Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016

DISARMAMENTANDINTERNATIONALSECURITYCOMMITTEE

I. THEUSEOFSURVEILLANCEANDWEAPONIZEDUNMANNEDAERIALVEHICLES

II. IMPLEMENTATIONOFTHEINDIANOCEANASAPEACEZONE

PREPAREDBYEMIRIŞMANUNDERSECRETARYGENERALOFDISEC

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 AGENDA ITEM 1: The Use of Surveillance and Weaponized Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Background

The technology has changed, is changing, and will continue to change the modern warfare. Today,

many countries in the world possess advanced missile systems that can strike intercontinental

targets with pin-point accuracy, fighter jets that are more advanced and agile than ever, and

satellites for espionage activities. But the next step in the battlefield does not seem to include

humans: Remote-controlled and/or autonomous weapons such as unmanned aerial vehicles,

sentries, or drone submarines are ambitious to reshape present conflicts. However, these

development also brings some ethical concerns with itself: many human rights organisations and

activists are concerned regarding the operations conducted with armed drones. There are still many

questions that are needed to be answered.

Definition of key terms

• Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)

An unmanned aerial vehicle, also known with its abbreviation, UAV, or drone is an aircraft that is

remotely controlled by an human pilot. UAVs do not have a human pilot aboard. Some UAVs can

also possess autonomous capabilities, and some of them can also carry weapons. Some systems can

even decide to use lethal force without explicit human authorisation i.e. autonomously.

• Collateral damage

Collateral damage is a term used for deaths or injuries to unintended targets, such as civilians or

own military personnel (friendly fire).

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 History

The first usage of unmanned aerial vehicle can be traced back to 1849, when Austria used balloons

equipped with bombs to attack Venice. As a balloon, the vehicle did not have thrust systems,

therefore some of the balloons blew back to the Austrian lines due to poor weather conditions. In

1916, during World War I, the United Kingdom tried to develop the first motorised UAV, the

“Aerial Target.” In World War II, both the Axis and the Allies have tried to develop drones,

especially after the invention of the jet engine. Radioplane OQ-2 was the first masse-produced

drone. It was purposed as a target drone, and more than ten thousand units had been produced.

During the Cold War, many drones had been produced as decoys and targets. The era saw the usage

of the first reconnaissance drones, especially in the Vietnam War: during the Vietnam War, the

United States used more than 3.000 drones, ca. 500 of which had been lost during combat.

Israel is the first Middle Eastern nation to develop and deploy drones in the battlefield: After taking

heavy damage from Egyptian and Syrian missiles in the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Israel decided to

start the development of the first drone with real-time surveillance. (Previous surveillance drones

developed by the United States, that have been used in Vietnam War, lacked this ability as they

only could provide the intelligence once they have been reacquired) Israel later used these UAVs in

Lebanon War of 1982, resulting in the total annihilation of Syrian air defences, therefore securing

Israel air superiority throughout the war, minimising the loss of pilots and aircraft.

Modern drones with lethal capabilities started to emerge in 1990s, as the first advanced drones like

MQ1-Predator has been developed not only with advanced tracking technologies, but also missile

systems that can be remotely launched.

Overview

The introduction of drones have brought many new aspects to war. There has been many

advantages of drones used by the military forces: in the age of terrorism, drones provide a very

efficient and less-risky way of surveillance and combat against terrorist groups and insurgencies.

An UAV is more cost-efficient than other alternatives such as a fighter jet with a human pilot. There

is also no risk of losing the pilot in a fatal crash, thus saving the life of the military personnel.

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 However, in contrast to their advantages, drones are facing multiple ethical issues: the usage of a

remote-controlled aircraft to kill human targets has been controversial. Not being physically present

at the battlefield and the ability to remote control from anywhere in the world abstracts the warfare,

and possibly dehumanises the decision the carry out the attack, making it very similar to a video

game. Keith Shurtleff, a chaplain in the US Army, states “that as war becomes safer and easier, as

soldiers are removed from the horrors of war and see the enemy not as humans but as blips on a

screen, there is very real danger of losing the deterrent that such horrors provide.”This problem

might also arise with the use of missile, artilleries, and other systems that can neutralise the enemy

from a distance, but with the usage of drones, the distance can go beyond very large distances.

Another ethical concern for drones is their autonomous capabilities. Right now, there are some

developments that would allow UAVs to make decisions to use weapons onboard without any

human involvement. This raises many ethical and technical questions: many argue that autonomous

systems cannot have a judgement close to humans, or they should never be allowed to do so.

Technical questions include the scenarios in which the drone is “hacked”, or goes out of control due

to malfunctioning code etc.

Psychological effects on drone pilots, such as but not limited to post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) can also be seen in drone operators. It is evident that the risk is included in all military

posts, but the drone operators are more prone to the risks. Below is the account of Brandon Bryant,

a previous drone operator in the US Air Force:

“The smoke clears, and there’s pieces of the two guys around the crater. And there’s this guy over

here, and he’s missing his right leg above his knee. He’s holding it, and he’s rolling around, and

the blood is squirting out of his leg … It took him a long time to die. I just watched him.”

Risk of civilian casualties

Even though drones are proven to be efficient against militants, there is a high number of civilian

casualties during the operations: according the several studies, the non-militant fatalities from US

drone strikes account for 5 to 20 percent of all fatalities. Many homes and civilian buildings were

targeted by US drone strikes in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Somalia, and Yemen, causing excessive

collateral damage. You may find the data for drone strikes and casualties below:

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016

Country Total strikes Total killed Civillians killed Children killed Injured

Afghanistan 475-480 2.091-2.747 78-145 4-21 228-258

Pakistan 424 2.499-4.001 424-966 172-207 1.161-

1.744

Somalia 32-36 241-418 3-10 0-2 18-24

Yemen 135-155 577-838 65-101 8-9 98-232

Major parties involved

• United States of America

The United States is by far the prominent user of drones worldwide: the US military units are

operating more than 10.000 UAVs combined. The first extensive usage of drones by U.S. military

occured during the 2001 Invasion of Afghanistan and the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The U.S. drone

arsenal ranges from small hand-launched drones to high-altitude surveillance aircraft like RQ-4

Global Hawk. There has been many cases of collateral damage from U.S. drone strikes both in

Afghanistan and Pakistan. However, the public support of U.S. drone attack does not seem to be

affected: studies show that the 75 percent of the U.S. population support the usage of drone to fight

against global terrorism.

• Afghanistan

Drones are being extensively used by the U.S. military since the 2001 Invasion of Afghanistan.

Although there has been some successful counter-terrorism operations, unfortunately they are also

responsible for many civilian deaths: as an example, an airstrike in September 2016 targeting

Islamic State caused the death of 15 civilians in eastern Afghanistan.

• Pakistan

Pakistan repeatedly protested against the drone strikes carried out by the U.S. military, and declared

them as a violation of their sovereignty on multiple occasions. However, the U.S. strikes, some of

them carried out by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), continue to cause deaths of innocent

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 Pakistani civilians. Even hostages Warren Weinstein and Giovanni Lo Porto, who are American and

Italian respectively, were targets of a U.S. drone attack on the Afghan-Pakistani border in January

2015. The Pakistani public support for the drone strikes is low, and many Pakistani interviewed

believe that the U.S. carries out the strikes because they are simply Muslims.

Treaties, events and previous UN documents

• Arms Trade Treaty

The Arms Trade Treaty (ATT) is an international treaty aiming to regulate the trade of conventional

weapons. The negotiations for the ATT began in 2012, and on 2 April 2013, the ATT was adopted

by the General Assembly. As of November 2016, the ATT has 130 signatories and 87 parties. It

entered into force on 24 December 2014.

• Missile Technology Control Regime

The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is a multilateral regime that regulates the exports

of missiles and UAVs capable of carrying 500 kilograms or more of payload over 300 kilometres. It

was established in1987 by the Group of 7 (G7) countries. Initially, the Regime did not regulate the

exports of drones, but in 1992, the parties agreed to expand the scope of the MTCR to include

UAVs. As of October 2016, the MTCR has 35 parties.

Possible Solutions

A comprehensive, yet intuitive framework for the usage of such instruments in the battlefield is still

pending. The usage of drones in the battlefield raises many questions from ethical, moral, and

tactical grounds. More drones are being developed and deployed everyday, and eventually they will

achieve more autonomous capacities. The conditions under which drones and similar autonomous

systems may be used should be strictly defined. Since drones form a whole new domain, the

application of previous conventions and treaties is often unclear. Therefore, new recommendations

and rules are essential.

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 Bibliography & Reading List

"Covert Drone War Archives." The Bureau of Investigative Journalism. Accessed November 14,

2016. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/category/projects/drones/.

"Drones." Amnesty International. Accessed November 14, 2016. https://www.amnestyusa.org/our-

work/issues/security-and-human-rights/drones.

"The Strategic Effects of a Lethal Drones Policy." American Security Project. Accessed November

14, 2016. http://www.americansecurityproject.org/asymmetric-operations/the-strategic-effects-of-a-

lethal-drones-policy/.

"How the US justifies drone strikes: targeted killing, secrecy and the law.” The Guardian. Accessed

November 14, 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/nov/15/targeted-killing-secrecy-

drone-memos-excerpt.

"Pakistan says US drone strike violated its sovereignty.” Al Jazeera. Accessed November 14, 2016.

http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/pakistan-drone-strike-violated-sovereignty-

160522204312754.html.

“Pakistan strikes.” Long War Journal. Accessed November 14, 2016.

http://www.longwarjournal.org/pakistan-strikes.

"Afghan drone war - data show unmanned flights dominate air campaign.” Reuters. Accessed

November 14, 2016. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-drones-exclusive-

idUSKCN0XH2UZ.

"The Arms Trade Treaty.” United Nations Office of Disarmament Affairs. Accessed November 14,

2016. https://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/att/.

"UN condemns killing of at least 15 civilians in US drone strike in Afghanistan.” RT. Accessed

November 14, 2016. https://www.rt.com/news/361171-us-drone-civilians-afghanistan/.

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 AGENDA ITEM 2: Implementation of The Indian Ocean as a Peace Zone

Background

Oceans have always been a desired element in great power politics, owing to their significance in

the survival and economic development. In the twenty-first century, oceans have become the

attention of international politics. With this aspect, the Indian Ocean, third largest ocean in the

world strategically located between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, surpassed the Atlantic

and Pacific Oceans and had become one of the most important strategically significant trade

corridors. Owing to its geopolitical landscape, it has become the importance strategic maritime

corridor for global economy and security.

The General Assembly declared the Indian Ocean a zone of peace by Resolution A/RES/2832

(1971). It called upon the Member States to enter into quick outcomes with the Littoral States of the

Indian Ocean with a view to halting the further escalation and expansion of their military presence

in the Indian Ocean.The Declaration upheld the need to preserve the independence, sovereignty and

territorial integrity of the states of the Indian Ocean region and sought to resolve political, financial

and social issues affecting the region under conditions of peace and security.

However, over the years, Member States had not been able to find common ground on the issue of

the 1971 Declaration of the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace, but the validity of the objectives and

the vision remained unchanged: its Chairman Prasad Kariyawasam (Sri Lanka) told the Special

Political and Decolonisation (SPECPOL) Committee on 26th July 2005 at the 451st Meeting of

SPECPOL.

The Problems of Indian Ocean shine mostly in security challenges. Its strategic energy reserves and

natural resources, the growing importance of its ports and shipping lanes, and the rise of India,

Indonesia, South Africa, and other littoral nations as increasingly significant regional Powers and

global players are transforming the Indian Ocean into a major crossroad for multiple security,

maritime policy, and governance issues.

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 History

• Before the Industrial Revolution

In 1497, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama went around the Cape of Good Hope and became the

first European to sail to India and later the Far East. The European fleets, armed with heavy

weapons, quickly took control of the trade in the region under their hands. Portugal claimed the

stronghold by establishing forts at the critical water lanes and ports. Their hegemony along the

coasts of Africa and Asia lasted until the mid-17th century. Later, the Portuguese had difficulties by

other European countries. The Netherlands established control of the trade in the region via

The Dutch East India Company. France and Britain started trade companies in the area. In

1565, Spain established a major trading operation with the Manila Galleons in the Philippines and

the Pacific. Spanish trading ships by-conscious avoided the Indian Ocean, following the Treaty of

Tordesillas with Portugal. By 1815, Britain became the most powerful nation in the Indian Ocean.

• Industrial era

The inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1869 revived European interest in the region, but no nation

was successful in being the dominant power. Since World War II, the United Kingdom was forced

to withdraw from the area, to be replaced by India, the Soviet Union, and the United States. The

Soviet Union and the United States tried to establish dominance by negotiating for naval base sites.

Developing countries bordering the Indian Ocean, however, seek to have it made a "zone of

peace” so that they may use its shipping lanes freely. The United Kingdom and the United States

maintain a military base on Diego Garcia Atoll in the middle of the Indian Ocean; which is today

known as the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT).

• Contemporary era

In the post-cold war world, the strategic standards of Indian Ocean have changed considerably

because of persistent efforts by new players - China and India to have gained strategic influence in

the Indian Ocean Region. These efforts are the outcome of their desired or real strategic interests or

fears in the Indian Ocean Region. While the United States is still in a dominant position in Indo -

Pacific, the new policy developments may interrupt to redesign the strategy and moves to maintain

the effectiveness in the region. Whatever the shape the redesign of such plan may take, its

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 underlined assumption would be to ensure that the rising powers also develop a stake in the

maintenance of existing global financial and political order in the region. Thus, the Indian Ocean

Region or Indo-Pacific and its changing strategic standards hold crucial importance for its three key

players: China, India and the US. American scholar Robert Kaplan predicted that the Greater Indian

Ocean stretching from Horn of Africa to Indonesian archipelago would be the centre of the global

problems because most of the global business supply will be conducted through this route. He

further argues that it is here that 21st-century power dynamics will be revealed as the interests and

influence of region's three key players China, India and United States are beginning to overlap and

intersect.

Overview

The beginning of modern problems of the Indian Ocean stretches back to 1960s. At the start of the

cold war, the Soviet Union sent various naval boats and ships to further vast areas. These routes

included the Pacific Ocean followed by the Indian Ocean and the Horn of West Africa. Through

these routes, the Soviet Union was able to establish strong diplomatic relations with Yemen,

allowing the Soviet Union ships to replenish fuel and stocks in the Yemeni harbour. The United

States was shocked by the Soviet Union’s “model of approach” and felt threatened by the activities

and extensive influence in the region. With the United Kingdom on its side, the U.S. established its

first naval base in the Indian Ocean Region island Diego Garcia.

Fast forward to the 21st century, India and China entered the picture. The both rapidly developing

nations are in a battle for the influence in the Indian Ocean. China specifically has been involved in

a lot of activities in the Indian Ocean. China feels its “pursuit of interests” is being threatened by

Indo–US relations. However, despite being actively offensive, China also appears to have a

significant interest in peacemaking. Objectively, China calls the region of Indian Ocean as the

“Zone of Peace”. However, some experts say that Chinese navy might use this as a medium to react

quickly during natural calamities, while some have different opinions.

With numerous speculations, however, Chinese intentions are very clear: it wants to fortify the

region, while the US and India losing its naval grip in the area. Many nations welcome this change,

not openly, but for strategic needs; whereas some countries like India and Australia strongly oppose

the Chinese deployments in the region. The battle of influence is not just among the nations with

power; it is also among the smaller nations. While obviously not able to control other countries

through independent approach, these small nations have chosen sides, and receiving protection and

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 more trade options in return. There are two distant groups: the countries in the sphere of influence

of India and the US, and others under the Chinese influence. With tensions rising on one side, and

the quest for military dominance on the other.

Major Parties Involved

• India

India has a central and strategic location in the Indian Ocean area. Its national and financial interests

are inseparably linked up with the Indian Ocean. Hence to keep the Indian Ocean as a Zone of

Peace free from superpower rivalry and increasing cooperation among littoral countries in the

region has always been Indian foreign policy goal as it seeks many regional partnerships, for

example Look East policy, Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation, Bay of Bengal

Initiative (BIMSTEC) and Ganga-Mekong Cooperation, etc. A primary concern of India in the

Indian Ocean is energy. India is fourth-largest economy in the world, which is almost 70 percent

dependent on oil import, a significant part of which comes from the Gulf states. However, it should

not go unmentioned that India has nuclear capabilities.

• Pakistan

A nations possessing nuclear weapons, Pakistan’s significance in the Indian Ocean region is

growing from both strategic and international development aspects and about maritime security. As

maritime threats remain both internal and external in nature for Pakistan, it is vital to devise a

maritime security policy that would inculcate a) a sustainable model for regional integration that

promotes intelligence sharing and joint efforts to address challenges of transnational nature b) a

common understanding of the international maritime framework under the UNCLOS c) shared

practices using the ISPS Code towards safety and security of seaports and vessels.

• People’s Republic of China

Historically, China has been a continental power. However, since 2000, China‘s maritime strategy

is being constructed as a way to pursue peaceful development in the light of its exponential rise to

global power. Though China‘s primary focus lies in the Pacific and is not an Indian Ocean country,

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 the new international dynamics has prompted China‘s maritime shift to the Indian Ocean making it

one of the pillars of China‘s naval strategy in the formation of a new policy.

• United States of America

The US has many reasons explaining its presence in the Indian Ocean. It maintains an active naval

fleet in the region at all times. The US is in active combat in the Middle East, and the forces in the

Indian Ocean supports the campaigns in nearby regions. Establishing a joint base with the United

Kingdom on the Diego Garcia Atoll (British Indian Ocean Territory) in the Indian Ocean enabled

the US to maintain a permanent force in the region and the easy and rapid deployment of troops in a

possible case of a conflict.

Second, China has made it very clear that their objective is to drive out the US, especially the

Indians, bleeding them dry out of any base in the region, preventing any possibility of influence. If

the US drives out of IOR, China will be free to maintain its control.

Treaties, events and previous UN Documents

• General Assembly Resolution 2832 (A/RES/2832)

United Nations General Assembly adopted its Resolution 2832 in its 2022nd plenary meeting on 16

December 1971. The title of the resolution is "Declaration of the Indian Ocean as a zone of peace."

The key parts of the resolution are as follows:

1. The second clause of the resolution explicitly calls upon the great powers to consult with the

littoral states to implement the declaration. The resolution also seeks a complete elimination of all

bases, military installations, and weapons of mass destruction in the region.

2. The third clause of the resolution advocates against any activities in the Indian Ocean that would

violate the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the littoral nations and the Charter of the United

Nations. It also secures the right of free passage in the region.

• Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 The Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) is an international body consisting of littoral states of

the Indian Ocean. It is based on the principles of open regionalism to strengthen cooperation among

its member states. It was established as the Indian Ocean Rim Initiative in Mauritius on March 1995

and was formalised with the adoption of the Charter of the Indian Ocean Rim Association for

Regional Co-operation on March 1997.

Reading suggestions for the Topic

Resolution 2832: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/34/a34res80.pdf

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/slave-route/trade-in-the-indian-

ocean/

http://thediplomat.com/2015/01/the-indian-ocean-zone-of-peace-reality-vs-illusion/

http://tamilnation.co/intframe/indian_ocean/711216iopz.htm

http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/oceans-continents-and-polar-regions/oceans-and-

continents/indian-ocean

http://www.cfr.org/regional-security/competition-indian-ocean/p37201

Bibliography

Contemporary Geo-Politics of Indian Ocean: India, China and Other Powers.

http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_29648.pdf (accessed November 27, 2016).

Quest for Oceanic Dominance: Militarisation in the Indian Ocean

http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/quest-for-oceanic-dominance-militarization-in-the-

indian-ocean/ (accessed November 27, 2016).

Pakistan and Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean.

https://www.ssrresourcecentre.org/2015/06/03/maritime-security-in-the-indian-ocean-challenges-

for-pakistan/ (accessed November 27, 2016).

Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges.

http://www.stimson.org/sites/default/files/file-attachments/Book_IOR_2_1.pdf (accessed November

27, 2016).

Galatasaray Lisesi Model United Nations Conference 2016 Ad hoc committee on Indian Ocean adopts report to General Assembly.

http://www.un.org/press/en/2005/gaio4.doc.htm (accessed November 27, 2016).