Disaster and Disaster Management

By Dr. Roman Saini

What is A Disaster?

● A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society.

● It causes human, material, and economic or environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using its own resources.

● Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins.

● A disaster occurs when a hazard impacts on vulnerable people.

● The combination of hazards, vulnerability and inability to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk results in a disaster.

Disaster according to National Disaster Management Authority:

● It is a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area.

● It arises from natural or man-made causes, or by accident or negligence.

● It results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, and degradation of, environment.

● Further, it is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.

What is A Hazard?

● “Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures or economic assets and which may cause a disaster that could be either man-made or naturally occurring”.

● Some example follows

○ Earthquake is a naturally occurring geological hazard.

○ A chemical hazard that arises due to human error or technical error in a chemical plant is a man-made hazard.

Natural Hazards

1. Earthquake

● An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the Earth's crust due to the movement of the Earth's plates (plate tectonics).

● Earthquakes can happen along any type of plate boundary.

● Earthquakes occur when tension is released from inside the crust.

● Plates do not always move smoothly alongside each other and sometimes get stuck.

● When this happens pressure builds up.

● When this pressure is eventually released, an earthquake tends to occur.

● The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus.

● The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called the epicenter.

● Earthquake energy is released in seismic waves.

● These waves spread out from the focus.

● The waves are felt most strongly at the epicenter, becoming less strong as they travel further away.

● The most severe damage caused by an earthquake will happen close to the epicenter.

Measurement of Earthquake

● The power of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer.

● A seismometer detects the vibrations caused by an earthquake, that plots these vibrations on a seismograph.

● The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake, is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is numbered 0-10.

● The other seismic scale is the Mercalli scale that quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on a scale from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction).

Types of EarthquakeTectonic Earthquakes:

● The movement of tectonic plates occurs in different forms; towards each other, away from each other, sliding past each other or colliding with each other.

● A huge tremor occurs when two moving tectonic plates slide over one another. This type of earthquake is known as the tectonic earthquake.

● Tectonic earthquakes are the most prevalent kinds of earthquakes in the world.

Volcanic Earthquakes:

● Volcanic earthquakes come in two forms: long-period volcanic earthquakes and volcano-tectonic earthquakes.

Explosion Earthquakes:

● These are caused by nuclear explosions.

● They occur when enormous nuclear energy is released during underground nuclear explosions.

● They are triggered by humans and represent one of the biggest impacts of modern-day nuclear war.

Collapse Earthquakes:

● These kinds of earthquakes are generally smaller and most commonly occur near underground mines.

● They are sometimes referred to as mine bursts.

● Collapse earthquakes are instigated by the pressure generated within the rocks.

● This kind of earthquake leads to the collapse of the roof of the mine instigating more tremors.

Factors affecting the impact of an Earthquake

● Distance from the epicenter - the effects of an earthquake are more severe at its center.

● At the Richter scale- the higher on the Richter scale, the more severe the earthquake is.

● Level of development in a country- more developed countries are more likely to have the resources and technology for monitoring, prediction, and response.

● Population density (rural or urban area)- the more densely populated an area, the more likely there are to be deaths and casualties.

● Communication - accessibility for rescue teams affects the rescue efforts.

● Time of day- it influences whether people are in their homes, at work or traveling.

● A severe earthquake at peak travel hours in a densely populated urban area is more likely to cause more casualties.

● The time of year and climate will influence survival rates and the rate at which an epidemic can spread.

Hazards of EarthquakeCollapse of the Infrastructure:

● Buildings can be damaged by the shaking itself or by the ground beneath them settling to a different level than they were before the earthquake (subsidence).

● Buildings can even sink into the ground if soil liquefaction occurs.

● Liquefaction is the mixing of sand or soil and groundwater during the shaking of a moderate or strong earthquake.

● If liquefaction occurs under a building, it may start to lean, fall, or sink several feet.

● Ground displacement (ground movement) along a fault is another effect.

● If a structure (a building, road, etc.) is built across a fault, the ground displacement during an earthquake could seriously damage that structure.

Flooding:

● An earthquake can rupture (break) dams or levees along a river.

● The water from the river or the reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and may cause casualties.

Tsunami:

● Tsunamis and seiches can also cause tremendous damage.

● A tsunami is a huge wave caused by an earthquake under the ocean.

● Seiches are like small tsunamis that occur in lakes that are shaken by the earthquake and are usually only a few feet high, but they can still flood or knock down houses.

Fires:

● Fires can be started by broken gas lines and power lines.

● They can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines that feed the fire hydrants are also broken.

Preparation for Earthquake

● Practice Drills that involve planning and practicing what to do if an earthquake strikes.

● Practice drills can be done in offices, schools, colleges or homes.

● By planning and practicing for evacuation individuals will be better prepared to respond appropriately and efficiently to signs of danger or to directions by civil authorities.

● An emergency priority list can be prepared that includes important items to be hand-carried, things to do if time permits, such as locking doors and windows, turning off the utilities, etc.

2. Landslides

● A landslide is the movement of rock, earth, or debris down a sloped section of land.

● Landslides are caused by rain, earthquakes, volcanoes, or other factors that make the slope unstable.

● Geologists describe landslides as one type of mass wasting.

● A mass wasting is any downward movement in which the Earth's surface is worn away.

● Other types of mass wasting include rockfalls and the flow of shore deposits called alluvium.

● Near populated areas, landslides present major hazards to people and property.

Causes of Landslides

Geology-

● It refers to characteristics of the material itself.

● The earth or rock might be weak or fractured, or different layers may have different strengths and stiffness.

Morphology-

● It refers to the structure of the land.

● For example, slopes that lose their vegetation to fire or drought are more vulnerable to landslides.

● Vegetation holds soil in place, and without the root systems of trees, bushes, and other plants, the land is more likely to slide away.

Human activity-

● Irrigation, deforestation, excavation, and water leakage are some of the common activities that can help destabilize, or weaken, a slope.

● Also, agriculture and construction can increase the risk of a landslide.

Types of LandslidesLandslide Movement:

● There are several ways of describing how a landslide moves.

● These include falls, topples, translational slides, lateral spreads, and flows.

● In falls and topples, heavy blocks of material fall after separating from a very steep slope or cliff. Boulders tumbling down a slope would be a fall or topple.

● In translational slides, the surface material is separated from the more stable underlying layer of a slope.

● An earthquake may shake the loosen top layer of soil from the harder earth beneath in this type of landslide.

● A lateral spread or flow is the movement of material sideways, or laterally.

● This happens when a powerful force, such as an earthquake, makes the ground move quickly, like a liquid.

Volcanic landslides:

● Volcanic landslides, also called lahars, are among the most devastating type of landslides.

Landslide Material:

● A landslide can involve rock, soil, vegetation, water, or some combination of all these.

● A landslide caused by a volcano can also contain hot volcanic ash and lava from the eruption.

● A landslide high in the mountains may have snow and snowmelt.

3. Tsunami

● A tsunami is a series of waves caused by a rapid displacement of a body of water (ocean, lake).

● The waves are characterized by a very long wavelength and their amplitude is much smaller offshore.

● The impact in coastal areas can be very destructive as the waves advance inland and can extend over thousands of kilometers.

● Triggers of a tsunami can be earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mass movements, impacts of the meteorite or underwater explosions.

Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning & Mitigation System

● The Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 resulted in the loss of lives and the displacement of millions of people around the Indian Ocean.

● The catastrophe brought renewed focus on the need for a regional tsunami warning system in the Indian Ocean.

● Following the disaster, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO was given the mandate to develop and implement an Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (IOTWS).

● The IOTWS became fully operational on 31 March 2013 with Tsunami Service Providers (TSPs) established by Australia, India, and Indonesia.

4. Floods

● Floods occur when water overflows or inundates land that normally is dry.

● A number of causes are associated with floods, the most common of which is when rivers or streams overflow their banks.

● Excessive rain, a ruptured dam or levee, rapid ice melting in the mountains, or even a placed beaver dam can increase river and send river waters over the adjacent land, called a floodplain.

● Coastal flooding occurs when a large storm or tsunami causes the sea to surge inland.

● Most floods take hours or even days to develop, giving residents ample time to prepare or evacuate.

● Others generate quickly and with little warning.

Flash Floods:

● Flooding that begins within 6 hours, and often within 3 hours, of the heavy rainfall or other cause, is called flash flooding.

● These flash floods can be extremely dangerous.

Effects of Flash Floods

● Flash floods generally revitalize the dead/buried drainage systems, the ephemeral streams become very active.

● Area cultivated in the beds of the buried/ dead drainage system gets inundated.

● Sheet erosion of soil takes place.

● The collapse of houses, roads and bridges and inundation of many low lying areas.

Flooding in India

● India is highly vulnerable to floods. Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares (mha), more than 40 mha is flood prone.

● Floods are a recurrent phenomenon, which causes huge loss of lives and damage to livelihood systems, property, infrastructure, and public utilities.

● Flood-related damages have been increasing.

Causes:

● In India, 80 percent of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months from June to September.

● Inadequate carrying capacity of rivers is responsible for causing floods, drainage congestion and erosion of river-banks.

● Cyclones, cyclonic circulations, and cloudbursts cause flash floods and lead to huge losses.

● Some of the rivers causing damage in India originate in neighbouring countries, thus adding another complex dimension to the problem.

Urban Floods

● Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.

● Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times (in a matter of minutes).

● Urban areas are densely populated and people living in vulnerable areas suffer due to flooding, sometimes resulting in loss of life.

● The secondary effect of exposure to infection also has its toll in terms of human suffering, loss of livelihood and, in extreme cases, loss of life.

● Major cities in India like Chennai, Mumbai etc. have witnessed the loss of life and property, disruption in transport and power and incidence of epidemics.

● The Kerala flood in August 2018 is the latest example before us.

● Therefore, management of urban flooding has to be accorded top priority.

● Problems associated with urban floods range from relatively localized incidents to major incidents, resulting in cities being inundated from hours to several days.

● Therefore, the impact can also be widespread, including temporary relocation of people, damage to civic amenities, deterioration of water quality and risk of epidemics.

Causes of Urban Flooding

Natural Causes:

1. Heavy Rainfall/ Flash floods

● The water of heavy rainfall concentrates and flows quickly through the urban paved area and rushes into low lying areas raising the water level.

● More damage is encountered when the main drain or a river passing through the area over-flows for breaches.

2. Lack of Lakes/ Encroachment of the wetlands

● Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of water.

● When lakes become smaller, their ability to regulate the flow becomes less and hence flooding takes place.

3. Silting

● The drains carry large amounts of sediments which are deposited in the lower courses making beds shallower and reducing the channel capacity.

● When there is heavy rain, these silted drains cannot carry full discharge and result in flooding.

Human Causes:

1. Population pressure

● Overpopulation causes overgrazing, over cultivation and soil erosion increase the risk of flooding.

2. Deforestation

● Large areas of forests near the rivers/catchment of cities are cleared for settlements, roads, and farmlands that results in loss of vegetation and soils.

● This raises the drain bed causing overflow and in turn urban flooding.

3. Trespassing on stormwater drains

● The areas in which the stormwater drains are present to let the flood waters pass freely are being encroached on for developmental purposes that result in obstruction of water flow and thus contributes to urban floods.

4. Urbanization

● It leads to paving of surfaces which decreases ground absorption and increases the speed and amount of surface flow.

● Unplanned urbanization is the key cause of urban flooding.

● Various kinds of depression and low lying areas near or around the cities which used to act as cushions and flood absorbers are gradually filled up and constructions are built upon them due to urbanization pressure.

5. Unauthorized colonies

● They have been developed by the local colonizers on the agriculture land without thoughtful consideration to the city plans, drainage, sewerage etc.

● Poor Water and Sewerage Management - Old drainage and sewerage system has not been overhauled nor is adequate now in the cities that are overflowing with people.

5. Cyclones

● Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low- pressure area distinguished by swift and often destructive air circulation.

● They are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.

● The air circulates inward in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.

● Cyclones are classified as:

1. Extratropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones)

2. Tropical cyclones.

● The WMO uses the term 'Tropical Cyclone’ for weather systems in which winds exceed ‘Gale Force’ (minimum of 34 knots or 63 kph).

Different Names of Cyclones

Cyclones are given many names in different regions of the world:

● Typhoons in the China Sea and the Pacific Ocean.

● Hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

● Tornados in the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA.

● Willy-willies in north-western Australia.

● Tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean.

Cyclones in India

● The Indian subcontinent is exposed to nearly 10 percent of the world’s tropical cyclones.

● Of these, majority of them have their origin over the Bay of Bengal and strike the East coast of India.

● Cyclones occur on both the coasts i.e. the West coast - the Arabian Sea and the East Coast - Bay of Bengal.

● More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea.

● Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November.

● Cyclones of severe intensity and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May.

● The disaster potential is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian Ocean (that includes the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall.

● Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundated low lying areas of coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.

6. Heat Waves

● A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western parts of India.

● Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July.

● The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.

● Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becoming increasingly frequent globally due to climate change.

● India, too, is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in nature with each passing year.

● Heat waves have a devastating impact on human health thereby increasing the number of heat wave casualties.

● The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke.

Indian Meteorological Department’s Criteria

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria:

● Heat Waves need not be considered till the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40 degrees C for Plains and at least 30 degrees C for hilly regions.

● When the normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40 degrees C, Heat Wave Departure from normal is 5 degrees C to 6 degrees C and severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 7 degrees C or more.

● When the normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40 degrees C, Heat Wave Departure from normal is 4 degrees C to 5 degrees C and Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 6 degrees C or more.

● When actual maximum temperature remains 45 degrees C or more irrespective of normal maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared.

Impact of Heat Waves

Heat Waves have adverse effects on human health, that include:

● Heat Cramps: Swelling and fainting generally accompanied by fever below 39 degrees Celsius (102 degrees F).

● Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, and sweating.

● Heat Stroke: Body temperatures of 40 degrees Celsius i.e. 104 degrees F that can be potentially fatal.

7. Droughts

● The National Commission on Agriculture in India has classified three types of drought:

1. Meteorological Drought

2. Agricultural Drought

3. Hydrological Drought

Meteorological drought

● It is defined as a situation when there is a significant decrease from normal precipitation over an area (i.e. more than 10%).

Agricultural drought

● It is a situation when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate to support healthy crop growth.

Hydrological drought

● It results from prolonged meteorological drought resulting in depletion of surface and subsurface water resources.

8. Dust Storms

What are dust storms?

● Dust storms are formed when large amount of sand are lifted by strong winds from dry soils in to the atmosphere.

● The sand is transported for hundreds to thousands of kilometres.

● They are common in arid and semi-arid regions.

● Some 40% of aerosols in the troposphere (the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere) are dust particles from wind erosion.

● Once released from the surface, dust particles are raised to higher levels of the troposphere by turbulent mixing and convective updrafts.

● They can then be transported by winds for lengths of time, depending on their size and meteorological conditions, before being pulled back down to the surface again.

● As larger particles sediment more quickly than smaller ones, there is a shift toward smaller particle sizes during transport.

● Dust gets washed away by precipitation.

● In 2018, high-velocity dust storms swept across North India killing and injuring many people.

● It stretched from the western state of Rajasthan to the eastern state of Uttar Pradesh.

● Though dust storms are an annual weather pattern seen in the region, the dust storm of 2018 had much higher speeds and destroying capacity.

● The annual dust storms in India are low in intensity and accompanied by rains.

● They are usually welcomed by people as they bring down temperatures and indicate the arrival of monsoons.

● The 2018 dust storms were high-powered storms travelling long distances and destroying properties and agricultural fields.

● The air pollution in Delhi reached ‘severe’ category on most days.

● The strong winds were probably downbursts, similar to those that can strike the central and eastern United States during intense thunderstorms.

● Downbursts are thunderstorms characterized by intense downward air movements having huge volumes of dusts.

● Down bursts travel up to 300-400 km before they lose energy and move outwards after hitting ground at various places on their way.

● Downbursts smaller than 2.5 miles are called microbursts.

● Prevalence of dry hot air in north and northwest India has aided to the intensity of down bursts during thunderstorms over the last one week.

● Indian Meteorological Department said that there were primarily four reasons that led to the volatile weather condition. These were

○ excessive heating (above average temperature)

○ availability of moisture

○ instability in atmosphere

○ a trigger for the storm

● Storms originating in North West India were intensified by the higher temperatures in the Northern plains.

Impact of dust storms

● It causes topsoil loss from the places where sand is lifted reducing agricultural productivity.

● It also destroys the standing crops in the fields.

● It increases spread and the speed of disease over the globe as virus spores from the ground are blown into the atmosphere with dust particles.

● It can cause respiratory diseases and intensify the diseases of people who already have lung diseases like Asthma.

● It can also affect the eyes, causing blindness in cases of severity.

Control measures

● Prevention of lifting of dust can be done by increasing the vegetation cover wherever possible.

● Planting of trees can act as a buffer against dust storms.

● Buildings should be designed to incorporate disaster resilience and air filtration techniques.

● Adoption of methods for reducing the heat effect in urban areas.

9. Forest Fires

Causes of forest fires

● The causes of forest fires vary from region to region and state to state.

● Generally, the causes for forest fires can be classified as:

● Natural causes

○ Lightning

○ Rolling stones

○ Rubbing of branches

● Man-made causes

○ Burning of agricultural fields adjacent to forests

○ Use of fire by villagers to ward off wild animals

○ Un-extinguished camp fires of trekkers and tourists

○ Careless throwing of torchwood, un-extinguished cigarettes, matchsticks

Benefits of forest fires

● Reduces the build-up of fuel and thus the intensity of future burns.

● Recycles nutrients bound up in litter.

● Reduces competition, allowing existing trees to grow larger.

● Creates forest refuge to provide nesting spots for wood peckers and other birds.

● Removes unpalatable growth remaining from previous seasons.

● Stimulates flush of new growth of palatable leaves.

● Stimulates seed production or opening of cones and prepare seed beds for seeding, either naturally or artificially.

● Establishes fire breaks in a system of protection from wildfire.

● Induces good growth of Tendu leaves.

Effects of forest fire

● It causes damage to vegetation cover and loss of natural regeneration.

● It leads to loss of wildlife habitat which in turn leads to enhanced incidences of “Man-animal” conflict.

● The affected areas face problems of enhanced temperature, loss of water-resources and bad ambience around habitations.

● Due to burning of flora, there is severe loss of biodiversity in such areas which then gets profusely invaded by weeds like Lantana, Parthenium etc.

● Fires damages some important Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) species on which local people depend traditionally for their livelihood.

● Thick smoke generated by Forest-fires, add high concentration of Green House Gases (GHGs) into atmosphere, adding to the problem of Global Warming and Climate Change.

Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme

● In 2017, Intensification of Forest Management Scheme was revised and replaced as Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme.

● It was restructured to focus solely on the issue of forest fire prevention and management ad related activities and to address the growing concerns over adverse effects of forest fire.

● Long term and short term objectives have been identified under the scheme.

Long Term Objectives

● To minimise forest fire incidences, develop knowledge on impacts and dynamics of forest fire and assist in restoring productivity of forests in affected areas

● To institutionalise the partnership with forest fringe communities for forest protection

● To contribute to the larger goal of maintaining environmental stability.

● To prepare fire danger rating system and devise forest fire forecasting system.

● To encourage the states/UTs for optimal use of modern technology (such as Remote Sensing, GPS and GIS) in planning, developing and operationalising Fire prevention and management system.

● To develop knowledge on impacts and dynamics of forest fire.

Short term objectives

● To carry out effective awareness campaign for prevention of forest fire.

● To effectively prevent and control forest fires by improving the traditional practices and employing available modern methods.

● To impart suitable training to the field staff and forest fringe communities on fire fighting with help of prescribed means and methods in the forest areas.

● To encourage community participation in prevention and control of forest fire

● To develop and strengthen Forestry Infrastructure of the States and UTs that are required for effective prevention and management of forest fire.

Challenges

According to State of India’s Environment report,

● India loses around Rs 550 crore every year owing to damages caused by forest fires.

● Though the number of forest fires show an increasing trend, about 46-65 per cent of the money allocated under the forest management schemes was not released.

● Besides, the budget to fight forest fires has been reduced by 14-72 per cent in 13 states in 2017.

● Mobility of staff to fire affected areas along with tools and equipments and other logistics is a major constraint.

● Field Staff do not have fire resistant dresses, head gears, and other accessories to deal with the situation effectively and professionally.

● The field staff is not adequately trained and exposed to scientific and modern practices of Fire control.

● About 50000 Ha. Forests are highly vulnerable to forest fires but the staff had been able to treat only 700 to 800 Ha. of vulnerable forests with the given resources.

Forest Fire Management

● A report on “strengthening forest fire management in India” was released jointly by Ministry of Environment & Forests & Climate Change (MoEFCC) & World Bank.

● It indicates that forest fires have distinct regional patterns, with 20 districts accounting for 47% of fire distribution.

● It also points out that forest fires are caused by a combination of natural and social factors.

● The report discusses policies on forest fire prevention and management.

● It underscores the need to put more emphasis on better fire prevention practices and a well-equipped and trained workforce to fight fires.

● The report adds that there is an urgent need to fill vacancies for field staff, particularly in fire-prone areas.

● It also stresses on making adequate and reliable funding available.

● Some of the recommendations are

○ develop a National Forest Fire Prevention Management Plan (NFFPMP) as an open, consultative and a time-bound process

○ institute standard management practices

○ adapt technology to local conditions, as well as scale up the best practices

○ increase engagement with local communities to ensure that big fire is used in a responsible way and at the same time, give communities a greater say in decision-making process

● The Report suggests that the National FFPM Action Plan should delineate the roles and responsibilities of the MoEFCC, state forest departments, communities and disaster agencies.

● There is also a need to support forest fire management through improved data, and research to fill critical knowledge gaps.

● A national forest fire information database should be created bringing together satellite-based remote sensing data and field-reported data.

● The database will be instrumental for assessing longer-term trends across states and regions and for planning fire prevention and response.

● A national research agenda for fire management should be defined.

● It should be supplemented with funding opportunities for scientific research which would help establish formal cooperation between members of the research community and the forest department.

Other Hazards

1. Biological Hazards

● These occur due to the activity of biological agents like pathogens.

● Epidemics and pandemics are biological hazards.

● The epidemic is the rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of people in a given population within a short period of time.

● Examples include

○ 2014 West Africa Ebola outbreak.

○ 2006 dengue outbreak in India.

○ Zika virus outbreak in 2015.

● Pandemic refers to an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region; for instance multiple continents, or even worldwide.

● Examples include HIV/AIDS, 2009 flu pandemic etc.

2. Nuclear Hazard

● Nuclear and Radiological Emergency can arise in a nuclear facility at plant level leading to plant/ site or offsite emergency depending upon the extent of its impact on the surroundings.

● It can also take place while using radiation sources, either at Hospitals, Industries, Agriculture or Research Institutions due to loss or misplacement or due to faulty handling.

● An accident of a vehicle carrying radioactive/nuclear material can also contribute to an emergency.

● Human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc. may lead to an on-site or off-site emergency.

● The most notable case of nuclear disaster is the Fukushima nuclear disaster that occurred after the earthquake led to a 15-meter tsunami which disabled the power supply and cooling of three Fukushima Daiichi reactors on 11 March 2011.

3. Chemical Hazard

● Causes of chemical disasters:

1. Process and safety systems failures that include human errors, technical errors and management errors

2. Induced effect of natural calamities

3. Accidents during the transportation

4. Hazardous waste processing/ disposal

5. Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage

● The industrial plant, its employees & workers, hazardous chemicals vehicles, the residents of nearby settlements, adjacent buildings, occupants and the surrounding community are the most vulnerable to the risk of chemical disasters.

● A notable example of chemical disaster is Bhopal Gas Tragedy in India in 1984, where exposure to methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other chemicals caused the death of thousands of people and lakhs of injuries, including temporary partial injuries and severely and permanently disabling injuries.

● The NDMA of India has specific guidelines on Chemical Disaster Management which has been prepared to provide the directions to ministries, departments and state authorities for the preparation of their detailed disaster management plans.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

What is Disaster Risk?

● Risk or more specifically, disaster risk is the potential disaster losses (in terms of lives, health status, livelihoods, assets, and services) which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future time period.

Dealing with Risk

● Risk Acceptance is an informed decision to accept the possible consequences and likelihood of a particular risk.

● Risk Avoidance is an informed decision to avoid involvement in activities leading to risk realization.

● Risk Reduction refers to the application of appropriate techniques to reduce the likelihood of risk occurrence and its consequences.

● Risk Transfer involves shifting of the burden of risk to another party.

● One of the most common forms of risk transfer is Insurance.

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

● Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) aims to reduce the damage caused by natural hazards like earthquakes, floods, droughts, and cyclones, through an ethic of prevention.

● Disasters often follow natural hazards.

● A disaster's severity depends on how much impact a hazard has on society and the environment.

● The scale of the impact, in turn, depends on the choices individuals make for lives and for the environment.

● It includes:

1. Systematic efforts to analyze and reduce the causal factors of disasters.

2. Reducing exposure to hazards, lessening the vulnerability of people and property

3. Wise management of land and the environment

4. Improving preparedness and early warning for adverse events.

Components of DRR

1. Disaster management

2. Disaster mitigation

3. Disaster preparedness

DRR and Sustainable Development

● DRR is also part of sustainable development.

● In order for development activities to be sustainable, they must also reduce disaster risk.

● On the other hand, unsound development policies will increase disaster risk and disaster losses.

● Thus, DRR involves every part of society, every part of the government, and every part of the professional and private sector.

Disaster Management in India

Vulnerability of India to Disaster

● India has been vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large number of natural, as well as, human-made disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions.

● It is highly vulnerable to floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches and forest fires.

● Out of 36 states and union territories in the country, 27 are disaster prone.

● Almost 58.6 percent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity.

● Over 40 million hectares (12 percent of land) are prone to floods and river erosion.

● Of the 7,516 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and tsunamis.

● 68 percent of the cultivable area is vulnerable to drought.

● The hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches.

Disaster Management according to NDMA

A continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for ● Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster; ● Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or

consequences;● Capacity building and Preparedness to deal with any disaster; ● Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster; ● Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster; ● Evacuation, rescue and relief; and Rehabilitation and reconstruction.

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

● On 23 December 2005, the Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act.

● It envisaged the creation of National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the Prime Minister, and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by respective Chief Ministers, to spearhead and implement a holistic and integrated approach to Disaster Management in India.

Responsibilities of NDMA

● Laying down policies on disaster management.

● Approving the National Plan.

● Approving plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the Government of India in accordance with the National Plan.

● Laying down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the State Plan.

● Coordinating the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plans for disaster management.

● Laying down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or Departments of the Government of India for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans and projects.

● Recommending the provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation.

● Providing such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may be determined by the Central Government.

● Laying down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster Management.

National Policy Framework

● The National Policy framework has been prepared after due deliberation and keeping in view the National Vision to build a safe and disaster-resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster and technology-driven strategy for Disaster Management.

● This Policy framework is in conformity with the following

○ International Strategy for Disaster Reduction,

○ Rio Declaration,

○ Millennium Development Goals and

○ Hyogo Framework 2005-2015.

Themes of the National Policy Framework

● Community-based disaster management, including last mile integration of the policy, plans, and execution.

● Capacity development in all related areas.

● Consolidation of past initiatives and best practices.

● Cooperation with agencies at the national, regional and international levels.

● Compliance and coordination to generate a multi-sectoral synergy.

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP)

National Disaster Management Plan

● It was released in June 2016 to provide a framework and direction to the government agencies for all phases of the disaster management cycle.

● It has been aligned broadly with the goals and priorities set out in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.

The Vision of the Plan:● “Make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk reduction,

and significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets – economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental – by maximizing the ability to cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities."

● For each hazard, the approach used in this national plan incorporates the four priorities enunciated in the Sendai Framework into the planning framework for Disaster Risk Reduction under the five Thematic Areas for Actions:

1. Understanding Risk

2. Inter-Agency Coordination

3. Investing in DRR – Structural Measures

4. Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures

5. Capacity Development

● The generalized responsibility matrix has six thematic areas in which Central and State Governments have to take actions to strengthen disaster risk governance:

1. Mainstream and integrate DRR and Institutional Strengthening

2. Capacity Development

3. Promote Participatory Approaches

4. Work with Elected Representatives

5. Grievance Redress Mechanism

6. Promote Quality Standards, Certifications, and Awards for Disaster Risk Management

Activities under NDMP

1. Early Warning, Maps, Satellite inputs, Information Dissemination

2. Evacuation of People and Animals

3. Search and Rescue of People and Animals

4. Medical Care

5. Drinking Water/ Dewatering Pumps/Sanitation Facilities/ Public Health

6. Food & Essential Supplies

7. Communication and Media Relations

8. Housing and Temporary Shelters

9. Power, Fuel, and Transportation

10. Relief Logistics and Supply Chain Management

11. Disposal of Animal Carcasses

12. Fodder for livestock in scarcity-hit areas

13. Rehabilitation and Ensuring Safety of Livestock and other Animals, Veterinary Care

14. Data Collection and Management

15. Relief Employment

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

● The Disaster Management Act has statutory provisions for the constitution of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for the purpose of specialized response to natural and man-made disasters.

● Accordingly, in 2006 NDRF was constituted with 8 battalions.

● At present, National Disaster Response Force consist of 12 battalions, three each from the BSF and CRPF and two each from CISF, ITBP, and SSB.

● All the 12 battalions have been equipped and trained to respond natural as well as man-made disasters.

● Battalions are also trained and equipped for response during chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) emergencies.

● In the beginning, the personnel of NDRF was deployed for routine law and order duties also.

● However, after October 2007, the need for NDRF being made a dedicated force was highlighted and accepted.

● This led to the making NDRF a dedicated force for disaster response related duties, under the unified command of DG NDRF.

● Today NDRF is a distinguished, unique Force across the country functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.

● It is placed within the overall command, control, and leadership of the Director General, NDRF.

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030

The Sendai Framework

● It is the first major agreement of the post-2015 development agenda of the UN, with seven targets and four priorities for action.

● It was endorsed by the UN General Assembly following the 2015 Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR).

● The Sendai Framework is the successor instrument to the “Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters”.

Aim of the Sendai Framework

● "The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries."

The Seven Global Targets

1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global mortality rate in the decade 2020-2030 compared to the period 2005-2015.

2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower average global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020 -2030 compared to the period 2005-2015.

3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to the global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030.

4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030.

5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies by 2020.

6. Substantially enhance international cooperation in developing countries through adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of this Framework by 2030.

7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.

The Four Priorities for Action

Priority 1:

● Understanding disaster risk Disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment.

● Such knowledge can be used for risk assessment, prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response.

Priority 2:

● Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk.

● Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is very important for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation. It fosters collaboration and partnership.

Priority 3:

● Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience.

● Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural and non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the environment.

Priority 4:

● Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.

● The growth of disaster risk means there is a need to strengthen disaster preparedness for response, take action in anticipation of events, and ensure capacities are in place for effective response and recovery at all levels.

● The recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction phase is a critical opportunity to build back better, including through integrating disaster risk reduction into development measures.

Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

● An international workshop on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure was held in 2018.

● It was organised by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in collaboration with United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR).

● Infrastructure which can withstand the effect of disasters are called Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (DRI).

Significance

● It is estimated that in Asia alone, over the next fifteen years, an investment of $1.7 trillion per year will be required in the infrastructure sectors.

● A large part of this infrastructure will inevitably be exposed to a plethora of natural hazards including floods, earthquakes, storms, tsunamis etc.

● At the same time, there is a risk that the new infrastructure may itself create new disaster risks.

Background

● During the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) 2016, the Prime Minister of India had announced that India will work with partner countries and stakeholders to build a coalition for promoting disaster resilient infrastructure.

● The objective of building a coalition was to generate new knowledge on hazard risk assessment, disaster resilient technologies and mechanisms for integrating risk reduction in infrastructure financing.

● This will help ensure that all new infrastructure is not only disaster resilient itself but also does not create new disaster risks.

● Four broad thematic areas had been identified for the work of the coalition

1. development of disaster risk assessment methodologies, risk metrics and indicators of sustainability for different infrastructure classes;

2. issues of standards, design and regulation for infrastructure development, operations and maintenance;

3. financing for disaster resilient infrastructure including risk transfer mechanisms; and

4. reconstruction and recovery of key infrastructure sectors after disasters.

PM’s 10 point agenda

● It was outlined during the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) held in New Delhi in November 2016.

● It was announced to give a sense of urgency to the implementation of Sendai Framework for DRR.

● The all-inclusive agenda presents a holistic approach to disaster risk management and addresses a whole range of issues, from community preparedness to use of technology and international cooperation.

1. All development sectors must imbibe the principles of disaster risk management.

2. Work towards risk coverage for all-starting from poor households to SMEs to multi-national corporations to nation states.

3. Encourage greater involvement and leadership of women in disaster risk management.

4. Invest in risk mapping globally. For mapping risks related to hazards like earthquakes we have accepted standards and parameters.

5. Leverage technology to enhance the efficiency of our disaster risk management efforts.

6. Develop a network of universities to work on disaster issues.

7. Utilise the opportunities provided by social media and mobile technologies.

8. Build on local capacity and initiative.

9. Opportunity to learn from a disaster must not be wasted. After every disaster there are papers on lessons that are rarely applied.

10. Bring about greater cohesion in international response to disasters.

Thank You!