ShowdownOne pupil in a group of four is named the captain, and he or she reads a question card aloud. The others write the answer on slips of paper or boards and keep them secret. When the teacher gives the showdown signal, all pupils reveal their answers. If all are correct, the team gets full points. If not, they coach each other. Roles rotate after each turn.Fan-N-PickIn a group of four pupils, one fans a pack of question cards. The second picks a card and reads the question. The third answers. The fourth checks whether the answer is right and either praises the respondent or coaches them in the right answer. Roles rotate after each turn. This approach promotes teamwork, thinking skills and communication.

One of the plenary speakers at Peace as a Global Language II was the American educational psychologist Dr. Spencer Kagan, famous for the so-called structural approach to cooperative learning. This pedagogical approach has two aims. One aim is to foster positive, cooperative relationships between learners studying any subject in a class. The second aim is high academic achievement for all learners in a class.During a two-week visit to Japan, Kagan gave two experiential workshops at the conference, and numerous workshops prior to the conference dates. I was able to attend many of the workshops and talk with him about his approach to cooperative learning. I will explain briefly the fundamentals of his approach, relative especially to critical thinking and positive classroom relationships.

The structural approach to cooperative learning

Kagan (1994; Kagan and Kagan, 1998) has developed roughly 200 classroom "structures", which may be thought of as steps to classroom activities. These structures stress positive interpersonal peer relationships, equality, self-esteem, and achievement. Students can work together by following the steps to the structure, using material or content selected by the students themselves or by the teacher.The structures have various aims, such as: building team spirit and positive relationships among students; information sharing; critical thinking; communication skills; and mastery (learning/remembering) of specified material. Many of the structures can fulfill a number of aims simultaneously, depending on how the teacher uses them. Structures can be mixed and matched, and adapted to the particular student group.[p. 1]

Let us look at some example Kagan structures and some of their uses.

(1) Timed pair share

Students pair off, then number off, 1-2. The teacher chooses a number, 1 or 2, to speak first. That student speaks about a specified topic for a specified length of time. The other student listens quietly and can nod or smile, but cannot speak or interrupt the speaker. After the allotted time has elapsed, the other student speaks for the same period of time on the same, or another, stipulated topic, with her or his partner in the listener role. After both partners have had equal opportunity to speak, the teacher randomly chooses a number of students, and asks them to summarize what their partners have said. (In a small class, all students could perhaps report.)This structure encourages self-expression and idea exchange by having students "share the floor" equally. Listening is encouraged by students' need to summarize their partner's contribution after the exchange is complete (students cannot accomplish this step without listening). If the teacher does not wish to call on all students to report what has been said, randomly choosing a few students encourages all students to be ready to do so. Students do not know in advance whether or not they will be chosen to report, so they prepare in the event they will be chosen. In my own courses which typically have a large number of students, I use small name cards prepared by the students in order to randomly select students to report either orally, addressing the whole class, or in writing, for example, by students using the blackboard.

(2) Folded value line

A problem, or issue, is raised (e.g., U.S. policy towards Iraq; capital punishment; building shelters for the homeless). The teacher elicits which students are strongly supportive of, or against, the issue or idea via a show of hands. Students who feel strongly for or against the issue stand at either end (the "poles") of the Value Line, where one end of the line represents strong support for an issue/concept, and the other represents its opposite. The rest of the class physically position themselves along the line at the point reflecting their own opinion. Thus, those who feel squarely in the middle of an issue stand at the middle, while those who feel rather strongly in agreement with either "pole" stand near that end of the line.For students to first think about and articulate views with others holding similar views, students can pair off with persons standing next to them in the line. In pairs, they can exchange opinions and explain rationales for their viewpoints. This can also be done in groups of three or four. It can also be practiced first in pairs, followed by two pairs joining to create a group of four, participating in an idea exchange which includes reiteration of points made during the first pair exchange. Summarizing earlier conversations gives students additional language practice (in language courses) and/or helps students find out what was heard/understood/remembered.Subsequently, for students to listen to views different from their own, the line can be divided in half. The two halves can then be lined up as two parallel lines of students facing each other. To illustrate, if you have 24 students in a class standing in a single line, with person 1 strongly supporting the issue/statement, and person 24 being strongly against it, the line would initially look like this:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

The teacher can then ask students to divide the line between persons 12 and 13. Person 13 leads the second half of the line over to person 1. The second half of the line then thus pairs off with the first half like this:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Students can now exchange opinions easily with the person standing across from them. The lines can be repeatedly divided and refolded to regroup students, who then repeat their idea exchanges, to allow further airing of diverse views. It is also possible to combine this structure with ones like the Timed Pair Share, in which student exchanges are structured for equal participation via time limits and rotating speaking order.A final step can be for randomly selected students to orally summarize to the class the views they heard, or for students to write a paper for homework that describes the breadth of opinions they heard, complete with supporting and opposing arguments that were given. Students could also be instructed to write/speak from the point of view of an opinion they heard which is opposite, or very unlike, their own opinion, rather than their own, to encourage perspective-taking.This structure can be used to encourage self-expression, listening, paraphrasing, turn taking, and trying to understand and appreciate various viewpoints. Listening to, and then evaluating, various viewpoints boosts critical thinking skills as students consider an issue from various angles. Students can be asked to note, for example, the strong points of each diverse view, or to come up with a composite view incorporating what they believe to be valuable in all viewpoints.[p. 2](3) Corners

As with the previous structure, Corners can be used to have students express, and listen to, various opinions on a topic, honing listening, critical thinking, and self-expression skills. The teacher can make each corner of the classroom represent a stipulated view. For example, three possible corners could constitute For, Against, and Undecided relative to a topic. Students move to the corner that represents their viewpoint. Next, students discuss their opinions, or respond to a comment, within their corners. This could first be done in pairs, and later with pairs joining other pairs to make groups of 4, or with subsequent changes of partners to form new pairs.Students can begin by summarizing their earlier conversation to their new partner(s). Summarizing or repeating ascertains whether the listener listened and understood, and helps validate the ideas of former speakers. The views of all members in one corner can be aired for the benefit of the entire corner after ideas have initially been exchanged in smaller groups. For example, students stand in a circle in the corner, and each person summarizes what the person on their left said. Asking students to summarize what another person said encourages them to listen to others, since if they haven't listened, they will not be able to complete this task.After students have finished their in-corner discussions, they can rotate around to other corners in order to share their corner's viewpoints. One way to do this is for the teacher to randomly select two representatives from each corner to go to another corner and summarize their corner's viewpoint. They can rotate to all other corners, making their presentation to each new corner; these presentations can be performed within specified time limits to give all representatives an equal chance to speak. The final step could include randomly choosing students, other than rotating representatives, to report to the class on what was expressed, heard, or learned.

(4) Team statements; Blackboard share

Students first think about a stipulated topic alone, such as What can we do to rectify economic disparities?, or What can we do to alleviate gender based job discrimination?. After students have had time to think ndash; and perhaps take notes if they wish ndash; they share their ideas in pairs or small groups.Next, students again work alone and devise one statement that reflects their view. Students then alternate presenting their individual statements to each other, allowing other students in their group to ask for clarification, or further information. The team then creates a Team Statement that represents an opinion everyone in the group agrees with relative to the topic.After this, (some or all, depending on class size) groups in the class share their team statements orally, or in writing, with the rest of the class. One simultaneous method of reporting, called Blackboard Share, is a structure that can be used at this stage. Blackboard Share requires the teacher to section off portions of the blackboard equally for groups to use. After groups write their Team Statements on the board, these can be viewed/discussed by the entire class.If not all teams share (such as in very large classes), one technique is for the teacher to randomly choose only some teams to share. Since no team knows in advance which teams will share, all prepare in the event they are called on to share.Team Statements is designed to give students practice in self-expression, consolidating views, and reaching a consensus despite differing opinions. Blackboard Share can be used to have students simultaneously summarize any individual or team view or result in writing for the whole class.

(5) Draw a gambit

A "gambit" is a sentence or expression that can be used orally during a face-to-face interaction. "Draw a gambit" can be used to help students learn and practice social skills (in a native or foreign language). In a foreign or second language course, expressions socially acceptable in the target culture could be the focus of instruction.Students, or the teacher, can create expressions to be used in interactions focusing on a specific skill, such as showing interest in what is being said, disagreeing politely, or praising the speaker. These expressions are then written down on strips of paper by students (for example, after being copied off the blackboard), and placed in a deck or pile. Students, in pairs, or groups, then have a conversation. While listening, listeners draw expressions from the deck and use them during the interaction in ways they think are appropriate. Teachers or peers can monitor this as desired; for example, through real time observation followed by commentary, or responding after listening to or watching audio- or video-taped exchanges.This structure helps students practice socially acceptable language. The goal is to help create a positive ethic in the class by having students practice skills such as praising (being verbally supportive), or disagreeing politely (avoiding threatening or non-peaceful manners of communication), etc. This instruction can be combined with teaching socially acceptable body language, for example, modeled by the teacher, practiced in groups, and monitored by other learners and the teacher.

(6) Paraphrase passport; Rally robin

Paraphrase Passport requires students engaging in a group discussion to paraphrase what others have said. Before a student can go on to offer their own opinion or input, they must paraphrase what was last said. The person whose statement was paraphrased indicates whether the speaker has correctly captured their meaning. Once the speaker is satisfied that she or he has been accurately paraphrased, the discussion continues with the next speaker's comments. Thus, each person taking a conversational turn must paraphrase the prior speaker's comments before giving their own ideas.This structure aims to give all speakers in the group a chance to be heard and feel understood. It is also a useful device for checking comprehension in a language class. It can be combined with other structures such as Rally Robin. Rally Robin is a structure requiring students to alternate speaking in a set order. It is used so that all students take turns speaking, so that everyone will receive an equal chance to participate.[p. 3]

(7) Other structures

Many other structures can be found in Kagan (1994), and Kagan and Kagan (1998). Kagan and his associates have identified approximately 200 cooperative learning structures of which the above are just a few examples.

The "PIES" concept

More than just clever classroom routines, each Kagan structure is based on four factors that Dr. Kagan considers essential to his structural approach to cooperative learning: (P) positive interdependence; (I) individual accountability; (E) equal participation; and (S) simultaneous interaction.Positive interdependence means a "win-win" condition in which the success of one student is linked to the success of others in the class in a positive way. In other words, students need each other to succeed, and a gain for one student is a gain for others. In this kind of relationship, students care about each other and help each other so that all learn. In the positively interdependent relationship, a loss for one student is a loss for the whole group; in other words, the failure of one member is not merely an individual failure but a group failure, if the group did not adequately support the learner. Yet an individual success can be a group success if the group helped each team member succeed.We can contrast this concept with negative interdependence, where one student's failure could be another student's gain, such as when teachers grade on a curve (norm-referenced grading). With norm-referenced grading, a student doing badly increases the chance that another learner's score will be rated more highly. Thus, a loss for one student becomes a gain for another. Negative interdependence is often characterized by competitive rather than cooperative relationships between learners.Cooperative learning teachers reject norm-referenced grading in favor of criterion-referenced grading. With criterion-referenced grading, any learner can do well assuming s/he meets the specified criteria. Some cooperative learning teachers also use specific incentives and rewards in addition to positively interdependent task design to increase the level of positive interdependence among a team or in a class.No interdependence means that what one learner does has no effect on another learner.Positive interdependence is built into Kagan structures in that the activity cannot be successful unless the students cooperate ndash; the students need each other for success. They cannot do the activity alone, and if they do not cooperate well the result will be failure; yet if they cooperate well the result will be success.While there are various models of cooperative learning, of which Kagan's structural approach is only one, all cooperative learning theorists and practitioners agree that cooperative learning must incorporate the concept of positive interdependence, and this characteristic distinguishes it from mere "group work".The concepts of positive/negative/no interdependence have origins in Morton Deutsch's studies of conditions which foster conflict as opposed to cooperation (see Deutsch, 1973).Cooperative learning research has found positive interdependence to create better results in terms of learner achievement, human relationships, and psychological health, versus negative interdependence or no interdependence. For a more thorough treatment of research results, see, for example, Johnson and Johnson (1989).Individual accountability means a procedure to check that each participant individually contributes a fair share to a group effort. It also means there is a way to evaluate the quality of the effort/result of each member.Equal participation means that all students receive the same chances and incentives to be involved in class. Kagan's approach uses careful task design (e.g. the task has equal sized and equal status roles for all participants in the activity, or if roles are not equal status, such as leader and checker, roles are randomly assigned and would be rotated over the course of the term), rewards, and accountability procedures to encourage equal participation. For example in Timed Pair Share, each member is given exactly the same amount of time to speak. Without using a structure --ndash; for example, just asking two students to talk for four minutes, versus to alternate speaking for two minutes each--ndash; the teacher may find that one student is inclined to do far more or even all of the talking; this could be, for example the older student in Japan, the higher status student, the more confident student, or the more extraverted student. However, a structure such as Timed Pair Share requires that both students speak for the same amount of time, regardless of individual differences of age, background, personality, or language skill. Accountability procedures can be implemented via devices such as teacher or peer observation, and requiring students to report on what the partner said (to quote Dr. Kagan, individual public performance must [also] be required).Simultaneous interaction means that all students are actively engaged at the same time during the class. An example would be 20 pairs of students in a 40-person class all talking/listening simultaneously, as opposed to one student out of 40 answering a teacher's question, while all the others are or are not listening or participating.In Kagan's view, these four characteristics (PIES) must be built into the activity itself (i.e. be part of the task design). His over 200 structures were designed with the four elements in mind.

Multiple intelligences and Kagan's structural approach

Gardner (1993) identified numerous kinds of human intelligence including: interpersonal ndash; knowing how to effectively interact with others; intrapersonal ndash; the ability to know oneself; mathematical; musical; linguistic; bodily-kinesthetic; spatial; and others. In Gardner's view, people may differ in their natural talents but all talents are important, can be honed, and are worthy of appreciation.Kagan and Kagan (1998) present CL activities that promote the various multiple intelligences (MI), via peer collaborative tasks involving music or skills such as drawing, classifying, computing, moving the body, requiring students to collaborate in teams (interpersonal), or be introspective (intrapersonal), etc.Use of interpersonal intelligence CL structures enable the teacher to target interpersonal effectiveness as a skill for student development, which in turn helps foster peaceful classroom social environments. Intrapersonal intelligence is also linked to positive human relationships; research shows that persons who do not understand themselves are incapable of understanding others, and thus incapable of responding appropriately to others (Ciaramicoli & Ketcham, 2000; Goleman, 1995; Goodman, 2002; Kagan and Kagan, 1998; Meyers, 1994).Using a variety of MI activities in class highlights the MIs of students. As students witness the diverse abilities of peers, and notice their usefulness while performing the structures, they learn to appreciate and value each other's differing skills and gifts.

[p. 4]

Many of the structures and activities in Kagan and Kagan (1998) involve the activation of more than one intelligence. For example in A Song About Me, students first brainstorm their own unique qualities, drawing upon intrapersonal intelligence, and then include these qualities in a song they compose, drawing upon musical intelligence. In a structure called Self Portrait, students first draw their own portrait. Then, they tell a partner, orally or in writing, why they drew themselves as they did. Self Portrait calls upon visual/spatial, intrapersonal, and interpersonal intelligences. Being a Friend asks students to write about what it means to be a friend, share these writings with teammates upon completion, and then discuss with teammates similarities and differences among the team writings. This activity requires students to use linguistic, logical, and interpersonal intelligences.If the teacher, or students, select a broad range of activities which require various MI to complete them, students will have a chance to see each other shine over the course of the term, as some students are likely to excel at tasks requiring musical intelligence, others at tasks requiring visual/spatial intelligence, or others at tasks requiring linguistic intelligence (etc.). Use of non-linguistic intelligences can also help to compensate for the still developing linguistic skills of language learners in Japan and elsewhere in language courses. For example, an activity where a student could draw their response rather than say it in a foreign language, or both draw and say it, aids comprehensibility.Some teachers in Japan teach courses where students are grouped homogeneously by major. During the past academic year, for example, I have taught courses to math, PE, music, art, health education, intercultural studies, and other majors. Knowledge of MI can help teachers in such scenarios utilize activities that play to the likely strengths of students. We might, for example, expect PE majors to excel at structures where bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is emphasized, and art majors to prefer activities and structures in which visual-spatial intelligence is required. A balance of activities can give opportunities for students to both excel, and to stretch themselves, depending on whether the activity plays to the student's natural strengths, or to relatively underdeveloped areas. Highlighting the spectrum of MI, rather than a narrower focus on ability, could also help smash stereotypes, or negative images of students regarding their own or their classmates' abilities.

The structural approach used to create a peaceful classroom

As described above, Kagan structures can be used to create equal opportunities for all students in the classroom; cooperation among students; positive interpersonal relationships; listening, turn-taking, self-expression, and other appropriate communication and social skills; critical thinking: respect for diverse persons and abilities; appreciation of various viewpoints; and consensus-building.Learning appropriate (nonviolent) communication skills and appreciating diversity in all its forms can be a foundation upon which to create a peaceful classroom. Dr. Kagan believes using the structures can help build personal character, because while students are performing the activities, they can, at the same time, practice skills, or fulfill roles, such as leadership, helpfulness, caring, impulse control, understanding, praising, kindness, cooperation, courtesy, citizenship, and others associated with virtuous character.Students carrying the knowledge of socially appropriate behavior, critical thinking, and appreciation of differences with them outside of the classroom will be better equipped to evaluate information and interact peacefully with others. Researchers (Cohen, et al, 1990; Johnson and Johnson, 1989; Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991; Miller and Harrington, 1990; Ochi and Sugie, 2001; Slavin and Cooper, 1999) have found the results of cooperative learning to include higher self esteem of students, more positive peer relationships including improved inter-ethnic/cross-cultural relationships and lowered levels of prejudice, and equal or higher academic achievement, compared to classrooms where students worked without cooperation (independently) or structured competitively (negative interdependence).Dr. Kagan, along with other cooperative learning theorists/practitioners, believes that traditional competitive classrooms do not foster pro-social human behaviors. In a classroom where no student-to-student interaction occurs, students do not learn to interact with each other, share information with each other, or help each other succeed. In a classroom where student-to-student interaction occurs, but is not properly managed, structured, or planned by the teacher, the result can be unequal participation, competitiveness, and non-peaceful interaction. Kagan writes:

We need to include cooperative learning experiences in our classrooms, because . . . students no longer come to school with an established caring and cooperative orientation . . . Additionally, we need cooperative learning if we are to preserve democracy. Exclusive use of autocratic, teacher-dominated classroom structures leaves students unprepared for participation in a democratic society. Democracy is not nurtured by a system which models autocratic decision-making, and expects passive obedience among pupils (Kagan, 1994, pp. 2-10).

Cooperative learning can be easily combined with a student-centered curriculum. With the structural approach, the content can be chosen by the students themselves, and the students' own ideas and input can become the main lesson material

TECHNIQUES OF ACTIVE LEARNINGExercises for Individual StudentsBecause these techniques are aimed at individual students, they can very easily be used without interrupting the flow of the class. These exercises are particularly useful in providing the instructor with feedback concerning student understanding and retention of material. Some (numbers 3 and 4, in particular) are especially designed to encourage students' exploration of their own attitudes and values. Many (especially numbers 4 - 6) are designed to increase retention of material presented in lectures and texts.1. The "One Minute Paper"- This is a highly effective technique for checking student progress, both in understanding the material and in reacting to course material. Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either specific or open-ended), and give themone(or perhaps two - but not many more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include: "How does John Hospers define "free will"?", "What is "scientific realism"?", "What is the activation energy for a chemical reaction?", "What is the difference between replication and transcription?", and so on. Another good use of the minute paper is to ask questions like "What was the main point of todays class material?" This tells you whether or not the students are viewing the material in the way you envisioned.2. Muddiest (or Clearest) Point- This is a variation on the one-minute paper, though you may wish to give students a slightly longer time period to answer the question. Here you ask (at the end of a class period, or at a natural break in the presentation), "What was the "muddiest point" in today's lecture?" or, perhaps, you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if anything) do you find unclear about the concept of 'personal identity' ('inertia', 'natural selection', etc.)?".3. Affective Response- Again, this is similar to the above exercises, but here you are asking students to report theirreactionsto some facet of the course material - i.e., to provide an emotional or valuative response to the material. Obviously, this approach is limited to those subject areas in which such questions are appropriate (one should not, for instance, inquire into students affective responses to vertebrate taxonomy). However, it can be quite a useful starting point for courses such as applied ethics, particularly as a precursor to theoretical analysis. For example, you might ask students what they think of Dr. Jack Kevorkian's activities, before presenting what various moral theorists would make of them. By having several views "on the table" before theory is presented, you can help students to see the material in context and to explore their own beliefs. It is also a good way to begin a discussion of evolutionary theory or any other scientific area where the general public often has views contrary to current scientific thinking, such as paper vs. plastic packaging or nuclear power generation.4. Daily Journal- This combines the advantages of the above three techniques, and allows for more in-depth discussion of or reaction to course material. You may set aside class time for students to complete their journal entries, or assign this as homework. The only disadvantage to this approach is that the feedback will not be as "instant" as with the one-minute paper (and other assignments which you collect the day of the relevant lecture). But with this approach (particularly if entries are assigned for homework), you may ask more complex questions, such as, "Do you think that determinism is correct, or that humans have free will? Explain your answer.", or "Do you think that Dr. Kevorkian's actions are morally right? What would John Stuart Mill say?" and so on. Or you might have students find and discuss reports of scientific studies in popular media on topics relevant to course material, such as global warming, the ozone layer, and so forth.5. Reading Quiz- Clearly, this is one way to coerce students to read assigned material! Active learning depends upon students coming to class prepared. The reading quiz can also be used as an effective measure of student comprehension of the readings (so that you may gauge their level of sophistication as readers). Further, by asking the samesortsof questions on several reading quizzes, you will give students guidance as to what to look for when reading assigned text. If you ask questions like "What color were Esmerelda's eyes?" (as my high school literature teacher liked to do), you are telling the student that it is the details that count, whereas questions like "Whatreasondid Esmerelda give, for murdering Sebastian?" highlight issues of justification. If your goal is to instruct (and not merely to coerce), carefully choose questions which will both identify who has read the material (for your sake) and identify what is important in the reading (for their sake).6. Clarification Pauses- This is a simple technique aimed at fostering "active listening". Throughout a lecture, particularly after stating an important point or defining a key concept, stop, let it sink in, and then (after waiting a bit!) ask if anyone needs to have it clarified. You can also circulate around the room during these pauses to look at student notes, answer questions, etc. Students who would never ask a question in front of the whole class will ask questions during a clarification pause as you move about the room.7. Response to a demonstration or other teacher centered activity- The students are asked to write a paragraph that begins with: I was surprised that ... I learned that ... I wonder about ... This allows the students to reflect on what they actually got out of the teachers presentation. It also helps students realize that the activity was designed for more than just entertainment.(top)Questions and AnswersWhile most of us use questions as a way of prodding students and instantly testing comprehension, there are simple ways of tweaking our questioning techniques which increase student involvement and comprehension. Though some of the techniques listed here are "obvious", we will proceed on the principle that the obvious sometimes bears repeating (a useful pedagogical principle, to be sure!).The "Socratic Method"Taking its namesake from the most famous gadfly in history, this technique in its original format involved instructors "testing" student knowledge (of reading assignments, lectures, or perhaps applications of course material to a wider context) by asking questions during the course of a lecture. Typically, the instructor chooses a particular student, presents her with a question, and expects an answer forthwith; if the "chosen" student cannot answer the question presented, the instructor chooses another (and another) until the desired answer is received. This method has come under criticism, based on claims that it singles out students (potentially embarrassing them), and/or that it favors only a small segment of the class (i.e., that small percentage of the class who can answer any question thrown at them). In addition, once a student has answered a question they may not pay much attention as it will be a long time before the teacher returns to them for a second question. In spite of these criticisms, we feel that the Socratic method is an important and useful one; the following techniques suggest variations which enhance this method, avoiding some of these pitfalls.8. Wait Time- Rather than choosing the student who will answer the question presented, this variation has the instructorWAITINGbefore calling on someone to answer it. The wait time will generally be short (15 seconds or so) - but it may seem interminable in the classroom. It is important to insist that no one raise his hand (or shout out the answer) before you give the OK, in order to discourage the typical scenario in which the five students in the front row all immediately volunteer to answer the question, and everyone else sighs in relief. Waiting forces every student to think about the question, rather than passively relying on those students who are fastest out of the gate to answer every question. When the wait time is up, the instructor asks for volunteers or randomly picks a student to answer the question. Once students are in the habit of waiting after questions are asked, more will get involved in the process.9. Student Summary of Another Student's Answer- In order to promote activelistening, after one student has volunteered an answer to your question, ask another student to summarize the first student's response. Many students hear little of what their classmates have to say, waiting instead for the instructor to either correct or repeat the answer. Having students summarize or repeat each others' contributions to the course both fosters active participation by all students and promotes the idea that learning is a shared enterprise. Given the possibility of being asked to repeat a classmates' comments, most students will listen more attentively to each other.10. The Fish Bowl- Students are given index cards, and asked to write down one question concerning the course material. They should be directed to ask a question of clarification regarding some aspect of the material which they do not fully understand; or, perhaps you may allow questions concerning the application of course material to practical contexts. At the end of the class period (or, at the beginning of the next class meeting if the question is assigned for homework), students deposit their questions in a fish bowl. The instructor then draws several questions out of the bowl and answers them for the class or asks the class to answer them. This technique can be combined with others (e.g., #8-9 above, and #2).11. Quiz/Test Questions- Here students are asked to become actively involved in creating quizzes and tests by constructing some (or all) of the questions for the exams. This exercise may be assigned for homework and itself evaluated (perhaps for extra credit points). In asking students to think up exam questions, we encourage them to think more deeply about the course material and to explore major themes, comparison of views presented, applications, and other higher-order thinking skills. Once suggested questions are collected, the instructor may use them as the basis of review sessions, and/or to model the most effective questions. Further, you may ask students to discuss the merits of a sample of questions submitted; in discussing questions, they will significantly increase their engagement of the material to supply answers. Students might be asked to discuss several aspects of two different questions on the same material including degree of difficulty, effectiveness in assessing their learning, proper scope of questions, and so forth.(top)Immediate FeedbackThese techniques are designed to give the instructor some indication of student understanding of the material presented during the lecture itself. These activities provide formative assessment rather than summative assessment of student understanding, Formative assessment is evaluation of the class as a whole in order to provide information for the benefit of the students and the instructor, but the information is not used as part of the course grade; summative assessment is any evaluation of student performance which becomes part of the course grade. For each feedback method, the instructor stops at appropriate points to give quick tests of the material; in this way, she can adjust the lecture mid-course, slowing down to spend more time on the concepts students are having difficulty with or moving more quickly to applications of concepts of which students have a good understanding.12. Finger Signals- This method provides instructors with a means of testing student comprehension without the waiting period or the grading time required for written quizzes. Students are asked questions and instructed to signal their answers by holding up the appropriate number of fingers immediately in front of their torsos (this makes it impossible for students to "copy", thus committing them to answer each question on their own). For example, the instructor might say "one finger for 'yes', two for 'no'", and then ask questions such as "Do all organic compounds contain carbon [hydrogen, etc.]?". Or, the instructor might have multiple choice questions prepared for the overhead projector and have the answers numbered (1) through (5), asking students to answer with finger signals. In very large classes the students can use a set of large cardboard signs with numbers written on them. This method allows instructors to assess student knowledge literally at a glance.13. Flash Cards- A variation of the Finger Signals approach, this method tests students comprehension through their response to flash cards held by the instructor. This is particularly useful in disciplines which utilize models or other visual stimuli, such as chemistry, physics or biology. For example, the instructor might flash the diagram of a chemical compound and ask "Does this compound react with H2O?". This can be combined with finger signals.14. Quotations- This is a particularly useful method of testing student understanding when they are learning to read texts and identify an author's viewpoint and arguments. After students have read a representative advocate of each of several opposing theories or schools of thought, and the relevant concepts have been defined and discussed in class, put on the overhead projector a quotation by an author whom they have not read in the assigned materials, and ask them to figure out what position that person advocates. In addition to testing comprehension of the material presented in lecture, this exercise develops critical thinking and analysis skills. This would be very useful, for example, in discussing the various aspects of evolutionary theory.(top)Critical Thinking MotivatorsSometimes it is helpful to get students involved in discussion of or thinking about course material eitherbeforeany theory is presented in lecture or after several conflicting theories have been presented. The idea in the first case is to generate data or questions prior to mapping out the theoretical landscape; in the second case, the students learn to assess the relative merits of several approaches.15. The Pre-Theoretic Intuitions Quiz- Students often dutifully record everything the instructor says during a lecture and then ask at the end of the day or the course "whatuseis any of this?", or "what good will philosophy [organic chemistry, etc.]dofor us?". To avoid such questions, and to get students interested in a topic before lectures begin, an instructor can give a quiz aimed at getting students to both identify and to assess their own views. An example of this is a long "True or False" questionnaire designed to start students thinking about moral theory (to be administered on the first or second day of an introductory ethics course), which includes statements such as "There are really no correct answers to moral questions" and "Whatever a society holds to be morally right is in fact morally right". After students have responded to the questions individually, have them compare answers in pairs or small groups and discuss the ones on which they disagree. This technique may also be used to assess student knowledge of the subject matter in a pre-/post-lecture comparison. The well-known "Force Concept Inventory" developed by Hestenes to measure understanding of force and motion is another good example of this.16. Puzzles/Paradoxes- One of the most useful means of ferreting out students' intuitions on a given topic is to present them with a paradox or a puzzle involving the concept(s) at issue, and to have them struggle towards a solution. By forcing the students to "work it out" without some authority's solution, you increase the likelihood that they will be able to critically assess theories when they are presented later. For example, students in a course on theories of truth might be asked to assess the infamous "Liar Paradox" (with instances such as 'This sentence is false'), and to suggest ways in which such paradoxes can be avoided. Introductory logic students might be presented with complex logic puzzles as a way of motivating truth tables, and so forth. In scientific fields you can present experimental data which seems to contradict parts of the theory just presented or use examples which seem to have features which support two opposing theories.(top)Share/PairGrouping students in pairs allows many of the advantages of group work students have the opportunity to state their own views, to hear from others, to hone their argumentative skills, and so forth without the administrative "costs" of group work (time spent assigning people to groups, class time used just for "getting in groups", and so on). Further, pairs make it virtually impossible for students to avoid participating thus making each person accountable.17. Discussion- Students are asked to pair off and to respond to a question either in turn or as a pair. This can easily be combined with other techniques such as those under "Questions and Answers" or "Critical Thinking Motivators" above. For example, after students have responded to statements, such as "Whatever a society holds to be morally right is in fact morally right" with 'true' or 'false', they can be asked to compare answers to a limited number of questions and to discuss the statements on which they differed. In science classes students can be asked to explain some experimental data that supports a theory just discussed by the lecturer. Generally, this works best when students are given explicit directions, such as "Tell each otherwhyyou chose the answer you did".18. Note Comparison/Sharing- One reason that some students perform poorly in classes is that they often do not have good note-taking skills. That is, while they might listen attentively, students do not always know what to write down, or they may have gaps in their notes which will leave them bewildered when they go back to the notes to study or to write a paper. One way to avoid some of these pitfalls and to have students model good note-taking is to have them occasionally compare notes. The instructor might stop lecturing immediately after covering a crucial concept and have students read each others' notes, filling in the gaps in their own note-taking. This is especially useful in introductory courses or in courses designed for non-majors or special admissions students. Once students see the value of supplementing their own note-taking with others', they are likely to continue the practice outside of class time.19. Evaluation of Another Student's Work- Students are asked to complete an individual homework assignment or short paper. On the day the assignment is due, students submit one copy to the instructor to be graded and one copy to their partner. These may be assigned that day, or students may be assigned partners to work with throughout the term. Each student then takes their partner's work and depending on the nature of the assignment gives critical feedback, standardizes or assesses the arguments, corrects mistakes in problem-solving or grammar, and so forth. This is a particularly effective way to improve student writing.(top)Cooperative Learning ExercisesFor more complex projects, where many heads are better than one or two, you may want to have students work in groups of three or more. As the term "cooperative learning" suggests, students working in groups will help each other to learn. Generally, it is better to form heterogeneous groups (with regard to gender, ethnicity, and academic performance), particularly when the groups will be working together over time or on complex projects; however, some of these techniques work well with spontaneously formed groups. Cooperative groups encourage discussion of problem solving techniques ("Should we try this?", etc.), and avoid the embarrassment of students who have not yet mastered all of the skills required.20. Cooperative Groups in Class -Pose a question to be worked on in each cooperative group and then circulate around the room answering questions, asking further questions, keeping the groups on task, and so forth.. After an appropriate time for group discussion, students are asked to share their discussion points with the rest of the class. (The ensuing discussion can be guided according to the "Questions and Answers" techniques outlined above.)21. Active Review Sessions- In the traditional class review session the students ask questions and the instructor answers them. Students spend their time copying down answers rather than thinking about the material. In an active review session the instructor posses questions and the students work on them in groups. Then students are asked to show their solutions to the whole group and discuss any differences among solutions proposed.22. Work at the Blackboard- In many problem solving courses (e.g., logic or critical thinking), instructors tend to review homework or teach problem solving techniques by solving the problems themselves. Because students learn more by doing, rather than watching, this is probably not the optimal scenario. Rather than illustrating problem solving, have students work out the problems themselves, by asking them to go to the blackboard in small groups to solve problems. If there is insufficient blackboard space, students can still work out problems as a group, using paper and pencil or computers if appropriate software is available.23. Concept Mapping- A concept map is a way of illustrating the connections that exist between terms or concepts covered in course material; students construct concept maps by connecting individual terms by lines which indicate the relationship between each set of connected terms. Most of the terms in a concept map have multiple connections. Developing a concept map requires the students to identify and organize information and to establish meaningful relationships between the pieces of information.24. Visual Lists- Here students are asked to make a list--on paper or on the blackboard; by working in groups, students typically can generate more comprehensive lists than they might if working alone. This method is particularly effective when students are asked tocompareviews or to list pros and cons of a position. One technique which works well with such comparisons is to have students draw a "T" and to label the left- and right-hand sides of the cross bar with the opposing positions (or 'Pro' and 'Con'). They then list everything they can think of which supports these positions on the relevant side of the vertical line. Once they have generated as thorough a list as they can, ask them to analyze the lists with questions appropriate to the exercise. For example, when discussing Utilitarianism (a theory which claims that an action is morally right whenever it results in more benefits than harms) students can use the "T" method to list all of the (potential) benefits and harms of an action, and then discuss which side is more heavily "weighted". Often having the list before them helps to determine the ultimate utility of the action, and the requirement to fill in the "T" generally results in a more thorough accounting of the consequences of the action in question. In science classes this would work well with such topics as massive vaccination programs, nuclear power, eliminating chlorofluorocarbons, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and so forth.25. Jigsaw Group Projects- In jigsaw projects, each member of a group is asked to complete some discrete part of an assignment; when every member has completed his assigned task, the pieces can be joined together to form a finished project. For example, students in a course in African geography might be grouped and each assigned a country; individual students in the group could then be assigned to research the economy, political structure, ethnic makeup, terrain and climate, or folklore of the assigned country. When each student has completed his research, the group then reforms to complete a comprehensive report. In a chemistry course each student group could research a different form of power generation (nuclear, fossil fuel, hydroelectric, etc.). Then the groups are reformed so that each group has an expert in one form of power generation. They then tackle the difficult problem of how much emphasis should be placed on each method.26. Role Playing- Here students are asked to "act out" a part. In doing so, they get a better idea of the concepts and theories being discussed. Role-playing exercises can range from the simple (e.g., "What would you do if a Nazi came to your door, and you were hiding a Jewish family in the attic?") to the complex. Complex role playing might take the form of a play (depending on time and resources); for example, students studying ancient philosophy might be asked to recreate the trial of Socrates. Using various sources (e.g., Plato's dialogues, Stone'sThe Trial of Socrates, and Aristophanes'The Clouds), student teams can prepare the prosecution and defense of Socrates on the charges of corruption of youth and treason; each team may present witnesses (limited to characters which appear in the Dialogues, for instance) to construct their case, and prepare questions for cross-examination.27. Panel Discussions- Panel discussions are especially useful when students are asked to give class presentations or reports as a way of including the entire class in the presentation. Student groups are assigned a topic to research and asked to prepare presentations (note that this may readily be combined with the jigsaw method outlined above). Each panelist is then expected to make a very short presentation, before the floor is opened to questions from "the audience". The key to success is to choose topics carefully and to give students sufficient direction to ensure that they are well-prepared for their presentations. You might also want to prepare the "audience", by assigning them various roles. For example, if students are presenting the results of their research into several forms of energy, you might have some of the other students role play as concerned environmentalists, transportation officials, commuters, and so forth.28. Debates- Actually a variation of #27, formal debates provide an efficient structure for class presentations when the subject matter easily divides into opposing views or Pro/Con considerations. Students are assigned to debate teams, given a position to defend, and then asked to present arguments in support of their position on the presentation day. The opposing team should be given an opportunity to rebut the argument(s) and, time permitting, the original presenters asked to respond to the rebuttal. This format is particularly useful in developing argumentation skills (in addition to teaching content).29. Games- Many will scoff at the idea that one would literally play games in a university setting, but occasionally there is no better instructional tool. In particular, there are some concepts or theories which are more easily illustrated than discussed and in these cases, a well-conceived game may convey the idea more readily. For example, when students are introduced to the concepts of "laws of nature" and "the scientific method", it is hard to convey through lectures the nature of scientific work and the fallibility of inductive hypotheses. Instead, students play a couple rounds of the Induction Game, in which playing cards are turned up and either added to a running series or discarded according to the dealers pre-conceived "law of nature". Students are asked to "discover" the natural law, by formulating and testing hypotheses as the game proceeds.

Agreement CirclesStudents stand in a large circle, then step to the center in proportion to their agreement with a statement by a student or teacher.

Circle-the-SageStudents who know, stand to become sages; teammates each gather around a different sage to learn. Students return to teams to compare notes.

CornersStudents pick a corner, write its number, go there, and interact with others with same corner choice in a Rally Robin or Timed Pair Share.

Find My RuleThe teacher places items in a frame (two boxes, Venn, on a line); Students induce the rule. Two Box Introduction Whats My Line Crack My Venn

Find Someone WhoStudents circulate, finding others who can contribute to their worksheet.People Hunt: Students circulate, finding others who match their own characteristics.Fact Bingo: Find Someone Who played on bingo worksheet.

Find the FibTeammates try to determine which of three statements is a fib.Fact or Fiction: Teammates try to determine if a statement is true or false.

Same-DifferentStudents try to discover what is the same and different in two pictures, but neither student can look at the picture of the other.

FormationsStudents stand together as a class to form shapes.

Four S BrainstormingSultan of Silly, Synergy Guru, Sergeant Support, and the Speed Captain play their roles as they quickly generate many ideas which are recorded by Synergy Guru.ThinkPad Brainstorming: No roles. Students generate items on thinkpad slips, announcing them to teammates and placing them in the center of the table.

Inside/Outside CircleStudents in concentric circles rotate to face a partner to answer the teachers questions or those of the partner.

Jigsaw Problem SolvingEach teammate has part of the answer or a clue card; teammates must put their info together to solve the team problem.

Line UpsStudents line up by characteristics, estimates, values, or assigned items. Value Lines: Student, line up as they agree or disagree with a value statement.

ShowdownTeammates each write an answer, then there is a "showdown" as they show their answers to each other. Teammates verify answers.

Similarity GroupsStudents form groups based on a commonality.

Match MineReceivers arrange objects to match those of Senders whose objects are hidden by a barrier.Draw-What-I-Say: Receiver draws what sender describesBuild-What-I-Write: Receiver constructs what Sender has described in writing.

Mix-Pair-DiscussStudents pair with classmate, to discuss question posed by the teacher.

Mix-N-MatchStudents mix, then find partners with the matching card. Snowball: Students toss crumpled papers over imaginary volleyball net, stop, pick up a snowball, then find the person with the matching snowball.

Numbered Heads TogetherStudents huddle to make sure all can respond, a number is called, the student with the number responds. Paired Heads Together: Students in pairs huddle to make sure they both can respond, an "A" or "B" is called, the student with that letter responds. Traveling Heads Together: Students in Numbered Heads travel to new teams to share response.

One StrayThe teacher calls a number: students with that number "stray" to join another team, often to share.Two Stray: Two students stray to another team, often to share and to listen.Three Stray: Three students stray to another team, often to listen to the one who stayed to explain a team project.

Team ChantsTeammates come up with words and phrases related to the content, then come up with a rhythmic chant often with snapping, stomping, tapping, and clapping.

Team-Pair-SoloStudents solve problems first as a team, then as a pair, finally alone.

Team Mind MapStudents draw and label the central image, brainstorm, draw and label main ideas radiating out of the central image, and finally add details using colors, images, branches and key words.

Pairs ComparePairs generate ideas or answers, compare their answers with another pair, and then see if working together they can come up with additional responses neither pair alone had.

Paraphrase PassportStudents can share their own ideas only after they accurately paraphrase the person who spoke before them.

Poems for Two VoicesPartners alternate reading "A and "B" lines of a poem, and read "AB" lines together in unison.

Songs for Two VoicesPartners alternate singing "A" and "B" lines of a song, and sing "AB" lines together in unison.