Disaster Impact on the Caribbean _collymore Revised in 2001

8/13/2019 Disaster Impact on the Caribbean _collymore Revised in 2001

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DISASTER IMPACT ON THE CARIBBEAN

J. COLLYMORE

Key Ideas

The Caribbean islands consist of generally geographical areas which are atrisk from many natural hazards.

The economies of island countries are particularly affected by naturaldisasters.

Hazard mitigation is essential to Caribbean Islands where disasters may

occur with regularity.

Hazard mitigation and disaster recovery may require a major financialcommitment from the national budget.

The Caribbean region has a long a history of natural disasters associated withsuch hazards as hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslidesand droughts. The distribution of natural hazards which afflict the people of theCaribbean is shown in Figure 1. The impact on populations has consistently been

debilitating natural disasters, often resulting in the retardation of economic andsocial development. In the present century, 77% of disasters have beenassociated with natural hazards (Figures 2 and 3). Of these, over three quartersmay be attributed to windstorms or floods. However, despite this large numberof natural disasters, nearly two thirds of those who have lost their lives indisasters have done so through disasters resulting from human actions oractivities. In spite of a long history of natural disasters, efforts of regionalgovernments to mitigate potential vulnerability have been lacking.

Figure 1: Natural hazards in the Caribbean

Figure 2: Natural Disaster Events in the Caribbean: 1990 - 1997

Figure 3: Types of disasters in the Caribbean 1990 - 1997 (The figure for conflicts refers to

separate conflict situations from 1993 - 1995 only)

Figure 4: Fatalities in the Caribbean by Disaster Type: 1993 1997


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Hazard Risks and Experience of the Region

Hazards are defined as threats to life, well being, material goods andenvironment from the extremes of natural processes. When interacting with

social systems these natural hazards induce negative or damaging impacts.Disaster conditions arise when loss of life, injury to persons or destruction ofproperty is on a scale which overcomes the capacity of society to cope withoutmajor changes in its normal operations.

In response to the popular definition of "hazard" offered above it must be notedthat while the extremity of the hazard event is a significant factor in damage andloss, the contributing role of economic, social and political actions in placingpopulations at risk cannot be ignored. Indeed, in many hazard studies social andeconomic factors are relegated to a low status when compared to geophysicalfactors. The idea is conveyed that the effects of calamity are determined bynature which decides where and what social response will become significant.The author of this chapter subscribes to the belief that hazards are not explainedby, or are uniquely dependent upon, the geographical processes that may initiatedamage. Far more attention must be paid to the social processes which underliethe objective phenomena of "natural hazard" and natural disaster". A thoroughunderstanding of the economic structure is critical to a more effectiveinvestigation of vulnerability to disaster by the population. (Collymore 1988)

Exposure of the Region to Hazards

The Caribbean region experiences three of the worst kinds of natural hazards;hurricanes, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Loss of life resulting from theimpacts of hazards runs into the thousands whilst property losses and otherdamages has reached billions of dollars at present day values. Almost everymajor city in the region has been devastated in the last 300 years by a naturaldisaster.

Hurricanes

In the period 1910 - 1930, north Atlantic hurricanes averaged 3.5 per year whichincreased to an average of 6.0 per year between 1944 and 1980. Since 1960 aslight decrease in frequency has been observed, but intensities and magnitudehave increased significantly. Some of the most severe hurricanes of the centuryhave been experienced in this period and include David, Frederick, Allen andGilbert. In the 110 years between 1871 and 1980, 119 hurricanes traversed theeastern Caribbean. In that same period there have been single years when asmany as four hurricanes (1925) and five storms of less than hurricane intensity(1916, 1988) struck the region. (Granger 1988)


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Table 1 lists the hurricanes bringing destruction to the region since the 18thcentury. Whereas the specifics on fatalities and property losses are not alwaysreliable, the table shows the regular damage to housing and agriculture.Table 1: Hurricane disasters in the West Indies

Event location Date Fatalities Property lossesJamaica 1722 400 Much (26 vessels)

Cuba 1768 1,000 4,000 houses destroyed

St. Kitts-Nevis 1772 Many 500,000

Barbados 1780 4,326 1,300,000. Bridgetownpartially destroyed

Martinique 1780 9,000

At Sea (SpanishFleet)

1780 2,000

Jamaica 1780 300 700,000 in one parish onlyBarbados 1831 2,000

Dominica 1834 200

Cuba 1846 Several

St. Thomas 1867 Hundreds

Martinique 1891 700 Immense

St. Vincent 1898 300

Puerto Rico 1899 3,000 Enormous

Haiti 1909 116

Jamaica 1912 142 GreatHaiti 1915 1,600

Puerto Rico 1918 116

Cuba 1926 600

Puerto Rico 1928 300

Dominican Republic 1930 2,000

Cuba 1932 2,500

Haiti 1935 2,150

Jamaica 1951 104 US $56 million

H. JANET

BarbadosSt. Vincent

1955 179

H. FLORABahamasCubaDom. Rep.Haiti

1956 7,175 US$ 784 million


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JamaicaT'dad & Tob.

H. INEZBahamasCubaDom. RepHaitiGuadeloupe

1966 593 US$ 129 million

H. DAVIDH. FREDERICKDominicaDom. Rep.

1979 1,440 US$ 195 million

H.ALLENHaiti

JamaicaSt LuciaSt Vincent

1980 315 US$ 208 million

H. GILBERTDom. RepHaitiJamaica

1988 453 US$ 1092 million

H. HUGODominicaGuadeloupe

MontserratSt KittsBr Virgin Islands

1989 21 US $682 million

otal fatalities inmajor events

1722-1990

42,626

Additional fatalities inminor events

1722-1990

594

otal damage inmajor events

1960-1990

US $3.090 million

Source: Modified from Tomblin (1981)Volcanoes

Volcanic eruptions in St. Vincent in 1812. 1902, and 1979 resulted in loss of life,extensive damage to property, and the disruption of much key economicproduction. Table 2 shows the major volcanic disasters since 1812, the fatalities,and the percentage of the population at risk.


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Table 2:Volcanic Disasters in the West IndiesEvent Location Date Fatalities Percentage of

at riskpopulation

St Vincent 1812 56 2

St Vincent 1902 1,565 26

Martinique 1902 29,000 50

Monserrat 1995 20 75

TOTAL 30,621

The most recent volcanic disaster to afflict the Caribbean has occurred on theisland of Monserrat. Although it had erupted in the early 1600s, the SoufriereHills Volcano stayed dormant until July 18, 1995 and since then, activity has

prompted three evacuations of the surrounding southern part of the island: thefirst on August 21, 1995; the second on December 1 of that year; and the third,which began on April 3, 1996 and continues today. (Collymore & Livingstone1999 In Press)

About 3,200 residents now live on a crescent of land at the very north of the 39-square-miles (63-square-kilometer) island. Most of the other 8000 people wholived here until 1995 intend to return after the volcano calms, but volcanologistsare unsure how long this might be. Estimates range from 3 years to 50 years.Figure 5 shows the distribution of the population as at December 1997.

Figure 5: The Island of Monserrat and the Soufriere Hills Volcano, December 1997

Figure 6: Monserrat

The most recent major eruption of the volcano was on December 26, 1997. Asthe southwestern side of the dome collapsed, a pyroclastic flow (a cloud of ash,rock, and superheated gases) raced down the mountainside to the sea at morethan 100 miles (161 kilometers) per hour.Villages such as St. Patrick's - long since evacuated - were destroyed, and the

delta formed at the mouth of the White River by previous ash flows grew evenlarger. Six months earlier, similar flows down valleys to the east had reached theairport and killed 20 people who had ignored evacuation orders. So far, thesehave been the fatalities from Montserrat's recent volcano.However, hot rock is not the only danger to those who live on Monserrat. Theash is carried by the trade winds across Monserrat and to neighboring islandssuch as Saba, St. Kitts, and St. Maarten. The ash has closed Monsettat airport


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and sometimes forces the neighboring airports on Guadeloupe and Antigua toclose. Furthermore, breathing the ash can cause a deadly disease called silicosis,which thickens lung tissue and causes severe shortness of breath. Doctorsrecommend that Montserratians wear dust masks when the air carries ash.The social and economic structure of the island have also been severelydamaged, not least by the fall in population of over 65% in a three year period.However, disaster management for those remaining is also difficult since theisland is only 17 km long and 8 km wide, with its most northern point about 13km from the volcano. This small size limits the options for relocation of thepopulation and infrastructure to safer areas. In addition, the only airport on theisland ceased to be usable after 25 June 1997 and now only an emergency jettyis available for communication.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes have been a persistent natural hazard resulting in disasters atvarious times in the region. Fatalities and great losses of property haveaccompanied several of the earthquakes. Major disasters occurred in Jamaica(1692, 1907), Cape Haitien (1842) and Pointe-a-Pitre (1843), as shown in Table3. Each event resulted in large losses of life and major damage to property.While not as recurrent as hurricanes, earthquakes do pose a serious threat to theCaribbean region.

Table 3: Historic earthquake Disasters in the West Indies

Event location Date Fatalities

Percentageofpopulation

Property losses

Azua, Dom. Rep 1691 own ruined

Jamaica 1692 4,000* 62 3/4 of housesdestroyed

Haiti 1751 Port-au-Princedestroyed

Azua, Dom. Rep 1751 All houses destroyed

Santiago, Cuba 1766 City destroyedPort-au-Prince andLeogane, Haiti

1770 250 N/A Destroyed

Martinique 1839 387 N/A FFr 4,700,00

Cap. Haitien 1842 5,000 50 Destroyed

Santiado de lossCaballeros, Dom.

1842 300 13 Destroyed


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Rep

Port de Paix, Haiti 1842 200 7 Destroyed

Pointe-a-Pitre,Guadeloupe

1843 5,000 25

Kingston, Jamaica 1907 600 1.5 2,000,000Puerto Rico 1918 100 4,000,000

Dom. Rep. 1946 75 20,000 homeless

TOTAL 15,912

(*) Including about 2,000 from epidemic as a direct consequence of theearthquake.

Source: Tomblin (1981)

Floods

In more recent times the disharmony between human uses of the environment,especially landuse, and natural systems has resulted in repeated flooding inJamaica (1979, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1988), Barbados (1970, 1984, 1986, 1988)and Trinidad (1988). Run off from areas where natural vegetation has beenremoved for roadways, farm fields, urban structures, and other uses, mayexceed the capacity of the local drainage pattern to accommodate the increasedwater. When that happens, the local vicinity may be flooded, or the water willrush down slope to flood lower lying areas. (Collymore 1992)

Drought

Drought as evidenced in St. Vincent in the 1970s and Antigua in the 1980s isanother natural hazard that afflicts the islands. The balance between wateravailability and water use is often very delicate in an island environment andwhen it is disturbed by periods when precipitation is less than normal, the resultis drought, affecting both agricultural users and potable water for humanconsumption. Such droughts here, as elsewhere, may become an economic aswell as social disaster.

Economic Impact of Disasters in the Caribbean

The economic development of the region has been derailed oftentimes in the

past by the impact of hazards. The scenarios that follow serve to highlight theimpact of specific occurrences. It should be noted that the impacts of naturaldisasters become potentially larger as the processes of urbanization and generaldevelopment continue in the region. (Collymore, McDonald & Brown, 1993)

Hurricane David: Dominica, 1979


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Hurricane David struck Dominica on August 29, 1979, seriously damaging 50 percent of the island's 16,000 houses; 2,000 of which were completely destroyed.Approximately two-thirds of the island's 80,000 population was left homeless.Nearly all the school buildings were badly damaged and an estimated EasternCaribbean (EC) $6M (US $2.2 millions) was required to rebuild or repair 64schools. The Princess Margaret Hospital in the capital Roseau, lost roofs fromalmost all of its buildings. The main port in Woodbridge Bay was badly damagedand required a major reconstruction effort costing EC$10.8 millions.The selected economic indicators shown in Table 4 reflect the long term impactof Hurricane David on the island's economy. Up to 1983, agriculture and fishinghad not regained the share of gross domestic product they held in 1978. Exportsdeclined drastically in 1979, whilst GDP per capita in 1979-1980 fell toapproximately 20 percent of the 1978 level.

Table 4: Selected Economic Indicators, Dominica: 1978-83

Selected Indicator 1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

Gross Domestic Product 102 81 88 100 103 107

Agriculture/Fishing 41.0 26.0 24.5 38.3 31.4 33.3

Mining/Construction 6.4 7.2 11.7 12.7 10.4 10.3

Manufacturing 5.5 4.5 5.0 5.4 8.0 8.2

Wholesale/Retail Trade 10.8 7.1 9.4 10.6 12.0 11.0

Hotels/Restaurant 1.3 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

otal Exports 42.9 25.4 26.3 50.9 66.0 74.2

otal Imports 76.8 59.9 128. 136. 128. 121.

GDP Per Capita (EC) 1243 975 1047 1190 1212 1230

Change in Consumer PriceIndex

+9.3 +34.1

+21.4

+8.1 +4.1 +2.7

Source: Annual Reports of UN Economic Commission for Latin American andthe Caribbean

All sectors of Dominica's economy were seriously affected in the disaster, but themajor damage was to agriculture and the infrastructure of roadways, powerlines, communications, and public services. Estimated costs of reconstructionwas estimated to be EC $64.3 millions allocated as shown in Table 5.

Table 5: Estimated cost of reconstruction in Dominica after Hurricane David, 1979

Category EC$ Million*


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Housing 5.3

Water and Sewerage 2.3

Schools 2.4

Industry and Tourism 5.2

Public Buildings 1.4Hospitals and Clinics 1.2

Port and Port Buildings 7.8

elephones 3.0

Airport Buildings 0.1

Electricity 5.1

Agriculture 20.3

Roads and Bridges 10.1

otal 64.3

Source: Wason (1984). *US$1 = EC $2.7

Hurricane Allen: Saint Lucia, 1980

On August 4, 1980, Hurricane Allen passed 40 miles off the southern tip of SaintLucia. Winds of between 75 mph and 105 mph lashed the entire island. Sixpersons died as a result of the hurricane and an estimated 9,600 were displaced.Some 1,576 houses were damaged, of which 577 were totally destroyed ornon-repairable.

Crops losses were particularly heavy, being estimated at EC $69M (US$25.5M).

The island's banana crop which generally accounts for 80 per cent of the annualagricultural output, was 90 per cent destroyed. Consequently, there was adecline in agriculture's contribution to gross domestic product from 15 per centin 1979 to 12 per cent in 1980 and 9 per cent in 1981. The annual change in theisland's gross domestic product (GDP) fell from 3.7 per cent in 1979 to 0.8 percent in 1980 and did not attain the 1979 level of growth until 1983. The totaldamage was estimated to be US $87M.

Flooding: Jamaica, 1986

Floods have increased as a hazard in the region. Flooding from storms otherthan hurricanes has not been as major, but it does result in loss of life, economicdisruption and social dislocation. The "June rains" which affected Jamaica in1986 provided a lucid example of the destructive potential of this hazard.The agricultural sector in Jamaica was severely affected by the flood of 1986.Island-wide damage to the sector was estimated at Jamaican $124M (US $24.5).Damage was done to 17,600 acres of crops valued at J $116M (US $21.1).


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Livestock losses which included chickens and fish were estimated at J $7.6M (US$1.4).

Infrastructure was extensively damaged, with over 300 roads being washed outor blocked with debris. The cost of reopening and rehabilitating roadways alonewas put at J $18.1M (US $3.3). Fifteen bridges were affected and requiredJ$7.0M (US$1.0) to restore them to normal condition. Forty-nine people losttheir lives, 2,000 had to be evacuated and 40,000 were directly affected. Duringthe first two days after the disaster over 100,000 people were without potablewater. (Collymore 1992)

Hurricane Hugo: 1989

Hurricane Hugo affected five of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States(OECS) Member and Associate Member states, ranging geographically from

Dominica and Montserrat in the south to the British Virgin Islands to the north.Within the broad range were St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda. All hadbeen experiencing high rates of economic growth, both in the short (1989-88)and longer terms (1980-1988) as shown in Table 6.The high growth rates were attributed to a surge in tourism. Dominica and StKitts and Nevis had undergone growth in both agriculture and tourism.Hurricane Hugo resulted in severe economic damage to both these importantelements in the Caribbean economies. Table 7 presents estimates of damage tothe region's productive sectors and infrastructure, which was in excess of EC

$856.9M (US $317.4). If damage to housing were included, the total estimatesfor repair would have increased by more than 30 per cent to over EC $1.114B(US $412M). The total rehabilitation costs from Hugo are shown in Table 8.

Table 6: Short and Long Term Growth Rates in the OECS, 1980-88

PercentageGrowth in GDPat Factor Cost1986 - 1988

AverageGrowth1980-1988

Population1988

Dominica 6.84 6.80 5.60 4.7 77,900St Kitts-Nevis 6.33 6.77 4.73 5.3 45,000

Antigua & Barbuda 8.37 8.76 7.56 6.5 78,500

Montserrat 5.78 11.53

12.4 4.9 12,000

British Virgin Islands 4.92 15.10

10.0 5.0 12,000


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Source: UNDP (1989)Table 7: Hurricane Hugo damage assessment OECS states

Dominica

StKitts-Nevis

Antigua &

Barbud

a

Mont-serrat

BritishVirginIsland

s

Total

EC $ MILLION

Agriculture 49.1 13.0 4.9 10.5 2.3 79.8

Fisheries 1.0 9.6 4.3 5.5 1.1 21.5

Othersectors(Infrastructure andother)*

15.0 53.4 36.8 585.0 43.9 755.6

OTAL 65.1 76.0 46.0 601.0 47.3 856.9Source: UNDP (1989) *Excluding housing.

If housing were included, it would result in increasing the total value of thedamage appreciably, probably by about 30 per cent to over EC$1.114 billion(US$412M).

Although the rehabilitation requirements could not accurately be assessed in atwo month period, preliminary estimates of these requirements, excludinghousing, amounted to about EC$410M (US$158). This is illustrated in Table 8.

Table 8: Rehabilitation Requirements in OECS Member States*

Dominica

St Kitts-Nevis

Antigua &

Barbuda

Montserrat

British

VirginIsland

s

Total

EC $ MILLION

Agricultur

e

29.1 3.5 1.42 7.3 n.a 80.50

Fisheries .5 2.2 1.40 4.8 n.a 48.40

Othersectors(Infrastructure andother)

15.0 20.0 n.a 273.1 n.a 60.70


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OTAL 44.60 25.70 2.82 285.20 0.00 358.32

Source: UNDP (1989)*Estimated on the basis of rehabilitation requirements averaging

47.5 percent of damage assessments for the three member statesfor which data are available.

These estimates of requirements were made for a one-year period and weredesigned to reactivate the productive sectors of agriculture and fisheries and toreplace or repair damaged infrastructure. They exclude costs in terms of theimpact on economic growth and development.

Since 1989, the devastation and dislocation caused by hurricanes have beenfrequent. In the decades of the ninety-nineties, the English speaking Caribbeanislands were impacted by at least 10 systems half of which were majorhurricanes, that is 110 mph and above (Table 9).


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TABLE 9: HAZARDS IMPACTING ENGLISH SPEAKING STATES IN THE CARIBB

HAZARD YEAR MAGNITUDE ESTIMATED COST CO

Hurricane Hugo 1989 Category 4/5 US $281.1 M Anti

IslanHurricane Andrew 1992 Category 4 US $250 M Bah

Tropical Storm Debby 1994 Less than 74 mph Sain

Iris/Marilyn/Luis 1995 Iris - Category 3/4Marilyn - Category 1

Luis - Category 3

US $688.2 M AngDom

Nev

Hurricane Georges 1998 Category 3 US $442.6 M **Figures for Dominica not included

AntiDom

Hurricane Lenny 1999 Category 4/5 US $263.9M AngDom

NevSt V

Hurricane Keith 2000 Category 4 US $274.5M Beliz

Hurricane Iris 2001 Category 4 US $500M Beliz

Volcano 1995 topresent

1995 - Negative growth rateof -7.61%1996 - Negative growth rateof -20.15%

Mon

Landslides 1997 Layou Dom

Hurricane Gilbert 1988 Category 4Estimated losses US $1500million. Widespreaddevastation.

Jam

Source: Collymore 2001


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The cost of these impacts is much higher than the damage estimates indicate.In addition to the physical losses, there are other direct and indirect lossesassociated with business interruption, revenue collection, reduced exports, reliefcosts and reconstruction. The records of the Caribbean Development Bank showthat between 1975 and 1997 more than US $1 billion were dispersed toCaribbean Governments for rehabilitation support (Table 10).


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Table 10: Natural Disaster Rehabilitation Projects Portfolio Review as at 1997-12-31

Country Project Title Borrower Loan No, Approval DateDate of

Agreement

ConditionsPrecedentSatisfied

Actual FDD

AG

Hurricane Damage

Rehab Govt 05/SFR-AG 07-Dec-95 05-Mar-96 03-Feb-97 -

AN Housing Rehabilitation Govt 01/SFR-OR-AN 29/30-Jun-74 29-Apr-75 - 30-Apr-75

BVI Housing Rehabilitation DBVI06/SFR-OR-

BVI07-Dec-89 09-Mar-90 14-Aug-90 09-Jul-91

DO Housing Rehabilitation Govt 25/SFT-DO 18-Dec-80 02-Feb-81 25-Sept-81 03-Feb-82

DOEmergency BananaRehabilitation

Govt 50/SFT-DO 06-Dec-90 08-Mar-91 07-Jun-91 24-Jul-91

DOHurricane Rehab (3rdLoan)

Govt 59/SFR-DO 07-Dec-95 04-Apr-96 21-Oct-96 10-Dec-96

JA Flood Rehabilitation Govt 1/SFR-OR-J 23-Aug-79 14-Dec-79 02-Jan-81 05-Mar-80

JA Hurricane Rehabilitation Govt 03/SFR-OR-J 18-Dec-80 23-Apr-81 11-May-81 18-Jun-81

JASecond HurricaneRehabilitation

Govt 05-/SFR-J 08-Dec-88 23-Jan-89 11-Aug-89 22-Dec-89

SKN Hurricane Rehabilitation Govt 28/SFR-ST.K 07-Dec-89 10-Jan-90 06-Sept-90 05-Jun-92

SKN2ndHurricaneRehabilitation

Govt 37/SFR-ST.K 07-Dec-95 20-Mar-96 06-Jun-96 20-Jan-97

SL Storm Rehabilitation Govt 45/SFR-ST.L 08-Dec-94 16-Jan-95 02-Feb-95 25-Jul-95

SVG Banana Rehabilitation Govt 44/SFR-ST.V 08-Sept-86 30-Jan-87 30-Mar-87 25-Apr-87

SVGRestoration of Storm andFlood Damage

Govt 43/SFR-ST.K 11-Dec-86 28-Jan-87 25-Feb-87 12-Apr-88

SVGEmergency BananaRehabilitation

Govt 47/SFR-ST.K 14 Dec-87 05-Aug-88 26-Oct-88 24-Dec-90

Source: CDB 1988


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Since the articulation of a Caribbean Development Bank National DisasterManagement Strategy in 1998, there has been a growing demand for thereconstruction and rehabilitation facility of the Bank.

Vulnerability to Natural Disasters

People often become more vulnerable to natural hazards as a result of their ownactivities, or the activities and policies of the government. Frequently,substantial economic and social costs accrue because of indifference to the risksof natural disasters, or the lack of any clearly formulated environmental riskassessment programs that would provide people with an idea of theirvulnerability.

Within the Caribbean island states, There are development activities aimed atmeeting social-economic aspirations of the population, but which ignore analysisof ways in which risk from natural disasters is affected. Development activitiesaimed at meeting the socio-economic aspirations of the population may placethem at greater risk of natural disasters than before. A number of examples canillustrate this point. (Collymore 1989) The Government of Jamaica is expanding its lucrative Blue Mountain coffee

crop and the project has decimated the forest cover, resulting in a notableincrease in soil erosion. The increase in both flooding and drought in theLiguanea Plains is related to these major change in land cover.

In Barbados, the modernization of some farming practices has resulted in thedestruction of soil retaining barriers, the filling up of natural water retention

ponds with soil that results in reduced infiltration and increased runoff. Theresult is an increase in downstream flooding. Higher banana prices and a newly instituted crop insurance program has

farmers in Saint Lucia encroaching on marginal farming areas. Because of thenarrow margins for profit, farmers are willing to forego disaster mitigation infavour of short term vulnerability. However, if the land use practice becomespart of the general pattern, their susceptibility to disaster will remain.

Much of the housing design and construction in the region does notincorporate adjustment for high winds. An examination of failed dwellingsrevealed that most of those badly damaged have lightweight roofing of 26

gauge, galvanized or bitumen fibre on relatively shallow pitches of 15 percentor less and a long span. The vernacular dwellings, which generally fare bettereven when lighter roof structures are used, are constructed with a high pitch,40 percent, gable or hipped roofs and short span. Yet, modern builderscontinue to use the light materials without recognizing the need for morecareful detailing of the structural systems.


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Vulnerability

Disasters, then, are a result of change in the physical system that may becomplicated by the inability of the social system to respond. The vulnerability torisks from natural hazards may be lessened by the adoption and implementationof policies to mitigate hazards and reduce the negative effects of natural

extremes on the population risk. Social values also come into play whenconsidering vulnerability, and during the 1970s there emerged in some parts ofthe world a belief that people must learn to live more closely in harmony withthe natural environment, and that our activities should embody this harmony.Any hazard management system should include the ability to: anticipate rather than suffer consequences; reduce the hazard or the vulnerability of the population; and have a minimum burden on social resources and opportunities.In the Caribbean region, the challenges of nature and the uses of technology areincreasing the exposure of people to risk. This poses a dilemma forgovernments, which should seek the fullest protection for people and property.New technologies make economic development possible, but they can alsocreate new hazards that pose costly trade-offs in terms of environmental qualityand social and economic benefits. The situation is further confounded by thefact that under normal circumstances few citizens or businesses place a highpriority on hazard management. However, in the event of disasters, theseindividuals and business leaders expect governments to manage themeffectively, but they seldom associate long-term planning with effective disastermanagement.

Responses to Vulnerability and Mitigation

A central point to be made is that establishing a disaster plan requires theconsideration of science underlying natural hazard as well as the humanresponse. The disaster plan must include a wide range of institutional andstructural considerations. Part of the consideration is the long term nature ofdisaster planning. Following are several recommended activities essential toachieving long term plans for dealing with natural disasters in the CaribbeanRegion. They include both policy and action oriented steps, and most generallya combination of both. (Collymore 2000, Collymore et al 1995, Bisek, Jones, et

al 2001)

Hazard Mapping and Risk Analysis

Hazard mapping is a critical step in determining the risk to populations,infrastructure and economic activities. Risk analysis information can be used indevelopment control to guide investments away from high risk areas or toindicate the kinds of mitigative measures necessary to reduce potential losses. A


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clear delineation of the hazards and their distribution in the Caribbean does notexist although some individual countries such as Jamaica have undertaken suchmapping. The map for Jamaica is illustrated in Figure 7.Figure 7: Flooding and Landslide Map from Jamaica

Risk analysis is also necessary for planning disaster response scenarios. If anearthquake of a certain magnitude occurs, then the response should be .....Community emergency managers utilizing this kind of information have a betterconcept of the response requirements for varying magnitudes of the hazardsfacing them. Whilst the need for hazard mapping and risk analysis exists in theregion, it is only beginning to receive promotion and focus at the national level.

Incentives for Incorporating Mitigation Practices

Public policy and legislation provide little or no incentive for individuals orbusinesses to pursue loss reduction measures in their regular activities. Twopossible programs have been proposed for consideration.1. Differential Property Tax. Individual home owners and businesses utilizing

recommended building codes in the construction of their properties should beallowed property tax discounts. Where the development is taking place in adesignated high risk area, the necessary mitigative strategies consistent withthe level of risk must be incorporated in the building plan. This might includehazard proof areas within the building, evacuation measures, and disasterresponse mechanisms at the site.

2. Variable Insurance Premiums.Within the Caribbean, insurance has been

used as the principle mitigation instrument. It is generally agreed thatpremiums are not sufficiently sensitive to spatial distribution of risks or theutilization of loss reduction measures. Premiums on structures that meet codeand avoid high risk environments should be lower than other areas. Theinsurance industry of the region must examine ways in which insurancepremiums can be used to promote good development practices. For example,differential insurance premiums might be based on locational risks relative tonatural hazards as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Photographs of two similar buildings, one on a steep embankment subject to landslide

and the other a safe distance from the potential landslide zone.

3. Inter-Governmental Building Codes and Standards. Given thehazardousness of the regional environment, there is an urgent need fornational/international codes and standards for critical facilities and publicassembly buildings. A Caribbean Building Code has been drafted, but is yet to beadopted formally by the national authorities of the various countries. In usingbuilding codes and standards, issuing licenses, monitoring and enforcement will


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have to be strengthened. A regional program for strengthening the BuildingInspectorate is therefore highly recommended. This program should reflect apartnership among the government, the insurance industry and housingfinancing institutions.4. Recovery Planning. Many of the critical assets of the region have very highexposure to risks which take considerable resources to mitigate. They includeschools, hospitals and old stock housing which are very expensive to upgrade,but are at high risk of major damage during a natural disaster. The importanceof those assets makes it imperative that some, or all, of the existing high riskstructures, beginning with public buildings and facilities of importance duringtime of disaster, such as schools and hospitals be strengthened and protected.5. Promotion of Comprehensive Integrated Disaster Planning.Since theCaribbean is subject to so many natural hazards, the people of the area shouldbe made more aware of their own role in their protection. National disaster

organizations need adequate resources and authority to effect inter-agencydisaster response coordination. Currently, the capabilities of national disasterorganisations are limited almost exclusively to dealing with the hurricanehazards. Inter-agency collaboration that looks across the hazard agendaincluding both natural hazards and those initiated by people such as oil spills andexplosions must be promoted.6. Institutionalized Disaster Training & Research.Disaster trainingresearch in the Caribbean Region, for the most part, is unstructured anduncoordinated. Efforts must be made to utilize educational and vocationalinstitutions to prepare both policy makers and citizens to prepare for and

respond in case of disasters. One way to achieve this would be for theUniversity of the West Indies to establish an academic preparation program ondisaster management, training and research.7. Enhancement of Monitoring and Early Warning Systems. TheEmergency Telecommunications Systems and Procedures serves the region andhas the basic infrastructure for emergency communications. However, thesehave not been used effectively in local districts within countries. Upgrading dataaccess and transmission capabilities will contribute towards an improved earlywarning system for the meteorological hazards.8. Regional Focal Point for Comprehensive Disaster Management

(CDM).The region needs to give an existing institution the mandate to promoteComprehensive Disaster Management and coordinating the various elements ofits agenda. This will include at least the following activities. the establishment down to the community level of contingency plans based on

hazard mapping and risk assessment; the education of a generation of the population in attitudes, values and skills

related to disaster prevention and preparation;


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the renewal or upgrading of the entire housing stock and infrastructure of thearea to standards that will resist the earthquake and hurricane threats;

the adaptation of the economy to disaster resistant activities; the moving of human settlements away from high risk areas; the restoration of ecological balance and the regenerative capacity of

ecological systems; and the establishment of disaster response organizations at community level

throughout the area.

Summary

This chapter has presented an overview of the hazards which face the islandstates of the Caribbean, the effects of disasters and the high levels ofvulnerability of their peoples. It has presented and described improvements atthe national level, but there is still considerable need for concerted regionalaction. The impact of past disasters on the small island states of the region areoften disproportionate due to a number of factors. These include:

dependence on single facilities such as hospitals, ports and airports; number and diversity of hazard to which they are exposed; lack of economic diversity; size of the islands - a major impact can be national in scope; and the heavy investment in high risk coastal zones without appropriate mitigation

measures.

Linking disasters to environment and development necessitates taking the publicpolicy position that a primary cause of disasters in developing countries ispoverty amidst the quest for economic modernization. This cause-and-effectrelationship between disasters and the social and economic development ofsociety cannot be ignored.In suggesting responses to natural hazards, we have implied a risk mitigationand implementation process. The process the affected groups and linksmitigation directly into the planning process and allows for hazard risks to beevaluated and responses formulated.That social dislocation and economic lag of Caribbean societies results in part

from the impact of natural and human induced hazards. Needed is a willingnessof the decision-makers to accord natural hazards the significance in thedevelopment planning process which they unquestionably deserve.


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Bibliography

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Tomblin, J. (1981). "Earthquakes, volcanoes and hurricanes A review of naturalhazards and vulnerability in the West Indies." Ambio 10( 6): 340-345.

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Documents

Disaster Impact on the Caribbean _collymore Revised in 2001