Pro Poor Mobile Capabilities:

Service Offering in Latin America and the Caribbean

A Background Paper

Kim I. Mallalieu

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

The University of the West Indies

St. Augustine

Trinidad and Tobago

West Indies

Phone: (868) 645-3232 ext. 3191

Fax: (868) 662-4414

Research Assistant: Jessica Jones, UWI

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 1

Abstract...................................................................................................................................3

1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................4

1.1 Applications..................................................................................................................4

1.2 Services.........................................................................................................................6

1.3 Mobile Services.............................................................................................................9

1.4 Applications, Services and Development...................................................................11

2. Pro-poor Mobile Capabilities........................................................................................12

2.1 Mobile and Poverty Alleviation..................................................................................12

2.2 Familiar Cases.............................................................................................................13

2.3 Impact of Mobile Telephony on Poverty Alleviation.................................................18

3. Mobile in Latin America and the Caribbean.................................................................20

3.1 Mobile Penetration in LAC.........................................................................................20

3.2 LAC Mobile Providers................................................................................................22

3.3 LAC Services..............................................................................................................25

3.4 LAC Applications.......................................................................................................26

4. Knowledge Gaps...............................................................................................................27

5. Research Strategy..........................................................................................................28

5.1 Objectives....................................................................................................................28

5.2 Scope...........................................................................................................................28

5.3 Methodology...............................................................................................................29

5.4 Survey Instruments.....................................................................................................30

6. Summary.......................................................................................................................34

7. References.....................................................................................................................35

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 2

1. Abstract

This paper establishes the background for analytical and empirical examinations of mobile

service capabilities in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The analytical and

empirical studies will form the basis of a regional capabilities assessment and, ultimately,

to recommendations for meaningful pro-poor policy, regulatory and project interventions in

the region.

The paper recognizes that mobile services ultimately enable end-user applications and that

insight into these applications is critical to understanding their existing and potential

importance in traditionally marginalized communities. It recognizes that these uses are in

turn key to assessing developmental impact and to making meaningful pro-poor

recommendations.

The background paper provides a taxonomic review of terms such as the more general

“applications” and the more specific “ICT applications”. It also provides a taxonomy on

services. The relationship between applications and services is made in general though

emphasis is placed on the link between ICT applications and their enabling mobile services.

A brief overview of LAC mobile service and service providers is provided as a backdrop

for the follow-on field work.

A discussion of the potential of mobile services to impact poverty is included and some

familiar case studies cited to illustrate different contextual examples. The background paper

closes by identifying relevant knowledge gaps in the region and outlining a research

strategy to fill these gaps. It recommends a handful of specific questions to be included in a

DIRSI field instrument to be applied in the region in 2007.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 3

2. Introduction

The availability of affordable wireless telecommunications services, most particularly

mobile, has enabled traditionally marginalized groups and individuals to communicate as

never before. Though the patterns of usage vary widely across different demographic

groupings, it is universally accepted that the physical access to, and familiarity with,

communications appliances and services offers real possibilities for social and economic

development.

Of particular interest to the developmental impact of telecommunications are the end uses

to which they are put. Such “applications”, as they are called, represent the bridge between

the traditions of Communications and Information Technologies, ICTs. The first section

of this background paper classifies these end user applications and then describes the

underlying telecommunications services which facilitate them. Particular emphasis is

placed on mobile services which has attracted a great deal of pro-poor attention.

1.1 Applications

An application can generally be thought of as “the thing applied,” (Webster 1913, 1828). A

computer application generally refers to a “software program that carries out some useful

task,” (Newton 2003). An example of a computer application is a word processing

programme. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) applications additionally

feature the conveyance of information to an end user, the ICT consumer, via electronic

communications.

In addition to the notion of a single, task-oriented entity (computer programme), ICT

applications have popularly come to carry strong connotations of end-user perception and

utility. Indeed, the open collaborative dictionary project, Wiktionary, reinforces the user-

centred nature of applications through their definition: “…a set of software that the end-

user perceives as a single entity, as a tool for a well-defined purpose.”

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 4

The foregoing definitions are central to the dialog on existing and potential impact of ICTs

on development as they bring to focus the tasks to which consumers put ICTs and the

perception that these consumers hold about the capabilities of ICTs in their personal

contexts.

Studies relating to the impact of ICTs on poverty must take account of the many parameters

across which ICT applications are categorized. This categorization represents a useful

framework within which a regional inventory of ICT applications can be formulated and

also represents a useful means of analyzing the potential of ICTs to impact development in

general and poverty in particular.

A natural categorization of ICT applications may be made along the lines of purpose. Such

purpose may, in principle, be realized through a variety of means, including non-

technological means. This categorization parameter is therefore intrinsically technology-

neutral and includes, for example:

Personal communications

Dissemination of information

Access to information

Access to services

Payment for products or services

Receipt of payments for products or services

Personal productivity

Collaboration

Knowledge management

Knowledge sharing

Personal computing

Information processing

Applications may alternatively be, and are often, categorized according to their thematic

focus, for example:

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 5

Government

Governance

Banking

Health

Business

Agriculture

Education

Entertainment

Travel

Employment

Environment

Weather

Science

Quite apart from the purpose to which ICT applications are generally put and the relevant

thematic area to which they are applied, these applications may also be usefully categorized

according to a variety of technical parameters. These in turn include requirements such as

relate to information type (e.g. conversational / real-time, interactive, streaming etc.),

communication mode (e.g. full duplex, half duplex etc.), mobility (e.g. in-door, pedestrian,

vehicular), connectivity (e.g. tethered, untethered, Internet access etc), level of human

intervention (e.g. high, moderate, low), technical features (e.g. bandwidth, delay etc.) and

underlying service requirements. Mallalieu and Rocke (2005) provide an account of related

technical parameters.

1.2 Services

End users often implement applications using a mix of hardware, typically self-owned, and

facilities offered by commercial service providers. An example of such an application is

voice communications. This application is implemented by an end user who often uses his

or her personal hardware along with a voice communications facility available from a

service provider. In this case, the end-user application is voice and the facility is referred to

as a voice service. Yet, there is no single taxonomy of applications and services. There exist

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 6

variations in definitions and, though generally applications and their enabling services are

distinct, in some cases such as voice communications, there is little that distinguishes1.

The formal distinction between services and applications has been made by many

international organizations including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

For example in Y.101-2000 Global Information Infrastructure terminology (ITU 2000, 1),

the ITU defines an application as a “structured set of capabilities, which provide value-

added functionality supported by one or more services” and a service as a “structured set of

capabilities intended to support applications.”

Within standards organizations services and applications are sometimes variously defined

to reflect different generations of technology as well as various thematic focal points. For

example, many contemporary definitions have evolved around multimedia which features

strongly in Third Generation (3G) mobile and Next Generation Network (NGN)

technologies. In ITU-T F.700 Framework Recommendation for multimedia services (ITU

2000, 2), the ITU defines an application as a “set of activities performed to respond to the

needs of the users in a given situation for purposes such as business, education, personal

communication or entertainment. It implies software and hardware utilization, could be

performed in a fully or partially automatic way and could be accessed locally or remotely.

In the last case, it requests use of telecommunication services.” This recommendation

defines a telecommunication service as a “set of telecommunication capabilities that works

in a complementary and cooperative way in order to let users perform applications.”

So it is, that despite the subtle definitional differences in use today, broadly speaking,

telecommunications services refer to the end-user capabilities derived directly from service

providers. End-user applications are ultimately enabled through these services. In as much

as applications are particularly user-centric, services are particularly provider-centric.

Services have evolved over the years and their categorization may be made along

chronological lines. Traditionally, these services pivoted around the provision of physical 1 To compound matters, the distinction between services and applications is sometimes blurred as there exist variation in usage across the industry. Applications, for example, are sometimes referred to as “CPE-based services” while the end-user capabilities derived directly from service providers are sometimes referred to as “network-based services”.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 7

as well as logical connections over which service consumers would exchange information

that they themselves generated. Services which fall into this category are still widely

available and are commonly referred to as “basic telecommunications services”.

Over the past few decades, “value-added services”, which modify customer-provided

information in some way, have emerged. Examples of such services include voice and

electronic mail, electronic data exchange and online data transmission.

According to the traditions of basic as well as value added services, the UN’s Manual on

Statistics of International Trade in Services (UN 2002) offers the following:

"Telecommunication services encompass the transmission of sound, images, or

other information by telephone, telex, telegram, radio and television cable and

broadcasting, satellite, electronic mail, facsimile services, and so forth, including

business network services, teleconferencing, and support services. It does not

include the value of the information transported. Also included are cellular

telephone services, Internet backbone services and on-line access services,

including Internet access provision. Excluded are installation services for telephone

networks equipment (included in construction services), and database services and

related computer services to access and manipulate data provided by database

servers (included in computer and information services)."

Contemporary trends in telecommunications services, however, feature deeper levels of

modification as well as the provision, processing and management of information directly

by commercial service providers.

This study focuses attention on mobile service and is therefore most interested in those

services, basic and value-added, which are implemented using mobile technologies. Of

particular interest are the requirements necessary of underlying mobile service to enable

end-user applications. These service requirements, in turn, derive from the purpose,

thematic focus and technical parameters of end-user applications implemented using

ICTs, as discussed in Section 1.1.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 8

1.3 Mobile Services

For the purposes of this paper, we are most interested in mobile services, that is, those

which are delivered over wireless access network infrastructure and support untethered user

mobility over a substantial geographic range. Mobile services are usefully classified

according to service requirements which ultimately derive from application features. For

this purpose, services are typically classified as real time, interactive or streaming. Real

time mobile services include conversational voice, videophone and interactive games.

Interactive mobile services include voice messaging, Web browsing and email and e-

commerce. Streaming services include audio and video streaming.

To illustrate the link between application features and service requirements, real time video,

audio and speech applications require that the underlying mobile service provides a real

time stream of data which provides guarantees on the bit rate, end to end delay and delay

variation. As another example, non real time interactivity and file transfer applications

require that the underlying mobile service provides message transport with the ability to

differentiate between various levels of Quality of Service. As a particular example, a

mobile banking application may require mobile, asymmetric, bi-directional, point to point,

connectionless service that does not require a particular guaranteed bit rate. See Mallalieu

and Rocke (2005) for a detailed account.

Contemporary mobile services are delivered primarily, though not exclusively, through

Third Generation (3G) mobile networks. These networks offer a range of voice, data and

multimedia services and offer a useful reference point for categorizing service features. The

Third Generation Partnership Project, 3GPP,’s Technical Specification Group provides

guidelines on 3G services and service capabilities. These guidelines provide ranges of end-

user performance expectations for various types of services. Tables 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the

3GPP guidelines for conversational / real-time services, those for interactive services and

those for streaming services.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 9

Medium Application Degree of symmetry

Data rate Key performance parameters and target values

End-to-end One-wayDelay

DelayVariation within a call

Information loss

Audio Conversational voice Two-way 4-25 kb/s <150 msec

preferred<400 msec limit Note 1

< 1 msec < 3% FER

Video Videophone Two-way 32-384 kb/s

< 150 msec preferred<400 msec limitLip-synch : < 100 msec

< 1% FER

Data Telemetry- two-way control

Two-way <28.8 kb/s

< 250 msec N.AZero

Data realtime games

Two-way < 60 kb/s

Note 2

< 75 msec preferred

N.A < 3% FER preferred,< 5% FER limit

Note 2Data Telnet Two-way

(asymmetric)< 1 KB < 250 msec N.A Zero

Table 1 End-user Performance Expectations - Conversational / Real-time Services (3GPP 2006)2

Medium Application Degree of symmetry

Data rate Key performance parameters and target valuesOne-wayDelay

DelayVariation

Information loss

Audio Voice messaging

Primarilyone-way 4-13 kb/s

< 1 sec for playback < 2 sec for record

< 1 msec < 3% FER

Data Web-browsing- HTML

Primarily one-way

< 4 sec /page N.AZero

Data Transaction services – high priority e.g. e-commerce, ATM

Two-way < 4 sec N.AZero

DataE-mail(server access)

PrimarilyOne-way

< 4 sec N.A Zero

2 Notes: The overall one way delay in the mobile network (from UE to PLMN border) is approximately 100msec. These values are considered the most demanding ones with respect to delay requirements (e.g. supporting First Person Shooter games). Other types of games may require higher or lower data rates and more or less information loss but can tolerate longer end-to-end delay

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 10

Table 2 End-user Performance Expectations - Interactive Services (3GPP 2006)Medium Application Degree of

symmetryData rate Key performance parameters and target

values

Start-upDelay

Transport delayVariation

Packet loss at session layer

AudioSpeech, mixed speech and music, medium and high quality music

Primarily one-way

5-128 kb/s

< 10 sec < 2sec < 1% Packet loss ratio

Video Movie clips, surveillance, real-time video

Primarily one-way

20-384 kb/s

< 10 sec <2 sec < 2% Packet loss ratio

Data Bulk data transfer/retrieval, layout and synchronisation information

Primarily one-way

< 384 kb/s

< 10 sec N.A Zero

Data Still image Primarily one-way

< 10 sec N.A Zero

Table 3 End-user Performance Expectations - Streaming Services

1.4 Applications, Services and Development

Definitions are important to the dialog on existing and potential impact of ICTs on

development as the applications which ultimately engage end-users, are facilitated through

telecommunications services. Studies relating to the impact of ICTs on poverty take

account of the parameters across which telecommunications services are categorized. This

categorization represents a useful framework within which a regional inventory of

telecommunications services can be formulated and also represents a useful means of

analyzing the potential of these services to ultimately impact development in general and

poverty in particular.

The definitions and performance expectations discussed in this section establish much of

the technical background for the empirical and analytical elements of the study at hand.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 11

2. Pro-poor Mobile Capabilities

2.1 Mobile and Poverty Alleviation

This background paper focuses specifically on the utility of mobile-enable ICT applications

in the alleviation of poverty. In monetary terms, the extreme poor have been defined by the

World Bank as those who survive on less than US$1. per day. In LAC this amounts to

approximately 50 million or one-tenth of the world’s population3. However, if this

somewhat arbitrary figure is raised slightly, then the amount of people in LAC below the

official World Bank poverty line of US$2. per day increases significantly to 128 million or

almost one-quarter of the people in the world4. The World Bank also recognizes a broader

definition of poverty as a multidimensional phenomenon viewed in terms of powerlessness,

vulnerability and fear. From this perspective, poverty would incorporate the exclusion of

persons from everyday networks, such as the telecommunications and financial networks.

But, as Castells (1996) notes, it is vital to be present in the Information Society network and

not be excluded from it. Mobile phones and innovative mobile-enabled ICT applications

have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and notions of development through

their ability to alleviate or mitigate isolation from the current information driven economy.

The United Nations has explicitly linked ICTs and development, through its Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs), and goal 8 of the MDGs proposes the development of a

global partnership for development. Under this umbrella, target 18 specifically addresses

the role of ICTs calling for a commitment of governments to “[i]n cooperation with the

private sector make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and

communications”, thereby moving towards universal telecommunications access. The ITU

argues that universal access defined as a publicly available telephone, accessible to every

individual in every community, is slowly becoming a reality with the wide spread use of

3 Source: The World Bank Group (2005). World Development Indicators. Available online at http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/Cover.htm. Accessed 28th August 2006.4 Source: The World Bank Group (2005). World Development Indicators. Available online at http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/Cover.htm. Accessed 28th August 2006.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 12

mobile phones. In fact they note that “the number of mobile users now exceeds fixed-lines

in developing nations.5”

ICTs, including mobile applications, use knowledge and information, in addition to

material resources. The development advantage therefore lies with those who have access

to information and communication and thus the power of knowledge. Mobile service

provides the opportunity for poor communities to by-pass traditional development stages,

such as fixed-line telephone service provisioning, and to engage more meaningfully in

today’s information oriented society. Indeed, as the Human Development Report 2001

(UNDP 2001), which looks at making new technologies work for human development,

offers, “[t]echnology networks are transforming the traditional map of development,

expanding people’s horizons and creating the potential to realize in a decade, progress that

required generations in the past.” Given all of the available and emerging mobile services

and applications, the power of mobile-enabled ICT applications, to reduce poverty has by

no means been fully exploited, and documented and anecdotal cases reveal continued

innovation.

2.2 Familiar Cases

Pringle and David (2002) describe the very interesting Kothmale model in which a radio

announcer translates Web content into local dialect before broadcasting it over a radio

channel. Such applications, which incorporate a mix of technological and human inputs,

have attracted a great deal of attention for traditionally marginalized communities. In

recognition, our exploration of ICT applications in the study to follow will take account of

hybrid, low technology as well as high technology avenues for ICT intervention into

poverty reduction.

2.2.1 Village Phone Programme

The Village Phone programme, initiated, by the Grameen Foundation USA, provides a

framework for the extension of telecommunications service into rural areas where there has

already been investment in mobile phone infrastructure, with a view to increasing

5 Achieving Universal Access: ITU Issues A 'How-To' Guide On Achieving Universal Access. Available online: http://www.itu.int/WORLD2003/media/features/regulatorybackgrounder.html

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 13

teledensity in developing countries, and assisting the poor in leveraging themselves out of

poverty. The objective of the programme is to create sustainable access to affordable

telecommunications for the rural poor, by by-passing the need for fixed line infrastructure

and utilizing existing mobile service infrastructure. Several stakeholders are involved in

the process, which involves a Village Phone Company that provides the Village Phone

operators with the startup kit and negotiates wholesale airtime rates with the Mobile

Network Service operator, whose role is to the Village Phone Operator with access to

existing telecommunications infrastructure. Village Phone Operators apply for a loan from

a microfinance organization to cover startup costs, including the mobile phone and prepaid

phone cards, charging solution, signage, and external antenna. Finally, those in the

community without access to their own mobile service can make phone calls from the

Village Phone Operator. The Village Phone programme places heavy emphasis on forging

a strong partnership between all partners in the endeavour, and this is considered

indispensable for creating a win-win situation for all parties.

The successful impact of the Village Phone programme is shown in the gains made by all

partners in the initiative, and the long-term success of the project is determined by an all-

round profitable partnership. Subsidies are not required to fund the programme, showing

therefore that profitability and development can be complimentary goals. The mobile

telecommunications company is able to offer wholesale rates to the Village Phone operator

due to high volume, and their cell phones are used more than 8 times as much, on average.

The Village Phone Operator, by selling mobile services, makes more than 3 times the

average income. Additionally, 98% of Village Phone Operators have repaid their loan in

full. The Village Phone programme continues to grow and as of October 2005, the

Greameen Bank had 150,000 village phone ladies, who treat the mobile phone as a

business, and estimated that this would have increased to 200,000 by the end of that year.

In terms of the impact on income generation, a study6 commissioned by a Canadian

International Development Agency revealed significant positive social and economic

impact, with Bangladeshi Village Phone Operators deriving on average 24% of their

household income to as much as 40%. Additionally, the programme which was initiated in

6 Grameen Telecom’s Village Phone Programme in Rural Bangladesh: a Multi Media Case Study. Canadian International Development Agency, March 2000.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 14

Bangladesh, has been subsequently rolled out to Uganda and Rwanda, indicating the utility

and desirability of communications technology across social strata, regardless of income.

Critical to the propagation of the programme, The Village Phone Replication Manual was

produced in 2005, and while recognizing the peculiarities of every implementation, the

publication seeks to document the process and provide systematic guidance to those

wishing to adopt the programme. This evidence of the success of the Village Phone

reinforces the notional capacity of poor communities to understand and use state-of the art

technology, and suggests a need for continued exploration of pro-poor mobile capabilities.

2.2.2 Adapting traditional transport to connect India’s poor

In India, a regional telecommunications company is using rickshaws to simultaneously

increase business and help the poor7. Shyam Telecom operating in the state of Rajasthan

has equipped a fleet of rickshaws with mobile phones. Here again, is evidenced the

innovative extension of existing mobile infrastructure to benefit both the service provider

and the poor. Drivers pedal these mobile payphones throughout the capital and countryside

providing exclusive opportunity for disadvantaged rural community members to make a

call or send SMS. The hand-peddled rickshaws are equipped with a battery, a billing

machine and a printer. The rickshaw drivers, are largely drawn from those at the margins of

society, including the disabled and women. The telecommunications company does not

charge for the initial set-up costs of 75,000 rupee (US$1,641) for the tricycle and

equipment. The drivers profit 20% on every call, earning between 6,000 (US$131) to

9,000(US$197) rupees per month. The company reports that through these mobile

payphones, some drivers are now able to be entirely self-reliant. Similar to the experience

of the Village Phone programme, all parties benefit, as the driver receives a commission,

consumers have easier access to communication and the telecommunication captures new

markets and revenue.

2.2.3 M-Commerce

In addition to these scenarios of innovative extensions of existing mobile infrastructure,

mobile network operators are continuously adding new products and services to capitalize

7 BBC on-line reporting on Rickshaw’s connecting India’s Poor. Available online at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3256516.stm

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 15

on the growing demand for mobility in virtually all corners of the world, and to generate

alternative revenue streams by tapping into new markets. Given the growing number of

mobile cellular subscribers in developing countries, mobile network providers that

recognize the collective purchasing power of the poor, are striving to make such services

more affordable and relevant to the poorest members of society. One of the recent mobile-

enabled ICT applications is the application of mobile technology to the provision of

financial services. This mobile-enabled commerce (m-Commerce) provides increased

access to financial services and has the potential to draw those currently excluded into the

formal banking system. And, given the growing size of national and international

remittances, m-Commerce could have significant impact on the economic well-being of the

poor in LAC, where in 2005, an estimated US$56.6 billion in remittances was sent from the

US by immigrants and migrant workers, up by approximately 17% from the previous year.8

At the moment however, the largest m-Commerce applications are found in the Phillipines

where there are over 3.5 million users on the two major networks. Research on the use,

value and ownership of mobile phones in LAC would provide a crucial insight into the

viability of this mobile-enabled ICT application to LAC.

All of the versions of m-Commerce examined in a study (infoDev 2006) by the Information

for Development Program, in partnership with the International Finance Corporation (IFC)

and the GSM Association, involved a special GSM-specific SIM-based menu, from which

users selected the desired transaction, including:

Cash deposits and withdrawals

Third parties deposits into a user account

Retail purchases at selected outlets

Over-the-air prepaid top-ups using cash already in the account

Cash transfer between user’s accounts

Airtime credits transfer between users

Bill payments, including micro-finance applications of loan payments and

advancements. 8 Background paper by the Inter-American Development Bank(IDB) on remittances citing figures provided by the IDB’s Multilateral Investment Fund. Available online at http://www.iadb.org/NEWS/articledetail.cfm?Language=En&parid=8&artType=BP&artid=2881

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 16

The infoDev study (2006) revealed that the key success factors to the implementation of m-

Commerce “included the ability to load prepaid airtime credits as well as the ability to

transfer both cash and airtime credits between customers. Coupled with these were the low

rates charged by the operator for such pre-paid top-ups or credit transfers.” In other words,

the study showed that the mobile application in itself was not sufficient condition for

success, however seemingly intuitive the benefits, rather the poor needed to see how

tangible benefits would be derived for them. This is shown by the increase in m-Commerce

usage when the smallest unit of pre-paid credit purchasable dropped to a level that fit the

economic arrangements of the poor.

The infoDev (2006) study points out that service providers recognized that if properly

implemented all stakeholders involved could benefit from m-Commerce, as “networks

would experience higher SMS usage and higher ARPU, the banking industry gained access

to an otherwise difficult if not inaccessible market segment. Added to that were the

transaction revenue and interest on the generated cash float. The identifiable customer

advantages included the availability of useful features, including cash deposits and

withdrawals and ease of prepaid reloads and credit transfers between users.” Here again, we

recognize the ability of a mobile-enabled ICT application to redound in benefits to all

stakeholders.

m-Commerce does however, face some challenges, as systems generally use a SIM to m-

Commerce account link, and this complicates the use of the phone for m-Commerce by

someone other than the registered user of the phone. To get around this, a system which

does not use a SIM-account link could be used, or users sharing a mobile phone could be

provided with SIMs, which could then be switched in and out of the shared phone.

Alternatively, arrangements could be made with micro-finance operators to develop a

payment plan that allowed users to acquire their own phones.

The research team (infoDev 2006) identified various areas for further research including the

capability of current m-Commerce systems to work on networks other than GSM (such as

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 17

US-CDMA), the potential need for technical standards, and the issues raised by multiple

users sharing a common mobile phone (albeit with different SIM cards).

2.3 Impact of Mobile Telephony on Poverty Alleviation

In a study commissioned by Vodafone, to analyse the impact of mobile phones on Africa,

Waverman, Meschi and Fuss (2005) sought to address the gap in the literature regarding the

impact of telecommunications rollout in developing countries. They noted that thus far

studies had measured the growth dividend of investment in telecommunications

infrastructure, only in developed countries. Waverman, Meischi and Fuss (2005) model the

impact of mobile rather than fixed line telecommunications, as done in the study by Roller

and Waverman9 (2001) on OECD countries. They employed two different approaches to

their study of the impact of telecoms rollout in poorer nations – the Annual Production

Function (APF), based on the work of Roeller and Waverman (2001) and the Endogenous

Technical Change (ETC), similar to the work of Barro10 (1991). They expressed a distinct

preference for the latter approach, having concluded that “the paucity of reliable data in

developing countries, the ETC approach should prove more robust and tractable”.

Waverman, Meischi and Fuss found that “mobile telephony has a positive and significant

impact on economic growth, and this impact may be twice as large in developing countries

compared to developed countries” (2005: 11). They suggest that investing large amounts in

telecommunications to achieve near universal service is clearly a viable policy strategy, as

the rollout costs of wireless technologies over large areas, is lower than fixed line systems,

therefore mobile has the potential to play a significant role in economic development.

Further, they estimated that a 10% rise in mobile penetration in a developing country can

stimulate economic growth in the country by a rate of 0.59 percent per year. Waverman,

Meschi and Fuss (2005) therefore concluded that their analysis “suggests the need for

regulatory policies that favour competition and encourage the speediest possible rollout of

mobile telephony”.

9 As cited in Waverman, Meschi and Fuss (2005).10 As cited in Waverman, Meschi and Fuss (2005).

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 18

3. Mobile in Latin America and the Caribbean

ITU figures (ITU 2005) indicate that, overall, mobile communications has seen modest

growth in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) over the past five years, with a regional

Compound Annual Growth Rate of 30.4%11 over the period 2000 - 2005. This compares

with overall regional averages of 52.8% for Africa, 28.7% for Asia, 67.3% for Europe and

62.5% for Oceania. Absolute figures as well as percentages are shown in Table 4.

Nevertheless, the average Latin American or Caribbean will attest to the fact that mobile

telephony has taken the region by storm. The introduction of market liberalization and pre-

paid service have revolutionized the market and placed phones in the hands of the

traditionally marginalized. It is typical to see domestic helpers, manual laborers, school

children and the elderly manipulating the many features of their handsets with fluency.

3.1 Mobile Penetration in LAC

Recorded data relating to the overall percentage of cellular subscribers to total telephone

subscribers in LAC is higher than averaged growth rates across the region, according to the

ITU’s 2005 figure of 66.9%12 (ITU 2005). This compares with overall regional averages of

82.2% in Africa, 28.7% in Asia, 18.3% in Europe and 17% in Oceania.

As gross averages provide little insight into the particular nature of individual markets,

Table 4 provides a breakdown by LAC country. Recorded figures place Jamaica ahead of

the pack with 88.8% of all 2005 telephone service users subscribing to cellular mobile. By

the end of 2005, Jamaica’s mobile penetration rate was 93% (Bibolini 2006). This

compares to jurisdictions such as Cuba with 13.7% of all 2005 telephone service users

subscribing to cellular mobile and a 2005 penetration rate of 1% (Bibolini 2006). Currently,

mobile subscribers out number fixed line subscribers in all of the region’s countries other

than Cuba.

Subscribers Subscribers Subscribers Subscribers Subscribers as 11 Figure derived from ITU 2005 WTI Americas data excluding The U.S. and Canada12 Figure derived from ITU 2005 WTI Americas data excluding The U.S. and Canada

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 19

2000 2005 CAGR (%) 2000-05

per 100 inhabitants 2005

% of total telephone subscribers 2005

Antigua & Barbuda 22 54 25.2 70.13 58.7Argentina 6,487.90 22,100.00 27.8 57.27 71.5Aruba 15 98.4 60 89.44Bahamas 31.5 186 55.9 58.68 57.1Barbados 28.5 200.1 62.8 73.85 59.6Belize 16.8 93.1 40.8 34.48 73.7Bermuda 13 49 39.3 79.03Bolivia 582.6 2,421.40 33 26.37 78.9Brazil 23,188.20 86,210.00 30 46.25 67Chile 3,401.50 10,569.60 25.5 67.79 75.5Colombia 2,256.80 21,800.00 57.4 47.81 73.7Costa Rica 211.6 1,101.00 39.1 25.45 44.2Cuba 6.5 134.5 83.1 1.19 13.7Dominica 1.2 41.8 143 58.68 66.6Dominican Rep. 705.4 3,623.30 38.7 40.68 80.2Ecuador 482.2 6,246.30 66.9 47.22 78.6El Salvador 743.6 2,411.80 26.5 35.05 71.3French Guiana 39.8 98 25.2 53.55Grenada 4.3 43.3 78.2 42.05 57Guadeloupe 169.8 314.7 16.7 71.04Guatemala 856.8 3,168.30 38.7 25.02 73.7Guyana 39.8 250 44.4 33.29 69.4Haiti 55 400 64.2 4.87 74.1Honduras 155.3 1,281.50 52.5 17.79 72.2Jamaica 367 2,700.00 49.1 101.85 88.8Martinique 162.1 295.4 16.2 74.78Mexico 14,077.90 47,462.10 27.5 44.34 70.9Neth. Antilles 200 90.09Nicaragua 90.3 1,119.40 65.4 19.69 83.5Panama 410.4 1,351.90 26.9 41.88 75.4Paraguay 820.8 1,887.00 18.1 30.64 85.5Peru 1,273.90 5,583.40 34.4 19.96 71.3Puerto Rico 926.4 2,682.00 30.4 68.82 70.7St. Kitts and Nevis 1.2 10 69.9 20 28.6St. Lucia 2.5 93 147 62St. Vincent 2.4 70.6 97.3 59.34 75.8Suriname 41 232.8 41.5 51.85 74.2Trinidad & Tobago 161.9 800 37.7 61.26 71.2Uruguay 410.8 600 9.9 18.51 37.5Venezuela 5,447.20 12,495.70 18.1 46.71 77.6Virgin Islands (US) 35 64.2 16.4 57.84 47.5LAC 30.4 66.9

Table 4: 2005 Cellular Subscriber Data for Latin America and the Caribbean (ITU 2005)

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 20

The broad variations in penetration rates across the region suggest a substantial difference

between countries in the way that mobile phones are owned, used and valued. As little has

been recorded on the nature of local use and usage, there is the need for data relating to

these parameters.

3.2 LAC Mobile Providers

The major cellular mobile providers in Latin America are America Movil, Telefonica SA

and Telecom Italia. Globalstar provides voice, Internet, private data network connectivity,

position location, and SMS services via satellite to certain remote regions in Latin America.

The major mobile providers in the Caribbean are Cable and Wireless and Digicel. GSM by

far leads the cellular market in Latin America and the Caribbean, with service offerings in

all countries in the region. Little by way of 3G licenses have been issued.

Table 5 presents an inventory of mobile operators in Latin America and the Caribbean

gathered through desk research.

Country Operator Mobile Technology

Antigua and Barbuda APUA GSMbmobile GSMDigicel GSM

Argentina movistar GSM, CDMACTI Movil EDGE, GPRS, GSM,Personal GSMNEXTEL iDEN

Aruba Digicel GSMSETAR GSM

Bahamas BTC GSMBarbados bmobile GSM

Digicel GSMSunbeach CDMA

Belize Digicel GSMSmart CDMA

Bermuda M3 GSMDigicel GSM, CDMA

Bolivia Entel GSMTigo GSM

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 21

Nuevatel GSMBrazil Vivo CDMA, TDMA, GSM

TIM GSM, TDMAClaro EDGE, GPRS, GSM, TDMAOi GSMTelemig Cellular/Amazonia Cellular

GSM, TDMA

Brasil Telecom GSMNEXTEL iDENCTBC GSM, TDMA

Chile movistar GSM, CDMA, TDMAEntel GSMClaro GSM, CDMA

Columbia Comcel EDGE, GPRS, GSM, TDMAmovistar GSM, CDMA, TDMAOla To be rebranded Tigo in 1Q07

GSM

Costa Rica Groupo Ice GSMCuba Cubacel AMPS, GSM

C-COM GSMDominica Digicel GSMDominican Republic Orange GSM

Verizon Dominican GSMEcuador Porta EDGE, GPRS, GSM, TDMA

movistar GSM, CDMA, TDMAAlegra CDMA2000 1x, CDMA

El Salvador Claro GSMTigo GSM, TDMAmovistar GSM, CDMADigicel GSMRED iDEN

French Guyana DigicelGrenada bmobile GSM

Digicel GSMCingular Wireless GSM

Guadeloupe Bouygues Telecom CaraïbeOrange Caraïbe

Guatemala Claro GPRS, GSM, CDMATigo EDGE, GPRS, GSM, TDMAmovistar GPRS, GSM, CDMA 1x EV-

DOGuyana CelStar GSM

Cellink Plus GSM

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 22

Digicel GSMHaiti Comcel GSM

Digicel GSMHonduras Tigo GSM

Claro GPRS, GSMHONDUTEL GSM

Jamaica DigicelbmobileMiPhone

Martinique Bouygues Telecom CaraïbeOrange Caraïbe

Mexico Telcel EDGE, GPRS, GSM, TDMAmovistar GSM, CDMAIusacell pending merger with Unefón

CDMA

NEXTEL iDENUnefón pending merger with Iusacell

CDMA

Nicaragua Claro GPRS, GSMmovistar GSM, CDMA

Panama Cable & Wireless GSMmovistar GSM, CDMA

Paraguay Tigo GSM, TDMAPersonal (Núcleo SA) GSM, TDMACTI Móvil GSMVOX GSM

Peru movistar CDMA, TDMAClaro EDGE, GPRS, GSMNEXTEL iDEN

Puerto Rico Verizon Wireless CDMACingular GSMCentennial CDMASuncom GSMMoviStar CDMASprint CDMA

St. Kitts and Nevis DigicelSt. Lucia DigicelSt. Vincent and the Grenadines

Digicel

Suriname Telesur GSMDigicel GSMIntelsur GSM

Trinidad and Tobago bmobile TDMA, GSMDigicel GSM

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 23

Laqtel CDMAUraguay Ancel GSM

movistar GSMCTI Móvil GPRS, GSM

Venezuela movistar CDMAMovilnet CDMA, TDMADigitel GSM

Table 5 Mobile Operators in Latin America and the Caribbean

3.3 LAC Services

Though they account for a far less than significant percentage of revenues than voice

services, virtually all LAC mobile providers offer mobile data services. Mobile data

services available in various LAC countries include General Packet Radio Services, GPRS

(on a GSM platform); Blackberry (on a GPRS platform), EVolution-Data Optimized, EV-

DO (on a CDMA platform); and Short Message Service, SMS (on all cellular platforms).

While GPRS, Blackberry and EV-DO have become indispensable for many LAC business

users, SMS (“texting”) has exploded in popularity with the young and its affordability has

won the attention of all age groups.

While the mobile Internet takes root in the developed world, the LAC region is viewing it

with a mix of curiosity and excitement. A 2002 ECLAC assessment (ECLAC 2002)

identified the major reasons for going online in LAC as: obtaining general information

services, entertainment, instant messaging or e-mailing. At that time online transactions

were very limited and there has not been significant progress in this area since.

Close relatives to the mobile service provider in LAC, and ones which represent a

significant opportunity for synergy, are the various types of telecentres or multipurpose

community centres that have sprung up over the past ten years. These may be used to

provide backhaul services to physical sites which may then be used to reach users via a

variety of wireless means. They exist in many forms such as:

Central or local governments operating within communities,

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 24

Central or local governments operating from educational institutions (schools or

public libraries),

Non-governmental organizations (NGO’s),

Purely commercial ventures (cyber cafés).

3.4 LAC Applications

Many jurisdictions within the region have committed, through a variety of means including

national policies and projects, to advance both the use of the Internet and the broad access

to mobile technology. Table 6 illustrates the key focal areas for related ICT applications, all

of which may be delivered through mobile service.

SECTOR APPLICATIONS

e-learning Distance learning

e-Government Real-time interactive flow of public information and public services

Exchange of official documents via the Internet

e-Business/ E-Commerce Web-based online transactionso On line retailingo Business trade

e-Health Real-time interactive health care delivery

e-Culture Real-time images and oral expressions

e-Media Multimedia

Table 6 Key Focal Areas for LAC ICT Applications

The LAC region comprises substantial geographic as well as cultural and ethnic diversity.

The applications currently in use and those that have potential to take root are

correspondingly diverse. There are, for example, deeply forested and isolated areas in

Guyana with traditional communities which are pursuing interesting options to bring

mobile enabled ICT applications to benefit communities.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 25

4. Knowledge Gaps

It is imperative that recommendations for meaningful pro-poor policy, regulatory and

project interventions be based on regional data. However, there is, as Waverman, Meischi

and Fuss (2005) note, a paucity of data in developing countries. Indeed, “[d]espite a

worldwide boom in mobile phone ownership, studies of social and economic implications

of mobile telephone use in the developing world are rare” (Donner 2005). Much of the

well-documented case materials on mobile and poverty alleviation that are available focus

on Africa and Asia. Little data is available for LAC.

The literature indicates that many mobile initiatives in Asia and Africa are driven by mobile

network providers. This suggests the need for further research into the driving-forces of

pro-poor mobile capabilities in LAC.

It would be useful to document LAC cases and benchmark them against international

reference points. Baseline data is also important to facilitate an understanding of the

regional barriers to the adoption of mobile-enabled ICT applications in LAC and to the

various parameters which influence end-user uptake of applications. Additionally, a

regional inventory of existing mobile-enabled ICT innovations and applications is of

particular interest. These various data inputs are necessary to guide the development of

recommendations for regional policy, regulatory, technical and project interventions.

Many service providers have taken the initiative to acquire data relating to mobile usage.

Studies such as Vodafone’s, previously discussed, make important contributions to our

collective understanding of the impact of mobile phones. However studies commissioned

by service providers are vulnerable to conflict of interest claims. Even data from

authoritative sources such as the ITU is not definitive as national respondents vary in their

understanding of the indicators and their commitment to integrity. It is important that LAC

strengthen its capacity for independent and reliable research both at the institutional as well

as at the inter-institutional levels.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 26

5. Research Strategy

The proposed research seeks to add to the regional literature and empirical data stock

regarding service availabilities, application possibilities and the manner in which mobile

phones are owned, valued and used in LAC. This will provide insight to enable analysis of

trends in innovation of mobile-enabled ICT applications in the region, as well as ways in

which existing mobile infrastructure may be used to optimal benefit.

5.1 Objectives

The broad thematic objectives of the 2007 research cycle are to gather, document and

contemplate empirical data, from select LAC countries, that will contribute to, and enrich,

the debate of pro-poor ICT policies in the region. Particular objectives are to:

Develop an inventory of available regional mobile services

Analyze the pro-poor mobile capabilities in the region

Document regional mobile-enabled ICT case studies

Develop a conceptual framework of mobile technologies, services and applications in a

manner that is accessible to regulation and policy domains

Non-thematic objectives of the work programme are to:

Explore opportunities to develop local capacity in the area of cross-disciplinary

empirical studies

Engage in cooperative research with other DIRSI researchers

5.2 Scope

The significant variation in mobile penetration rates within LAC, discussed in Section 3,

suggest a corresponding diversity in infrastructure, service, economic and social

circumstances across the region. LAC also features tremendous diversity in demographics,

language, geography, topography and culture. Comprehensive regional research is therefore

a major undertaking entailing representative studies across the many parameters of

diversity. As the region spans an enormous geographic area comprising more than forty

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 27

countries, many themselves comprising a number of islands and many others comprising

large municipalities, a thorough regional study is an even more daunting undertaking.

Recognizing the practical limitations of a comprehensive LAC study, research of a limited

scope is proposed for 2007. In particular, it is proposed that the 2007 empirical and

analytical research focus on the following selected countries within the English speaking

Caribbean:

Northern Caribbean - Jamaica

Southern Caribbean - Trinidad and Tobago

Eastern Caribbean

o Eastern Caribbean Telecommunications Authority (ECTEL) countries

o Barbados

This selection of countries will be reviewed at the 2006 DIRSI meeting in Buenos Aires.

The 2007 research, applied to the countries confirmed at the 2006 meeting, will test the

analytical and empirical methodologies for subsequent application to greater regional

scope, hopefully incorporating Latin America as well as French, Dutch and Spanish

speaking Caribbean countries.

5.3 Methodology

The 2007 research will employ both analytical and empirical studies. The analytical

component of the research will draw on Section 1 of this background paper, as well as the

outputs of the 2005 research cycle (the Percolator Model), to establish important technical

inputs into the contemplation of avenues for the alleviation of poverty through mobile

technologies. It will form the basis of analyzing field data to be gathered in the 2007

research cycle and, of itself, will represent support for DIRSI research on pro-poor mobile

models, strategies and measurements. This work will draw heavily on desk research and

point the way for further research.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 28

Field work will gather both supply-side and demand-side data. Target groups for the former

will comprise service and application providers; retailers of ICT appliances; and service

centres (multipurpose community centres, telecentres, cyber cafes etc.). Target groups for

the latter will comprise traditionally marginalized end-user groups such as the unemployed,

the elderly, the very young and manual as well as menial laborers. These studies will

employ both quantitative and qualitative methods using a mix of guided personal

interviews, small community meetings and online questionnaires, as appropriate to the

respective target groups.

The particular instruments proposed are:

A Providers survey to assess the existing and envisioned commercial offerings of a

variety of providers (service as well as application)

A Users survey to assess the manner in which mobile phones are owned, valued and

used

Focus groups to discuss the manner in which cell phones are used and valued in

LAC to provide a sense of the innovative applications of mobile services being

developed in the region.

Personal interviews

While the Providers survey is specific to this particular study, the Users survey will no

doubt overlap in intent and content with surveys contemplated by other DIRSI researchers.

A key component of the proposed methodology is therefore to collaborate with these

colleagues on the design and implementation of the User surveys.

5.4 Survey Instruments

To minimize interpretative spread and respondent fatigue, it is proposed that the survey

instruments be developed in a nominal multiple choice format with each response to

include no more than 5 closed answers as well as the option for further comment or

clarification.

The Providers survey will seek to determine the existing service portfolio and the

organization’s technological evolution path. Following the discourse of Section 1 of this

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 29

document, the Providers survey instrument will place a great deal of emphasis on service.

Nevertheless, it will probe the company’s vision as relates to end-user application

possibilities. The Users survey on the hand will place a great deal of emphasis on end-user

applications but will tie these back to the enabling mobile services. It will probe questions

relating to demographics and geographics, value attached to mobile service, equipment,

access, purpose, application, mode of use, usage and barriers. Sample questions include:

Demographics and Geographics

Education level

Gender

Age

Economic groupings

Location (rural, suburban, urban, forest, jungle)

Value of mobile phone

Do you value your mobile phone more because no other method of communication

is available to you?

Other forms of communication available?

o Road (car, buses, etc)

o Do you own a landline?

If no: Do you have access to a neighbour’s landline?

Do you own your own mobile phone?

o If yes…

prepaid?

Postpaid?

Do you have more than one service provider?

Who is your service provider?

If more than one service provider, why?

o Cheaper to make calls to similar provider?

o Coverage?

o Cheaper handset?

Do you use fixed line telecentres?

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 30

o If yes, are they in your neighbourhood?

Purpose

Executing government transactions

Banking

Health

3. Business

4. Agriculture

5. Education

6. Entertainment

7. Travel

8. Employment

9. Environment

10. Weather

11. Science

12. Other (please specify)

Ranking by importance and (separately) by frequency, purpose for business:

o Increased sales and profits (business)

o Increased efficiency (business)

o Save time / increase productivity

o Job search

o Make appointments

o Savings in travel costs

o Dissemination of information

o Access to information

o Access to services

o Payment for products or services

o Receipt of payments for products or services

o Collaboration

o Knowledge management

o Knowledge sharing

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 31

o Personal computing

o Information processing

o Other, please specify

Ranking by importance and (separately) by frequency, purpose for personal use:

o Easier to communicate with friends and family

o Save time

o Savings in travel costs

o Dissemination of information

o Access to information

o Access to services

o Payment for products or services

o Personal productivity

o Collaboration

o Other, please specify

Sharing of mobile phone

If you do own a mobile phone would you be willing to allow others to use it?

Free of cost or fee?

All others/ only friends?

Barriers to access and use

Do you have electricity at home?

Is mobile coverage available in your neighbourhood?

Measurement of calls and SMS (text messages)

How often do you use your mobile for the following? (never; often: >= 1 time per

day; seldom: 1 time per month).

o Outgoing voice calls

o Incoming voice calls

o Outgoing text messages

o Incoming text messages

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 32

6. Summary

This background paper has set forth the fundamental notions of applications and services

and established that the choice of end-user ICT applications points to the selection of

appropriate enabling services. It emphasizes that a study of mobile capabilities in Latin

America and the Caribbean must take account of the end-user applications for which

mobile services are currently being, and may potentially, be used.

As a lead into the field work that will follow, the paper has provided a brief inventory of

service providers in Latin America and the Caribbean and drawn some observations from a

number of regional and external case studies.

On the basis of the desk research conducted, the paper has provided a sense of the gaps in

the literature and contemplated the manner in which a follow-on study can narrow the gaps.

The field work to follow will provide guidance on the potential for ICT applications and

their enabling mobile services, as well as document a more detailed inventory of service

offerings in the jurisdictions under study.

DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 33

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Donner, Johnathan. 2005. “Microentrepreneurs and Mobiles: An Exploration of the Uses of

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International Development”. Volume 2, Number 1, Fall 2004, 1-21.

Grameen Technology Center (October 2005). Village Phone Replication Manual. Available online at www.infodev.org/en/Document.14.aspx

3GPP. (2006). Third Generation Partnership Project; Technical Specification Group

Services and System Aspects; Service Aspects. Services and Service Capabilities (Release

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Wikdictionary: available online at http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Application. Last viewed September 2006.

InfoDev (2006). Micro-Payment Systems and their application to mobile networks.

ITU (2000, 1). Y.101 (03/00) Global Information Infrastructure Terminology: Terms and

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ITU (2000, 2). F.700 (11/00) Framework Recommendation for multimedia services. ITU-T

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ITU (2006). World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators.

Mallalieu, K and Rocke, S. (2005) “Analysis of the Supply Side of ICTs for Digital Poverty

Alleviation” in Digital Poverty: Latin American and Caribbean Perspectives, DIRSI –

Diálogo regional sobre la sociedad de la información.

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Newton’s Telecom Dictionary (2003) 19th Ed. Matt Kelsey.

Teligen. (2000). International Benchmarking Study of Telecommunications Services.

Ultralingua Online Dictionary: available online at http://www.ultralingua.com/

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UNDP. (2001). Human Development Report: Making new technologies work for human

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Pringle, Ian and David, M.J.R. Rural Community ICT Applications: The Kothmale Model.

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Waverman, Leonard, Meloria Meschi and Melvyn Fuss (2005). The Impact of Telecoms

on Economic Growth in Developing Countries. In The Vodaphone Policy Paper Series, No.

2. March 2005. Africa: The Impact of Mobile Phones.

Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913). Available at:

http://machaut.uchicago.edu/websters

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DIRSI Background Papers 2006, “ICT Needs of the Poor: Mobile Services” 35