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MPA IV

Master of Public Administration in Governance

2009 – 2011

International Institute of Social Studies,

Erasmus University Rotterdam

Disaster Management in Suriname: The

Level of Preparedness and Mitigation

Caitlin Abigail Karijokromo

Supervisor: Dr. S. Bergh

Date: November 13th, 2011

This paper was submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the Master of Public

Administration (MPA) in Governance degree at FHR Institute of Social Studies.

Paramaribo, November 13th, 2011

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Courage is not the absence of fear,

but rather the judgment that something else is more important than fear”

Ambrose Redmoon

Life is all about having priorities! Every single day, there is a new challenge to face.

In this stage of my life, I have to admit that the Master program in Public Administration and

Governance has been my biggest challenge of all. This program is not only about studying; it

also forced me to create a balance between the amount of time to spend with my family and

friends, my obligations towards my work and other social involvements.

During these past 2 years, my family and close friends kept on encouraging me during the

difficult periods when I barely had time to spend with them due to the study load of the courses,

which were nearly too much to handle. Therefore I am very grateful for their understandings and

encouragement throughout these years.

Furthermore I would like to thank Mr. H. Lim A Po for creating many opportunities to ensure

that I could study and graduate at this Master’s program. He taught me that it takes a lot of

courage, hard work and dedication to overcome all challenges during the study.

Many thanks to my supervisor Mrs. S. Bergh; for her patience and guidance during the complete

research phase.


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CDEMA – Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency

IFRC – International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescents

NCCR – National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief

NGO – Non Governmental Organization

PAHO –Pan American Health Organization


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................................................ 2

List of abbreviations ........................................................................................................................................................... 3

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................. 4

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5

2. Literature review ............................................................................................................................................................ 8

2.1.1 What is disaster management? ....................................................................................................... 8

2.1.2. Why Disaster Preparedness? ........................................................................................................ 10

2.2 Possible options for risk reduction ................................................................................................... 11

2.2.1 Options ........................................................................................................................................... 11

2.2.2. The ideal disaster preparedness and mitigation policy ................................................................ 14

3. National policies on Disaster Preparedness and mitigation in Suriname ..................................... 23

3.1 Year 2006 .......................................................................................................................................... 23

3.2 National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief ............................................................................. 25

3.3 Current state of the national policy on disaster preparedness And Mitigation ............................... 28

4. Analysis ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30

4.1 General remarks ................................................................................................................................ 30

4.2 Lessons learned ................................................................................................................................. 31

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................................ 34

Recommendation ................................................................................................................................................................ 37

References .............................................................................................................................................................................. 38


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1. INTRODUCTION

Indication of the problem:

The flood of May 2006 highlighted gaps in the national policies on disaster preparedness. It

proved that the communities in Suriname were not fully prepared on how to reduce the

consequences of a disaster. After the flood, there was total chaos on how to respond to this

catastrophe. The national government of Suriname could finally relief the ease of the victims of

the flood with the help (knowledge and experiences of several Non Governmental Organizations,

the private sector and foreign governments. (Centre for International Disaster Information 2010)

Research Objectives:

The objectives of this research paper are to analyze the current national policies and institutional

framework on disaster preparedness and mitigation and to identify critical factors to improve the

readiness of local communities in preparation and mitigation of disasters in Suriname.

The research questions are:

1. What are the current national policies and institutional framework on disaster

preparedness and mitigation in Suriname?

2. What are critical factors in best practices for disaster preparedness and mitigation used by

international specialized organizations and other foreign governments?

3. How can Suriname improve its national policies for disaster preparedness and mitigation,

based on the best practices used by international specialized organizations?

Research Method:

This research paper is based on desk research of successful policies on disaster preparedness and

mitigation. Hence the theories on disasters, disaster preparedness and mitigation are of outmost

importance to understand the logic behind disaster preparedness and mitigation. Data of the

current level of disaster preparedness and mitigation has also been distracted from local

newspapers and media, several reports and personal experiences. Interviews with several


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specialists in Suriname were conducted on the current state of the national policies in disaster

and mitigation.

Analytical framework :

Important for this research paper is that the research on the literature and theories on disasters.

This research will also review the national policies on disaster preparedness. Therefore there will

be a description on the goal, vision, strategies and activities of the governmental division

regarding disaster preparedness and mitigation.

Furthermore a logical explanation of disaster management will be given before the discussions

on several methods and techniques, which were used for disaster preparedness and mitigation.

After defining all terms used in this study research, I will compare the techniques, knowledge

and experiences of several policies of other governments and organizations that have specialized

themselves in disaster preparedness.

With these theories I could describe the best practices for disaster preparedness and mitigation.

Then I will discuss whether these best practices on disaster preparedness and mitigation can be

applied to the current Surinamese situation.

Relevance and justification:

Most disasters are sudden and unexpected. (King 2010) However through the latest technologies,

one might prophesize the type and magnitude of an imminent disaster; yet its impact one can

never be prepared enough. Disaster management policies cannot fully prevent the disaster but

can reduce its impact to a minimum. Even though Suriname is such a blessed country where

natural disasters seldom occurs; the flood of 2006 was an eye opener in the sense that one can

never be prepared enough.

National policies on disaster preparedness and mitigation would not only improve the safety of

the citizens of Suriname, but also directs efforts in taking precautions for on the threats of an

imminent disaster.

Limitations:

The policies in disaster preparedness and mitigation have only be developed in the past 10 years

in Suriname, according to Jerry Slijngard(Head of the National Coordination Centre for Disaster


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Relief, 2011). However, the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief doesn’t avail of

sufficient expertise, knowledge and experiences in disaster preparedness and mitigation. Hence it

is deprived of assistance from Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA).

With the limited information that both J. Slijngaard (2011) and E. King (2010) had given on

experiences in Suriname, both specialist referred to the website of Caribbean Disaster

Emergency Management Agency and the website of the International Federation of the Red

Cross and Red Crescents to find more literature on the theories of disaster preparedness and

mitigation.

Regarding the literature on successful theories and practices on disaster preparedness and

mitigation, there are many resources online. However, the high expenses for either buying or

downloading the literature, forced me to be very limited in choosing what kind of literature I am

using for this research.


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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.1 WHAT IS DISASTER MANAGEMENT?

The term disaster management can be very confusing. Therefore it is better to explain the

background about this term before answering the research questions.

A disaster is “a natural or human - caused event, occurring with or without warning, causing or threatening death,

injury or disease, damage to property, infrastructure or the environment, which exceeds the ability of the affected

society to cope using its own environment.” (Donohue, Masilela and Gear, Disaster management 2000)

Disasters can also be divided in human caused and natural disasters. (Donohue, Masilela and

Gear, Disaster management 2000)

Human caused disasters are events that are caused due to the actions of humans such as fire

hazards, train and car accidents, pollution.

Natural disasters are caused by natural forces of nature which cannot be controlled by humans.

(Donohue, Masilela and Gear, Disaster management 2000)

Risk are “ threats to life, well being , property and or the environment. They can be a result form extreme natural

proceses, tehcnological developments and vrious forms of social exclusion.” (Donohue, Masilela and Gear,

Disaster management 2000)

Vulnerability can be defined as “the interaction of a community, its environment and the damaged which can

be caused due to the disaster.” (Donohue, Masilela and Gear, Disaster management 2000)

Mitigation is defined as”action to reduce the consequences of a disaster” (Donohue, Masilela and Gear,

Disaster management 2000)

All these definitions will be used during the explanation of the research questions.

Impact of disasters


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Research (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 2010) has proven

that natural disasters can have several social and health consequences such as health and food

safety, access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene and proper shelter in the destructed area and

in the refugee camps. In the area where a disaster occurs, the local community can be affected by

its impact. (Noji 1997) Dependently on the kind of disaster, the health environment of the local

people can be questionable. The victims are left without proper shelter. Along with the loss of

their shelter, these people might lose their food supplies. According to King (2011) this means

that the mal nutrition and hygiene of the victims can affect their living environment negative

after the disaster.

The victims of the disasters can be affected both social and emotional. The experiences during

the disaster and to see how everything they worked for can be destructed within minutes can

traumatize the victims. Without proper help from specialist, these victims cannot recover from

these experiences.

Disaster management.

The International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescents (IFRC) has a a specialised

division on disaster management. Based on its research and experiences in the field, assistance

is given to national societies in order to improve the livelyhood of the communities in their

country. (King 2010) The International Federation of the Red Cross and the Red Crescents has

defined disaster management as “the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for

dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to

lessen the impact of disasters.” (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescents Societies

2010)

Donohue, Masilela and Gear (2000) refer to disaster management as: “Disaster management

encompassses all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters including hazard analysis, vulnberability

reduction / preparedness, prevention, mitigation, response, recovery and rehabilitation”

http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/preparing/index.asp

http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/responding/index.asp

http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/recovering/index.asp


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Eventhough Kapucu (2008) agrees with this definition, he preferred to used the term emergency

management. He explained that emergency management consists of four elements which are

mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. (Kapucu 2008).

Mitigation refers to all actions that can either prevent and or reduce the effects of an upcoming

threat.(Kapucu 2008)

Kapucu (2008) explained that preparedness include all actions (plans, schedule, field work etc)

that are being taken before the catastrophe emerge. Just after the disaster occurs the communities

(both citizens and government) will take action against the damages of the catastrophe. This is

called the response. Recovery refers to to all activities that occurs after the disaster. The main

goal of the recovery phase is to transform their damaged communities into their former glory.

(Kapucu 2008)

Based on these definitions of disaster management, I would like to point out that each phase in

the disaster management cycle is a very interesting study. Refering to the research question of

this paper, the focus of this research will be on the preparedness and mitigation phase of the

disaster management cycle.

2.1.2. WHY DISASTER PREPAREDNESS?

As mentioned earlier, the preparedness and mitigation phase consists of all actions that are taken

including plans and prevention matters, before the upcoming threat of a disaster. The goal of the

preparedness phase is to minimize the effects of hazards and emergencies. (Kapucu 2008)

According to the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescents (IFRC) (2010),

disaster preparedness refers to measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects of disasters.

These measures should predict and possibly prevent disasters. (http://www.ifrc.org 2010)

Elinor King (2010), the head of the Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname Red Cross and

Red Crescents, defines disaster preparedness and mitigation as the basis to design an effective,

realistic and coordinated planning, which can be implemented in all sorts of communities. This


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system can reduce the risks of a possible threat while it can also save maximum lives of the

affected communities.

Pearce (2003) mentions that disaster preparedness and mitigation can also be combined with

riskmanagement. Risk management is a framework for the systematic application of

management policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of identifying, analyzing, evaluating,

treating and monitoring risk. (Pearce 2003)

This research refers to disaster preparedness and mitigation as the phase in which communities

can anticipate on possible future threats of a disaster. As mentioned earlier, disasters have very

unpleasant consequences which include the destruction of not only the infrastructure in the

affected area, but also harm the living environment of the victims. All victims of a disaster can

get traumatized because of the loss of their houses, the loss of food supplies and other factors

which can keep them safe from several illnesses and pain. If threats of disasters are expected,

they could prepare themselves, protect their houses, increase their foodsuppliesetc. so that

damages of these disasters could be minimized, while the victims would be able to survive on

necessary survival kits.

2.2 POSSIBLE OPTIONS FOR RISK REDUCTION

2.2.1 OPTIONS

There are several ways to reduce risks of an upcoming disaster. Some succesful methods, which

all contributed to a risk reduction in countries such as South Africa, United States of America,

Australia, New Zealand, Turkey and Malawi will be discussed. All these methods have been

reported, analysed and commented by specialists in disaster management. The International

Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescents, an international non governmental organization

with a division specialized in disasters, also has a special division which does research on

policies for disaster preparedness and mitigation.


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Even though Donohue, Masilela and Gear (2000) have stated that the mitigation, prevention and

preparedness can reduce or prevent most of the damages caused by a disaster. Covington and

Simpson (2006) have discussed that it is important to determine what can be defined as the best

practices in order to analyze the vulnerability of the possible affected area. They did some

research on several best practices for disaster preparedness and mitigation before commenting on

the policies of the local government of Louisville. Their research questioned the availability of

finances in possible affected areas, the cultures and traditions of the local people and their ability

to cope with possible threats. The social and economic behavior of these communities and the

current infrastructure are also factors that can determine the vulnerability of the locals.

(Covington and Simpson 2006)

Hence Covington and Simpson (2006) suggested that you need to keep these factors of

vulnerability in mind while creating plans and policies for disaster preparedness and mitigation.

The International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescents (IFRC) has designed several

options to reduce the negative impact of an upcoming disaster. (http://www.ifrc.org 2010)

These are:

a. Disaster Mitigation: Structural and non – structural measure undertaken to limit the

adverse impact of natural hazards. Meaning that they start educating the local

communities on how to prepare against a possible threat;

b. Early warning system: A system through which people can be informed in time of an

upcoming threat so that civilians can take precautions against the threat;

c. Support to livelyhoods: Projects that can strengthen or diversify the livelyhoods that

enable individuals or households to develop strategies to reduce risks.

(http://www.ifrc.org 2010)

The assistance of the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescents (IFRC)

consists of information gathering on disasters, technical assistance and fianancial support. (King

2010)


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Pearce (2003) studied the Australian and New Zealand approach to risk reduction and concluded

that community planning and public participation could improve the national policies on risk

reduction. (Pearce 2003)

Community planning and public participation involves the several communities and its citizens

to anticipate on possible threats of a disaster with the help of the local government. This implies

that the comminities are actively involved in the disaster preparedness policies and also help

formulate these policies. While the citizens participate with manpower and ideas, the government

take cares of the infrastructure (safety equipments, healthcare, trainings facilities etc), technical

assistence and knowledge. When the local government collaborates with the local private sector

and the citizens of these communities, the people will feel more willing and helpful towards

these safety measures. (Pearce 2003)

Another possibility to improve disaster preparedness policies is to increase the collaboration

between the government and non governmental organizations and or private companies. This is

the so called public private partnerships. Awortwi (2010), lecturer at the Institute of Social

Studies defined public private partnerships as “the involvement of private enterprises within the

government projects aimed at public benefit.”

Linnerooth – Bayer and Mechler (2007) explained that there are 2 phases after a disaster: the

repair and the replacement of the infrastructure and the support to the victims of the disater.

After studiying the destructing effects of a disaster, they concluded that the damage could be

minimized if the policies of disaster preparedness and mitigation were in place. (Linnerooth -

Bayer and Mechler 2007) Their research tried to fit the role of private companies and non

governmental organizations in the policies of disaster preparedness and mitigation. As for the

private companies, they figured that these companies could benefit from these safety measures

because of the losses (both financial and productive) they could receive after a disaster. So if

these companies could participate with finacial suport to implement the policies, they could

ensure safety measurements which minimize the damages of any kind of disaster. (Linnerooth -

Bayer and Mechler 2007)

Non governmental organizations are “private, non profit professional organizations with a legal character

concerned with public welfare goals, a broad definition which encompasses a wide range of organizations including

philantropic foundations, faith based devlopment agencies, academics think – tanks which focus on social and


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economic issues.” (Clarke and Thomas 2006) Linnerooth – Bayer and Mechler (2007) mentioned

that non governmental organizations, specialized in disasters, could help relief the pressure of the

national government to safeguard its communities from destructing disasters. Not only would

these organizations participate with their knowledge and expertise, they could also help reduce

the risks of vulnerable communities. Hence the national government could partially transfer its

risks while assuring that all communities are less vulnerable for disasters. (Linnerooth - Bayer

and Mechler 2007)

These case studies have proven that there are several ways to reduce risk and the best valid

methods also depend on the local / current social economic situation of the country.

2.2.2. THE IDEAL DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION

POLICY

In this research paper I spoke about several policies. What are policies exactly?

J. Mooij (2010), lecturer at the Institute of Social Studies has defined policy as “a plan course of

action used by the governmen to influence and determine decisions, actions or other matters.”

In this research paper policy will be referred to as a governmental plan of action to reduce risks.

Covington and Simpson (2006) suggest that factors of vulnerability can only be determined if the

community wants to cooperate with the baseline studies. Hence the civil society and or social

movements can be seen as interest groups within the affected community. According to Peters

(2010) these interest groups want to be able to influence decision making processes regarding

their community safety, when they understand the community’s level of vulnerability. They want

their participation to consists of either knowledge, expertise, human resources or financial

support. (Peters 2010) In the earlier mentioned practices, it is being stressed that community

participation can be a huge factor to determine the implementation phase of community safety

and security. Without the support of the locals, the government could not succesfully implement

safety regulations. Furthermore the participation of the public within the implementation phase

of the disaster preparedness and mitigation policies can reduce the tension of the government

and delegate the responisibilty to the interest groups.


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Since community preparedness and mitigation concerns all citizens (including the local

government, the private sector and the citizens), it could be stated that all these groups would

benefit from a succesfull disaster preparedness and mitigation policy. The influence of social

movements should also not be underestimated. Most social movements are grassroot

organisations that are supported by the local citizens. The members of these social movements

are in touch with the locals and can easily exchange information about disaster preparedness and

mitigation.

Hence the ideal disaster preparedness and mitigation policy would be a combination of the

collaboration of the government, the private sector, non governmental organizations and social

movements with an active public participation.

The government

The government is a public institution. (Leftwich 2008) The correct term to refer to the

government would be bureaucracy. However, in this research paper the term government will be

used instead of bureaucracy to simplify explanations. One role of the government is to safeguard

the wellbeing and development of its citizens. Huque and Zafarullah (2006) explain that

organized planning mechanism and institution building devices can be effective while using

external resources such as commodity, aid and technical assistance.

In this case, the government should design disaster preparedness and mitigation policies. While

designing the policies the government should also do research on how to implement these

policies in their communities. They should also try to gain more information on what kind of

method would be the most effective and in which region of the country.

In short, the national government should do a baseline study on the development and level of

vulnerability of each community in the country. The government should also study the level and

frequency of threats / disasters in the country and the type of disaster which could harm the

communities the most. Covington and Simpson (2006) made suggestionsas to how to determine

the level of vulnerability.


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After the baseline study, the government should look at examples of other countries having dealt

with these types of disasters / threats effectively. From these examples the government should

choose the method which would be most applicable to their own situations.

The private sector

N. Awortwi (2010) defined the private sector as “businesses within the national economy that are not

under governmental control.” This means that private entities can influence the national economy

while the government sets policies to control the economy. According to Kettl (1993) the private

sector deliver goods and services which the government cannot (fully) provide. With regards

disaster preparedness and mitigation policies, the private sector can provide services to the

communities if the national government cannot fully provide for in these areas due to lack of

commodities, finances or technical assistance.

The study of Linnerooth - Bayer and Mechler (2007) mentioned that with the help of the private

sector the local government could provide cheap but effective safety networks to vulnerable

communties. However the participation of the private sector does not stop with providing

services to the vulnerable. These privateers realize that if a disaster occurs their companies could

also be destroyed. With proper disaster preparedness and mitigation policies in place, damage

could be minimize without huge (financial) losses.

Non governmental organizations

As mentioned earlier, nongovernmental organizations are private entities that try to improve the

wellbeing and development processes of the community. If they notice that the government

cannot provide in certain social services, these organizations will do their best to provide these

lacking services to the community. Since the government has to prioritize development processes

while safeguarding the national safety, services of the nongovernmental organizations can

substitute the less priority areas and services of the government.

With regards to disaster preparedness and mitigation, nongovernmental organizations have

access to the vulnerable communities. Nongovernmental organizations specialized in disaster

preparedness and mitigation can implement safety policies in the vulnerable areas. Specialized


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organizations can also share their knowledge and technical assistance with the government in a

manner that the government could improve its policies.

Not only can nongovernmental organizations contribute with knowledge, expertise and technical

assistance, but also can these organizations implement safety measures in vulnerable areas;

hence easing and relieving the duties of the national government.

Social movements

Schock (2008) explains that “social movements are organized, collective, and sustained attempts to promote

social change that occur partially or entirely outside conventional politics. The focus of these movements is to

influence a change in the governmental institutions.” (Schock 2008) Schock (2008) also mentions that the

supporters of these social movements are often not included in the governmental decision

making proces. With their support in the local social movements, these locals try to influence the

decision making processes regarding their community. If the government collaborate with the

local social movements while implementing disaster preparedness and mitigation policies, they

are ensured of a active public participation in those communities. The local community might

feel that their voice regarding community safety is being heard by the government.

Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation Policies

After reviewing the literature, the ideal framework to improve a disaster preparedness and

mitigation policy will now be constructed.

Structure

Before deciding upon its policies the national government should create a special division that

will focus on disasters. This division should receive total support from the government through

facilitation, finances and necessary infrastructure for carrying out its designated tasks.

The special division should do baseline studies about the vulnerability in specific regions in the

country and for type of disasters. It should also study the different types of disaster commonly

occurs in the specific areas. After analyzing the vulnerability and possible threats for the

communities; the division should research on how did other countries have prevented or reduced

the risks of the threats. The division should also contact (international) organizations that are


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specialized in disasters. It could ask for technical assistance and for expertise to improve the

national policies.

After having assessed the level of vulnerability, the risks of the communities, the contacts,

knowledge, expertise available and the experiences of foreign countries and or specialized

organizations, the division should now asses which local companies and organizations are able to

contribute to the planning and construction of the conceptual framework of the disaster

preparedness policy.

The division should also assess – within the communities – to what level the citizens can

contribute with safety measures.

In this phase, the special division of the national government should design a hazard and risk

model based on its studies in the communities of the country. In this model they should also

include the level of vulnerability of the community and the possible threats / risks of these

communities. After the design of the hazard and risk model, the division should asses which

foreign methods can contribute to the reduction of the risks.

Methods

Based on abovementioned methods for risk reduction, the following methods are the best safety

measures.

1. The early warning system (based on the ideas of the International Federation of Red

Cross and Red Crescent Societies)

After analyzing the risks, threats and vulnerability of the communities, the national division

should create early warningsystems. Based on the possible threat, this system should warn the

communities within the area of the expected threat to start preparing themselves for the threat.

By means to strengthen their houses and other valuable materials, increase foodsupllies, have a

emergency medical kitt by hand in case of any injuries, or in worst case scenario leave the area

before the disaster strikes.


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The early warning system should consist of specialized equipment that can “foresee” / “predict”

upcoming threats. As soon as these threats are located, the local authorities should warn the local

communities to start taking measurements against these possible threats.

2. The collaboration between the government, the private sector and the nongovernmental

organization (based on the design of Linnerooth - Bayer and Mechler)

Earlier on the roles of the government, the private sector, the nongovernmental organizations and

social movements have been discussed. Another method to anticipate on preventing possible

threats is the collaboration of these 3 actors. Although the government could be characterized as

the main responsible actor in the national safety program, it can transfer implementation of the

risk reduction to the private sector and to specialized nongovernmental organization.

If the national policy has not yet been designed, the special division of the government for

disaster might not always have the knowledge, expertise of technical experience to reduce risks.

In this case, companies and organizations, specialized in disasters could help define and execute

the preparedness and mitigation policy.

Private companies can also provide services on community safety, which the government lacks.

For example, they can increase the distribution of food supplies, of surviving kits and of

clothing. Additionally, these companies can supply building material that to reinforce the houses

so that these houses cannot be easily destroyed.

Another area for assistance by private companies could be on insurance by insurance companies.

Insurance companies could promote guarantees for reducing risks through insurance policies. Of

course these insurance companies will demand certain precautions from their clients in order to

get insured against damages of a disaster. These precautions will automatically increase safety.

The specialized nongovernmental organizations usually contribute with their knowledge and

experiences in the field. Since they know the communities, in which they operate, they can easily

point out the vulnerabilities and risks of these communities. The government can anticipate on

risk reduction in these communities with the help of these nongovernmental organizations.

3. Community Planning and Public Participation (based on the studies of Pearce)


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The national government should involve the public in all plans regarding community safety.

Peters (2010) mentioned that the civilians want to be involved in all matters regarding their

community. If these local people are involved in the decision making process of the policy, they

would fully support these policies and will help whenever they can.

No other but the local community knows better the level of vulnerability and the community can

tell you exactly which type of execution could work in their community. If the government

involves the community in helping to formulate and decide in the best plans to improve the

safety measurements for their communities, the community will actively participate in the

execution of these plans; especially if they are convinced that these plans are beneficial to them.

4. National Awareness Program

The special division of the government should start an awareness campaign to inform the

citizens of the country on the types of disasters and the several phases of each a disaster.

After analyzing and studying the hazards and risk models, the government should stay in touch

with the citizens to inform them as to how to respond – in case of a disaster – in all 4 phases.

Most important is the preparation phase.

First of all, the special division should create a program where detailed information on national

hazards and risks are stored. This program should either be broadcasted and or published in the

local media so that all citizens can easily have access to the information. Furthermore the

division should broadcast all possibilities to reduce the risks. For example: they should give

instructions as to how to keep the living environment clean or how to have access to safe and

clean water.

Not only should the information be broadcasted, the division should also train people who will

personally inform local communities on how to prepare themselves for possible threats. The

locals who have followed the trainings should be able to share the information with other locals.

Another way to spread the information is to go to companies, schools and other organizations

and ask for spare time for information sessions with the employers or club members. Otherwise


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they can ask the private sector to send some members to public / special information sessions

whom can inform the members of their organizations on the safety measurements.

5. Improve and secure national safety policies (such as building codes, clean environments,

existence of safety precautions etc.)

The special division should collaborate with other governmental divisions to increase the

regulations of factors that can contribute to the damage of vulnerable people. For examples,

buildings can collapse during a floods or earthquakes. With building codes regulated by the

government, building structures will not easily collapse with the slightest pressure. Collapsing

buildings can harm the people in or near the building. Instead the disaster resistant building

codes could protect the people from for instance strong breezes or heavy rainfall and flooding by

rising water. Violators of the building codes should be punished for they can harm other people

in the future.

Another example would be national regulations to be in place in order to keep the near living

environment of the people and communities clean. A clean environment would spare its citizens

from diseases such as dengue, malaria, bilharzias etc.

National regulations on industrial process, could also contribute to minimizing risk factors of an

accident. Industrial companies should not be allowed to use hazardous material such as mercury

or carbon dioxide. Irresponsible behavior of users of these substances could harm the nature of

the nearby communities in particular and the whole society in general.

In concluding, these five methods can contribute to the preparedness phase of the country.

Depending on the capacity of the government and the geographical and social economic

conditions of the country, each of these methods will improve on the national safety and security.

Clearly implementation of all five methods would benefit the country and the level of

preparedness and mitigation the best.

Implementation

The government should not be the only execute the safety plans. While assessing which

companies and nongovernmental organizations can contribute to the design of national disaster

preparedness and mitigation policy, the division should also ask whether these organizations


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could contribute towards the execution of the policy. The nongovernmental organizations can

help execute the policies in the areas in which they already work while private companies can

also help assess and implement these plans within their respective working areas.

Additionally, the special division should collaborate with other governmental institutions to

increase safety regulations in their respective departments.

By implementing all these phases at once or as much as possible, I have not only identified the

best practices on disaster preparedness and mitigation, but also drawn important factors that can

improve the quality of a national disaster preparedness and mitigation policy. In order to

implement these policies, the institutional framework should also be in place. Of course it is

necessary to keep in mind that the success of all these precautions depends on the geographical

and social and economic situation of the country.


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3. NATIONAL POLICIES ON DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

AND MITIGATION IN SURINAME

3.1 YEAR 2006

As mentioned in the introduction, the flood of May 2006 highlighted gaps in the national policies

on disaster preparedness and mitigation. During the geographical classes at school, the children

are being taught that Suriname is spared from natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes

etc. Before the flood of May 2006, natural disasters have never occurred in Suriname. Of course

there were some “regular floods” due to a bad drainage system in several places of the city, but

the impact of these “regular floods” were not as destructing as the flood of 2006.

The rivers are an important factor of life in the interior of Suriname. Most villages are based near

a river. The river is a resource for fresh food for the villages. The water of the river is also used

for the household, the personal hygiene of the villagers and most important as a source for

transport between the several villages in the interior. Unlike the cities and other districts in the

Northern zone of Suriname, there are no roads in the interior of Suriname. Just long pads, that is

big enough to let 2 people walk side by side. Since the villages are based near the riverside, the

villagers are mostly growing food near the villages.

With the constant rainfall in a time period of more than two weeks, the water levels kept on

increasing while there was no systematic drainage system available in the interior. (Meaning the

villages are situated on the lower land with only the riversides below their villages.) The

increasing water levels kept on drowning the villages by the minute. The affected villagers never

experienced this phenomenon before so they started to panic and immediately evacuated from

their homes towards higher grounds. Since this flood was their first experience with natural

disasters, they were not prepared on how to respond to the sudden flood and evacuation.

Neither prepared were the government and other social movements. According to the report

made by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the constant rainfall started at the 1st of

May 2006. (Pan American Health Organization 2006) The flood in the interior hit the headlines

of the local news around the 8th

of May 2006. Around this period, it was reported how much


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damage the flood had caused; from the number of displaced people to the number of illnesses

among the victims and the very low supplies on food and water. (Pan American Health

Organization 2006)

The main problem for immediate response from the government and other organization was the

transportation of survival kits, medicine and man power to help relief the need of the displaced

villagers. Since all rivers were flooded and no main roads, the transport of goods and people

could only be done by air. The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) also reported that

most relief assistance was provided by foreign governments and specialised organisations in

disaster management.

Eventhough the National Coordination Centre for Disaster relief was already created in 2006, the

division could merely help coordinate the relief process of the victims of the flood due to the

lack of field and technical experiences. However, along the relief proces, they started to improve

their experiences by maintaining and coordinating food /health kits supply centres for the

following few weeks.

The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) made several reports regarding the flood of

May 2006. (Pan American Health Oragnization 2006) Their focus was to maintain positive

health conditions for the displaced villagers. In the beginning of the disaster, the affected

villagers were banned from clean water, food supplies, proper shelter and immediate help. So as

soon as the co workers of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) could find proper

transportation, they start with the distribution of several goods such as water tanks, tents etc, to

improve the living conditions of the victims of the flood. Yet there were high risks for epidemic

illnesses between the displaced villagers due to the malnutrition and bad hygiene in their

shelters. Therefore the Ministry of Health immediately improvised with measures to prevent the

spread of epidemics.

In short, I would like to point out that neither the affected villagers as the national government of

Suriname were prepared to prevent and to respond to the destructing effects of a flood. The bad

infrastructure (including the transport and communication structure) also played an important

role in the delay of immediate help to the victims of the flood. With the help of foreign


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government and specialized organizations in disaster management, the national government

could help relief the need of the displaced villagers.

3.2 NATIONAL COORDINATION CENTRE FOR DISASTER

RELIEF

The national government of Suriname is responsible for the national safety and security policies in

Suriname. The Ministry of Defense is the main actor within the national policies on disaster management.

It created a special division which has to safeguard the national safety and security regarding threats of a

possible disaster. This division is called the “National Coordination Centre for Disasters Relief (NCCR)

The division is developing the national policies on disaster management through the coordination and

prevention of possible threats of disasters. The implementation of the activities contributes to a safer

community. (NCCR Suriname 2011)

The mission of NCCR is: “The NCCR contributes to the development of a defensive, self-conscious and

safe community, where everybody knows it responsibilities” (NCCR Suriname 2011)

Organization structure of National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief: (NCCR Suriname

2011):

Figure 1 explains the arrangement of all positions within the structure of National Coordination

Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR). The Ministry of Defense is a part of the government of

Suriname. The National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) is a division within the

Ministry of Defense. This division consists of a secretariat, staff and executives. The National

Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) is an national organ that coordinates all possible

threats of several types of disasters. On regional level, the National Coordination Centre for

Disaster Relief (NCCR) collaborates with all regional governments such as the

districtscommisioners and their staff, local units of the police korps, the army, the fire brigade

and other regional governmental units.

Slijngard, head coordinator of the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR)

(2011) explains that the NCCR staff is divided in specialised units:

1. Logistics: takes care of all logistics within the unit such as food and work material;

2. Operation: implement / executes all plans that are being made the planning and research


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unit. They also participate during activies regarding disasters ;

3. Communication: arranges for all possible communication systems for the division;

4. Planning and research: this unit is doing research on the possible threats of upcoming

disasters and also is trying to implement informations session with vulnerable

communities so they can be prepared on how to handle before, during and after a disaster;

5. Legal: the unit is coordinating all legal affairs for the division.

Organization structure of NCCR: (NCCR Suriname 2011)

Figure 1


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Tasks of National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief: (NCCR Suriname 2011)

1. Monitor and analyze social developments to identify possible threats of a disaster;

2. Develop and decide upon policies which can possible prevent the threats of a

crisis or disaster; control the influences / consequences of a disaster or crisis (by

mostly coordinate and direct)n and also try to decrease the damages;

3. Take care and examine the development, implementation, manage and maintain

the related policies regarding disaster management with both governmental and

non – governmental partners;

4. Take care of the implementation of the protection of a vital infrastructure;

5. Develop a norm of criteria regarding disaster management in order to stimulate

and facilitate the governmental and non – governmental organizations;

6. Perform as a coordinator and facilitator regarding the possible (threats) of

disaster management.

Structure of National Coordination Centre for Disaster relief: (NCCR Suriname 2011)

a. NCCR collaborates and coordinates proceedings of the several departments, services and

organizations who daily participates in processes of a disaster;

b. The disaster management system of Suriname is based on legislation of the national

government of Suriname;

c. The districts commissioner is a active participant in this process (Wet Regionale

Organen);

d. Several division of the national government (such as the Fire Brigade, the Police, the

Army, the Coast Guard, Medical Centers etc. is responsible to support the first – response

at a possible threat;

e. The response should be coordinated and executed by the responsible services. At high

stakes the national government should be responsible for the coordination.


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3.3 CURRENT STATE OF THE NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER

PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION

Even though the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief is created as a special division

of the Ministry of Defense; the base of this division is not legally recognized by the government.

(Slijngard 2011) Slijngard mentioned that the division is allowed to plan, coordinate and

implement national safety measurements based on legislation of other laws of the constitution

such as the law of the national army, the law for regional development , the law for defense etc.

However the legal base to implement activities of this division is still under construction.

According to Nasibdar (2011) the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) is

committed to design proposals for upcoming policies regarding disaster management. The

National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) is also improving its structure by

starting network services in the interior of Suriname and collect and analyze demographic data.

Slijngard and Nasibdar (2011) both explain that one of the main tasks of the National

Corrdination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) is to collect data on the level of vulnerability of

the communities in Suriname. After they have collected and analyzed the data, they started to

design proposals to decrease the level of vulnerability of these communities.

A disaster can be a simple car accident, a fire, a flood, a storm etc. It can be anything that can

harm a human life. Since national safety and security is a high priority in this division, they are

cooperating with all organizations that are responsible for the national safety such as the police

corpse, the hospitals and other private service providers for healthcare or material. (Slijngard

2011)

With regards to the questions on methods for prevention, Slijngard ( 2011) explained that the

National Coordination Centre for Diaster Relief (NCCR) has created an early warning system

which can predict upcoming natural disasters. The National Coordination Centre for Disaster

Relief (NCCR) also created standaard safety measurements to which companies and


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organizations should comply with. Furthermore the National Coordination Centre for Disaster

Relief (NCCR) is using information sessions for interest groups who want to know more about

the national safety policies in Suriname. The division is also collaborating with both

governmental entities (police, fire brigade etc) and private / nongovernmental entities to increase

awareness about the disaster preparedness. They go to communities and organisations to teach

these people how to respond towards possible upcoming threats. The National Coordination

centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) also tries to improve its knowledge regarding disaster

preparedness and mitigation by staying in touch with the Caribbean Disaster Emergency

Management Agency (CDEMA). This regional organisation is specialized in disaster

management and is willing to share its experiences, knowledge and technical assistance with the

National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR).

The National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) is also encouraging community

participation in the disaster preparedness and mitigation policies. The slogan of the National

Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) states “it is better to prevent an illness than to

cure one”. (Slijngard 2011) To share information upon disasters and prevention measures, they

not only go to the communities; they also send information via informationsession with

interested organisations and schools. They even designed a website on which it gives simple

surviving methods in case of a disasters. However some pages are still under construction.


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4. ANALYSIS

4.1 GENERAL REMARKS

After the research I must note that in the period of the flood of May 2006, many people were not

aware of safety measures regarding disaster preparedness and mitigation. Nobody could have

ever imagined that natural disasters could occur in Suriname.

Before this research I only took natural disasters such as floods, landslides and storms into

account. Along the way it’s proven that disasters also consist of human – caused disasters such

as fire, car accidents, swimming accidents etc.

In the past 2 years (2010 and 2011), the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief has

given several information session to interested organizations and vulnerable communities.

This division is also collaborating with several other governmental and nongovernmental

organizations such as the police corps, the fire brigade, medical centers, the Suriname Red Cross

and Red Crescents etc. All these associated groups are implementing several disaster

preparedness and mitigation policies in either vulnerable communities or in local companies or

organizations. With these actions, Nasibdar (2011) explains that they try to encourage the public

participation within the policies of disaster preparedness and mitigation.

With all these activities the social community is slowly starting to prepare itself for possible

scenarios of disasters.

The National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief did not fully have the capacity to prevent

certain disasters. However, in the past 3 years, this division kept in touch with the Caribbean

Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA). This regional organization, specialised in

disaster management, supports the activities of the National Coordination Centre for Disaster

Relief with technical assistance, knowledge (trainings) and expertise.

Slijngard (2011) also implies that this division is a controlling mechanism of disaster

management. This division is only coordinating, planning and designing proposals to improve

the national safety policies regarding disaters. Hence they could support other organizations with

their gained knowledge and expertise.


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The national version of the early warning system is also a very good tool against upcoming

natural disasters. Yet I have missed the systems that can predict human – caused disasters in our

national policies. On the other hand, the national government does take pre cautions against

possible human – caused disasters such as fire, car accidents. Therefore they collaborate with

both government divisions (fire brigade, the police and the army) and private entities (such as

non governmental organizations, insurance companies, multinationals etc.).

4.2 LESSONS LEARNED

Both the government and the citizens of Suriname have come a long way after the flood of May

2006. Not only has the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) improved its

policies and skills, compared with 6 years ago. The Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname

Red Cross and Red Crescents also trained its personnel and volunteers how to assist before and

after a disaster.

As mentioned in chapter 2, collaboration between the government and non governmental

organizations can be beneficial for the stakeholders. The stakeholders are the government and the

citizens of the local communities where the non governmental organization operates. Hence

there is such collaboration between the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR)

and the Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname Red Cross and Red Crescents (DMU). The

Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname Red Cross and Red Crescents (DMU) is granted a

permit by the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) to implement disaster

preparedness and mitigation projects in the districts of Para, Commewijne, Paramaribo and

Nickerie. Based on the experiences of May 2006, King (2010) explains that the European Union

provided resources to improve the skills and knowledge of its personnel and its volunteers. The

European Union also provided resources to plan and implement projects regarding disaster

preparedness and mitigation by the Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname Red Cross and

red Crescents (DMU). With the help of the special division of the International Federation of the

Red Cross and Red Crescents regarding disaster management, the members of the Disaster

Management Unit of the Suriname Red Cross and Red Crescents are also constantly being


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acknowledged on new improvements regarding the knowledge, methods and experiences on the

field.

In chapter 2 is also mentioned that the disasters can have a huge impact on the health, social and

economic situation in the affected communities. Regarding the health conditions in vulnerable

areas in Suriname, the government of Suriname has permitted several non governmental

organizations, such as the Peace Corps, the Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname Red

Cross and Red Crescents, de Medische Zending etc. to implement projects regarding the health

and personal hygiene in the interior of Suriname. Other divisions of the national government of

Suriname, such as the Regionale Gezondheidsdienst (Regional Health Care Centers), the Fonds

voor Ontwikkeling Binnenland (FOB), are also implementing projects throughout the whole

territories of Suriname that can improve the vulnerability of the local communities while

safeguarding the personal health and hygiene of the local people.

Regarding the social and economic situation of the local communities, the national government

has recently taken several measurements to ensure the citizens of proper housing and a stable

working environment. The National Development Plan 2012 – 2016, which supports the current

housing program and the current employment process, is currently being discussed in the

parliament. With the implementation of these measurements, the people could be able provide

their own income which can influence the level of their living environment and hygiene. All

these matters are several methods to decrease the level of vulnerabilities.

Chapter 2 also mentioned the role of the private sector in the stage of disaster preparedness and

mitigation. The national government slowly transferring risks for possible disasters towards the

private sectors. Example: By implementing safety regulations such as wearing a seatbelt while

driving in a car or the law that you can only drive a car with a legal permit, the car companies,

driver schools and insurance companies are also a bit more alert and then demand from their

clients to keep the safety regulations in mind. (Another way to prevent human – caused disasters)

With the recent developments on regulating the use of chemicals in the farming and the mining

industry, the national government also took preventing measurements that could negatively

influence the health and living conditions of the surrounding communities. (Labadie 2010) The


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regulations consists of banning or reducing the use of chemicals that can harm all livings species

such as mercury and carbon dioxide.

As to the public awareness method, which is also mentioned in chapter 2, the National

Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief (NCCR) has been collaborating with the Fire Brigade. In

the past 2 years the Fire Brigade, a division of the Minstry of Justice and Police, have started

several campaigns to inform the local people how to reduce or how to prevent a fire and what the

riks or consequences are after a fire started. The current slogan of the Fire Brigade “Tan Faya

Basi” (which means Don’t let the fire overwhelme you), points out that they want to prevent all

types of fires (human – caused disasters) in order to reduce the vulnerability of the community

during a fire.

In short, the destructing events from 2006 taught us that it is better to take precautions and

preventing measurements against upcoming threats of disasters (both natural and human –

caused). Given all the efforts of the national government and it social partners, the communities

is Suriname are slowly preparing itself on how to respond on upcoming threats of disasters.


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CONCLUSIONS

During my literature review I have studied several methods of disaster preparedness and

mitigation. Not only did I review methods used by the International Federation of the Red Cross

and Red Crescents; I also reviewed methods used in South Africa, United States of America,

Australia & New Zealand, Malawi and Turkey. All these countries have used different methods

as to risk reduction. Since all these countries have different geographical locations, different

kinds of social economies and different levels of vulnerability, I could design possible scenes for

disaster preparedness and mitigation. I have combined all these methods and I have put some

logic sense into the implementation phase of an ideal framework on disaster preparedness and

mitigation.

If I may refer to the research questions of the Individual Research Paper, the research questions

were:

What are the current national policies and institutional framework on disaster

preparedness and mitigation in Suriname?

What are critical factors in best practices for disaster preparedness and mitigation used by


How can Suriname improve its national policies for disaster preparedness and mitigation,

based on the best practices used by international specialized organizations?

What are the current national policies and institutional framework on disaster preparedness and

mitigation in Suriname?

In chapter 3 I have describe the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief. This centre is

coordinating the national policies regarding disaster management in Suriname. This includes

planning, research and implementation of preventing measurements for possible disasters. They

also intervene when there disasters occur and then try to help the damaged /affected communities

to recover and rehabilitate from these disasters.


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What are critical factors in best practices for disaster preparedness and mitigation used by


Based on the examples review of successful practices of disaster preparedness and mitigation, I

must note that the implementation a successful policy is determined on the geographical, social

and economic situation of the affected area / country.

This research has shown the following successful practices:

The early warning system;

The collaboration between the government, the private sector and nongovernmental

organizations and social movements;

Community planning and public participation;

National awareness program;

Improved and secured national safety regulations.

All of the policies have contributed to a safe living environment for the communities where they

have been implemented.

How can Suriname improve its national policies for disaster preparedness and mitigation, based

on the best practices used by international specialized organizations?

I have observed that the national policies really can be improved. Even though the National

Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief coordinates information sessions on how to prevent

disasters, they should do more than just provide information and training. National Coordination

Centre for Disaster Relief mere coordinates and design proposals for disaster preparedness and

mitigation, I would like to comment that other foreign policies not only give information but also

create opportunities for private companies to help with the policies for risk reduction. Even

though several prevention measurements on disaster preparedness and mitigation are taken by

the current government, these measurements are is still being discussed in the parliament as the

National Development Plan 2012 – 2016. In these measurements safe havens are being created

that improve and stabilize the health and living conditions of the citizens in Suriname.

Altogether I would like to conclude that National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief has a

fair share in the national policies in disaster preparedness and mitigation given the “young age”.


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This division has gained more knowledge and expertise in disaster preparedness in the past 5

years. The relationship with the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA),

specialized in disaster management, is also a plus in their policy.

None the less, the National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief should also look to

experiences of other countries with an almost similar vulnerability, threat for disaster or social

economy. With these experiences it might improve their knowledge in disaster preparedness.

Their collaborations with other governmental divisions, private companies, non governmental

organizations and social movements also contribute to the national risk reduction and the

reduction of vulnerable areas.


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RECOMMENDATION

During this research I have notice some points that I haven’t figured out as yet.

Supporting legislation:

Most of the literature refers to methods for risk reduction. If I may refer to one aspect of my ideal

scenario for disaster preparedness and mitigation, I mentioned the supporting legislation of other

governmental divisions. All specialized divisions in the foreign countries have designed perfect

fitting methods for risk reduction. They spoke about community planning and public /private

participation. They spoke about awareness programs and collaborations specialized

organizations.

Yet I have missed the input of legislation. Of example: Take the scenario of a flood.

There is an early warning system that predicts the possibility of an upcoming flood. The

communities are warned and given instructions on how to prevent most of the damage.

But are the building codes / codes for proper infrastructure in place?

If people are given instructions on how to respond to the damages of the flood, what good will it

do if the houses are made out of inferior material that can collapse with a small pressure of water

or that the drainage system is so bad that the water cannot flood away?

This is something that I miss within the national policies on disaster preparedness and mitigation

in Suriname. The National Coordination Centre for Disaster Relief is designing working plans

for the prevention of both manmade and natural disasters. Yet with all the information sessions

and trainings, the current infrastructure and lack of supporting legislation could increases the

numbers of risk hazards.


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REFERENCES

Interview:

King, Elinor, interview by Caitlin Karijokromo. Head of the Disaster Management Unit of the Suriname

Red Cross National Society (July 06, 2010).

Nasibdar, Robert, interview by Caitlin Karijokromo. Researcher at the National Coordination Centre for

Disaster Relief (March 16, 2011).

Slijngard, Jerry, interview by Karijokromo Caitlin. Head of the National Coordination Centre for

Disaster Relief (March 14, 2011).

Literature:

Clarke, Gerald, and Alan Thomas. "Non governmental Organizations, Civil Societies and Development

Governance." In International Development Governance, by Ahmed Shafiqul Huque and Habib

Zafarullah, 415 - 428. London: CRC Press, 2006.

Covington, Jaeryl, and David M. Simpson. An overview of disaster preparedness literature: Building

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Donohue, Steven, Thulani Masilela, and John Gear. "Disaster Management." South African Health

Review , 2000: 455 -466.

Kapucu, Naim. "Collaborative emergency management: better community organising, better public

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Kettl, Donald F. Sharing Power: Public Governance and Private Markets. Washington: The Brookings

Institution, 1993.

Labadie, Mitchel. Suggestions for strengthening Suriname's Implementation of the 1993 Chemical

Weapons Convention. Paramaribo: Institute for Social Studies, 2010.

Schock, Kurt. "People power and Alternative politics." In Politics in the developing world, by Peter

Burnel and Vicky Randall, 186 - 210. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.


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Leftwich, Adrian. "Theorizing the State." In Politics in the Developing World, by Peter Burnell and Vicky

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Pearce, Laurie. "Disaster Management and Community Planning, and Public Participation: How to

achieve Sustainable Hazards Mitigation." Natural Hazards, 2003: 221 - 228.

Peters, B. Guy. The Policies of Bureacracy: An introduction to comparative public administration. New

York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.

Schock, Kurt. "People power and Alternative politics." In Politics in the developing world, by

Peter Burnel and Vicky Randall, 186 - 210. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Zaffarulah, Habib, and Ahmed Shafiqul Huque. "Understanding Development Governance: Concepts,

Institutions and Processes." In International Development Governance, by Habib Zaffarulah and Ahmed

Shafiqul Huque, 13 - 50. New York: CRC Press, 2006.

Lectures:

Awortwi N., lecturer Institute for Social Studies –Public Private Partnerships (2010);

Mooij J., Lecturer Institute for Social Studies – Governance (2010).

Reports:

Pan American Health Organization. "Situation Report June 2006." Situation Report, 2006.

Pan American Health Organization. "Situation Report May 12th 2006." Situation report, 2006.

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"Centre for International Disaster Information." http://www.cidi.org. 2010.

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http://www.ifrc.org. 2010. http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/about/types/hydrological/floods.asp.

http://www.ifrc.org. 2010. http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/reducing/rdr.asp.


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http://www.ifrc.org. 2010. http://www.ifrc.org/what/disasters/preparing/index.asp (accessed September 5,

2010).

"International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies."

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"International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies." http://www.ifrc.org. 2010.

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"International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescents Societies." http://www.ifrc.org. 2010.

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