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PREHls1'0IlIcLh@//7WORI.D.IFind out What prehistoric sea

creaturesate in

OCEANS OF FOOD 1950

9~._

/sPo1"rER's euro: tDinosaurnamesexplained in

WHAT’S IN A NAME? 1958

ime oiarrcrive

THE CHANGING IMAGE OF

SAUROPODS shows how experts

can change their minds 1960

HISTORY IN PI€'I'I.|RESl

A DAY IN THELIFE OF

SPINOSAURUS 1964

Dr DavidNormanof Cambridge

Universityanswersmore of your

dinosaurqueries BACKCOVER

An Elasmosaurus grabs a fish from

the rough Cretaceous seas 1954‘

A mother Yangchuanosauruswatches her babies at play 1956

MarMore fascinating trivia and the

weekly quiz T966

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EL/ISElasmosaurus had an

enormous snake-likeneck and was a

giant of the

prehistoric seas.

n the Mesozoic Era, the

‘plesiosaurswere the largest

ocean-going reptiles, andElasmosaurus was the

biggest plesiosaur of all. Elasmosaurus

ruled the Water in the Late Cretaceous

Period, more than 66 million years ago.

GOING UP ,

Most of the plesiosaurs had longnecks,but Elasmosaurus held the record. This

huge sea creatureWas

nearlyall neck.

Land animals usually have seven or eightvertebrae (small bones) in their necks.

Elasmosaurushad 71 little neckbones! The extra vertebrae made its

neck so long it measuredmorethan the ta i l and body together.

ROUN”D:1~‘”HE*TWlST

Elasmosaurushad so much

neckit

couldhave curledit

round into a circle on

either side of its body.The neckwas as

flexible as a snake,and the plesiosaurprobably

i

moved itabout ina snake-

likeway. ‘ _



A

lDiEN'I'IKl'l'

DEEP DOWNElasmosaurus probably paddled alongwith its neck held out of theWater.When

it spotted its prey, the plesiosaur plungedits small head into the Water to snatch the

fish. It would have been difficult for a fishto escape its needle—sharp teeth.With its

long, flexible neck, Elasmosaurus could

have reached deep down into thewater.

IS ITBlRD...|S ITA SNAKE?

There is a bird called a darter,which isnicknamed the ‘snakebird’. Like

Elasmosaurus,this bird swims alongwithits

body justunder the Waterwhen it is

hunting.All you can see is its longneckand head, so it looks just like a snake.

Elasmosaurus must have looked like anenormous snakewhen it was out hunting!

This engraving shows what people in I881

imagined the Earth looked like in the time

of the dinosaurs. You can see a creature

iust like Elasmosaurus in the centre.

I4: a

14m >

O NAME: E/asmosaurus (eh-lc1_z-mo-Q-rus)means ’plate reptile’

O GROUP: reptileO SIZE: up toMm longO FOOD: Fish

O LIVED: about 80 million years ago in the Late

Cretaceous Period inAsia and North America

1946



IN ATTHE END

Elasmosaurus was the last otthepiesiosaurs. Itlived at the some time

as the last otthe dinosaurs. Like thedinosaurs, itdied out at the end of

the Cretaceous Period.

FLIP FLAPElasmosaurushadvery long front flippersand shorter back flippers. Early expertsthought the plesiosaurmust have used

them like giant oars to row through theWater. Scientists now believeElasmosaurusmovedmore like today’s seaturtle. They think it swam through thewater in the same Way that a bird flies

through the air. The great creature could

have flapped its flippers up and downwith

slow, steady strokes to move itselfalong.

AROUND AND ABOUT

A row ofbelly ribs helped tomake the

plesiosaur’s short, loarrel—like body

stronger.Elasmosaurus needed a strong,sturdy body because of the strain it was

i

put under by the beatingmovements of

lasive flippers.

ribs gave Elasmosaurus extra~

. 11when it left thewater. Like

g

s sea turtle, the plesiosaur probablyiits eggs in a nest dug out of the sand.

asecage—like arrangement of its rib bonesouldhaveprotected its soft underside

‘

pienhe huge creature pushed itselfV

clumsilyup the beachwith its flippers.

1947



IDEN'I'IKI'I'

fl&?@EMWM@Sfl1(WK?/5This gigantic plant-eater is SouthAmerica's largest known dinosaur.

n 1989, scientistswere thrilled

to discover a gigantic newdinosaur.Argentinosaurus

must have been longer than a tennis court.

BACK TOBACK

All that was found ofArgentinosauruswere six enormous vertebrae and part of

its pelvis. But this was enough to provethat the dinosaur belonged to a new genus.It had extra joints between the vertebrae,which looked different from any seen

before. Thismighty plant-eaterneededthem tomake its back strong enough to

support its greatweight.

«zitW”

ironwasNAME:Argentinosaurus (g_r-ient-<a1_o-saw-rus)means ’Argentina lizard’GROUP: dinosaur .

SIZE: 27m longFOOD: plantsLIVED: in the middle ofthe Cretaceous Periodabout lOOmillionyears ago inSouth America

/ K

O

O

O

O

1948

HIGHERAND HIGHERLike other sauropods, suchas Saltasaurus,

Argentinosaurus probablycraned its longneck

upwards to graze among the tree

tops. It might have used its tail as a

support if it leaned back onto itsrear legs to reachevenhigher.

EARTH SHAKER

Argentinosauruswas about aslongas the huge plant-eaterDiplodocus,but it weighedthree times as much.The

giant SouthAmerican

sauropodWeighedI -I more than 36



IDEN'I'IKl1'< Mg“

flM@EEW§%lK€@fl;7(//§Andrewsarchus was cl frighteningmeat-eaterwith giant iaws.

ndrewsarchus hada hugeskull, nearly 1m long—ourtimes bigger than the headofa lion. As far as We know,

Andrewsarchus was the biggestmeat-

eatingmammal that ever lived on land.

ENTER THE "HUNTERIn the EarlyPalaeocene, about 65 million

years ago, therewere no meat—eatingmammals. This meant that the plant-eaters flourished. But aboutkémillion an

years later, a new order ofcar’called the acreodi evolved.Andrewsare

W _i _ “ledwithLO‘ge tihad

tusk-like front teeth to tear offchunks

offlesh. Its broad cheek teeth were usedto

‘bones.

4m

l‘lIE©B‘J’EWS‘/\.\/' NAME:Anclrewsarchus (Q-drew-Q-us)

means ’Anolrews’ ruler’

GROUP: mammal

SIZE: 4m longFOOD:meal

LIVED: about 40millionyears ago in the

Late Eocene inAsia



.«<431

. \r*"§«~”“**\=.

\~_»g7

Just as some land animals eat meat

and some eat plants, so sea creatures

feed on a variety of things -includingeach other. S ’ ;

V

list ofwho eatsWhat is called a

food chain. All food

chains startwith

plants,whichmake their food

using the energy of the sun.

Fossil evidence shows that food

chains in the prehistoric seas

were similar to the ocean food

chains of today.

IN THE PREHISTORIC SEAS

Sea snails and sea urchins grazed on

plants and tiny animals. Sponges filteredtheWater for bits of food. Corals and sea

anemones waved their tentacles to grabsmall prey. Starfisheshunted shellfishes

such as mussels. Worms, crabs andlobsterswere scavengers. Sharks and

other large fishes hunted for victims.

However, the large top carnivores

were different in prehistoric times.

Then, reptiles such as plesiosaurs

andmosasaurs ruled the seas.

vw

Belemnites l



V

It is the end of theMesozoicEra.Dinosaurs are lordsof theland. Ptero’saur_srsoar in theskies. Inthe seas, a huge itvariety ofanimals go abouts?

L

their daily lives.7

T l

«



INVISIBLE LINKS .

fl

Most of the early links in the food chains BIG FISHESEAT LITTLE FISHE5

of the open ocean are too small to see with Prehistoricfishes formed the main

the naked eye. They startwith microscopic links in ocean food chains, as they do

plants and animals, called plankton. The today. From planktormfilterers to huge

tiny plants are called phytoplankton, the carnivores, they fed in many differentanimals zooplankton. These are preyed on ways. Macropoma (below right), was a

by tiny carnivorous animals and by small kindofcoelacanth andmay have fed on

larvae (young forms) of crabs, starfishes, smaller fishes in the oceandepths.

jellyfishes, fishes and other animals.

MICRO-MONSTERSOstracods are mini-relatives ofcrabs

that live in the plankton. Cypridea

(right), a Mesozoic ostracod like a

smallWater flea, had two hingedshells. It swam by rowingwith its

branched antennae. It grabbed tiny

pieces of food with its mouthparts.

PEACEFUL GRAZERS

Seaweeds grew at the shallow edges

of the ancient seas. These plants were

itA

1

—..M

/Igrazed bywandering snails and

limpetswith toothy tongues called

radulas.Diadema sea urchins (right)

crept aboutwith their rocking spinesand long tube feet. They grazed on

corals, sponges and seaweeds, using

their circular,five-toothed mouths.

SEA SOUPSea water is like a soup of tiny particles.Corals, fanworms and brittlestars hadfeathery

fans to strain food from the water. Some fishes

swsaniabout open-mouthed, taking in food as

they went. Lampshells (right) had a crown of

feeding tentacles covered in strands of stickymucus.Foodparticles stuck to the strands



that food chains nevercome to an end?

Yes. Even top carnivores, such as killerwhales (iett),

eventuallydie.Scavengers

leaston their rotting tlesh. Carnivores eat the

scavengers, and thewhole cycle starts again. So, ina sense, Food chains never end.

SHELLS, TENTACLESAND BEAKSAmmonites (below left), relatives of

today’s squidand octopus, lived incoiled shells.Theywere activeswimmerswith the large eyes of ahunter. They caught fishes and othercreatureswith their tentacles, andtore them up with ahorny beak.

RULING REPTILES

Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, sea—goingcrocodiles andmarine turtles, cruised

the seas.Mosasaurswere probablyamong the fiercest hunters. Some grewto over 15m, eatingfishes, other reptiles,diving birds and even ammonites.Plesiosaurswere fast, agile swimmers.

Long-necked plesiosaurswere skilled

fishers, feeding near the surface. Short-necked plesiosaurs (left)Were expertdivers, preyingon deep—sea fishes.

DANGER FROMABOVE

Divingbirds,such as Hesperornis, fed onsmall fishes. The role ofthe largepredatory seabirds of today wasfilled bypterosaurs. These flying reptiles swoopedabove thewaves, diving into theWater forfishes and other prey, then soaring on the

risingair currents back to the land.





Off the coast of Late Cretaceous

North America, a gigantic

V

osaufor food, it

0

sei

in the sky above the»piesIofsa r si

grabthe

r o





In Late Jurassic China, a

Yangchuanosaurus takesa rest,While watchingthree of herchildrenwrestle with each other.

She knows this kind of

play-fighting is vital

training for their adult

life, when theywill haveto fight bothprey and

predators to survive.

out

\_< . - "

Q



GUIDE

L‘"itssmall size and‘flat, dome-shaped skull.

Wl1ut's

ia name?

From the shortest dinosaur name,

Minmi, named after the placewhere

itwas found, to the longest,Micropachycephalosaurus,meaning‘little lizard with the thick head’, all

dinosaur namesmean something.

L/‘hm mantelli means ‘iguana—toothfound by Mantell’.Megalosaurusbucklandimeans ‘big lizard found byBuckland’.Scientists donotnamedinosaurs after themselves, but in scientific

papers We often see the names of the

people that gave the dinosaur its name.These names are written after thedinosaur’s name, andusually the date the

name Was given is included as well.

inosaurs may be namedafter

famous people. Iguanodon

Tiny rabbit-sized,‘Micropgchycéphalosaurus was named for

1958

EGGSAND LEGS

Fossildinosaur eggs are

usually given their own

names, names that ottenhave,’-oolithus’ (egg stone)in them. Scientistscall these

Protoceratops’eggs (lett),

E/ongatoo/ithus. Otherdinosaur eggs includeFaveo/oo/ithus andOvaloo/ithus.

Dinosaur tootprints (right)usuallyhave their own

names too. This is

because it isditticult totellwhat animal made

them. Footprint names

usually have ’-pus’ or’-ichnites’ in them, which

indicate that the name

refers to tootprints.

GOT IT!

So, the name ‘Baryonyxwalkeri, Charig&Milner, 1986’means ‘Bigclaw discoveredby Walker, named by Doctors Alan CharigandAngelaMilner in 1986’.

Micropachycephalosaurusi



SPO'I"I'ER’S GIJIE

EASY NAMES

Sometimes names are more

straightforward.Spinosaurushad spines. Gasosaurus was

I foundwhen engineerswere

drilling for gas. Names that describethe animalusually come from Greek

or Latin.Heterodontosaurus is based

on hetero = different, don = teeth,saurus = lizard, -givingus a ‘lizard

re?’‘he with different types of teeth’.

‘P(:I“fY °'°“:l“’“Microceratops means ‘small horned

m 7-

gser L‘;deafiwhead because micro = small,

In spite of its

' cera = horn, tops =head.

fierce lookinghorns, this

Sfygimolochspinifer is u

plant-eater. IIT'SHARDTOSAY

Often, a dinosauris named after the

placewhere it was

found. This means thatWith

all the new discoveriesmade in E

China over the last 20 years, many of the

Gusosclurusl

new dinosaurs’names sound strange to THE NAMEGAME

Western 9335-They are also difficult to Here are three more complicated dinosaur names,

pronounce! These dinosaurshave names together with their explemetgens;

such as Xiaosaurus dashanpensis,

Yangchuanosaurus Shangyuenfi-3 and Profoceratops andrewsiGranger&Gregory, 1923

Yaxartosaurusfuyanensisl Meaning: ’Earlyhorned head discovered byAndrews, named byGranger and Gregory in 1923'

Tuojiangosaurus mu/tispinusDong,Li,Zhou &

Zhang, 1977

Meaning: ‘Lizard fromTuoiiang with lotsofspines,named byDong, Li,Zhou andZhang in l977'

Ofhnie/ia rexGalton, 1977

Meaning: ’King animal named byGalton in1977 to

honour the palaeontologist Othniel CharlesMarsh’

1959



sauropodsWe all knowwhat a sauropod lookslike, don't we?A big elephant-like

‘

body, pillar-like legs, a long whippytail, long neck and a tiny head.

ut we also know that there FIRSTGOOD LOOKwere different types of It was notuntil the 1880s,whenAmerican

sauropod, each with different palaeontologistsOthniel CharlesMarshcharacteristics.Diplodocuswas lighter and EdwardDrinkerCope were battling toand longer thanApatosaurus, find the best dinosaurs, that a wholeBrachiosaurus was tall rather than long, sauropod skeletonwas found. But even

Camarasaurus hada big, boX—like head, with complete skeletons, there was a lot ofand so on. However,we were not always uncertainty aboutwhat these animals

aware of these differences. actually looked like and how they lived.Some scientists, includingOliverHay at

FIRST GUESS the Smithsonian Institution, believedThe first sauropod to be found was an that, because sauropods l ike

incomplete Cetiosaurus skeleton in Diplodocuswere reptiles, theysouthernEngland in 1841. The anatomist would have crawled on theirSir RichardOwen thought that a bellies,with their legs

thing this size could only’ stuck out at the

have lived in the sea, and sides. Ecfrlyso he gave it its name,

amsls

which means always

4 . , ‘showed

whale lizard . ‘

sauropod legsbent at the

elbows and legs.



‘.1

Early gMcientists that Apatosaurus once

believed had another name?

sauropods lookeda bit like crocodiles,

with legs sticking outat the sides.

When Othniel Marsh Found the first

good skeleton, hegave it themagnilicent name,Brontosaurus, which means ’thunder lizard’.Manyyears later, it was Found that Brontosaurus was

actually a second specimen ofan animal hehad

already tound, called Apatosaurus. When an'

animal ends upwith two names like this, the firstname is accepted as the true one. Brontosaurus

was dropped in lavourotApatosaurus.

NOSE IN THE AIR

Another reason for believingsauropodslived in the water was that the nostrilswere on top of the skull. People thoughtthis meant that the animal could remain

STRAIGHT LEGS underwaterwith just the nostrils showing.Then William J. Holland, at the CarnegieMuseum in Pittsburgh, USA, built a WRONG-HEADED

sauropod skeletonwith straight legs that The first skeletonofApatosaurus was

looked like an elephant’s. This model discovered by Marsh, andwas missing its

workedmuch better. skull.He guessed the headwould have

been short and shaped like a box. ThirtyWALLOWING BEAST years later, EarlDouglass found a

For many years, people thought that complete skeleton, with a longand narrow

sauropodsmust have lived in water. The skull. But no—one believedhim. Marshwas

animal’s body was so big that they thought supposed to be the expert, andhe said that

it must have been too heavy for the legs Apatosaurus had a short skull, so that was

to support it on land. how it was shown for a hundred years.

a long time, peoplethought that sauropods

were too heavy to live on

land and they were alwaysshown living in water.



snorkel-like neck, the water pressure

In 1992, the remains of a

sauropod related to Diplodocuswere found inWyoming. It

had long spines down its‘ neck and tail, giving it a

crest like some of

today's lizards.

THE MODERN IMAGE DAWNS KEEPYOUR TAIL UP

In 1981, people realised that Douglasswas The arrangement ofmuscles and tendons

right all along.Apatosauruswas now also showed that the tail was usually held

shownwith a long, narrow head. offthe ground. This is totally differentfrom the traditional picture of a sauropod’s

OUT OF THE WATER tail draggingbehind it. Nowmuseums are

busily lifting their sauropods’ tails!- _ _ - >

“'3-

At about the same time, experts

stoppedbelieving that

sauropods lived in thewater. If something asbig as Brachiosaurus stayed

underwater,breathing through its

would have been too great for it to fill its

lungswith air. Anyway, fossil footprintsshowed that sauropodswalked on land.

MORE AGILEA creature likeDiplodocuswould havehadno trouble walking about on landon its

four legs—r even on two. R.McNeillAlexander found evidence that there weremuscles going fromDiplodocus’backbone

to itships and tail, allowing the sauropodto rear

upon to its hind

legs.

1962



NEW-LOOK SAUROPODSThere have been some more surprises inthe last 15 years, and our ideas onwhat

sauropods looked like are still changing.In 1980, Jose Bonaparte found

Saltasaurus—n Argentiniansauropod that was covered inarmour. In 1991, he found

Amargasaurus. This sauropod, which was

also from Argentina,had a fin down its

neck and back. Shunosaurus, found in

China in 1983, had a club on the end of its

tail, just likeAnkylosaurus. Then, in 1992,the American palaeontologist Steve

Czerkas found the remains of a sauropod

related toDiplodocus, in Wyoming,USA. It9 had long spines down its back and tail,giving it a crest like one of today’s lizards.

THE OUTERCOVERINGThe experts have always had to guesswhat kindof skin the sauropods had.

Paintings usually show them with thick,wrinkled, leathery skin, like an elephant’s.However, alongwith the spiny sauropodsfound in Wyoming in 1992, there were

impressions of its skin. This showed that

the sauropod’s skinwas covered in lots of

little bumps.Everynew discovery seems

to change the imagewe have of sauropods.What will the next find reveal?

In 1991,a surprising

discovery was made in

South America. Theyfound a sauropod with

a fin down its back.

Sauropods used to be shown as plodding, slow

animals, dragging their tails on the ground

(above). Now,they are shown as active

creatures that could rear up on two legs (below)

ACTIVE BIRTH

Sauropodsprobably laid their eggs on the

move. Hypse/osaurus eggs have been foundlying inpairs along a line,as though the

animal dropped them as itwalked

along. But some palaeontologistsnow think the gaps in the hipboneswere large enough forthem togive birth to live young.



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53"!!!moversThe first full-sized movin

dinosaur models went ong

d'.g‘.’IaYin 'q33° "MYwere

exhibitedat theWorld’s Fair‘

in

NewYork.

ltwasn’tjut dinosinheJurassic you know!

Oligokyphuswas a little reptile that lived

by the side of riversand streams. itwas abit like today’s water vole. Oligokyphuslived inEurope, Africa, the Americas and

Asia during the Jurassic. it had sharpfront teeth for biting and a row of cheek

teeth for grinding.



ARALOSAl/Rl/SHave a good look

_ . at a picture of the

dinosaur youwant to

copy. Get yourpaper and a pencil

ready and start

drawing! Draw a

large circle where

youwant themain

part of the body to go.

Then, on top of the

body,draw in a long

egg shape for the head.

When you aresure you have

got the basic

shapeofyourdinosaur right,

start filling in the

outline of the head,

body and legs. Do

not press too hardwith your pencil, so

you can rubout anymistakes youmake.

Once youhave

gotthe outline

right, start filling in

all the little details.

Have anothercareful look at thedinosaur you are

copying.Can yousee the way the skin

wrinkles where the

knees are bent‘?

1968

Now for the legs,., draw some simple

shapes to showwhere

the legs are going to

go.Make sure you putthem in at the correct

angle. In our pictureofAralosaurus, the

two legs on the rightmake a five-sided shapecalled a pentagon. Next,draw a triangle to showthe curve of its back.

Aralosaurus had a ridgeabove its eyes and was

longerthan an

elephant.

.AME:Ara/osaurus (g-rol-o-Q-rus)means ’Aral reptile’; itwas found near theAral sea.GROUP: clinosaur.SIZE: about 6-8m long.FOOD:plants.LIVED: about 75 million

Colour in your

drawing to make

it look really

professional.Nobody reallyknows what colour

dinosaurs were, so

you can choose anycolours you like!



Travel deepinto a coalminefilled withfossils in TIMEDETECTIVE.Travel aroundAsia in searchof dinosaurs inPREHISTORICWORLD.

Keep your copies safe and neatwith thesefantastic binders.

Your bindershave been designed to look good at home or at school. Each is

sturdy and hardwearing—t even has a wipe-clean cover—andholds 13

issues.You’llwant to use your DINOSAURS! collection again and again—

for reference, for school projects,or just for fun. So don’t let your copies gomissing; keep them in your own set ofbinders.

DINOSAURS!binders are nowavailable andcost just £4.95(including £1 p&p).Please refer to theinformation on theinside front coveror telephone 0424755755 for details.

ASK THE EXPERT—our

questions answered

by Dr David NormanAndSPOTTER’S GUIDE

HISTORY IN PICTURES

3-D GALLERY

PICTURECREDITS: Front cover: GrahameRosewcirne. American Museum ofNaturalHistory1964-5; Bruce Co|emc1n/left FootProductionsl953TR;Ann Ronon /Image Select I946T; Natural

History Museum I958T, C, l959CR, I952-3C,l963TR,NaturalHistory Museum/M Long i967TR.

Artwork: MikeDorey i9<SA—5; ErinEdwards/WLAAI952l, CL, B, l953T, C, BL, BR, EdwinaGolcistone/WLAA 1945; Kevin Lyies/Block Hat‘.9598;BobMathias I868; DeidreMcHoieBC; JamesRobins I960-I , l96OB, I96I B, l962T, i962-3B;Graham Roseworne i‘?5?E-,T;1948, N683," Peter

DavidScott/WLAA ‘I954-5;MarkStewcm‘/WLAA19119; SteveWhite 1956-7.

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l-lowsmall was1

the smallest

pterosaur?The smallest

pterosaurwasdiscovered in

V H

Solnhofen, Germany.This was a babypterosaurwith a

wingspan of 18cm and a body only 2cm

long. It was probably just a few weeks old

when it died. Of the adult pterosaurs,

Pterodactylus elegans is one of thesmallest, with a wingspan ofabout 25cm.

How much longer would peoplehave toexist for them tobearoundas longas the dinosaurs were?

Humanbeings have been around for about

200,000 years. Dinosaurs existed for about170millionyears. So, humans would have

to exist for another 169.8 million years toequal the lengthof time spent on Earthbydinosaurs. But, this is not a fair

comparison. There were hundreds ofdifferent dinosaur species, not just one‘ _g. fas in the case of the human

species. Eachdinosaur

species lasted between twoand four million years, sowe only have about 1.8

DrDavid Norman ofCambridge

University answers yourdinosaur questions

i

E

What was the biggestmammal alive when dinosaurs

stillwalked the earth?

The largestmammal that livedalongside the dinosaurs was

probably a creature called,

Taeniolabis, which lived during theLate Cretaceous Period, at the end

of the Age of the Dinosaurs.Taeniolabis’ skull is known to

have reached lengthsof about 18cm.

Unfortunately, very

little is knownabout the rest of its

body, so we can onlyguess how long itwas. Taeniolabiswas a

rnulfituberculate”/g’,mammal, whichmeans it had lots oflittle points on its teeth. Experts think

thatmultituberculates looked like largerodents, so it is likely that Taeniolabis

was about the size of asmall capybara or a largecoypu. These animals are

about 1m long.

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Dinosaurs 82