveany children?”“Yes,Ihavetwo sons.”
Conversationalimplicature (suggestion):Ihaveonlytwosons(notthreeorfour)andIdon’thaveanydaughters.
Relevance:Berelevant totheexchangeatthetimeoftheutterance
Withaseeminglyirrelevantutterance,interlocutorstypicallystrivetounderstandhowitmightberelevant
—ajoke?—indicatedispleasurewiththedirectionofthe
talk?—howdoesitfitinwitheverythingelsethatthe
text/speecheventandspeechactareabout?
Manner:Beorderlyandclear!(Avoidambiguityandobscurity)
Do1and2meanthesamething?
1.Theygotmarriedandhadababy.2.Theyhadababyandgotmarried.
Conversationalimplicature (suggestion):Howdoestheorderingoftheclausesreflectorsuggesttheorderingoftheevents.
Manner:Beorderlyandclear!
That’swhy#2seemsoddorunnatural!
1.Hegotsickanddied?2.Hediedandgotsick.
Conversation:contextdependent,reliantoncultural
knowledge,oftenindirect
Virginia:(12:15) Haveyoueatenlunchyet?Steve: Ihavetoteachat12:30…Virginia: Oh,okay!Anothertime,then.
IndirectSpeechActs
Richard: Isthebossin?Ron: Light’sonin’er office.Richard: Oh,okay,thanks!
Characteristicsofindirectspeechacts(ISA)
1. Violateamaximofthecooperativeprinciple(CP)2. Literalmeaning differsfrom intendedmeaning3. HowhearersandreadersidentifyISA:
a)noticeutteranceviolatesa maximofCPb)assumeinterlocutorishonoringCP
4. Whenhearers/readersidentifyanISA,theydecipheritsintendedmeaningwiththehelpofcontextualandworldknowledge.
AGricean Application
AttorneyJamesRagan’sWebsite
OnOctober31,2016,JamesReaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.Thecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHeeandRolandSilatone.ThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCountyandoneofthelargestverdictsforthe2016year.
Eachstatementistrue
üOnOctober31,2016,JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.
üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.
üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCountyandoneofthelargestverdictsforthe2016year.
In-classactivity
• GroupA1. Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee?2. Wasthejury’sverdictagainstRoland
Silatone?• GroupB1. DidAlexHee havetopaypunitivedamages?2. DidRolandSilatone havetopaypunitive
damages?
üOnOctober31,2016,JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.
üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.
üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCountyandoneofthelargestverdictsforthe2016year.
1.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee andRolandSilatone?2.DidAlexHee andRolandSilatone havetopaypunitivedamages?
ü…JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.
üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.
üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCounty…
1.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee andRolandSilatone?2.DidAlexHee andRolandSilatone havetopaypunitivedamages?
ü…JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.
üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.
üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCounty…
1.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee?2.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstRolandSilatone?3.DidAlexHee havetopaypunitivedamages?4.DidRolandSilatone havetopaypunitivedamages?
ü…JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.
üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.
üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCounty…
Tabloids
Relyonsensationalstoriesaboutfamouspeople.(Hollywoodstars,televisionpersonalities,politicalfigures)Mesmerizingphotosonfrontpagewithsuggestiveorprovocativeheadlines.Headlinesandphotoscatchtheeyeofshoppersatsupermarketcheck-outcounters.
Tabloids
Headlines,stories,andcall-outsarelinguisticexpressions.Especiallywhencoupledwithothermodes(e.g.,photography)andinterpretedinlightofworldknowledge,tabloidstoriesmayconveyunfavorableimpressionssoharmfulthatthetargetdeemsthearticledefamatory andfilesalawsuit.
In1997MarthaStewartbroughta$10millionlawsuitagainsttheNationalEnquirerforanarticleentitled,“MarthaStewartIsMentallyIll.”
The Enquirer quoted "nationally renowned expert" Dr Leland Heller as calling Martha Stewart
1) a "textbook example [of] borderline personality disorder”
2) with a proclivity for "self-mutilation and suicidal threats.”
Eventually, the tabloid admitted defeat and offered a substantial pay-off to soothe Stewart’s feelingsof “shame, mortification and emotional distress.”
http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/1999/nov/03/tvandradio.g2
Storiesarepowerfulframingdevices!
InAdversarialLegalSettings
Storiestoldfromcompetingpointsofviewwillrepresentdifferenttruths(andmayamounttofalsehood).
Notsurprisingthat,intheU.S.,litigantsonbothsidesretainexpertlinguists—incivilcases(trademark,defamation,contractinterpretation,authorshipanalysis)andcriminalcases(authorship,murder)
ArethaFranklin
PerspectiveforLinguisticsExpert“A”Franklin,59,hasbeenoneofpopmusic’s
mostrespectedvoices,thankstoaslewofhitsdatingfromthe‘60sincludingRespect,NaturalWoman,ChainofFoolsandFreewayofLove.
ShealsoholdstheprestigiousdistinctionofbeingthefirstwomaninductedintotheRockandRollHallofFame,in1987.
PerspectiveforLinguisticsExpert“B”Franklin,59,hasbeenoneofpopmusic’s
mostrespectedvoices,thankstoaslewofhitsdatingfromthe‘60sincludingRespect,NaturalWoman,ChainofFoolsandFreewayofLove.
ShealsoholdstheprestigiousdistinctionofbeingthefirstwomaninductedintotheRockandRollHallofFame,in1987.
Butovertimeherdrinkinghasgottenoutofcontrol,saypals.
WHICHISTHEHEADLINE?
this?
ARETHA FRANKLIN DRINKINGHERSELF INTO THE GRAVE
orthis?
FRIENDS FEAR:
ARETHA FRANKLIN DRINKINGHERSELF INTO THE GRAVE
TheCall-OutsCall-out:
“Gladysisespeciallydevastated-- atherwit’send.”
Text“Gladysisespeciallydevastatedattheextentofherfriend’sdrinkingandshe’satherwit’sendtryingtogethertostop.”
LosAngelesTimesNov.30,2001
Soul singer Aretha Franklin has filed a $50-million lawsuit against American Media Inc., the publisher of the Star tabloid magazine, claiming she was defamed by an article that said she abuses alcohol.
The lawsuit stems from a … story headlined "Aretha Franklin Drinking Herself into the Grave," which said that the Queen of Soul had an alcohol problem that caused her to cancel a host of concert appearances, and posed a threat to her career and health.
Overallconclusionbylinguisticsexpert
TheStar articleconveysaclearandstrongimpressionthatArethaFranklinhasaseriousdrinkingproblem,whichthreatenshercareerandherlife.Themessageisintroduced,framed,andunderscoredinthearticle’sheadlineandarticulatedthroughoutinthecontent.
TherepeateduseofphrasesandexpressionsthatcontributetotheoverallimpressionthatArethaFranklinhasaseriousdrinkingproblemindicatesthatsuchanimpressionwasconveyeddeliberatelyandpurposefully.
Speecheventsandtheirspeechactsarecontextdependent.
Interpretationreliesonculturalknowledge.
Interpretationoftenindirect—butcleartoordinaryhearersandreaders.
Otherspeechevents(genres,registers)andtheirspeechactsalsocontextdependent.
Interpretationreliesonculturalknowledge.
Interpretationoftenindirect—butcleartotheordinaryspeaker.
AnApology?
FeaturesofApologiesandNon-Apologies
ApologyUsesexplicitverbofapologyTakesresponsibilityOffersanaccountOfferstorepairsituationOfferspromiseofforbearanceUsesintensifyingexpressionsExpressesconcernforhearer
Non-apologyFailstoadmitwrongdoingImpliesotherpartythinskinnedBelittlesotherpartyShiftsblame(I’msorryif…)ClaimstobeunawareactionswereinappropriateAppearstoapologizeunderduress
1. QueenofSoulArethaFranklin- who’smadeacareerperformingbreathtakingsongsabouttheaffairsoftheheart– alsoknowsathingortwoaboutnotgettingenoughR-E-S-P-E-C-T.
2. TheGrammy-winningmusiclegend,59,saysourrecentreportthatfriendsareconcernedaboutherdrinkingissimplynottrue.
3. Infact,Arethasaysshedoesn’tevendrinkatall!Shealsosaysshehasnotmissedanyconcertsduetodrinking.
4. Inastatementreleasedbyherrecordcompany,Arista,thesingingsensationsaysshewas“appalledandshocked”tohearoftheaccusationsandexplainsshecanceledoneortwoappearancesoutof50ormorethisyearforlegitimatereasons.
ARETHAWANTSRESPECT
5. Arethaexplainsshewas“extremelydisappointed”thatshecouldn’tsingthenationalanthemforPrinceAlbertofMonacoattheMercedes-BenzPolochallengekickoffinBridgehampton,NewYork,duringthesummer
6. “IhadforgottenIhadapreviouscommitment,”shesays.7. AndonValentine’sDay,she’lltakethestageatMusicHall
CenterforthePerformingArtsinDetroitwitha14-pieceorchestratoshareherincredibletalentandwell-earnedreputationasR&Bnobilitywithherhometownfans.
8. AspokeswomanforthepoloeventsaysAretha’scancellationpresentednoproblembecauseshegavethemplentyofnotice.
9. InOctoberthesoulfuldivamadeheramendstoMonaco’smonarchywhenshewowedthecrowdbytakingtheWaldorf-Astoriaballroomstageforanhourand45minutesduringthePrincessGraceFoundationUSAawardsgalainNewYork.
10. HerbenefitperformanceamonthlaterattheChicagoChildren’sMuseumhelpedraisemorethan$400,000duringtheirlavish“BeaKidAgain”benefitatNavyPier’sGrandBallroominChicago.
11. AndonValentine’sDay,she’lltakethestageatMusicHallCenterforthePerformingArtsinDetroitwitha14-pieceorchestratoshareherincredibletalentandwell-earnedreputationasR&Bnobilitywithherhometownfans.
12. Arethahasbeenoneofpopmusic’smostrespectedvoicesformorethanfourdecades,thankstoaslewofhits,includingRespect,NaturalWoman,ChainofFools,ThinkandFreewayofLove.
13. ShealsoholdstheprestigiousdistinctionofbeingthefirstwomaninductedintotheRockandRollHallofFame,in1987.
BOBMICHALS
