DIRECTORATE OF WATER DEVELOPMENT · that are spoken widely in Uganda (Runyakitara, Lugbara, Luo, Ateso, Luganda and Swahili). The contents of this book will be revised and improved

THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDAMINISTRY OF WATER AND ENVIRONMENT

DIRECTORATE OF WATER DEVELOPMENT

A COMMUNITY RESOURCE BOOK

FOR

THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR

2007

ii FOR THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR


THIS IS A PUBLICATION OF THE COMMUNITY RESOURCE BOOK

FOR

THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR

Technical Preparation and Editing by:

Socio-Economic Data Centre (SEDC) LtdP. O. Box 10207Kampala, Uganda

February 2007

Illustrations, design and layout by

Yusuf Nsanja

Published by:

Copyright ©: 2007. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any

form or by any means electronic, mechanical or other means now known or hereafter invented, including copying

and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from The Directorate

of Water Development.

iii FOR THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR


Acronyms vForeword vi

Chapter 1.0: Introduction 11.1 What this Community Resource Book (CRB) is About 11.2 Users of this Community Resource Book 11.3 Who Provides Water and Sanitation Services to Rural Communities? 11.3.1 Community members: 21.3.2 Local council 1 31.3.3 Private sector (PS) 41.3.4 NGOs and CBOs 51.3.5 Sub-county 61.3.6 District 61.3.7 Central government 7

Chapter 2.0: Planning For Community Supply Water and Sanitation Services 9 2.1 Assessing the Water and Sanitation Situation in Your Community 92.2 Choosing the Type of Water Source Suitable for your Community 102.3 Procedures to Follow in Applying for an Improved Water Source 13

Chapter 3.0: Requirements for a Community to Get an Improved Water Source 153.1 Forming a Water User Committee (WUC)2 153.2 Community Contribution Towards the Cost of Constructing the Water Source 193.3 Improving Sanitation and Hygiene at Household Level 203.4 Making an Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Plan 213.5 Getting Access to Land on which the Water Source will be Constructed 223.6 Involvement of Both Men and Women 223.7 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) 23

Chapter 4.0: Construction of Water Facilities 254.1 Introduction: 254.2 Borehole Construction 274.3 Shallow well construction 314.4 Spring Protection 324.5 Gravity Flow Scheme Construction 354.6 Rehabilitation of a Water Source 364.7 Contract Management 374.8 Commissioning of Completed Water Sources 37

Chapter 5.0: Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Water Facilities 415.1 Why should a Community be Concerned with O&M? 415.2 What is involved in Operation and Maintenance? 415.3 Planning for O&M 425.4 Use and Maintenance of Hand Pumps (Boreholes and Shallow Wells) 435.4.1 Good practices in using hand-pumps 435.4.2 Preventive maintenance 45

Contents

iv FOR THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR


5.4.3 Repairing of boreholes 465.4.4 Spare parts for Boreholes and Shallow wells 475.5 Regular Maintenance and Repair of Protected Springs 475.5.1 Regular maintenance 475.6 Maintenance and Repair of Gravity Flow Schemes 485.6.1 Maintenance of tap stands 485.6.2 Repairs of the GFS 505.7 Responsibilities for maintaining improved water sources 50

Chapter 6.0: Financial Management 536.1 When Community Contributions are Required 536.1.1 Contribution towards the construction of the source 536.1.2 Contribution towards O&M of the water source 536.2 Methods of Mobilizing Community Contributions 546.2.1 Households´ contributions to construct a water source 546.2.2 Forms of contribution for O&M 556.3 Management and Utilization of Collected Funds 566.4 Accountability 57

Chapter 7: Sanitation and Hygiene 597.1 What is Sanitation and Hygiene? 597.2 Disease Transmission 617.3 Preventing the Spread of Disease 627.5 Types of latrines 65

Chapter 8: Managing Conflicts related to Water Supply and Sanitation 678.1 Conflicts in Water Use and Management 678.2 Why Conflict in Water Use and Management 678.3 Ways of Resolving Conflict 688.4 Consequences of Unresolved Conflicts 69

Chapter 9: Gender Issues 719.1 Understanding Gender 719.2 Roles of Women in Watsan Activities as Perceived by Society 719.3 Roles of Men in WATSAN activities as Perceived by Society 729.4 Implications of Existing Gender Roles 729.5 Women and Decision-Making 739.6 Desirable Situation 739.7 Benefits of Equal Gender Participation 74

Annex 1: Village Application Form for a Water Source: First Round Application 76

Annex 2: Village Application Form for a Water Source: Second Round Application 77Annex 3: Monitoring Plan For The WUC—Issues to be Monitorred and List Of Users 79Annex 4: Sample of Payment Receipt 81

v FOR THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR


AcronymsBH - Borehole

CBO - Community Based Organization

CDA - Community Development Assistant

CDO - Community Development Officer

CRB - Community Resource Book

CWO - County Water Officer

CWO - County Water Officer

DTR - Disease Transmission Route

DWD - Directorate of Water Development

DWO - District Water Officer

EHD - Environmental Health Division

GFS - Gravity Flow Scheme

HA - Health Assistant

HI - Health Inspector

HP - Hand-pump

LC - Local Council

MoGLSD - Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development

MoH - Ministry of Health

MoLG - Ministry of Local Government

MoWE - Ministry of Water and Environment

NGO - Non-Governmental Organization

NGOs - Non-Government Organizations

O&M - Operation and Maintenance

PS - Private Sector

PWD - Person with Disability

RWSS - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation

SEDC - Socio-Economic Data Centre

VIP - Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine

WATSAN - Water and Sanitation

WSC - Water and Sanitation Committee

WUC - Water User Committee

vi FOR THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR


Foreword

This Community Resource Book has been prepared to provide communities, and especially any active person or group within communities (e.g. Water User Groups), with good knowledge in matters concerning the planning for, management and maintenance of water supply and sanitation facilities. The Book also provides guidance on how to improve the hygiene and sanitation practices at community and household level. In addition it outlines the roles and responsibilities of the respective communities, its leaders as well as key bodies and institutions that are involved in the process of implementing, rehabilitating and maintaining rural water and sanitation activities.

The aim of this resource book is to assist local communities by providing them with know-how and ideas on how to solve technical and other problems they may encounter during operation and maintenance of water and sanitation facilities. It will also enhance transparency and accountability in the process of provision, allocation and management of water and sanitation services for all stakeholders. This is very important in the prevailing situation of limited available resources for service delivery under the sector within the country.

The format used in this resource book is mainly pictorial with limited text, which is intended to bring up important technical, socio-cultural issues and messages and to portray these in a user-friendly way. Pre-testing of the resource book was carried out in the field in selected rural communities in various parts of the country, taking into account the geographical, socio-cultural and ethnic diversity.

The resource book will be translated and made available in at least six of the main languages that are spoken widely in Uganda (Runyakitara, Lugbara, Luo, Ateso, Luganda and Swahili). The contents of this book will be revised and improved regularly as necessary, in order to adjust it to new developments in the sector, thus keeping it relevant at all times.

Special thanks and acknowledgements go to the staff of the Ministry of Water & Environment/Directorate of Water Development, Local Government staff, Sector Development Partners, the consultants (M/S Socio-Economic Data Centre Ltd) and the selected communities that assisted and/or provided information in various ways during the process of preparation and pre-testing of this community resource book.

It is sincerely hoped this book will be a very useful guide for communities, Water User Committees, Community Based Organisations (CBOs), extension workers, community development assistants and any other group or individual involved in water and sanitation service delivery to our local communities.

Hon. Maria Mutagamba

Minister for Water & Environment, Uganda

1 FOR THE WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR


Chapter 1.0: Introduction

1.1 What this Community Resource Book (CRB) is About

This Community Resource Book (CRB) contains information about community safe water supply, improved hygiene and sanitation practices in Uganda. It provides information about how community members (users) can get improved water sources, how to operate and maintain them, and also how to improve the hygiene and sanitation conditions in their households and communities.

The Community Resource Book guides users on where to get more information and support to enable them to improve their water supply, hygiene and sanitation. It explains what is required from the community members and local leaders as well as what other agencies and organizations can contribute to provide safe water and assist communities in improving hygiene practices and sanitation in their households.

1.2 Users of this Community Resource Book

This CRB should be useful for people residing in rural communities in general, but is particularly directed to members and leaders in Water User Committees (WUC), leaders of women groups and community-based organizations (CBOs). Local Council (LC) executives should also find the CRB useful when assisting communities in their efforts to access new water sources, toilets and latrines and when rehabilitating existing water facilities.

Community leaders are urged to use the information in this book to mobilize members in their community, raise awareness about the importance of hygiene and sanitation and join hands with them to improve the situation. The leaders should also use this information to seek appropriate support from their respective local government officials, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other agencies available in their communities that could be of assistance.

1.3 Who Provides Water and Sanitation Services to Rural Communities?

Many different individuals and organizations are involved in providing water supply and sanitation services in rural areas. These include members of the community, sub-county, districts, private sector (PS), community-based organizations (CBOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the central government.



1.3.1 Community members:

Community members and the users of the water supply system are responsible for:

• Officially requesting for an improved water source

• Providing land on which the water supply system is to be constructed;

• Forming a Water User Committee (WUC)

• Contributing towards the cost of constructing the source;

• Maintaining the water source, including undertaking regular maintenance and hiring mechanics to do minor repairs, using money collected from community members and placed in the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) fund;

• Improving or constructing sanitation facilities as well as maintenance—including pit toilets/latrines, drying racks, bath shelters and hand-washing facilities next to the latrines;

• Observing proper hygiene and sanitation behaviour and practices—e.g., washing hands with soap after latrine



• Use, environmental hygiene around the home, cleaning water collection utensils and proper storage of drinking water.

Note: No house-hold can have safe water that is free of contamination unless proper personal and household hygiene and sanitation practices are observed. So safe water, proper hygiene and sanitation are all linked and go together.

1.3.2 Local council 1

The LC 1 is responsible for the following:• Mobilizing community members to elect a water user committee

• Assisting the community in applying for the improved water source

• Assisting the WUC to mobilize the water users for contribution towards the cost of construction as well as O&M, sanitation and hygiene promotion



• Monitoring the construction, maintenance and performance of the WUC including accountability of community funds, and;

• Assisting in resolving the conflict between the water users and WUC.

1.3.3 Private sector (PS)

The technicians involved in providing communities with water and in promoting safe water supply, hygiene and sanitation are small and large contracting firms, individual contractors, such as Handpump Mechanics (HPMs), Scheme Attendants, Masons and Plumbers – being part of the “private sector”. In the past, the private sector was not much involved in water and sanitation activities but the Government now strongly encourages the involvement of these technicians in order to speed up communities´ access to safe water and sanitation. The work of the PS technicians includes the following:

• Constructing water facilities including siting, drilling, construction of springs, gravity flow schemes, casting of platforms and installation of pumps;

• Constructing latrines in public places;

• Repairing water sources;and

• Supplying and selling spare parts for hand pumps and other water source installations.



Note: The PS technicians have to be paid for the work done. They may be paid by the com-munity, sub-county, district or central govern-ment depending on the nature of the work performed and the contracting party. For simple or minor O&M work, it is the respon-sibility of the community to engage and pay the PS e.g., a HPM, mason or plumber.

1.3.4 NGOs and CBOs

Unlike the PS technicians, NGOs and CBOs involved in safe water and sanitation promotion do not work for profit. The communities, WUCs and the NGOs/CBOs may jointly agree to contribute to the work that has to be done but NGOs and CBOs are not paid for “services” the way that the private sector technicians are paid. The NGOs and CBOs often work with, and are sometimes contracted by central, district and sub-counties to do the following:

• Mobilizing communities;

• Motivating people to improve and maintain their water sources, and spread messages about the importance of hygiene and sanitation and to take action on their own;

• Performing drama and plays to spread messages on hygiene, water and sanitation, HIV/AIDS among others;

• Informing communities on what is required to access water and sanitation and maintenance services from the government agencies and assisting them in this process;

• Bringing and testing new technologies for water and sanitation and following up how they work;

• Providing financial support for water and sanitation services; and

• Installing/constructing water supply installations, such as Gravity Flow Schemes, spring



protections, among others, and assisting in setting up toilets, latrines, hygiene dish racks and hand-washing facilities (such as “tippy taps”).

1.3.5 Sub-county

The sub-county office, which is a local government office, is the link between the community and the district office. The role of the sub-county in the delivery of safe water, hygiene and sanitation includes the following:

• Planning and budgeting for water and sanitation activities in the sub-county;

• Receiving and processing communities´ applications requesting for improved water sources;

• Allocating water sources to meet the demands of the communities;

• Providing extension work-ers, Health Assistants (HAs), Community Development Assistants (CDAs) to mo-bilize, train, and facilitate community members to undertake various activities to improve water, hygiene and sanitation;

• Funding simple water supply technologies;

• Engaging and supervising the private sector technicians;

• Monitoring and following up of the construction and maintenance of water and sanitation facilities;

• Make by-laws to facilitate the provision and management of water and sanitation facilities in consultation with the WUC; and

• Providing financial support to communities for improving water and public sanitation.

1.3.6 District

The district office is also part of the local government structure, providing the link between communities/sub-counties and the central government. Community members usually do not interact with the central government directly. However, it is important that their requests and needs for water supply and sanitation are forwarded from sub-counties to districts. In the delivery of safe water and sanitation for communities, the district through its District Water Office is responsible for:



• Planning and budgeting for water and sanitation activities in the district;

• Providing technical staff, such as County Water Officers (CWOs), Health Inspectors (HIs), Community Development Officers (CDOs) to train, supervise and facilitate community members to undertake various activities to improve water, hygiene and sanitation;

• Monitoring and supervising the construction of water and sanitation facilities;

• Monitoring the maintenance of water and sanitation facilities in the district;

• Providing financial and technical back-up to communities through sub-counties for improving water and public sanitation; and

1.3.7 Central government

In the past, it was the sole responsibility of the central government, namely the Ministry of Water and Environment1 (MoWE) through the Directorate of Water Development (DWD) to implement water and sanitation activities at community level. The role of the DWD is since changed and according to the current government policy, the central government is now responsible for:

• Providing financial and technical back-up for water and sanitation services in the districts;

• Informing districts about Government policies and regulations;

• Producing and disseminating Guidelines and Manuals for government officials, in order to develop their capacity and enable them to provide better and more efficient services to sub-counties and communities in implementing of water and sanitation (such manuals are also used by NGOs to some extent, such as the Software Steps and others)

• Monitoring and supervising water and sanitation activities in the country

• Providing technical support to the private sector and NGOs when required;

• Ensuring availability of spare parts for water facilities in the country; and

• Ensuring that technologies and spare parts used are of good quality and make efforts to test and spread knowledge about “new” appropriate technologies such as domestic water harvesting (DWH) and others.

1Previously named Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment





Chapter 2.0: Planning For Community Supply Water and Sanitation Services

2.1 Assessing the Water and Sanitation Situation in Your Community

As a first step in preparing for improving the water and sanitation situation, your community needs to make an assessment of the current situation. These are some of the questions that community members and the WUC could ask themselves:

• What are our specific needs for improved water supply, hygiene and sanitation?

• How many people need to be served by a new or rehabilitated water source?

• In which part of the village/community are the needs for water and sanitation greater than in others?

• What type of water source can be constructed, operated and maintained in this area?

• What is the hygiene and sanitation situation like – and what should be done to improve it?

Such an assessment is best done in a participatory manner through a community or village meeting maybe facilitated by an extension worker from the sub-county or an NGO field staff or volunteer. Below is an example of the steps that could be followed in making the assessment:

• Hold a village meeting with men and women of all ages and make special efforts to ensure that

women actively take part;

• With the guidance of the extension worker, draw a village map showing the location of each household; location of water sources, both protected and unprotected; location of other potential sources of water that can be improved or developed; households with latrines and those without.



• Also include on the village map other important features such as roads, schools, health centers, trading centers, churches, mosques and so on.

• Attempt to identify where in the community the needs for a new water source are more serious/ urgent and ensure that the needs of the residents in that area are met and not excluded.

Note: You can draw a village map by using locally available materials such as banana fibre, beans and stones to represent different features and colours.

2.2 Choosing the Type of Water Source Suitable for your Community

After you have assessed the situation, you will know what types of water sources are suitable in your community. For example, if there is a water source, which only requires rehabilitation, then you should opt for this or if there are natural springs in your village, then it may be a good idea to request for a protected spring instead of an expensive borehole, which also NGOs/CBOs can assist with. If your community is in a mountainous area, it will be difficult to have a borehole or a shallow well and perhaps a Gravity Flow Scheme (GFS) could be proposed/constructed.

Technology options:

Spring



Gravity Flow scheme

Protected Handpump

Shallow well



When choosing the type of water source you want, you need to consider a number of issues such as costs, number of people to be served, demands for operation and maintenance and life span. Considering the costs involved is very important because the water users are required to contribute different amounts for different types of water sources. The community contributions required for different water sources have been set by the government. These are shown in Table 2.

O&M of the source is your community’s responsibility, as already mentioned and different types of water sources demand different amounts of work, efforts and costs in order to maintain. For instance, it is much cheaper to maintain a protected spring than a hand-pump. Finally, it is important to consider that the water source you request for has a long life span.

Table 1, below, shows advantages and disadvantages of different types of water source – regardless whether they are suitable in your particular area – the choice for the most appropriate technology should be yours.

Table 1: Comparing of advantages and disadvantages of various water supply technologies

Type of Water Source Advantages Disadvantages

Borehole

• It can be sited in central locations depending on the availability of water

• If well operated and maintained it can last longer than other technologies

• Yields water that is free of contamination

• Easy to clean the area surrounding the Borehole

• An expensive technology so contribution to the cost from the community is also high

• Community required to have cash at hand in case of a breakdown

• Requires regular servicing and maintenance by the community

• Maintenance cost increases as the borehole gets older

Shallow Well

• The contribution to the cost required from the community is low

• Cheaper to construct and maintain than a borehole

• Community is required to have cash at hand in case of breakdown

• Requires regular servicing and maintenance by the community

• The water can be contaminated if the surrounding environs are not cleaned and



Type of Water Source Advantages Disadvantages

Protected Spring

• The contribution to the cost of construction and O&M required from the community is low

• Can be easily maintained as long as there is labour

• Springs can dry up especially when they are not properly identified

• Risk for contaminated water if located near sanitation facilities or environs are not well maintained

• Requires regular cleaning and draining soak way channel to avoid backflow

• Keeping the environs clean can be difficult due to fast growth of the grass around

Gravity Flow

• Wider area coverage

• Many household can be connected (tap stands)

• Appropriate in hilly terrain where other technologies may not be possible

• An expensive technology so, the contribution to the cost required from the community is also high.

• Community required to have cash at hand in case of breakdown

Water source rehabilitation

• Cheaper than a new construction if the rehabilitation required is simple

• Could be expensive if the repairs are major

• The cost of maintenance increases as the scheme gets older

2.3 Procedures to Follow in Applying for an Improved Water Source

After you have identified the needs for an improved water source, and have considered and compared the different water technologies, you should be ready to make an application or official request for a water source to the sub-county office in two rounds by following the steps as follows:

Round one: • With the participation of both men and

women, an application is made (either on a piece of paper or by filling an application form available at the sub-county, which is shown in Annex 1), specifying the type of water source requested for;

• The application is then signed by the LC1 Chairperson and Secretary;



• The application is submitted to the Sub-county office;

• After the sub-county office has assessed your application, you should be informed of whether your request is approved at this stage or not, and if not approved, the reasons should be given.

Round two:• If your application is approved, your

community will be required to identify the location of the water source, form a Water User Committee (if none exists), collect contributions, securing land for the water source among other things (this is explained further in the next section);

• When the above preparations have been done, the community leaders will request the sub-county staff to come and confirm or verify that all requirements have been met by the community;

• If all the requirements have been met, then you submit your application as shown in Annex 2; and

• You should then receive information regarding whether your application is approved or not, and what to do next.



Chapter 3.0: Requirements for

a Community to Get an Improved

Water Source

In order for your community’s application for an improved water source to be considered, you have to meet or fulfil certain conditions, as outlined in the previous chapter and dealt in detail here below.

3.1 Forming a Water User Committee (WUC)2

A Water User Committee (WUC) is a committee selected by the water users themselves. The purpose of forming such a committee is mainly to mobilise people around a specific water source, to ensure that the facility is used and maintained in a good way, with contributions in cash and kind from other members in the community.

Having an active WUC is an opportunity to share messages and influence your neighbours´ and others´ attitudes and behaviour regarding hygiene and sanitation. A committee will also be stronger than individuals in demanding better services and visits by sub-county, district and/or NGO offices. Mobilising the community around contributions (in cash and kind) is very important

You can elect WUC members as follows:

• In a village meeting, select a committee of six (6) persons who will be responsible for managing all day- to-day matters regarding the water source. In addition, the WUC will sensitize the other community members; promote hygiene and sanitation practices and behaviour. The organisers of the meeting should make efforts to attract as many people as possible and if possible, an Extension Worker from the sub-county should attend the meeting.

• It is important that at least 3 out of the 6 committee members are women. Having both men and

2Sometimes also named Water Sanitation Committee



women in your WUC will be very helpful especially when selecting the site and undertaking O&M activities.

• The Committee should consist of 1 Chairperson, 1 Secretary, 1 Treasurer, 1 committee member and 2 Caretakers (one of the Caretakers must be a woman).

Roles of the Water User Committee

• To mobilize community members to participate in matters of the water source

protection e.g., building the fence around the source, regularly cleaning the

surroundings of the water source etc.

• To keep an updated list of water users in their community

• To collect and keep contributions towards the construction cost and the O&M

funds

• Regularly visit and monitor the condition and performance of the water source

• To mobilize community members to improve their sanitation and hygiene

• Purchase any materials needed for repairs of the water source

• Ensure regular maintenance of the water source, and report any major problems to

the mason/hand pump mechanic/sub-county extension staff

• Pay for any repairs carried out by the mason/hand-pump mechanic

• Supervise and provide support to the water source caretakers

WUC members fencing a water Source Registering water users



Community contribution

Monitoring the state of the water source

Reporting the water source to the Handpump mechanic

Cleaning and fencing around the the GFS water source Purchasing spares

Fencing around spring



Roles of Caretakers

• Show people how to use the water source properly

• Carry out regular maintenance of the water source

• Keeping records on all maintenance work carried out on the source either directly or by a HPM, Plumber, Mason etc

• Mobilize community members to participate in maintenance activities e.g.

- Regularly clean the surroundings of the water source

- Regularly clean their water collection and storage containers

Cleaning the water source and planting grass.

Cleaning the water source

Showing water users how to use the handpump Making a protective fence at the handpump



Making a fence at the water source

Cleaning the spring area and digging a soak away

Washing containers to maintain a high level of hygiene

3.2 Community Contribution Towards the Cost of Constructing the Water Source

You, the community members, who will be using the water source, have to contribute to its cost because you will be the owners; it is your water source. The government will make the larger contribution towards the construction, but the communities are responsible for its operation and maintenance.

Why should you contribute?

When you and the community members make contributions towards the initial construction of the source, and are able to meet the O&M costs, the water source is likely to last longer. As you, the community will be the owners of the source you will ensure that you guard against anybody misusing or damaging it in any way. You will then talk of “our” water source when it fails instead of “their” water source (belonging to the government) and therefore ensure that it is repaired or better taken care of.



What are you expected to contribute?

A community that wishes to have an improved water source is expected to contribute money (cash) or materials depending on the type of water source the community has requested for as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Type of water source and required community contributions

Type of water sourceRequired cash contribution from

the community in Ug. Shs.

Borehole 180,000Shallow well 100,000Protected Spring 45,000Gravity flow scheme 45,000 per tapBorehole rehabilitation 90,000

Members of your community can make their contribution in form of money (cash) or, alternatively, they can contribute with locally available materials such as sand and stone aggregates. The community can also provide labour for digging trenches or pits and carrying materials.

If you contribute such materials, they will be valued in monetary terms and the equivalent amount deducted from the cash required as your contribution. Therefore, you can contribute both in cash and in kind (local materials and labour) as long as the total value amounts to the figures stated above. The Treasurer should keep a record of the contributions made by each community member and should give a receipt for each contribution made.

3.3 Improving Sanitation and Hygiene at Household Level

All community members should make efforts to improve sanitation and hygiene at the household level. This will ensure that the safe water that has been collected does not become contaminated once it is brought to the house or compound. Contaminated water can result into water and sanitation related diseases. In order to improve sanitation and hygiene, the following should be done:

• All households belonging to community leaders (LCs, members of the WUC ) should be “role models” to other people by having clean latrines;

• Households should have facilities for hand washing after latrine use (placed next to the latrine or toilet), drying racks, bath shelters, and rubbish pits;



• Ensure availability of soap/ash and water in a hand washing facility next to the latrine/toilet.

3.4 Making an Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Plan

Your community should prepare a Three (3) Year Plan on how the water facility shall be operated and maintained. The extension worker from the sub-county office should assist you and the Plan should clearly show how you intend to:



• Increase latrine coverage to 95% within 4 years (or even sooner);• Keep the water source clean and in good condition; and

• How often the WUC will hold meetings.

3.5 Getting Access to Land on which the Water Source will be Constructed

Once a suitable site or location for the water source has been agreed to, you need to do the following:

• Negotiate and agree with the land owner about using his/her land for the water source; and

• Sign an agreement with the land owner to confirm that the land has been given and that constructors will be allowed to the site and users will be allowed access to that land for the purpose of using the water source.

3.6 Involvement of Both Men and Women

Maintenance and operation of the water source is the responsibility of both men and women in your community. They must all be involved in the discussions and decisions about the water source to ensure its sustainability. The following must be done:

• At least half of the WUC members should be women; and

• At least one of the Caretakers should be a woman.

• Views of both men and women must be respected



• Men and women must all be in O&M of the water source

3.7 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)

Your community should sign an agreement, or a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which clearly describes what each party involved should do, such as the district, the sub-county, the contractor, and the community. The extension worker from the sub-county should bring a copy of this MoU for the WUC to consider and sign.





Chapter 4.0: Construction of Water Facilities

4.1 Introduction:

The different types of water sources that can be constructed in a community are the following (some already mentioned):

• Boreholes – drilled by a machine;

• Protected Springs – constructed by masons using stones, cement and sand;

• Shallow wells – either drilled by a machine or dug with hands;

• Gravity Flow Schemes (GFS) – these are piped water systems with water originating from very big springs and protected using stones cement and sand; and

• Piped water supply systems.

The different water technology options

Borehole



Spring

Shallow well

Gravity flow scheme



4.2 Borehole Construction

Construction of the borehole is undertaken by a contractor, who is contracted by the district or the DWD centre in Kampala. The role of your community is still very important and you are expected to do the following:

Selecting the area

• Identify three alternative sites for the Borehole to be constructed, in order of preference. They have to be checked by a technical person to confirm availability of water. If the first preferred site has no water the next site may be possible, and if this also fails, then the third one can be selected.

• In selecting the site, you should keep the following in mind:

o The site should be centrally located so that all community members can easily access the source;

o There should be healthy vegetation at the site all the year round for water retention;

o Look out for the presence of existing water sources, for instance a broken down Borehole. This might be cheaper to repair instead of constructing a new source;

and

o Avoid selecting sites near sources of contamination e.g. near kraals, graves and latrines as this can lead to contamination of water.



Area selection

•The technical person sent by the sub-county or district will test the presence of water at the proposed sites;

•If none of the three sites have any water, the technical person will look for another possible site which you will be informed of; and

•You should then contact the land owner, negotiate for and secure land for the new site.



Preparatory activities for drilling and construction

Preparing for drilling and construction for a water source requires that you do the following:

• Clearing the site where drilling will take place for the borehole; and

• Clearing the way or provide access to the site for the drilling rig and the other support vehicles. For this you will need to negotiate and get landowners to agree.

• Borehole construction comprises of three phases, namely; drilling, casting and installation.

Clearing the way for the vehicles transporting equipment

Requesting the land owner for land

Siting with the community participating

Casting

Drilling



• The construction activities will be carried out by a contractor, but the community will have to monitor construction works by looking out for the following:

o That there is a sufficient number of pipes installed, whether the borehole has been installed with a hand-pump which is easy to pump, whether the water flow is adequate and water is clear, without smell, the apron has been properly cemented, drainage channel can drain out waste water, and a soak pit for waste water has been constructed.

Commissioning Hand- pump



4.3 Shallow well construction

Shallow Wells are constructed in places with high water table such as near wetlands or swampy areas. When completed, a shallow well is fitted with a hand pump similar to that of a borehole.

Note: The guidelines for choosing the site for the shallow well, the steps you need to follow to verify that the site is good, preparatory and monitoring activities are quite similar as those seen above under the construction of borehole. So read them if your selected techno-logical option is a shallow well.

A Shallow Well and Borehole. A shallow well picks water at a shallow level (6-30 and above meters), while in a Borehole the water is drawn from deeper in the ground

(indicate depth?).

Shallow well Bore hole



4.4 Spring Protection

Protection of the spring can be carried out by small private local firms or masons after the site has been identified.

Spring Identification

Before a spring can be protected, a process of spring identification is undertaken by a team from the District Water Office (DWO), guided by the community members. You, the community, should do the following:

• Show the water team all the existing springs in the area/village, in case there are more than one natural spring that can be protected;

• Provide information on such aspects as life span of the spring, water yield and seasonal fluctuations (if any and water quality changes;

• Clear or slash the bushes in the area surrounding the spring, to enable the team to reach and inspect the spring.

Preparatory activities and Construction of the Spring

Before constructing a spring, you need to do the following:

• Secure land

• Clear the way and provide access route to the spring for the vehicles that will bring materials. It may be necessary to negotiate this with land owners along the access route

Insist that the private contractor who will undertake the work, as far as possible hires workers from your local community to do the work and that they are adequately paid for the work – instead of bringing in workers from outside the community.

The community signing a land agreement with the landowner



• Monitor and follow up construction works by looking out for bags of cement used, trips of sand brought and trips of stones. This information should be provided by the contractor; and finally

• Make sure that the spring is well protected and meets the required standards for instance that the catchment area is protected and fenced

off, a drain exists for storm water and drainage for waste water flowing from the point of collection, a concrete floor well constructed, a retention wall well constructed, a spring identification number indicated on the platform, and that the water is clear/clean with no smell.

The community helping in transportation of materials

where vehicles cannot reach





4.5 Gravity Flow Scheme Construction

Gravity Flow Schemes (GFS) are large springs covering a large service area, at times more than one sub-county. Your role in a GFS construction includes selecting the sites for the tap stands. In this selection, note the following:

o The tap stand should be located along the distribution line;

o Select an area that can be easily drained to avoid stagnant water;

o Select an area with high population concentration (in central locations), and

o Avoid flood prone areas.

As with all the other technologies mentioned here, you must monitor and follow up the construction works in order for the source to meet the set quality standards; for instance the apron has to be well cast without cracks, drainage channel provided, soak pits for waste water and water is of good quality (clear and no smell).

Paid Community members helping in digging trenches



Paid Community members

helping in laying pipes

Paid Community members

overseeing construction and

assisting the contractor

4.6 Rehabilitation of a Water Source

If a water source develops a problem, you should report the problem to all members of the WUC. The Committee should then seek the services of a Hand Pump Mechanic (HPM) for boreholes and shallow wells, a mason, or plumber (for GFS and springs) that should check the water facility to identify the cause and extent of the problem. If the HPM or mason finds that s/he does not have the capacity to repair it or solve the problem, the problem must be reported to the District Water Office (DWO). The Water Officer, or somebody else from the office, will then visit the water source to confirm if the required repairs are beyond the capacity of the community and, if so, the DWO must take on the responsibility and cost to rehabilitate the water source.



In cases where NGOs or other organisations are the ones to undertake rehabilitation; these agencies should contact the DWO to get more information which will enable this organisation to make a detailed assessment and a report. The assessment report will provide the scope of works required for each water source.

Community participation in Rehabilitation

Your role in the rehabilitation of the water source is to:

• Provide the correct information;

• Form a WUC to oversee the management of the water facility; and

• Monitor the rehabilitation works (use guidelines outlined under construction for the different water source types described in this book).

4.7 Contract Management

Your community of water users is the most important stakeholder in the provision of the safe water point. Therefore, you should get involved in the management of all the contracts governing the construction of water facilities. Contract management for all the different technologies of water sources is similar.

Community members have to know the following issues about the contract, such as the contract price (so as to ensure transparency), expected duration of the construction, what the contractor should do, and what the community members should do.

• As part of contract management, you have the right to pass your complaints to the district office or the contracting agency through the extension staff or drilling supervisor. This could be in matters regarding destruction of crops, services not being paid for, misbehaviour by contracting personnel - which could even involve inappropriate sexual conduct and abuse of local women, girls and/or boys.

• You can also voice any complaints to your local leaders who should contact the district or the sub-county in order to find solutions to problems.

4.8 Commissioning of Completed Water Sources

Once the construction of a water source is completed, the district, NGO or any other organisation should hand it over to you, the community, in a public ceremony. The local leaders should be informed early enough about the commissioning, or hand over event, so that they have time to mobilize the community members to attend the ceremony. When receiving the improved water source, you will be reminded of your roles and responsibilities in using and maintaining of the water source. These include:

• Paying and collecting O&M funds;



• Cleaning around the source;

• Clearing both storm and drain water;

• Clearing the drainage channels;

• Maintaining the fence around the water source;

• Buying spare parts, cement and other materials;

• Paying the mechanics, masons and

plumbers for any repairs/works done; and

• Keeping the water collection containers clean.



Community celebrating after commisioning the water source





Chapter 5.0: Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Water Facilities

5.1 Why should a Community be Concerned with O&M?

A water supply system must be well used and maintained so that a you can have safe water for a very long time without interruption. A well maintained water system will not break down frequently, which will save your community costs of repairs. Preventing breakdowns through good maintenance is therefore very important.

5.2 What is involved in Operation and Maintenance?

Maintaining a water source in a good working condition involves doing several things. For instance, you will need to do the following:

• repair or replace broken parts of the water facility;

• repair aprons and retention walls;

• tighten bolts and nuts;

• grease chains and other parts;

• mend the fence around the source;

• clean the surroundings of the water sources and clear the drainage;

• buy spare parts and pay mechanics, masons, plumbers and caretakers; and

• buy stationary and tools for Caretakers.

Note: If any of the above types of water sources breaks down and the breakdown requires only minor repair, you, as community, need to have them repaired. However, if the repairs are major, then the required works should be planned for and carried out as rehabilitation by the district office or any other agency/organisation willing to assist with this repair.



5.3 Planning for O&M

Once the water source has been handed over (commissioned) to your community, your WUC is expected to prepare annual plans and budgets for O&M. This should be done in consultation and participation of others as well, also those who are not members of the WUC. The plan should outline the activities, time frame, cost estimates and persons responsible for implementing them. The plan should also show how much you expect other



users to contribute during the year and how the money will be collected and kept in a safe place. Contributions may be in cash (money) or in kind (a bunch of matoke, a tin of maize, sorghum, millet, or people´s labour and the time they are prepared to put in. These contributions should be accepted in situations where people have real difficulties in giving cash, and/or when these non-monetary contributions are regarded as equivalent to a cash contribution.

There are many ways of collecting the contributions. WUC members usually go from house to house asking for contributions and Caretakers collect funds at the water source and during community meetings.

5.4 Use and Maintenance of Hand Pumps (Boreholes and Shallow Wells)

5.4.1 Good practices in using hand-pumps

The following are the recommended practices when using hand pumps (boreholes and shallow wells):

• Pump the hand pump gently when drawing water. Do not bang the pump. Prevent children from banging the pump handle and from playing on the fence and littering the surroundings;

Contributions in cash

Contributions in kind



• Do not allow animals such as cattle, goats and sheep near the water source as they may break the fence and cement works, and make the area dirty which could contaminate the water and risk the health of the users; and

• Do the laundry (washing clothes and other) at least 10 meters away on the lower slope of the water source. This is meant to ensure that the water from your washing /laundry does not come in touch with the drinking water from the water source.

WUCs discussing the plan for O and M with some members suggesting cash and

others kind contributions



5.4.2 Preventive maintenance

A hand-pump, just as with a bicycle, needs to be cared for on a regular basis – which is preventive maintenance. It is normally done by trained source Caretakers or members of the WUC.. When you ensure that such care is undertaken, the borehole will last much longer without breaking down which saves your community money, keeps the environment clean and the water safe. You should do the following to keep the hand pump in a good condition:



• Apply grease to the chain once every 3 weeks or whenever the chain seems dry;

• Replace the pump buckets whenever they are worn out and tighten the bolts and nuts;

• Repair cracks immediately they appear on cement works (platform and drainage channels); and

• Maintain the surrounding environment by planting grass and slashing it, generally cleaning the surroundings and mending the fence.

5.4.3 Repairing of boreholes

Whenever a borehole breaks down, call a trained HPM to check it. Never allow untrained persons to tamper with your borehole because s/he may cause bigger problems like pipes falling in. For all repairs that a trained/competent HPM can handle, you are responsible for paying the Mechanic/Technician for his/her work and for the spare parts required.



Repairs which are beyond the capacity of the HPM, such as fishing out pipes that have fallen in, replacing them and replacing the floor and drainage channels are responsibilities and tasks to be shared between your community and the DWO. Once the HPM has made sure that the problem is beyond his/her capacity, s/he has to report the matter to the DWO as soon as possible. The DWO is then requested and supposed to visit your village and assess the nature of the problem, as well as advise you on the actions to be taken.

5.4.4 Spare parts for Boreholes and Shallow wells

The WUC is responsible for making sure that spare parts are bought. To find out where hand pump spare parts can be purchased you should ask the DWO, the HPM or sub-county extension worker.

5.5 Regular Maintenance and Repair of Protected Springs

5.5.1 Regular maintenance

You do not need monthly cash contribution to regularly maintain your spring, but rather monthly labour. It is your responsibility to maintain your spring by doing the following:

• Always clear the drainage channel to avoid stagnant water that may act a breeding ground for disease causing germs.

• Clean the surroundings of the spring regularly.

• Maintain the fence preferably a live fence to keep off animals that may trample the catchment area and block the eyes of the spring.

• Plant grass in the catchment area to avoid soil erosion and percolation of storm water into the spring.

• Instantly repair any small crack on the masonry works because it may be a source of contamination and will develop into a bigger crack which will be expensive to repair.

• Do not allow construction of a pit latrine, grave or kraal within 50 meters of the spring on the upper slope because it will be a source of contamination.

• Regularly clean the pipe and maintain it clean.

• Avoid washing at the upper slope of the spring because the waste water may be a source of contamination.

• Do not defecate in the surrounding bush because the faeces may end up in the spring and you may kill the whole village.

5.5.2 Major repairs of protected springs If your spring requires major repairs that involve re-protecting it or replacing the retention wall it will be a shared responsibility between yourselves and the District Water Office. If you have a spring that needs major repairs, report to the District Water Office to come and assess the problem and advise on the course of action.



5.6 Maintenance and Repair of Gravity Flow Schemes

5.6.1 Maintenance of tap stands

To maintain your tap stand functioning you need to do the following:

• Replacing broken taps

• Draining the waste water because it may be breeding ground for mosquitoes and other disease causing germs.

• Maintain the apron clean because it may be source of contamination.

• Maintain the fence (preferably a live fence) to keep of animals and unauthorised users.

• Plant banana trees in the drainage area to suck the water

• Plant grass in the surrounding area to avoid soil erosion.

• Repair cracks on the masonry works like apron and cement stand.

• Repair or replace broken pipes.





5.6.2 Repairs of the GFS

Major repairs involving water transmission mains (big pipes), distribution tanks and intake works (source) will be the responsibility of the Central Gravity Flow Scheme Committee. The committee is responsible for overseeing the functionality of the entire scheme.

Some members of the tap stand committee will be members of the central Gravity Glow Scheme Committee. Each tap stand committee is required to contribute towards the maintenance of the scheme. The amount to be paid and frequency is determined by the Central Gravity Flow Scheme.

5.7 Responsibilities for maintaining improved water sources

The O&M of improved community water sources is the responsibility of users, members of your WUC, Caretakers and local leaders - all whom should have an interest to ensure that your community’s water supply is sustainable. (See Table 3 for the roles and responsibilities of these groups.)



Table 3: Roles and responsibilities for the O&M of improved community water sources

Water user community

WSC Caretakers Local Leaders (LC Is)

• Selecting and removing of WSC and caretakers

• Paying of funds for O&M

• Fencing the water source

• Maintaining general cleanliness around the water source

• Attending meetings concerning the water source

• Making bye-laws to govern the use of the water source

• Maintaining an update list of the users

• Mobilising the users to pay for O&M

• Managing O&M funds and making accountability reports to the user community with a copy to LC1.

• Engaging a HPM, mason or plumber in case of repairs and paying him/her for the work done

• Purchasing spares including grease

• Purchasing spanners for the caretakers

• Mobilising people to improve on household sanitation and hygiene

• Promoting the safe water chain

• Preventing children from playing at the water source

• Chasing animals away from the water source

• Ensuring the water source is fenced

• Carrying out preventive maintenance of the hand-pump

• Keep a diary

• Organising the election of WSC

• Monitoring the performance of the WSC and ensure proper accountability for maintenance funds.

• Assisting the WSC in mobilizing users to pay for maintenance funds

• Organising the election of WSC

• Monitoring the performance of the WSC and ensuring proper accountability for maintenance funds.

• Assisting the WSC in mobilising users to pay for O&M funds





Chapter 6.0: Financial

Management

6.1 When Community Contributions are Required

There are at least two important situations when you/other users in the community are required to make contributions; namely (1) towards the construction of the source and (2) towards routine O&M of the source. These contributions are required as part of a government policy to ensure community ownership of the source.

6.1.1 Contribution towards the construction of the source

Before your application for the water source can be approved, you are obliged to make some minimum contribution towards the costs. When this contribution is made, the central Government, through your district office, will meet the biggest part of the cost. The contribution made will vary depending on the technology that you choose, as explained in Chapter 3.0.

6.1.2 Contribution towards O&M of the water source

After the water source has been constructed and commissioned/“handed over” to your community, it becomes the responsibility of the community to operate and maintain it The community members need to collect O&M funds that can be used to pay a HPM (for the repairs he/she performs on the



Boreholes or Shallow wells), Masons (for the repairs done on the protected springs), Plumbers (for works done on Gravity Flow Schemes) and in general for buying spare parts and/or motivate the source caretaker/s to do their tasks.

6.2 Methods of Mobilizing Community Contributions

Community members will not always have money at hand but it is extremely important to have the O&M fund at any time so that services/repairs can be done when the source fails or breaks down, as it takes time to mobilize funds. There are different methods for collecting and mobilizing funds. Your community members should all have agreed beforehand (in the planning meetings) on how funds are to be collected. Let us look at each of these methods.

6.2.1 Households´ contributions to construct a water source

For every type of technology requested by your community, a contribution will have to be made towards the construction. It is important that each household makes a contribution either in cash or in kind if this can be converted into money or cash. In a community meeting, users should agree on how much each household should pay or an equivalent in kind.

You also need to consider that some people are disadvantaged and/or poor and may find it very difficult to make contributions. Such households may be headed by income-poor women (Female-Headed Households) or homes where parents have died of HIV/AIDS, or from other causes (Children-Headed

Community members who are disadvantaged such as the aged may find it hard to contribute towards O and

M. Such people can be exempted



Households), or elderly persons´ households, or homes inhabited by persons with disabilities (PWDs).

Such households can be exempted from paying the initial contribution. This and any other criterion for exemption has to be agreed upon in a community meeting, but not imposed by the WUC or local leaders. Those exempted to pay cash, but who can contribute in kind should be encouraged to do so.

6.2.2 Forms of contribution for O&M

There are several methods of mobilizing O&M funds including user fees, labour, fines, fund raising and donations. Each of these has got advantages and disadvantages but you

should decide on which ones to use, or maybe a combination of all of them.

User fees:- Your com-munity, in its local council meeting, can decide to have a periodic contribu-tion from households that use the water source. The amount to be paid by each household should be jointly decided on.

Labour:- It is important that you are flexible when deciding what methods you will use to collect money. Where some households can-not afford the user fees, it could be ac-cepted by your WUC that they contribute with their work/labour for instance in cleaning around the source.

Fines:- Fines are nor-mally paid/levied when a water user breaks the by-laws or the set of rules and regulations by the community or



WUC that govern the use of the source. Fines and penalties are, however, not popular and if not well applied such actions may cause conflict. One way you can somewhat avoid such conflicts is to make sure that as many people as possible in your community are consulted when the by-laws are drawn up.

Donations: - WSC or local leaders can solicit and seek donations from fellow community members working outside their community or other well wishers. The disadvantage with donations if regular, they kill community members’ will and initiative of self-reliance. They can lead to dependency syndrome such that when donations do not come by, then the community becomes resistant to contribute.

Fundraising:- Community members especially those who will pay in-kind can bring items, which then can be sold off or auctioned in a village meeting.

6.3 Management and Utilization of Collected Funds

Proper management and use of the collections you made is very important. You can achieve this by considering the following:

• Having an active WUC to which members have been elected by your community (not selected or appointed);

• Electing a Treasurer who is honest and trusted by the people in your community, and with “good character”;

• Keeping proper records at all times which include an up-dated list of users, list of contributions made, a book to record Minutes of meetings, a receipt book and receipts of all purchases made.



• Using the funds only for their intended purposes, that is maintenance and repair of the water source;

• Where possible, opening a bank account, where the collected funds are kept; and

• Make sure that in case a bank account has been opened, there should be more than one signatory, for example the Treasurer and the Chairperson, or another member of the WUC.

6.4 Accountability

Your community will be concerned that the funds collected are put to right use and are not misused, in other words that the WUC can show accountability. A good system of accountability includes the following:

• Giving a receipt (a sample shown in Annex 4 to a community member who pays or contributes in cash or in kind towards the source construction, and for O&M;

• Giving receipts for all monies received and keeping a copy:

• Ensuring that there is agreement among the members of your WUC on what is to be purchased (instead of the Treasurer alone, or with the chairman, making such decisions);

• Holding regular meetings in which all community members are presented with plans for collecting and using the money, and are encouraged to participate

with their views in discussions.

•Holding regular meetings in which community members are presented with a balance sheet, which clearly shows income received and expenditures incurred and balance.





Chapter 7: Sanitation and Hygiene

7.1 What is Sanitation and Hygiene?

Poor environmental sanitation conditions can have serious and hazardous effects (impact) on the health status of the people in your community, in particular women and children.

Sanitation activities are those that reduce your community’s exposure to diseases through keeping the surroundings, the environment, clean. It involves both behaviour and facilities which together work to make the environment hygienic.

Keeping the household latrine/toilet clean, which is well constructed as well as the surroundings, is very important. A properly constructed and maintained latrine should have the following characteristics:

• It should provide privacy - with walls and a door/shutter;

• It should have a roof to protect the user, and the latrine, from rain;

• It should have a latrine hole cover – so as not to allow free entry and exit of flies; and

• It should have a floor that is easy to clean such as a san-plat/cemented floor, or a floor cemented locally with cow dung.

Other aspects of sanitation include the condition and state of the dwelling unit/house, having drying racks, garbage pits, bath shelters, not sharing a house with

domestic animals and birds, cleaning water collection and storage containers and keeping the compound clean.

Hygiene involves the following aspects:



• Washing hands after visiting the latrine;

• Washing hands before handling or eating food;

• Bathing;

• Washing clothes;

• Cutting hair, long nails, and not having lice, bed bugs and fleas;

• Having a separate and covered container for storing drinking water;

• Having a separate scooping container for drinking water; and

• Maintaining or cleaning the house where you reside, keeping it free of rodents and disease causing insects such as rats and cockroaches.

Proper sanitation and hygiene will ensure that the safe water you have collected from the improved water source, and brought to your home, will not make you or your family sick.



7.2 Disease Transmission

Keeping your environment or surroundings clean as well as personal hygiene e.g., by not defecating in the bushes near your household, disposing children faeces in the compound, not washing hands after latrine use or after cleaning a child after defecation, not covering food, eating unwashed fruits such as mangoes, chewing unwashed sugar cane and drinking water from unprotected water sources will protect you and members of your household

from getting hygiene and sanitation related diseases. These diseases include diarrhoea, intestinal worms, skin diseases, eye infections e.g., trachoma, cholera, typhoid, cough etc.



7.3 Preventing the Spread of Disease

Your community can prevent the spread of diseases through better hygiene and sanitation. Some of the methods and practices of disease prevention are shown in the following pictures:





7.4 Sanitation Ladder The “sanitation ladder” shows the different ways you can dispose of human excreta from the bad (bush) to the best (latrine with hand washing facility).

Every home in your community should have a hygienic latrine with walls and a door to give privacy, roof to protect the user from rain, floor which is safe and can be easily cleaned (cemented), cleansing material (toilet paper/old newspapers/leaves) and a small jerrycan (sometimes called “tippy tap”) with water and ash, or soap, for washing hands after having used the latrine.



7.5 Types of latrines

There are different types of latrines that your can choose from and each has its advantages and disadvantages. The different types of latrines are traditional pit latrines, traditional improved pit latrines with a san-plat, Ecosan and flush toilets. See Table 4 for notes on each of these latrines/toilets.

Traditional Latrine

VIP

Eco-san Latrine



Table 4: Notes on different types of latrine

Traditional pit latrine

Improved traditional pit latrine with sanplat

VIP

Ecosan

Flushing Toilet

• Cheaper to construct due to usage of local materials—wattle and mud.

• Very difficult to clean and maintain due to mud floor.

• Requires constant and regular cleaning including smoking to ensure good conditions

• More costly to construct than the traditional one as it involves purchase of the sanplat.

• Easy to clean and maintain due to easy flow of urine into the pit

• Easy to have the pit covered to prevent free entry and exit of flies

• Easy to clean and mantain

• Fairly expensive to construct.

• Can be used for a very long time and appropriate for places with a high water table

• The dry faeces and urine can be used as fertilisers in gardens

• Easy to clean

• It can be constructed anywhere—i.e., in places with high water table and those with low water table

• If not well managed can have repugnant smell

• Easy to clean, no smell and no flies, but very expensive to construct

• Requires a house with running water

• Not appropriate for rural communities

For more information about how to build any of the mentioned types of the latrine/toilet, you can contact your Health Assistant at your sub-county office.



Chapter 8: Managing Conflicts related to Water Supply and Sanitation

8.1 Conflicts in Water Use and Management

In any community conflicts can arise at any time, and that is also the case when people are working towards a common goal, or sharing something communally such as a water source or a public sanitation facility. The most important thing to know is how this conflict can be resolved without disrupting your safe water supply. Common conflicts in communities regarding water use and management may include:

• Conflict among the WUC members, for example between the Chairperson and the Treasurer, or the Chairperson and the Secretary or any other member;

• Conflict between the rest of WUC members and the source Caretakers;

• Conflict between the WUC and the rest of community water users;

• Conflict between other local leaders such as LCs and WUC members or community members;

• Conflict between owners of the land, used for the water source and the users; and

• Political conflicts.

8.2 Why Conflict in Water Use and Management

To minimize conflicts in your community, people should understand and appreciate the possible causes of conflicts, related to water use and O&M matters. Conflicts that may threaten the continued O&M of the source include, but not limited to, the following:

• If community members do not understand the reasons for contributing towards the capital costs, and therefore not willing to contribute for O&M of the source;

• If the amounts to be contributed have not been agreed to in a transparent manner at the beginning, but have been imposed;

Normally land owners change their minds and can disorganise the processes of installing water

facilities.



• If some community members who have the ability and can afford to make contributions, still are exempted from paying;

• If the WUC misuses collections or funds that your members have contributed;

• If community members do not adhere to the by-laws being enforced by the source Caretaker or members of the WUC;

• If the WUC does not work smoothly with the local leadership;

• If the WUC makes all the decisions, or a few individuals on the committee;

• If the landowner (where the source is located) denies community members´ access to the water source;

• If the site selection is or was influenced by a few users especially those who contribute or contributed most; and

• If the community is divided along different political parties.

8.3 Ways of Resolving Conflict

There is no standard way of resolving a conflict. Very often resolving a conflict is a tiring exercise that involves a lot of patience and not “taking sides”. Some conflicts are easy to handle, while others can be difficult. Conflicts can be handled locally either through the WUC, the LC executive or traditional leaders/elders by following the steps below:

• Get the conflicting parties to sit together so that they can recognise that there is a problem;

• Discuss with the conflicting parties to find out what the cause or source of the conflict is;

• Let each of the party give his/her side of the story and weigh both positions;

• Point out what you see as the weaknesses and strengths in each party’s arguments – and do not “take sides” when you do this.

• Clearly state the effects of not resolving the conflict;

• Get the conflicting parties to reconcile by shaking hand or hugging/embracing each other.

Through village meetings conflicting parties can air their views and a compromise is reached.



If the conflict is the landowner who denies your community access to the water source, you need to do the following:

• Remind him/her of what was agreed on and refer to the agreement that was signed.

• In the absence of the agreement with the landowner, you have to involve the local leadership since this will be a community matter for the common good.

• Reference should be made to relevant bye-laws that can help resolve the conflict

• In case conflicts cannot be resolved locally, the assistance of sub-county staff may be sought

8.4 Consequences of Unresolved Conflicts

If your community is unable to resolve conflicts – this may result into more serious problems, such as:

• Failure or refusal by community members to contribute to the O&M fund, which can result into dys-functionality of the water source in the long run;

• Reluctance of members on the WUC to perform their roles;

• Failure by some community members to access water from the improved source; and

• Loss of trust by members in their WUC.

Conflicting parties reconciling





Chapter 9: Gender Issues

9.1 Understanding Gender

Gender refers to the roles of men and women as assigned by their society. These roles vary from community to community depending on what each community believes. The gender roles of women and men are many. This resource book will concentrate on those roles and needs that relate to water, sanitation and hygiene and the division of the roles that women, men and children traditionally take on, as indicated below.

9.2 Roles of Women in Watsan Activities as Perceived by Society

In water and sanitation activities women’s roles and responsibilities have, traditionally, included the following:

• Collecting water;

• Cleaning around the water source;

• Cooking;

• Washing water collection containers;

• Washing dishes;

• Washing clothes;

• Washing children;

• Training children on sanitation and hygiene attitudes and behaviours, such as washing hands after using the toilet;

• Cleaning the baby after defecation;

These are activities that are carried out on a daily basis and relate to household chores”



• Cleaning the toilet; and

• Carrying water to the bathroom for the husband to bathe;

9.3 Roles of Men in WATSAN activities as Perceived by Society

• Paying for CCCC;

• Constructing water sources;

• Constructing latrines;

• Selling spare parts; and

• Repairing water sources.

9.4 Implications of Existing Gender Roles

• Women carry out many more tasks than men;

• Women´s tasks are routine activities - they are performed on a daily basis, while men’s activities are occasional;

• The many tasks overburden the women;

• Women will not easily find time to participate in other activities, other than the domestic, household tasks;

“Is it possible for both men and women to carry out these activities?”



9.5 Women and Decision-Making

“Women – the silent participants – is this happening in your community?”.

The scenario above results in:

• Women not being part of the decision-making process;

• The decisions taken may not take care of women´s interests, needs and concerns; and

• Both men and women not implementing the decisions taken because the people who should do this (as seen in the tasks above) have not been part of the decisions taken and those that took the decisions are not the ones doing it

9.6 Desirable Situation

“Women – active participants – can this happen in your community?”.Even though, traditionally, men and women perform different tasks and have different roles in the household and the community - it is important that both men and women fully participate in making decisions and undertaking water and sanitation activities

Women and men need to equally participate in decision making at all stages.

The planning stage:• Needs identification – both men and women need to participate in the decision making

process at the stage when water is identified as a priority need bearing in mind that the problem of water affects women most;

• Application for water facilities – The application form should bear signatures of both men and women community representatives;

• Technology selection – both men and women should participate in the selection of the preferred technology option;



• Site Selection - both men and women should participate in the selection of the preferred sites for the water source. The Minutes of the community meeting should clearly state the membership of the people who participated, specifying whether they are men or women;

• Women representation in WUCs – the mandatory 50% representation of women should be adhered to;

• Women taking up responsibilities in water and sanitation activities at community level, such as executive positions on committees (Chair-persons, treasures, caretakers, hand pump mechanics, masons);

• Communities should appreciate that women can assume responsibilities and support them to also be leaders;

• Women also need to accept and show that they are capable of being leaders and participate in decision-making;

• Women groups supporting WATSAN activities, such as self-help groups can mobilise communities and conduct community trainings, drama groups to spread messages and encourage discussions;

• Accessibility to sites – where clearance of the route to the site is required, both men and women should participate in the clearing.

• Monitoring of works - Monitoring should be a responsibility of both men and women. The monitoring indicators have been highlighted under Chapter 4.0.

9.7 Benefits of Equal Gender Participation

There are many benefits of involving both men and women equally in decisions and activities related to water and sanitation. These benefits include the following:

• There are more people to make inputs;

• More ideas can be generated on what should be done for example maintaining the water source.

• When women are involved more in decision-making, decisions made will be more adequate and serve better the needs of the household - since they are the ones responsible for the domestic use water of the water;

• When women are assigned roles as WUC members or Caretakers, they are more likely to



be effective compared to men, and they are more likely to know what is happening with the water source.

• When women are elected as Treasurers on the WUC, misuse of funds collected from water users is minimized, and when elected Secretaries, the records are well kept.



Annex 1: VILLAGE APPLICATION FORM FOR A WATER SOURCE: FIRST ROUND APPLICATION

We, the LC 1 Council of ….……………… village, ……………. Parish of …………………………… Sub county do hereby apply for ……………… (Indicate which type (spring, shallow well, borehole, gravity flow scheme according to technical feasibility).

Our village has ……… households (number), ……… improved traditional latrines (number) and communal water sources of the following types;

Water Source Type Number (s)Source Working WSC present

Yes No Yes No

Protected spring (s)

Borehole (s)

Gravity Flow Scheme

Shallow well

Other – specify

LC 1 Chairperson

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ……………… (and official stamp).

LC1 Secretary for Women

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

The village council is advised to read and familiarize with the second round application form, which is attached. The purpose is to prepare early enough the community to be ready to fulfil the requirements as indicated in the form in case their first round application is successful.

Note: The second round application form will ONLY be filled when the first round application is approved and the community will be helped by the extension workers or an NGO to fulfil these requirements.



Annex 2: VILLAGE APPLICATION FORM FOR A WATER SOURCE: SECOND ROUND APPLICATION FOR A WATER SOURCE

Having been identified to receive a ……………… (Water source type), we ……………………………………. (Water and Sanitation Committee name) have fulfilled the critical requirements as outlined below and are now ready for implementation of the source.

Signed the Memoranda of Understanding (which stipulates the nature of cooperation and is attached) between the:

District, Sub-county and Community

Community and the NGO

Secured meaningful involvement of women (composition of Water User Committee or Water and Sanitation Committee includes 50% women and 50% men; and executive positions should be gender balanced.

Promoted sanitation and hygiene (All households of community leaders have latrines that are safe, clean and are being used. After the mobilisation phase, household latrine coverage has increased by 30 % (this in addition to the above requirement for all community leaders).

Completed the collection of Capital Cost Community Contribution – as a sign of the community’s commitment of being prepared to assume ownership and responsibility for ongoing O&M. Details are;

Water Source type CCCC Amount collectedTick one which you have

contributed

Deep borehole Ug. Shs.180,000/=

Shallow well Ug. Shs. 90,000/=

Rehabilitated borehole Ug. Shs.45,000/=

Spring Ug. Shs.45,000/=

GFS tap stand Ug. Shs.45,000/=

The community contributions have been banked and a bank statement is also attached indicating the bank name and account.

Secured land for water source – written agreement (also attached) for land for installation of facilities is available.

Developed the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) plan – an eight-year plan for O&M is in place (copy attached). (Developed with guidance from the DWO) for ensuring sustainability. Mitigation measures for environmental concerns have been included in the O&M plan.

Signed:



LC 1 Chairperson.Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ……………… (and official stamp).

LC1 Secretary for Women

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Other LC 1 executive members

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Community members: (at least 3 of the signatories should be women)

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………

Name …………………. Sign ………………. Date ………………



Annex 3: Monitoring Plan For The Wuc—issues To Be Monitorred And List Of Users

(TO BE KEPT IN A RECORD BOOK BY WUC)ISSUES TO BE MONITORED

Period Cleanliness

of Source.

(e.g. good,

Fair, Very

bad)

P r e v e n t i v e

Maintenance

by caretakers

( D o n e / N o t

done)

Preventive

Maintenance

by Hand Pump

Mechanics

/Scheme

Attendant

(Done/Not

done)

Nature of

Repairs

e.g.

Replacing

chain,

bearings,

pipe, rods,

etc

Spares

used

Total

Expenditure

Number of

Visits by

Extension

Staff

Other

issues to

Monitored

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December



DETAILED LIST OF USERS

No. Name of Household

Head/ Institution

No People in

Household/

Institution

Number of people

by Sex

Total number

of People Who

cannot pay

O&M funds

Male Female Male Female

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7

TOTAL



Annex 4: SAMPLE OF PAYMENT RECEIPT

RECEIPTNo. 001 Date:………………………………………….

RECEIVED from ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

the sum of shillings………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Being payment of……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Cash/Cheque No……………………………………………

SHS:

With thanks Signature:…………………………………………..



Documents

DIRECTORATE OF WATER DEVELOPMENT · that are spoken widely in Uganda (Runyakitara, Lugbara, Luo, Ateso, Luganda and Swahili). The contents of this book will be revised and improved