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8/10/2019 Diesel Trucks & Buses in India
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Str ict ly Con fident ial
Final Report – Market Survey for Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India 0
Market Survey leading toFuel Consumption norms
for
Diesel (Engine Driven)
Trucks & Buses in India
Draft Report
2012
ICRA Management Consulting Services LimitedIMaCS
December 2012
Petroleum Conservation Research Association
Market Survey leading to Fuel
Consumption norms for
Diesel (Engine Driven) Trucks & Buses inIndia
Final Report
2013
ICRA Management Consulting Services LimitedIMaCS
March 2013
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Final Report – Market Survey for Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India 1
Disclaimer:- This report and the analysis herein is strictly for the use and benefit of Petroleum
Conservation Research Association (PCRA) and shall not be relied upon by any other person. This
report and the analysis herein are based on data and information collected by ICRA Management
Consulting Services Limited (IMaCS) from sources believed to be reliable and authentic. While all
reasonable care has been taken by IMaCS to ensure that the information and analysis contained herein
is not untrue or misleading, neither IMaCS nor its Directors shall be responsible for any losses, direct,indirect, incidental or consequential that any user of this report may incur by acting on the basis of this
report or its contents. IMaCS makes no representations or warranties in relation to the accuracy or
completeness of the information contained in the report. IMaCS’ analysis in this report is based on
information that is currently available and may be liable to change. This report and the analysis herein
should not be construed to be a credit rating assigned by ICRA Limited for any securities of any entity.
Other than as expressly stated in this report, we express no opinion on any other issue. Our
analysis/advice/recommendations should not be construed as legal advice on any issue.
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Final Report – Market Survey for Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 8
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 15
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................ 15
1.2 Scope of work ..................................................................................................................................... 16
1.3 L imi tations of our study ........................................................................................................ ............. 16
2 MARKET OVERVIEW OF TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA .................................................... 18
2.1 Market segmentation .......................................................... .............................................................. .. 18
2.2 Market size and Vehicle park ....................................................... ...................................................... 21
2.3 Futur e vehicle projections ................................................................................................................. 26
2.4 Diesel consumpti on ............................................................................................................................ 28
3 OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL FUEL CONSUMPTION STANDARDS ............................................. 31
3.1 Introduction ............................................................. ................................................................. .......... 31
3.2 I nternational benchmarks for fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty Vehi cles (HDVs) ....... 33
3.2.1 United States ............................................................ ................................................................. .......... 33
3.2.2 Japan .................................................................................................................................................. 40
3.2.3 Canada .......................................................... ................................................................. ..................... 47
3.2.4 European Union (EU) ........................................................ .............................................................. .. 54
3.3 I ssues and challenges faced in Implementation of H DV regulations .............................................. 57
3.3.1 Un ited States: ..................................................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2 Canada .......................................................... ................................................................. ..................... 58
4 FRAMEWORK FOR DEFINING STANDARDS FOR DIESEL (ENGINE DRIVEN) TRUCKS AND
BUSES IN INDIA ........................................................................................................................ 60
4.1 Fuel consumption roadmap vision .................................................................................................... 60
4.2 Approaches for defi ning fuel consumption standards ...................................................................... 61
4.2.1 Attr ibutes for Attr ibute-based continuous curve approach ............................................................. .. 63
4.2.2 Categori es for Attr ibu te-based continuous curve approach (with categories) ................................. 65
4.2.3 Testing procedures and Test cycles for measur ing fuel consumpti on .............................................. 65
4.3 Key Technology areas for improvement in f uel consumpti on .......................................................... 68
4.4 Developing Fuel consumption standards for I ndia ................................................................ ........... 70
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4.4.1 Vehicl e standards ............................................................................................................................... 71
4.4.2 Engine standards ................................................................ .............................................................. .. 74
4.5 Estimati on increase in f uel consumption by 2020, 2025 ................................................................... 77
4.5.1 Case I : Cur rent f uel economy scenari o ............................................................ ................................ 77
4.5.2 Case II : Fuel consumption standards regime ................................................................................ .. 79
4.5.3 Estimated diesel consumpti on in I ndia (trucks and buses) ............................................................. .. 81
4.5.4 Estimation of F uel savings ................................................................................................................ 81
4.6 Implementation roadmap - Draf t time schedule for implementation of the program ...................... 83
5 OVERVIEW OF TESTING FACILITIES IN INDIA.................................................................. 85
5.1 Introduction ............................................................. ................................................................. .......... 85
5.2 Automotive Research Association of I ndia (ARAI ) .......................................................................... 85 5.3 National Au tomotive Testing and R&D Inf rastructure Project (NATRiP) ...................................... 87
5.4 Vehicl e Research & Development Establishment (VRDE) ............................................................. .. 91
ANNEXURE I: ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIFICATIONS OF DIESEL ENGINES FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES
IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................... 96
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Segmentation of trucks / goods carriers by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM ................... 19
Table 2.2: Segmentation of buses by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM............................................... 20
Table 2.3: Estimated diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India (2011-12) ...................................... 30
Table 3.1: Fuel consumption and Emission standards for Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs) ............................. 31
Table 3.2: Testing and simulation options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy ................................ 33
Table 3.3: Vehicle Weight Classes Defined by US Department of Transportation ..................................... 34
Table 3.4: US CAFE Standards – For Light trucks ..................................................................................... 35
Table 3.5: US CAFE Standards – for Class 2b – 8 Vocational Vehicles ........................................................ 37
Table 3.6: US CAFE Standards – for Class 7 – 8 Combination Vehicles ...................................................... 37
Table 3.7: US CAFE MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards ................................................................ 38
Table 3.8: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards ................................................................................. 38 Table 3.9: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards ................................................................................. 40
Table 3.10: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Mini Cargo Vehicles ............................................................. 41
Table 3.11: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Light Cargo Vehicles, GVW ≤ 1.7 t ...................................... 42
Table 3.12: 2015 Fuel Efficiency targets for diesel Medium Cargo Vehicles (1.7 t < GVW ≤ 3.5t) ............ 42
Table 3.13: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Transit Buses .................................................... 43
Table 3.14: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty General (Non-Transit) Buses ........................... 43
Table 3.15: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Trucks (Excluding Tractors) ........................... 43
Table 3.16: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Tractors ............................................................ 44
Table 3.17: Driving Distance Proportion by Driving Mode ......................................................................... 45
Table 3.18: Fuel efficiency improvements in Freight Vehicles .................................................................... 46
Table 3.19: Fuel efficiency improvements in Passenger vehicles (Riding capacity > 11 persons) ............... 46 Table 3.20: Tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles ...................................................... 47
Table 3.21: Data for LDV and HDV (2011) ................................................................................................. 48
Table 3.22: For 2014 to 2017 model years .................................................................................................... 50
Table 3.23: For 2014 to 2018 model years .................................................................................................... 50
Table 3.24: CO2 Emission Standards for vocational vehicles ..................................................................... 51
Table 3.25: Vocational vehicles CO2 Emission Standards for compression-ignition engine (diesel) .......... 51
Table 3.26: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards ...................................................................... 51
Table 3.27: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards for engines (in g/BHP-hr) ............................ 52
Table 3.28: EU Emission Standards for Light Commercial Vehicles .......................................................... 54
Table 4.1: Pros and Cons of approaches to the way standards are defined ................................................ 62
Table 4.2: Comparison of attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach ............................... 64
Table 4.3: Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach ...................................................... 65
Table 4.4: Testing options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy ......................................................... 67
Table 4.5: Truck fuel economy improvement technology matrix ................................................................ 68
Table 4.6: Key Technology Areas for improvement in fuel consumption using off-the-shelf technologies
and technologies that will be available in the 2015-2020 timeframe ................................................... 70
Table 4.7: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ................... 72
Table 4.8: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New trucks” purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario) ................................................ 77
Table 4.9: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New buses” purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario) ................................................ 78 Table 4.10: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ................. 79
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Table 4.11: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New trucks” purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime) ......................................... 80
Table 4.12: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New buses” purchased from 2015-16 onwards
during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime) ......................................... 80
Table 4.13: Estimated Fuel savings from the proposed program ................................................................ 82
Table 5.1: ARAI Testing facilities ................................................................................................................ 86 Table 5.2: List of NATRiP testing centers ................................................................................................... 87
Table 5.3: Details of testing facilities at iCAT, Manesar ............................................................................. 87
Table 5.4: Proposed testing facilities at Global Automotive Research Center, Chennai ............................ 89
Table 5.5: Proposed testing facilities at National Automotive Test Tracks, Indore .................................... 90
Table 5.6: Proposed facilities at NIAIMT, Silchar....................................................................................... 91
Table 5.7: Proposed testing facilities at National Center for Vehicle research and Safety, Rae Bareli ...... 91
Table 5.8: List of testing facilities at VRDE ................................................................................................. 92
Table 5.9: Details of testing tracks at VRDE ............................................................................................... 93
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Segmentation of Indian Automobile Industry ........................................................................... 18
Figure 2.2: Domestic Market Share for Indian Automotive Industry (2011-12) ......................................... 18
Figure 2.3: Annual sales of Buses and Trucks in India................................................................................ 21
Figure 2.4: Annual sales of Trucks in India ................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.5: Annual sales of Buses in India ................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2.6: Commercial vehicle sales break-up (2011-12) ........................................................................... 22
Figure 2.7: Trucks – Changing sales mix (by weight categories) ................................................................. 23
Figure 2.8: Buses - Sales mix ........................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 2.9: Number of registered buses and goods vehicles in India (Cumulative) .................................... 24
Figure 2.10: Trucks Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012) .......................................... 24
Figure 2.11: Buses Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012) ............................................ 25
Figure 2.12: Trucks – Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012) .......................................................... 25 Figure 2.13: Buses – Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012) ............................................................ 25
Figure 2.14: Projected growth in sale of buses in India till 2025 ................................................................. 26
Figure 2.15: Projected sales mix of buses in 2019-20 and 2024-25 .............................................................. 27
Figure 2.16: Projected growth of trucks in India till 2025 ........................................................................... 27
Figure 2.17: Projected sales mix of trucks in 2019-20 and 2024-2025 ......................................................... 28
Figure 2.18: Consumption of HSDO in India (in 000’ tonnes) .................................................................... 29
Figure 2.19: Diesel consumption mix in India.............................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.1: HDV policy timelines across the globe ...................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.2: EPA CO2 Target Standards and NHTSA Fuel Consumption Target Standards for Diesel HD
Pickups and Vans ................................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 3.3: Overview of Simulation method ................................................................................................ 44 Figure 3.4: Regulated category of vehicles in Canada ................................................................................. 48
Figure 4.1: Baseline fuel consumption data for trucks (for illustrative purpose only) ................................ 71
Figure 4.2: Baseline fuel consumption data for buses (for illustrative purpose only) ................................. 72
Figure 4.3: Fuel consumption targets for trucks 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ....................... 73
Figure 4.4: Fuel consumption targets for buses 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only) ........................ 74
Figure 4.5: Baseline Engine efficiency data (for illustrative purpose only) ................................................. 75
Figure 4.6: Engine efficiency targets 2020 (for illustrative purpose only) ................................................... 76
Figure 4.7: Estimated increase in diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India .................................. 81
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
India is the fifth largest commercial vehicle manufacturer and one of the fastest growing commercial vehicle
markets in the world. Annual sales of trucks in India has grown from 111,485 trucks in 2001-02 to 682,300
trucks in 2011-12 at a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of around 20 per cent while that of buses
has remained relatively flat, increasing from 89,812 buses in 2001-02 to 98,763 buses in 2011-12, growing
at a CAGR of around 1 per cent. An estimated 1.34 million buses and 4.17 million trucks are plying on the
roads in India. Rapid growth in number of trucks and buses in India during the last decade has significantly
increased diesel consumption in India. In 2011-12, India’s total diesel consumption stood at about 64.74
million tonnes; road transport accounted for about 64 per cent of diesel consumption, of which trucks and
buses consumed around 77 per cent diesel (trucks consuming 24.03 million tonnes and buses consuming
around 7.77 million tonnes). In future, truck sales is estimated to grow at around 8.9 per cent y-o-y between
2012-13 and 2024-45 from 0.80 million in 2012-13 to 2.23 million in 2024-25. Over the same period, bus
sales is expected to grow at a CAGR of 5.7 per cent to increase from 0.11 million in 2012-13 to 0.21 million
in 2024-25. The estimated diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India is expected to increase
from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 104.7 million tonne in 2024-25, thereby
registering a CAGR of 9.6%. Considering India’s dependence on imports of crude oil, it becomes
imperative for India to take steps to reduce diesel consumption by trucks and buses over medium to
long-term. However, fuel economy of trucks and buses has almost remained stagnant over the last five
years. Change in emission regime from BS III to BS IV in some of the cities of the country has made
the job of balancing emissions and fuel economy tougher for bus and truck manufacturers.
In this context, Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) has embarked upon the
process of preparation of Fuel Efficiency program for Diesel (Engine Driven) Trucks & Buses in
India. In this context, PCRA had mandated ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited (IMaCS)
to prepare a Report on market survey leading to fuel consumption norms for diesel (engine driven)
trucks & buses in India. We have prepared this report covering the findings of our exercise for
development of Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India.
Global fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles
With limited oil reserves, the Governments around the world have taken cognisance of the situation,
with several countries in the process of setting standards for regulating the fuel consumption by
Heavy-Duty vehicles (HDVs). HDVs have a relatively short history of fuel consumption regulations.
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Establishing fuel efficiency norms for HDVs is significantly more challenging due to their diversity in
terms of vehicle size, configurations and usage patterns. Because of these challenges, HDV fuel
efficiency standards have just begun to be proposed and adopted in some of the major vehicle markets
in the world. Japan was the first country, which introduced such standards in 2005, providing a
roadmap for improvement in fuel efficiency of HDVs up to 2015. The US has finalized HDV fuel
efficiency standards in 2011, which begin with model year 2014, and increase in stringency through
2018. Canada has aligned its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission standards with the US HDV fuel
efficiency standards. Europe and China are in the process of designing HDV efficiency standards.
With increasing focus on the fuel efficiency/GHG emissions of M&HCV across the globe, a number
of countries are expected to introduce regulatory norms in the coming years.
An important consideration in designing and implementation of norms for HDV vehicles is defining
of duty cycle and testing conditions. Testing of HDV vehicles requires additional forethought given
the diversity of size and applications of the vehicles. Computer simulation of the whole truck
(typically in combination with engine testing on a bench dynamometer) seems to be the favoured
option by the Governments across the globe due to ease of implementation, accuracy of results and
cost-effectiveness. China is planning to use chassis dynamometer testing for main HDV vehicle
families and computer simulation for variants.
Testing and simulation options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy
S No Type of test Parts simulated Cost of testCountries considering fuel
consumption norms for HDVs
(1) On-road None Low None
(2) Computer
simulationAll Low US, EU, Japan, China
(3) Engine
dynamometer
Road and non-engine
componentsHigh US, EU, Japan
(4) Chassis
dynamometerRoad Very High China
Source: IEA – “Technology Roadmap - Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles”
Framework for defining standards for diesel (engine-driven) trucks and buses in India
India currently has standards to reduce air pollutants from motor vehicles; however, there are no
standards to reduce fuel consumption of motor vehicles in India. Efforts are already underway for
development of fuel consumption standards for passenger vehicles in India. Though passenger
vehicles in India are smaller in size and consume less fuel than their western counterparts, the Indian
commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) often consume more fuel.
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Final Report – Market Survey for Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India 10
In order to develop the framework for defining standards for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses,
it is imperative to define a long-term objective or vision for setting up these standards and various
stakeholders shall jointly agree upon a Fuel Consumption Roadmap vision. For instance,
“To reduce fuel consumption per kilometre by 12 per cent to 20 per cent in new diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses in India by 2020, and by 30 per cent to 50 per cent by 2025, in order to significantly
reduce diesel consumption, compared with a baseline projection.”
Fuel consumption standards are mainly set as fuel consumption targets based on the average of the
total fleet of vehicles sold (corporate average fuel economy). Fleet average fuel economy standards
provide flexibility to manufacturers to achieve the target across sales mix rather than with each
individual vehicle sold. Both Japan and the United States have adopted Attribute-based target HDV
standards based on vehicle categories. Attribute-based target values are estimated as a continuousfunction of vehicle attributes i.e. corporate averaging across all categories of vehicles for each
manufacturer, where the target varies depending on the average weight or size of the vehicles sold by
a manufacturer. For trucks and buses, gross vehicle weight (GVW) and payload are more appropriate
attributes than vehicle weight for developing fuel consumption standards.
The attribute-based continuous curve approach (with separate standards for trucks and buses) is
the best option in the first phase of implementation of the standards for India. This approach will
provide enough flexibility for manufacturers without being unfair or cost ineffective to any
manufacturer, while ensuring that the target is achieved. Instead of targeting fuel consumption
reduction across all vehicle categories (i.e. across various GVW categories), the manufacturers can
focus on reducing fuel consumption based on a target value determined as the average of the attribute
(vehicle weight or footprint or others) of the vehicles that it sells, weighted by the sales of each model
using a continuous curve standard. Thereafter, in the second phase of fuel consumption standards,
attribute-based continuous curve approach can be implemented for various sub-categories of vehicles.
Accordingly, we have considered phase-in approach with two set of targets, one for the year 2019-20
(first phase) to be achieved between 2015-16 to 2019-20 and other for 2024-25 (second phase), to be
achieved between 2020-21 to 2024-25. These targets could focus on reducing fuel consumption in line
with Fuel Consumption Roadmap vision, say, by 12 to 20 per cent in new diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses by 2019-20, and by 30 to 50 per cent by 2024-25, across various vehicle categories
defined by GVW of the vehicles, compared with a baseline projection. The targets for 2019-20 are
relatively less stringent and are primarily based on improvements in engine technology. The targets
increase in stringency after 2019-20 since additional suite of technologies would be considered for
achieving the target standards for 2024-25. In both the phases, yearly improvements at 15-20-40-60-
100 per cent across five years as compared to baseline data have been considered.
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One of the pre-requisites for development of fuel consumption standards is collection of baseline data
for various models of buses and trucks under pre-defined test conditions. In India, the fuel economy
details of various vehicle models of trucks and buses are neither disclosed by the manufacturers nor
collected by testing agencies like ARAI. Therefore, setting up fuel consumption standards for trucks
and buses will require testing of various available models of buses and trucks prior to setting up the
standards. Moreover, test cycles will have to be standardised for various categories for which
standards are to be developed. As it is easier to establish test-cycles for engine testing, engine
standards for fuel consumption by trucks and buses could be developed and implemented in the first
phase, followed by vehicle standards for fuel consumption in subsequent phases.
In this report, we have illustrated the framework for fuel consumption standards (both for vehicle and
engine fuel consumption standards) based on baseline data gathered from end-users of trucks and
buses. Since the baseline data should be collected under pre-defined test conditions, the baseline data
used by us should be further refined by elaborate testing of different categories of trucks and buses.
Our illustrations for vehicle and engine fuel consumption standards in this report are limited by
availability of fuel efficiency data for trucks and buses in India. For our illustrations, we have defined
fuel consumption in Litre per 100-km for vehicle standards and fuel efficiency as km/l for engine
standards. The detailed framework for fuel consumption standards is provided in Section 4 of this
report.
Estimation of Fuel savings1
Under the current fuel economy scenario, the diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India is
expected to increase from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 104.7 million tonne in
2024-25, thereby registering a CAGR of 9.6%. Trucks will continue to account for major share of
diesel consumption with their share increasing from around 76% in 2011-12 to around 87% in 2024-
25. Total diesel consumption by buses is expected to increase from 7.8 million tonne in 2012-12 to
13.7 million tonne in 2024-25.
In contrast, under fuel consumption standards regime, the estimated diesel consumption by trucks and
buses in India will increase from around 31.8 million tonne in 2011-12 to around 91.4 million tonne in
2024-25, thereby registering a CAGR of 8.5%. Trucks will continue to account for major share of
diesel consumption with their share increasing from around 76% in 2011-12 to around 86% in 2024-
25. Total diesel consumption by buses is expected to increase from 7.8 million tonne in 2012-12 to
12.4 million tonne in 2024-25.
1 For estimation of diesel consumption in value terms, we have assumed the price of diesel as Rs 47 per litre
until 2025 (approximately equivalent to current diesel retail price in Delhi)
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Based on the two scenarios - Current fuel efficiency scenario and Fuel consumption standards regime,
cumulative fuel savings due to the proposed program is estimated to be around 46.57 million tonne
(around Rs 2,630 billion in value terms) over the ten year period 2015-16 to 2024-25. Fuel savings
due to trucks contribute around 90 per cent of the savings under the proposed program. It should be
noted that the benefits from the proposed program will be derived primarily over medium to long term
(as vehicles on-road, purchased during duel consumptions norms regime achieve a sizeable share in
overall vehicle parc). The quantum of fuel savings will increase from 0.14 million tonne in 2015-16 to
13.37 million tonne in 2024-25.
Implementation roadmap - Draft time schedule for implementation of the program
The Implementation roadmap is summarised as follows:-
I Planning Phase 1 Year
a)
Development of a framework for fuel consumption standards, finalise strategy
for testing of fuel efficiency of trucks and buses under standard test conditions,
development of test cycles, setting up of testing infrastructure for testing of
trucks and buses to collect fuel efficiency data under standard test cycles, design
of fuel consumption standards and finalisation of implementation plan and
policy measures for implementation
II Consultation Phase 6 months
j)
Consultation with various stakeholders on policies framed and schedule of
implementation of fuel consumption standards and finalisation of fuel
consumption standards and finalisation of implementation plan and policy
measures for implementation
III Implementation Phase 6 months
Decide fuel economy certification process and compliance monitoring
mechanisms and conduct vehicle testing and monitoring as per strategiesdeveloped for implementation
Targeted enforcement of fuel consumption standards:- 2015-16
Since lack of availability of standardised data is the biggest challenge for development of fuel
consumption norms in India, therefore, the focus in initial phase i.e. the planning phase of the
Implementation roadmap should be on developing the fuel consumption framework and the testing
strategy for testing of diesel (engine) driven trucks and buses. This phase will involve defining the test
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cycle and standard test conditions under which fuel economy data would be recorded. This phase will
also involve defining the policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards. In the
second phase i.e. the Consultation phase, focus shall be on bringing various stakeholders on board to
hold discussions on policies and schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards and build
consensus across various stakeholders. Based on the feedback and concerns of various stakeholders,
the fuel consumption standards and policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards
shall be finalised. The Implementation phase will involve vehicle testing as per defined standards and
establishing a monitoring framework for the program.
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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Petroleum conservation Research Association (PCRA), established in 1978, is a non-profit registered
society (Society’s Registration Act 1860) under the ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, Govt. of
India, with a mission of efficient energy utilization & environment protection leading to conservation
and improvement in quality of life. PCRA’s mission is efficient utilization of fuel and energy and
environment protection leading to improvement in quality of life. Its mandate is to reduce the energy
intensity in various sectors of the economy leading to reduction in GHG emission.
PCRA is working in close coordination with Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) for formulation of
Standards leading to Efficiency Labels for appliances that use petroleum products as fuel.
Accordingly, it has been proposed to initially initiate work for developing fuel conservation norms for
the following equipment:
LPG Stoves
Diesel Generating sets up to 1250 kVA
Diesel Engine operated Agricultural pump
Diesel Engine driven Trucks and Buses
PCRA has proposed to initiate development of fuel consumption norms for Diesel (Engine Driven)
Trucks and Buses to facilitate consumers with the necessary data for making informed purchases.
Moreover, fuel efficiency performance standards for these vehicles will help in reducing diesel
consumption of India and will help buyers in making prudent, fuel-efficient purchases.
For this purpose, PCRA is embarking on the process of preparation of Fuel Efficiency program for
Diesel (Engine Driven) Trucks & Buses in India. The objective of the project is to
Transform the manufacture and sale of Diesel (Engine driven) Trucks & Buses to higher
levels of fuel efficiency, thereby achieving economic benefits and improving environmental
sustainability in the long run
Facilitate the buyers in making fuel-efficient purchase of these commercial vehicles
It is in this context that PCRA has mandated ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited
(IMaCS) to prepare a Status Report based on market survey leading to fuel consumption norms for
diesel (engine driven) trucks & buses in India. The primary objective of this project is to build upon
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existing initiatives in India and other countries to promote cost-effective adoption and
implementation of fuel consumption standards for Diesel (Engine driven) Trucks & Buses.
We have prepared this Final Report covering the findings of the market survey and supplementary
secondary research for development of Fuel Consumption norms for Diesel Trucks & Buses in India,
incorporating the feedback received from PCRA.
1.2 Scope of work
The Scope of Work of the engagement as mentioned in the tender document was as follows:
1. Preparation of Status Report on fuel consumption Performance Standards for Diesel (Engine
driven) Trucks & Buses in India based on a detailed market survey. The Status report will
encompass, but not be limited to the following issues:
a. The Market Overview of these vehicles in India
b. Fuel Consumption pattern of these vehicles in India
c. Estimated Growth Potential of these vehicles
d. Identification of Benchmarks in terms of fuel consumption
e. Estimated projection of increase in fuel consumption by 2020, 2025.
f. Fuel Savings projections due to proposed programme
g.
To compare the similar international initiatives to understand the different approaches
followed by countries like USA, Europe, China, Australia and Japan
h. Identification of Testing Standards & Facilities in India for these areas
i. Applicable Indian and International Standards and codes
j. Identification of All Stake holders
k. Minimum Fuel Consumption Performance Standards and criteria (fuel consumption
thresholds)
l. Identify the Issues & Challenges in implementation
m. Develop a draft time schedule for implementation of this program
1.3 Limitations of our study
This Final Report is based on the market survey findings, review of various documents available in
public domain and discussions with various stakeholders, including clarifications, opinions,
representations, information and statements made by personnel of various stakeholder organisations
on fuel consumption norms for diesel (engine driven) trucks & buses in India, during the course of
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discussions held with them. Accordingly, the findings and conclusions in this report is limited to the
following:
a. Public information – data, estimates, industry and statistical information contained in this report
have been obtained from various sources considered reliable by us. However, we independently
did not verify such information and make no representation as to the accuracy or completeness of
such information obtained from or provided by such sources.
b. While preparing this Report, in addition to the documents and information provided to us by
various stakeholders, we have also relied on oral and written responses to our queries as received
from the stakeholders. We have not independently verified the accuracy or correctness of such
information or the veracity of such documents and presumed the authenticity of such documents
and information provided to us;
c. Neither the professionals who worked on this engagement nor IMaCS have any present or
contemplated future interest / personal interest with respect to the parties involved, or any other
interest that might prevent us from performing an unbiased assessment. Our compensation is not
contingent on an action or event resulting from the analyses, opinions, or conclusions in, or the
use of, this report.
d. IMaCS does not assume any liability, financial or otherwise, for any loss or injury that the user of
the views and comments in this report may experience in any transaction. Although reasonable
care has been taken to ensure that any information herein is true, such information is provided 'as-
is' without any warranty of any kind and IMaCS, in particular, makes no representation or
warranty, express or implied, to the accuracy, authenticity, timeliness or completeness of any such
information.
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2 MARKET OVERVIEW OF TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA
2.1
Market segmentation
The Indian Automotive industry is one the largest and fastest growing industries in the world. The industry
is divided into four segments: Passenger vehicles, Commercial vehicles, Three-wheelers and Two wheelers.
Figure 2.1: Segmentation of Indian Automobile Industry
In 2011-12, around 17.38 million vehicles were sold in the domestic market, with two wheelers accounting
for more than 77 per cent of sales, while commercial vehicles accounting for around 4.7 per cent of the
sales. Annual sales of trucks and buses were 682,300 and 98,763, respectively, with estimated vehicle park
of 4,173,844 trucks and 1,344,870 buses (as on March 31, 2012).
Figure 2.2: Domestic Market Share for Indian Automotive Industry (2011-12)
Source: SIAM
AutoIndustry
PassengerVehicles
Passenger Cars
Utility Vehicles
Multi-purposeVehicles
Commercial Vehicles
Lightcommercial
vehicles
Medium andheavy
commercialvehicles
Three-wheelers
Passengercarriers
Goods carriers
Two-wheelers
Mopeds
Scooters
Motorcycles
Electric two-wheelers
Passenger Vehicles
15.1%
Commercial
Vehicles
4.7%
Three Wheelers
3.0%
Two Wheelers
77.3%
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Commercial vehicles are classified into following categories:-
Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs) (Gross Vehicle Weight <7.5 tonne) and
Medium & Heavy Commercial vehicles (M&HCVs) (Gross Vehicle Weight >7.5 tonne)
For the purpose of our study, we have aligned our classification of vehicles as per SIAM weight categories2.
Segmentation of buses and trucks as per SIAM classification, major applications of vehicles and the key
players in each category are given below:
Table 2.1: Segmentation of trucks / goods carriers by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM3
Vehicle Categories Application Key Players
Light Commercial Vehicles (LCVs)
3.5≤ MM Intra-city goodstransportation
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Mahindra & Mahindra
Hindustan motors
Piaggio Vehicles
3.5<MM≤5
Inter-city and intra-city
goods transportation (Daily
deliver load - milk and fruit
crates, vegetables, bottled
water)
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
Force Motors
SML Isuzu
5<MM≤7.5 Inter-city and intra-citygoods transportation
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Mahindra Navistar
VE CVs – Eicher
Medium & Heavy Commercial Vehicles (M&HCVs)
7.5<MM≤10 Parcel & courier, intercity
logistics, agri-perishables
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs - Eicher
10<MM≤12 Parcel & courier, intercity
logistics, agri-perishables
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs – Eicher
12<MM≤16.2 Intra-city distribution,
market load, construction
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs – Eicher
2 SIAM classifies and collects data for commercial vehicles by sub-dividing them into finer weight categories.
3 Maximum Mass (MM) or Gross Vehicle Weight is the vehicle rating based on the combined weight of the
vehicle and its load.
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Vehicle Categories Application Key Players
16.2<MM≤25
Market load, construction,
bulkers, minerals, tankers,
Stone , marble , re-fuellers
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs – Eicher
25<MM
Auto carriers, Market load,
cement, tankers, parcel &
white goods, construction,
bulkers, minerals, tankers
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs – Eicher
Daimler India Commercial Vehicles
Source: SIAM, IMaCS Analysis
Table 2.2: Segmentation of buses by Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) or MM4
Vehicle Categories Application Key PlayersLight Commercial Vehicles
MM≤5 tonnes (M2 (A2) ) (no. of
seats including the driver exceeding
13)
Intra-city buses for School, Staff and
Executives
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Mahindra & Mahindra
5≤MM<7.5 tonnes Intra-city buses for School, Staff and
Executives
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
Force Motors
SML Isuzu
MM≤ 5 tonnes (M2 (A1) ) (no. ofseats including the driver not
exceeding 13)
Intra-city buses for School, Staff andExecutives
Tata Motors
Force Motors
Heavy Commercial Vehicles
7.5<MM≤12 tonnes Inter-City and Intra-city buses
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs - Eicher
SML Isuzu
12<MM≤16.2 tonnes Inter-City and Intra-city buses
Tata Motors
Ashok Leyland
JCBL
Mahindra & Mahindra
VE CVs - Eicher
SML Isuzu
Volvo Buses India
16.2<MM tonnes Inter-City and Intra-city buses Volvo Buses India
Source: SIAM, IMaCS Analysis
4 Maximum Mass (MM) or Gross Vehicle Weight is the vehicle rating based on the combined weight of the
vehicle and its load.
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2.2 Market size and Vehicle park
Sales of trucks and buses
India is the fifth largest commercial vehicle manufacturer and one of the fastest growing commercialvehicles markets in the world. Annual sales of trucks and buses in India has grown at a CAGR of over 14%
between 2001-02 and 2011-12.
Figure 2.3: Annual sales of Buses and Trucks in India
(in ‘000 vehicles)
Source: SIAM
Annual sales of trucks in India has grown from 111,485 trucks in 2001-02 to 682,300 trucks in 2011-12,
growing at a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of around 20 per cent over this period.
Sales of trucks and buses (by segment)
Amongst trucks, LCV segment has grown at a CAGR of 25% between 2001-02 and 2011-12, significantly
faster than M&HCV segment, which has grown at CAGR of around 15% during the same period.
Figure 2.4: Annual sales of Trucks in India
(in ‘000 vehicles)
Source: SIAM
9089 110 118
108 107 111 99 109 93 99111149
209261 288
390 399
312
437
563
682
0
200
400
600
800
i n ' 0 0 0 v e
h i c l e s
Buses Trucks
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
43 57 80 100 121 168 188 174253
317411
68 92129
161 167
222 211139
183
246
271
M&HCV
LCV
i '
v e
i c l e s
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The annual sales of buses in India has remained relatively flat over the last ten years, increasing from 89,812
buses in 2001-02 to 98,763 buses in 2011-12, growing at a CAGR of around 1 per cent over this period.
The major reason for this flat growth in buses is the drastic reduction in demand for vehicles in
MM≤ 5 tonnes (M2 (A1)) category, which has gone down from 59,481 buses in 2001 -02 to 8,650 buses
in 2011-12. Excluding this segment from our analysis, annual sales of buses in India has grown at a
CAGR of around 12 per cent. Amongst buses, LCV segment has registered a decrease in sales at a CAGR
of -3.8% between 2001-02 and 2011-12 due to decrease in demand for vehicles in MM≤ 5 tonnes (M2
(A1)) category. However, the M&HCV segment of buses has grown at a CAGR of over 11% during the
same period.
Figure 2.5: Annual sales of Buses in India
(in ‘000 vehicles)
Source: SIAM
Trucks accounted for about 88 per cent of the commercial vehicles sold in India 2011-12. Amongst the
various sub-segments, LCV trucks accounted for around 53 per cent of the total commercial vehicle sales in
2011-12.
Figure 2.6: Commercial vehicle sales break-up (2011-12)
Source: SIAM
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
73 6985 93
80 79 72 64 6645 49
17 20
2526
28 29 3935
43
4849
M&HCV
LCV
i n ' 0 0 0 v e h i c l e s
MCV & HCV
Passenger
Carriers
6%
MCV & HCV
Goods Carriers
35%
LCV Passenger
Carriers
6%
LCV Goods
Carriers
53%
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Sales of trucks and buses (by weight category)
Analysis of sales pattern of trucks over the last 5 years indicates increasing polarisation of demand towards
lighter (MM≤3.5 tonne) and heavier (MM>25 tonne) trucks segments. The share of vehicles in MM≤3.5
tonne category in the total domestic truck sales has grown from around 39.4 per cent in 2007-8 to around
52.9 per cent in 2011-12. Trucks in MM>25 tonne category accounted for 0.7 per cent of sales in 2007-08.
In 2011-12, about 9.5 per cent of trucks sold in India belonged to MM>25 tonne category.
Figure 2.7: Trucks – Changing sales mix (by weight categories)
Source: SIAM
In case of buses, the buses in the segment 5>MM (M2 (A2) ) and 7.5<MM≤12 have registered the fastest
growth indicating the increasing demand for intra-city travel.
Figure 2.8: Buses - Sales mix
Source: SIAM
MM≤3.5
, 39.4%
3.5<MM
≤5, 0.6% 5<MM≤7
.5 , 7.1%
7.5<MM
≤12,
10.2%
12<MM≤
16.2,
15.1%
16.2<M
M≤25,
26.8%
25<MM,
0.7%
MM≤3.5
52.9%
3.5<M≤5
1.2%
5<MM≤7
.5
6.1%
7.5<MM
≤12
9.8%
12<MM≤
16.2
8.9%
16.2<M
M≤25
11.5%
25<MM
9.5%
5>MM(
M2(A2))
9.1%
5<MM≤7
.5
16%
5>MM(
M2(A1))
40.0%
7.5<MM
≤12
5.0%
12<MM≤
16.2
29.9%
16.2<M
M
0.0%5>MM(M
2(A2))
18.9%
5<MM≤7
.5
22%
5>MM(M
2(A1))
8.8%
7.5<MM
≤12
15.0%
12<MM≤
16.2
34.6%
16.2<M
M
0.4%
2007-08 2011-12
2007-08 2011-12
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Vehicle parc of trucks and buses
Between 2001 and 2011, number of registered buses and goods vehicles in India has grown at a CAGR of
9.7 per cent and 9.1 per cent respectively. Although the number of registered goods vehicles and buses in
India in 2011 were 7.1 million and 1.6 million, respectively, the no. of on-road trucks and buses are
estimated at 4.17 million and 1.34 million, respectively (as on March 31, 2012).
Figure 2.9: Number of registered buses and goods vehicles in India (Cumulative)
Source: Road Transport Year Book 2009-10 & 2010-11, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
In order to estimate the vehicle parc, we have assumed that the average age of trucks and buses as 15 years.
Vehicle parc of trucks and buses (by weight category)
Trucks with MM ≤3.5 form about 36.5 per cent of total on-road trucks in India. This segment is one of thefastest growing sub-segments in trucks due to increasing demand for intra-city goods transportation. With
higher mileage and low turning radius, vehicles in this category are ideally suited to traverse through narrow
city lanes and traffic in India. Going forward, the demand for this segment is expected to remain strong,
which is evident from the slew of new launches in this segment by the commercial vehicle manufacturers.
There is an evident trend of increasing demand of Heavy-duty trucks, which are used in construction and
mining industries. This is also an indicator of increasing economic activity in India.
Figure 2.10: Trucks Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012)
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
0
12
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.6
2.9 3.0 3.53.7 4.0
4.45.1
5.66.0 6.4
7.1
N o .
o f v e h i c l e s i n m i l l i o n
Goods
VehiclesBuses
MM≤3.5
36.5%
3.5<MM≤5
0.9%5<MM≤7.5
10.4%
7.5<MM≤12
9.5%
12<MM≤16.2
18.2%
16.2<MM≤25
16.0%
25<MM
8.4%
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Of the total on-road buses, about 45% are in the 5>MM (M2(A1)) category. Vehicles in this category are
mainly used for intra-city travel, especially for catering to travel needs of staff and employees. In absolute
terms, the number of on-road vehicles in this category is estimated at over 0.6 million.
Figure 2.11: Buses Vehicle parc (by weight category) (as of March 31, 2012)
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Age of Vehicles
The trucks fleet in India is relatively young; around 57% of the trucks have age below 5 years. This can be
attributed to sharp increase in sales of trucks, specifically in the MM≤3.5 segment, during last five years.
Figure 2.12: Trucks – Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012)
Source: IMaCS Analysis, SIAM
Out of 1,344,870 buses plying on the roads in India, around 38% or 510,212 buses are less than 5 years old.
About 22% of the bus fleet in India is older than ten years.
Figure 2.13: Buses – Fleet break-up by age (as of March 31, 2012)
Source: IMaCS Analysis, SIAM
No. of trucks and buses to be scrapped5 in 2011-12 is estimated at around 1,52,000 and 83,000, respectively.
5 Assuming average age of trucks and buses as 15 years
0
1000
2000
3000
0-5 years 5-10 years Over 10 years
2,393
1,297
484
i n ' 0 0 0 v e h i c l e s
0
200
400
600
0-5 years 5-10 years Over 10 years
510 533
302
i n ' 0 0 0 v e h i c l e s
5>MM
(M2(A2))
9.9%
5<MM≤7.5
13.1%
5>MM
(M2(A1))
45.1%
7.5<MM≤12
4.8%
12<MM≤16.2
27.0%16.2<MM
0.1%
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2.3 Future vehicle projections
Rising incomes, increasing government focus on infrastructure development and increasing economic
activity are the key drivers, which are expected to fuel the demand for commercial vehicles in India. Also,
road transport is considered to be one of the most cost effective and preferred mode of transport for both
passengers and transportation of goods in India. Therefore, demand for both freight and passenger
movement in India is expected to remain firm, which will fuel sale of buses and trucks in India. Thus, strong
growth trend in India’s commercial vehicle industry is expected to continue in future as well.
The major reason for flat growth in buses in the last decade is the drastic reduction in demand for
vehicles in MM≤ 5 tonnes (M2 (A1)) category, which has gone down from 59, 481 buses in 2001 -02 to
8,650 buses in 2011-12. Eliminating this segment from our analysis, annual sales of buses in India has
grown at a CAGR of around 12 per cent. With rapid urbanisation and improving infrastructure, thedemand for passenger transport is expected to remain positive in India. Between 2012-13 and 2024-25, sale
of buses is expected to grow at a CAGR of 5.7 per cent to increase from 0.11 million to 0.21 million.
Figure 2.14: Projected growth in sale of buses in India till 2025
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Amongst the various sub-segments, buses with MM > 16.2 tonne (luxury buses), is expected to registerhighest annual growth of around 12 per cent. This can be directly attributed to increasing per capita income
and growing ease of inter-city travel due to development of world-class highways. Another buses segment
which is expected to grow faster is 7.5t < MM < 12t. The demand for this segment will be driven by travel
needs of employees of various corporates and other institutions, which will be predominantly utilised for
intra-city travel.
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.10 0.11
0.12 0.13 0.14 0.14
0.17
0.21
i
i l l i
CAGR = 5.7%
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Figure 2.15: Projected sales mix of buses in 2019-20 and 2024-25
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Increasing purchasing power, government focus on improving infrastructure and a relatively young
population has increased the demand for transportation of goods in the country. Roads are the dominant
mode of transportation of freight in the country today. With improvement in highways and other roads in
the country, road transportation is expected to remain the preferred mode of goods transportation, which in
turn will fuel the demand for trucks in India. Trucks are estimated to register strong growth of around 8.9
per cent between 2012-13 and 2024-45. In absolute terms, the total volume of truck sales is expected to
grow from 0.80 million in 2012-13 to 2.23 million in 2024-25.
Figure 2.16: Projected growth of trucks in India till 2025
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
5>MM(M
2(A2)),
21.5%
5<MM≤7
.5, 21.0%
5>MM(M2(A1)),
6.8%
7.5<MM
≤12,
20.6%
12<MM≤
16.2,
29.3%
16.2<M
M, 0.8% 5>MM(M2(A2)),
22.4%
5<MM≤7
.5, 20.5%
5>MM(2(A1)),
6.3%
7.5<MM
≤12,
22.3%
12<MM≤
16.2,
27.5%
16.2<M
M, 1.0%
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
0.68 0.80 0.92 1.04 1.16 1.281.63
2.23
CAGR = 8.9%
i n
i l l i o n
2019-20 2024-25
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With “Hub & Spoke” model increasingly adopted across India, there is clear evidence of polarization of
tonnage in the CV segment towards heavy and lower tonnages. Amongst the various sub-segments, trucks
with Gross vehicle weight ≤3.5 tonne and greater than 25 tonnes are expected to grow faster than other sub-
segments. Sales of trucks in the category Gross vehicle weight ≤3.5 tonne is expected to grow at a CAGR of
around 10 per cent to increase from 0.36 million in 2011-12 to around 1.27 million in 2024-25. Truck sales
in category Gross vehicle weight> 25 tonne is expected to register fastest growth amongst the various sub-
segments at a CAGR of over 11 per cent to increase to about 0.3 million in 2024-25.
Figure 2.17: Projected sales mix of trucks in 2019-20 and 2024-2025
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
2.4 Diesel consumption
Rapid economic development, diesel subsidies and preference of road transportation for goods and
passengers has led to dieselisation of Indian economy. With road being the preferred mode of transportation
in India, the increasing demand for passenger and freight movement has in turn fuelled the growth of trucks
and buses in India. Since most of the buses and trucks run on diesel, the increase in number of buses and
trucks plying on the roads has significantly augmented the diesel consumption in India. This is evident from
the fact that the consumption of High Speed Diesel Oil (HSDO) in India during the last decade has
increased at an average annual rate of 5.9%. With relatively stagnant production of crude oil in the country,
this increase in demand for oil will further increase our dependence on exports.
MM≤3.5
, 56.0%
3.5<MM
≤5, 1.4%
5<MM≤7
.5 , 5.5%
7.5<MM
≤12,
10.5%
12<MM≤
16.2,
7.2%
16.2<M
M≤25,
7.9%
25<MM,
11.6%MM≤3.5
, 56.7%
3.5<MM
≤5, 1.4%
5<MM≤7
.5 , 5.3%
7.5<MM
≤12,
10.6%
12<MM≤
16.2,
6.7%
16.2<M
M≤25,
7.1%
25<MM,
12.1%
2019-20 2024-25
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Figure 2.18: Consumption of HSDO in India (in 000’ tonnes)
Source: Energy Statistics 2012, CSO, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, GoI
In 2011-12, India’s total diesel consumption stood at about 64.74 million tonnes. Road transport is the
biggest diesel-consuming segment accounting for about 64 per cent of diesel consumption. Of the total
diesel consumed by road transport, trucks and buses accounted for about 77 per cent of the fuel
consumption, amounting to 31-32 million tonnes approx.
Figure 2.19: Diesel consumption mix in India
Source: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell
In absolute terms, the estimated consumption of diesel by buses and truck in India stood at around 7.77
million tonnes and 24.03 million tonnes, respectively. The detailed break-up fuel of consumption by various
segments is given in the table below:
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,00060,000
70,000
36,548 36,644 37,073 39,651 40,192 42,89447,669 51,711
56,24359,990
64,740CAGR = 5.9%
Power
8%
Industry
10%
Agriculture
12%
Railways6% Cars
15%
Trucks
37%
Buses
12%
Roads
64%
i n
0 0 0 ’ t o n n e s
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Table 2.3: Estimated diesel consumption by trucks and buses in India (2011-12)6
Vehicle
SegmentSales Vehicle Park
Distance
Travelled
p.a. per
vehicle
Fuel
Efficiency
(km/l)
Diesel
consumed
per vehicle
per annum(litres)
Total diesel
consumed per
annum
(in mn litres)
Total diesel
consumed per
annum
(in mn tonnes)
Trucks 682,300 4,173,844 37,782 5.5 6,919 28,880 24.03
Buses 98,763 1,310,762 33,236 4.7 7,120 9,333 7.77
ALL TRUCKS
and BUSES781,063 5,484,606 36,696 5.3 6,967 38,213 31.79
LCV 460,831 2,907,678 16,866 15.5 1,092 3,174 2.64
M&HCV 320,232 2,576,929 59,071 4.3 13,597 35,039 29.15
ALL TRUCKS
and BUSES781,063 5,484,606 36,696 5.3 6,967 38,213 31.79
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Segmental break-up of diesel consumption indicates that more than 90 per cent of the diesel is consumed by
M&HCV segment. This indicates the urgent need to improve diesel consumption in this segment by
formulating stringent fuel efficiency norms for these segments. In most of the countries around the world,
road transport is one of the major oil-consuming sectors. With limited oil reserves, the Governments around
the world have taken cognisance of the situation, which is evident from the fact that more and more
countries are proposing standards for regulating the Heavy-Duty vehicles.
6 Assumptions:
1. For trucks, distance travelled per annum per vehicle:-
a.
MM≤7.5 tonne – 20,000 km
b.
7.5<MM≤12 tonne – 50,000 km
c.
MM>12 tonne – 55,000 km
2.
For buses, distance travelled per annum per vehicle:-
a.
MM≤7.5 tonne – 10,000 kmb.
7.5<MM≤12 tonne - 65,000 km
c.
12<MM- 90,000 km
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3 OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL FUEL CONSUMPTION STANDARDS
3.1
Introduction
Light-duty vehicles (LDVs) have a long history of regulations with formulation of energy regulations in
the United States in 1970s as a response to the global oil crisis. Since then, improvement in LDV fleet was
relatively steady with improved technology being utilised to offset increase in vehicle weight and power.
However, over the last one decade, the largest vehicle markets have resumed ambitious, mandatory fuel
efficiency and emission standards for LDVs. More than 70 per cent of the global new-vehicle markets have
mandatory fuel efficiency and emission standards for LDVs in effect. This has led to development and
introduction of new energy-efficient technologies, smaller engines, lighter vehicles, and improved
aerodynamics and tires.
Table 3.1: Fuel consumption and Emission standards for Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs)
Country/Standard Measure Structure
Targeted
FleetTest Cycle Implementation
Region
Fuel consumption standards
UnitedStates
Fuel mpg
Single standard for
cars and size-basedstandards for light
trucks
New US CAFE Mandatory
Japan Fuel km/l Weight-based New JC08 Mandatory
China Fuel l/100-km Weight-based New NEDC Mandatory
Australia Fuel l/100-km Single standard New NEDC Voluntary
South
KoreaFuel km/l Engine-size based New
US EPA
CityMandatory
Taiwan Fuel km/l Engine-size based New US CAFE Mandatory
Emission standards
EuropeanUnion
CO2 g/km Single standard New NEDC Voluntary
Canada
GHG
l/100-km Vehicle class-basedIn-use
and newUS CAFE Voluntary(CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCS)
California
GHG
g/mile Vehicle class-based New US CAFE Mandatory(CO2, CH4,
N2O, HFCS)
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In India, fuel efficiency norms for passenger cars are being framed by Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE),
which are based on the Kerb weight of the vehicle and include mandatory labelling norms. However, strong
opposition from the auto industry has led to delay in notification of these standards.
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), including both heavy-duty trucks and buses, have a relatively brief
history of regulations. Establishing fuel efficiency norms for HDVs is significantly more challenging
due to their diversity in terms of vehicle size, configurations and usage patterns. Because of these
challenges, HDV efficiency standards have just begun to be proposed and adopted in some of the
major vehicle markets in the world. Japan was the first country, which introduced such standards in
2005, providing a roadmap for improvement in fuel efficiency of HDVs up to 2015. The US has
finalized HDV fuel efficiency standards in 2011, which begins with model year 2014, and increases in
stringency through 2018. Canada has aligned its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission standards with the
US HDV fuel efficiency standards. Europe and China are in the process of designing HDV efficiency
standards. With increasing focus on the fuel efficiency/GHG emissions of M&HCV across the globe,
a number of countries are expected to introduce regulatory norms in the coming years.
Figure 3.1: HDV policy timelines across the globe
Note: Shaded and/or italics t ext represents the ICCTʼs estimate of regulatory action and timing
Source: ICCT- Anup Bandivadekar presentation on “Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Regulatory
Developments around the World”- 3rd
July, 2012
An important consideration in designing and implementation of norms for HDV vehicles is definingof duty cycle and testing conditions. Testing of HDV vehicles requires additional forethought given
Country/
Region
Regulation
Type 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
JapanFuel
Economy
Standard
proposal
Final
rule
Phase 2
implementation?
CanadaGHG/ Fuel
efficiency
Standard
proposal and
final rule?
Phase 2
implementation?
MexicoFuel
Efficiency
Standard
proposal?
Phase 2
implementation?
ChinaFuel
Consumption
Test
procedure
finalised
Industry
standard
proposal
Industry
standard
implemented
Standard
proposal?
Final
Rule?
European
UnionGHG
Impact
Assessment
California
End-user
purchase
requirements
Regulation implemented
starting MY 2016 ?
Regulation implemented starting MY 2015 ?
Technical studiesTest procedure
finalised? Policy implementation?
Requirements for new tractors and
trailers (MY 2011+)
Additional requirements for
existing tractors and trailers
(<MY 2010)
Additional requirements for existing
tractors and reefers (<MY 2010)
Phase 1 regulation implemented,
starting MY2015
United
States
GHG/ Fuel
efficiency
Regulation implemented starting MY 2014
(Mandatory DOT program starts MY 2016)Phase 2
proposal and
final rule?
Regulation implemented starting MY 2014 ?
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the diversity of size and applications of the vehicles. Computer simulation of the whole truck
(typically in combination with engine testing on a bench dynamometer) seems to be the favoured
option by the Governments across the globe due to ease of implementation, accuracy of results and
cost-effectiveness. China is planning to use chassis dynamometer testing for main HDV vehicle
families and computer simulation for variants.
Table 3.2: Testing and simulation options for measurement of vehicle fuel economy
S No Type of test Parts simulated Cost of testCountries considering fuel
consumption norms for HDVs
(1) On-road None Low None
(2) Computer
simulationAll Low US, EU, Japan, China
(3) Engine
dynamometer
Road and non-
engine components High US, EU, Japan
(4) Chassis
dynamometerRoad Very High China
Source: IEA – “Technology Roadmap - Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles”
3.2
International benchmarks for fuel consumption standards for Heavy Duty
Vehicles (HDVs)
3.2.1 United States
In September 2011, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the US
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced the First-ever federal regulations mandating
improvements in fuel economy among heavy-duty commercial vehicles (HDVs). Each of the agencies
have adopted complementary standards under their respective authorities, which together form a
comprehensive HD National Program, beginning with model year 2014 and increasing in stringency
through model year 2018, thereby providing a lead-time to all vehicle manufacturers. The norms setseparate standards for engines and vehicles and ensure improvements in both. The federal regulation
also sets separate standards for fuel consumption, CO2, N2O, CH4 and HFCs. However, the fuel
consumption and emission standards are aligned. The agencies are also considering next phase of
rules, as there are more opportunities to reduce GHG emissions and fuel usage by heavy-duty vehicles
fleet for model years beyond 2018.
The principal performance metric for determining compliance with the NHTSA’s fuel consumption
standards is the fuel consumption rate in gallons per 1,000 ton-miles (for vehicles) and gallons per
horsepower-hour (for engines). For EPA’s carbon emissions standard, it is grams CO 2 per tonne-mile
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(vehicles) or per horsepower-hour (engines). The performance standards in both metrics are chosen to
be consistent so that achievement of one implies achievement of other (with appropriate allowance
made for alternative fuels).
The Federal Highway Administration categorises trucks by gross vehicle weight as shown in the table below:
Table 3.3: Vehicle Weight Classes Defined by US Department of Transportation
Class Description/examples
Empty weight
range
Gross weight
rangeTypical fuel intensities
Tons Tons
Gallons per
thousand
miles
Gallons per
thousand
ton-miles
1c Passenger cars 1.2 –2.5 <3 30 –40 67
1t Small light-duty trucks 1.6 –2.2 <3 40 –50 58
2a Standard pickups, large SUVs 2.2 –3 3 –4.25 50 39
2b Large pickups, utility vans 2.5 –3.2 4.25 –5 67 –100 39
3 Utility vans, minibuses 3.8 –4.4 5 –7 77 –125 33
4 Delivery vans 3.8 –4.4 7 –8 83 –140 24
5Large delivery vans, bucket
trucks9.2 –10.4 8 –9.75 83 –166 26
6School buses, large delivery
vans5.8 –7.2 9.75 –13 83 –200 20
7City bus, refrigerated truck, fire
engine5.8 –7.2 13 –16.5 125 –250 18
8aDump/refuse trucks, city buses,
fire engines10 –17 16.5 –40 160 –400 9
8bLarge tractor trailers, bulk
tankers11.6 –17 16.5 –40 133 –250 7
Source : Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick: “Improving Fuel Economy in Heavy- Duty Vehicles”
Vehicles in the category 2b to 8 are covered under the regulations. The vehicles are categorised such
that different products in the same subcategory must meet the same standard. Broadly, HDVs were
divided into three main regulatory categories:1. Heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans (3/4 and 1 ton trucks and vans made primarily by Ford,
GM and Chrysler)
2. Combination tractors (largest heavy-duty tractors used to pull trailers, i.e. 18 wheelers)
3. Vocational trucks (everything else, buses, refuse trucks, concrete mixers, ambulances…)
Trailers were not covered under these rules, due to the first-ever nature of this program and the
limited experience of agencies in this space.
Vehicles in the category Heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans (Class 2b and 3) consist of pickup trucks
and vans with a Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) between 8,500 and 14,000 pounds. The
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technologies that can be used to reduce fuel consumption and GHG emissions from this segment are
very similar to the ones used for lighter pickup trucks and vans (Class 2a), which are subject to the
GHG and fuel economy standards for light-duty vehicles. Vehicles in this category (Class 2b and 3)
are treated in the same manner as the CAFE standards for light-duty vehicles.
Table 3.4: US CAFE Standards – For Light trucks
Model
Year
Light Trucks
"footprint": 41 sq ft (3.8 m2) or
smaller (e.g. Nissan Juke)
"footprint": 75 sq ft (7.0 m2) or
bigger (e.g. Ford F-150)
CAFE EPA Window Sticker CAFE EPA Window Sticker
2012 30 23 22 17
2013 31 24 22.5 17
2014 32 24 23 18
2015 33 25 23.5 18
2016 34 26 24.5 19
2017 36 27 25 19
2018 37 28 25 19
2019 38 28 25 19
2020 39 29 25 19
2021 42 31 25 19
2022 44 33 26 20
2023 46 34 27 21
2024 48 36 28.5 22
2025 50 37 30 23
Source: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. "2017-2025 Model Year Light-Duty Vehicle GHG
Emissions and CAFE Standards: Supplemental"
For heavy-duty pickup trucks and vans, the agencies are setting corporate average standards similar to
the approach taken for LDV. This approach takes into account both the inherently higher GHG
emissions and fuel consumption of higher-capacity vehicles, and the importance of payload and
towing capacity to the owners of these work trucks and vans. EPA has established standards for this
segment in the form of a set of target standard curves, based on a “work factor” that combines a
vehicle’s payload, towing capabilities, and whether or not it has 4-wheel drive. The EPA standards
adopted for 2018 (including a separate standard to control air conditioning system leakage) represent
an average per-vehicle reduction in GHG emissions of 17 per cent for diesel vehicles and 12 per cent
for gasoline vehicles, compared to a common baseline.
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Figure 3.2: EPA CO2 Target Standards and NHTSA Fuel Consumption Target Standards for
Diesel HD Pickups and Vans7
Source: NHSTA
EPA’s and NHTSA’s target standards are defined by the following formulae:
EPA CO2 Target (g/mile) = [a x WF] + b
NHTSA Fuel Consumption Target (gallons/100 miles) = [c x WF] + d
Where:
WF = Work Factor = [0.75 x (Payload Capacity + xwd)] + [0.25 x Towing Capacity]
Payload Capacity = GVWR (lb) – Curb Weight (lb)
xwd = 500 lb if the vehicle is equipped with 4wd, otherwise equals 0 lb
Towing Capacity = GCWR (lb) – GVWR (lb)
Coefficients a, b, c, and d are defined for each of the model years.
Combination trailers included largest heavy-duty tractors, which are used in intercity freight hauling.
Tractor cabs are further classified by two weight classes and three roof heights. In addition, for class 8
category of vehicles, there are both “day cabs” and “sleeper cabs” at each roof height, making a total
of nine tractor categories. These nine categories differ by weight and aerodynamic qualities, both of
which are adversely affected by height. The vocational vehicle category includes the wide range of
7 The NHTSA program provides voluntary standards for model years 2014 and 2015.
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remaining trucks and buses of all sizes and functions with GVWR from 8,501 lb to greater than
33,000 lb.
Table 3.5: US CAFE Standards – for Class 2b – 8 Vocational Vehicles
Engine standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline
Baseline 2014 MY 2017 MY
(gallons per Kbhp-hr)* Standard** Standard
Light heavy-duty engines 6.19 5.89 (5%) 5.57 (9%)
Medium-heavy duty engines 6.19 5.89 (5%) 5.57 (9%)
Heavy-heavy duty engines 5.74 5.57 (3%) 5.45 (5%)
Vehicle standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline)***
Baseline 2014 MY 2017 MY
(gallons per Kton-mi) Standard Standard
Light heavy-duty class 2b –5 40 38.1 (4.8%) 36.7 (8.2%)
Medium heavy-duty class 6 –7 24.3 23.0 (5.3%) 22.1 (9%)
Heavy heavy-duty class 8 23.2 22.2 (4.3%) 21.8 (6%)
Source : Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick: “Improving Fuel Economy in Heavy- Duty Vehicles”
Table 3.6: US CAFE Standards – for Class 7 – 8 Combination Vehicles
Engine standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline), by model year (MY)
Baseline 2014 MY 2017 MY(gallons per Kbhp-hr) Standard Standard
Medium-heavy duty engines (Class 7) 5.09 4.93 (3%) 4.78 (6%)
Heavy-heavy duty engines (Class 8) 4.81 4.67 (3%) 4.52 (6%)
Vehicle standards (expressed as percentage emission rate reduction from baseline)
Baseline 2014 MY 2017 MY
(gallons per Kton-mi) Standard Standard
Class 7 day cab
Low roof 11.4 10.5(7.9%) 10.2 (10.5%)
Mid roof 12.6 11.7 (7.1%) 11.3 (10.3%)
High roof 13.6 12.2 (10.3%) 11.8 (13.2%)
Class 8 day cab
Low roof 8.7 8.0 (8.0%) 7.8 (10.3%)
Mid roof 9.4 8.7 (7.4%) 8.4 (10.6%)
High roof 10.1 9.0 (10.9%) 8.7 ((13.9%)
Class 8 sleeper cab
Low roof 7.8 6.7 (14.1%) 6.5 (16.7%)
Mid roof 8.7 7.4 (14.9%) 7.2 (17.2%)
High roof 9.3 7.3 (21.5%) 7.1 (23.7%)
Source: Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick: “Improving Fuel Economy in Heavy- Duty Vehicles”
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For combination tractors, final standards seek to achieve from nine to 23 per cent reduction in
emissions and fuel consumption from affected tractors over the 2010 baselines. The standards will
phase in to the 2017 levels as shown in the table below:
Table 3.7: US CAFE MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards
EPA Emissions Standards
(g CO2/ton-mile)
NHTSA Fuel Consumption Standards
(gal/1,000 ton-mile)
Low Roof Mid Roof High Roof Low Roof Mid Roof High Roof
Day Cab Class 7 104 115 120 10.2 11.3 11.8
Day Cab Class 8 80 86 89 7.8 8.4 8.7
Sleeper Cab Class 8 66 73 72 6.5 7.2 7.1
Source: NHSTA
In case of vocational vehicles, final standards apply to manufacturers of chassis & engines, not
bodies. Consistent with the Engine classification, this segment has been divided into three regulatory
subcategories - Light Heavy (Class 2b through 5), Medium Heavy (Class 6 and 7), and Heavy Heavy
(Class 8). The standards as depicted in the Table below represent emission reductions from six to nine
per cent, from a 2010 baseline.
Table 3.8: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards
Vehicle ClassEPA Full Useful Life Emissions
Standards (g CO2/ton-mile)
NHTSA Fuel Consumption
Standards (gal/1,000 ton-mile)
Light Heavy Class 2b-5 373 36.7
Medium Heavy Class 6-7 225 22.1
Heavy Heavy Class 8 222 21.8
Source: NHSTA
In addition to the CO2 standards described above, EPA has adopted standards for N2O and CH4
emissions. EPA’s standards will act to cap emissions to ensure that manufacturers do not allow the
N2O and CH4 emissions of their future engines to increase significantly above the currently
controlled low levels. For spark-ignition and compression ignition engines, the standards limit N2O
and CH4 emissions to 0.10 g/hp-hr.
For Class 2b vehicles and Class 3 pickup trucks, the National Academy of Science (NAS) committee
recommended a chassis dynamometer fuel consumption test similar to that used in LDVs. In case of
MD/HD category, NAS committee observed that physical chassis dynamometer testing was
impractical, given the wide variations in intended function (and thus, technology content) betweenclasses and between vehicles within classes, and even between vehicles that are nominally the same
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model. Instead, the committee recommended combining engine or powertrain test data with vehicle
simulation models. In case of engine testing, engine dynamometer testing was recommended by the
NAS committee.
Program flexibilities:
The program has provisions to provide flexibilities to the manufacturers rendering them sufficient
lead-time to make necessary technological improvements and reduce the overall cost of the program.
Some of flexibility provisions under the program are:
1. An engine averaging, banking, and trading (ABT) program and a vehicle ABT program that
will allow for emission and fuel consumption credits to be averaged, banked, or traded within
each of the defined averaging sets. For example, in the subcategory of medium heavy-duty
engines for class 2b – 8 vocational vehicles, credits can be traded with other engines in the
subcategory, even across manufacturers, but they cannot be traded with other tractor, chassis,
or engine categories.
2. Engine manufacturers and heavy-duty pickup and van manufacturers can use CO2 credits to
offset CH4 or N2O emissions that exceed the applicable emission standards.
3. Credits for early adoption/demonstration of improvements before they become requirements,
and use of “advanced” or “innovative” technology such as hybrid powertrains, engines with
Rankine cycle waste heat recovery systems, and electric or fuel cell vehicles. In this category,
credits can be traded across subcategories.
4. Credits for alternative-fuelled vehicles according to the carbon content of their fuel relative to
diesel. Thus, a natural gas vehicle, with 30 per cent less CO2 emissions per gallon equivalent
than the identical vehicle fuelled by diesel, would be presumed to be 30 per cent more
efficient.
5. For manufacturers who exceeded the standards prior to the model year that they become
effective, an early credit option was conceptualised.
Estimated Benefits and Costs of proposed regulations:
The US HDV fuel efficiency program is expected to achieve fuel savings of 530 million barrels of oil
over the lifetime of the vehicles. The net benefits accrued from the program are estimated to be about
US$ 49 billion.
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Table 3.9: MY 2017 Combination Tractor Standards
Particulars Expected benefits
Percent Reductions (2018)
•Tractors: 10-23%
•Vocational Vehicles: 6-9%
•Pickup Trucks & Vans: 12-17%
Vehicle cost (2018)
•Tractors: US$6,220
•Vocational Vehicles: US$380
•Pickup Trucks & Vans: US$1,050
CO2eq Reduction270 MMT
(2014-2018 lifetime, Upstream + Downstream)
Source: US Department of Energy
3.2.2 Japan
Japan was the first country to introduce fuel efficiency targets for heavy-duty vehicles in April 2006.
Japanese vehicle fuel economy regulations are part of the “Law Concerning the Rational Use of
Energy” (Energy Conservation Law). Fuel efficiency targets for 2010 and 2015, were adopted
through a number of amendments to the Energy Conservation Law, as follows8:
1999 — Adoption of 2010 fuel efficiency targets for gasoline passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles (effective 2005 for diesel vehicles).
2003 — Fuel efficiency standards for LPG cars (2010 targets).
2006 — New fuel efficiency standards for heavy vehicles above 3.5 t (2015 targets).
2007 — Adoption of 2015 fuel efficiency targets for light vehicles, including revisions to
passenger car and light commercial vehicles standards, and new standards for small buses.
The regulations mandated the vehicle manufacturers to ensure that in each financial year the average
fuel economy of their vehicles in each weight category meets the standard. When the targets are fully
met, the fleet average fuel economy is estimated at:
Light trucks (3.5 t): 15.2 km/L, a 12.6 per cent increase over 2004 performance of 13.5 km/L. Small buses: 8.9 km/L, a 7.2 per cent increase over 2004 performance of 8.3 km/L
For trucks: 7.09 km/L (369.6 g CO2/km), a 12.2 per cent increase over 2002 performance of 6.32
km/L (414.6 g CO2/km)
For buses: 6.30 km/L (416.0 g CO2/km), a 12.1 per cent increase over 2002 performance of 5.62
km/L (466.3 g CO2/km)
The target of these regulations were diesel fuelled freight and passenger vehicles (riding capacity of
11 persons or more) having a gross vehicle weight of 3.5 tons or larger. Vehicles were categorised
8 Source: http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/jp/fe.php#hd - Japan fuel economy targets
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based on various factors such as vehicle structure, intended use, transmission type, GVW. For e.g.
Buses used for public transportation service on a fixed route other than expressway and those for
other use (ordinary bus) are quite different in terms of use and driving conditions. Therefore, they
were categorised into:
i. Route bus – a passenger vehicle having a riding capacity of 11 persons or more, used for
offering regular public transport service on a fixed route other than expressways.
ii. Ordinary bus - a passenger vehicle having a riding capacity of 11 persons or more, excluding
those in the category of “Route bus”, “small” and “light” passenger cars.
Japanese fuel economy targets are based on the top-runner approach and expressed in kilometres per
litre of fuel (km/L). The approach involved selecting a vehicle among all commercially available
heavy vehicles in each category in 2002 that has achieved the highest fuel efficiency as a basic. The
target standard values shall be determined based on it, after evaluating fuel efficiency improvement
due to technological development and effect of working around exhaust gas emission regulation on
fuel efficiency. Fuel efficiency targets for various categories of vehicles for 2015 are given below:
Table 3.10: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Mini Cargo Vehicles
Category Structure9 Transmission
Vehicle
Weight, kgFE Target, km/L
1
A
MT≤ 740 23.2
2 ≥ 741 20.3
3
AT
≤ 740 20.9
4 741-855 19.6
5 ≥ 856 20.5
6
B
MT
≤ 740 18.2
7 741-855 18
8 856-970 17.2
9 ≥ 971 16.4
10
AT
≤ 740 16.4
11 741-855 16
12 856-970 15.413 ≥ 971 14.7
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
9 Vehicle structure - The vehicle structures refer to cab-behind-engine (bonnet type) vans for Structure A, cab-
over-engine vans for Structure B1, and cab-over-engine trucks for Structure B2. Structure B refers to vehicles of
Structure B1 and B2 combined.
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Table 3.11: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Light Cargo Vehicles, GVW ≤ 1.7 t
Category Transmission Vehicle
Weight, kg
FE
Target, km/L
1 MT ≤ 1080 18.5
2 ≥ 1081 17.1
3 AT ≤ 1080 17.4
4 1081-1195 15.8
5 ≥ 1196 14.7
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
Table 3.12: 2015 Fuel Efficiency targets for diesel Medium Cargo Vehicles (1.7 t < GVW ≤ 3.5t)
Category Structure TransmissionVehicle
Weight, kgFE Target, km/L
28
A & B1
MT
≤ 1420 14.5
29 1421-1530 14.1
30 1531-1650 13.8
31 1651-1760 13.6
32 1761-1870 13.3
33 1871-1990 12.8
34 1991-2100 12.3
35 ≥ 2101 11.7
36
AT
≤ 1420 13.1
37 1421-1530 12.8
38 1531-1650 11.5
39 1651-1760 11.3
40 1761-1870 11
41 1871-1990 10.8
42 1991-2100 10.3
43 ≥ 2101 9.4
44
B2
MT
≤ 1420 14.3
45 1421-1530 12.9
46 1531-1650 12.6
47 1651-1760 12.4
48 1761-1870 12
49 1871-1990 11.3
50 1991-2100 11.2
51 ≥ 2101 11.1
52
AT
≤ 1420 12.5
53 1421-1530 11.8
54 1531-1650 10.9
55 1651-1760 10.6
56 1761-1870 9.7
57 1871-1990 9.5
58 1991-2100 9
59 ≥ 2101 8.8
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
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The 2015 fuel consumption testing is performed over the JC08 cycle, which fully replaces the 10-15
mode test by 2011. The higher average speed, quicker acceleration, and the cold start requirements of
the JC08 test increase the stringency of the new fuel economy targets by about 9 per cent.
Table 3.13: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Transit Buses
Category GVW, t FE Target, km/L
1 6 < GVW ≤ 8 6.97
2 8 < GVW ≤ 10 6.3
3 10 < GVW ≤ 12 5.77
4 12 < GVW ≤ 14 5.14
5 14 < GVW 4.23
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
Table 3.14: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty General (Non-Transit) Buses
Category GVW, tFE
Target, km/L
1 3.5 < GVW ≤ 6 9.04
2 6 < GVW ≤ 8 6.52
3 8 < GVW ≤ 10 6.37
4 10 < GVW ≤ 12 5.7
5 12 < GVW ≤ 14 5.21
6 14 < GVW ≤ 16 4.06
7 16 < GVW 3.57
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
Table 3.15: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Trucks (Excluding Tractors)
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
Category GVW, tMax Load
(L), t
FE
Target, km/L
1 3.5 < GVW ≤ 7.5 L ≤ 1.5 10.83
2 1.5 < L ≤ 2 10.35
3 2 < L ≤ 3 9.51
4 3 < L 8.125 7.5 < GVW ≤ 8 7.24
6 8 < GVW ≤ 10 6.52
7 10 < GVW ≤ 12 6
8 12 < GVW ≤ 14 5.69
9 14 < GVW ≤ 16 4.97
10 16 < GVW ≤ 20 4.15
11 20 < GVW 4.04
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Table 3.16: 2015 Fuel Efficiency Targets for Heavy-Duty Tractors
Category GVW, t FE Target, km/L
1 GVW ≤ 20 3.09
2 GVW > 20 2.01
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com
For heavy vehicles shipped in Japan in each of the target fiscal year and subsequent years,
manufacturers shall ensure that weighted and averaged energy consumption efficiency (fuel
efficiency) by their shipped units shall not be below the relevant standard target value for each of
vehicle categories.
For measuring fuel efficiency four methods were considered: Vehicle-based actual measurement,
Engine-based actual measurement, Stand-alone engine actual measurement with the assumed vehicle
body and Simulation method. Simulation method was found to be more advantageous than other
methods in terms of various factors such as testing facilities, labor and time resources, measuring
accuracy, and factor-by-factor analysis.
Figure 3.3: Overview of Simulation method
Source: Presentation by Atsuto KAJIWARA on “HDV fuel efficiency regulation background and implementation
to date” - 2011
To simulate on-road usage as accurately as possible, based on proportion of usage, a combination of
following two driving cycles was employed:
i. urban driving mode (JE05 mode)
ii.
interurban driving mode (80 km/h constant speed mode with longitudinal grade)
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Table 3.17: Driving Distance Proportion by Driving Mode
Passenger vehicles
(riding capacity : 11 persons or more)Freight vehicles
Vehicle type Ordinary bus Route bus Other than tractor Tractor
GVW14 tons or
less
Over 14
tons
20 tons
or less
Over 20
tons
20
tons
or less
Over
20
tons
Drive proportion
Upper: urban mode 0.9 0.65 1 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9
Lower: interurban mode 0.1 0.35 0 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1
Source: Final Report by Heavy Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Standard Evaluation Group, Heavy Vehicle Standards
Evaluation Subcommittee, Energy Efficiency Standards Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Natural
Resources and Energy
A combination of these two modes is referred to as “heavy vehicle mode”. Energy efficiency (fuel
efficiency) is a weighted harmonic average of measurements in both driving modes which can be
calculated as follows:
E10
= / (αu/Eu + αh/Eh
Where,
E : Heavy vehicle mode fuel efficiency (km/l)
Eu : Urban driving mode fuel efficiency (km/l)
Eh : Interurban driving mode fuel efficiency (km/l)
αu : Proportion of urban driving mode
αh : Proportion of interurban driving mode
This method converts a given drive mode (travel speed vs. time) into an engine operating mode
(engine revolution & torque vs. time) by inputting the specs (technical data) of a vehicle into a
conversion program. Fuel efficiency under the drive mode is then calculated using an actual-
measurement based fuel efficiency map (representing the relationship between the engine revolution-
torque combination and fuel efficiency for each engine).
Assuming that the proportion of the number of shipped units for each vehicle category remains
unchanged in the target fiscal year (FY2015) from FY2002, the improvement ratio of average fuel
efficiency (weight-averaged fuel efficiency by the number of shipped units) from the actual values in
FY2002 to the estimate values in FY2015 shall be calculated as shown below:
10 Source: Final Report by Heavy Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Standard Evaluation Group, Heavy Vehicle Standards
Evaluation Subcommittee, Energy Efficiency Standards Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Natural
Resources and Energy
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Table 3.18: Fuel efficiency improvements in Freight Vehicles
FY2002, actual values FY2015, estimate valuesImprovement ratio
of fuel efficiency
Other than tractor 6.56(km/l) 7.36(km/l) 12.20%Tractor 2.67(km/l) 2.93(km/l) 9.70%
Total 6.32(km/l) 7.09(km/l) 12.20%
Source: Final Report by Heavy Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Standard Evaluation Group, Heavy Vehicle Standards
Evaluation Subcommittee, Energy Efficiency Standards Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Natural
Resources and Energy
Table 3.19: Fuel efficiency improvements in Passenger vehicles (Riding capacity > 11 persons)
FY2002, actual values FY2015, estimate valuesImprovement ratio
of fuel efficiencyRoute Bus 4.51(km/l) 5.01(km/l) 11.1%
Ordinary Bus 6.19(km/l) 6.98(km/l) 12.8%
Total 5.62(km/l) 6.30(km/l) 12.1%
Source: Final Report by Heavy Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Standard Evaluation Group, Heavy Vehicle Standards
Evaluation Subcommittee, Energy Efficiency Standards Subcommittee of the Advisory Committee for Natural
Resources and Energy
Japan followed an integrated approach for reduction in CO2 emissions with focus on:
Vehicle performance
Usage
Infrastructure
This approach aimed at coordinating all the relevant measures to maximise CO2 reduction and
minimise social and economic cost. Fiscal incentives such as progressive taxes levied on the vehicle
weight and engine displacement were introduced to promote purchase of lighter vehicles. The
regulations also proposed a vehicle labelling system that allows customers to identify vehicles that
exceed standards. The norms had built in flexibilities wherein manufacturers can use credits
accumulated in one weight category to offset deficit in other weight category. Penalties for missing
the targets were also not significant.
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Table 3.20: Tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles
Incentives
Category Fuel EfficiencyEmissions
Performance
Automobile
Tax
Acquisition
Tax
Tonnage
Tax
Passenger Cars and Mini-
vehicles
Compliant + 25%
compared to fuel
efficiency standardsEmissions down
by 75% from
2005 standards
50%
reduction
75%
reduction
75%
reduction
Compliant + 15%
compared to fuel
efficiency standards
-50%
reduction
50%
reduction
Trucks and buses
(2.5t<GVW≤3.5t)
Compliant with 2015
fuel efficiencystandards
Compliant with
2009 emissionsstandard
-
75%
reduction
75%
reduction
Heavy-duty vehicles
(GVW>3.5t)
Compliant with 2015
fuel efficiency
standards
Compliant with
2009 emissions
standard
-75%
reduction
75%
reduction
Complaint with
2005 emissions
standard, with
Nox and/or PM
emissions down
by 10% fromthose standards
-50%
reduction
50%
reduction
Note: The above acquisition and tonnage tax incentives will be in effect for three years, as follows:
From April 1, 2009 through March 31, 2012 for the acquisition tax (imposed once only, at the time of
vehicle purchase)
From April 1, 2009 through April 30, 2012 for the tonnage tax(with reductions applicable only once,
upon first payment of the tax at the time of the very first mandatory inspection)
Source: 2011 Report on Environmental protection efforts by Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.
3.2.3 Canada
The Canada — United States Automotive Products Agreement, also known as the Auto Pact or APTA
signed in 1965 laid the foundation for integration of automobile market in United States and Canada.
The agreement established a conditional free trading zone by removing tariffs on both vehicles and
automotive parts. It was followed by 1988 Canada – US Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). As a result, today the US and Canadian automotive
markets are highly integrated. Auto trade represents 18 per cent of the total US – Canada trade.
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Table 3.21: Data for LDV and HDV (2011)
US Canada
13.1 million units sold 1.61 million units sold
1.87 million (15%) produced in Canada 608,000 (38%) produced in US
8.61 million units produced 2.13 million units produced
10% (777,000) exported to Canada 87% (1.78 million) exported to the US
Source: Mark A. Nantais, President, Canadian Vehicle Manufacturers’ Association – presentation on
“Vehicle Standards Harmonization & Future Canada – US cooperation” – 30th
April, 2012
Highly integrated automobile market makes it imperative for Canada to achieve vehicle regulatory
harmonisation along with alignment of technical regulations (safety and emissions) with US In April
2012, Government of Canada announced the proposed Heavy-duty Vehicle and Engine Greenhouse
Gas Emission Regulations, which were fully aligned with the GHG emission standards of US EPA.
The proposed regulations apply to companies manufacturing and importing new on-road heavy-duty
vehicles and engines for the purpose of sale in Canada. As per the norms, the companies will be
subjected to progressively more stringent standards during the 2014 to 2018 model year period. The
proposed regulations include separate engine and vehicle emission standards for combination tractors
and vocational vehicles.
The regulations are aimed at vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating of more than 3856 kg (8500
lb.), except those vehicles that are subject to the Passenger Automobile and Light Truck GreenhouseGas Emission Regulations. Similar to the US, the Canadian regulations have divided vehicles into
three different categories:
i. Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles (full-size pick-up trucks and vans)
ii. Vocational vehicles
iii. Tractors
Trailers and vehicles that are not designed for highway use, such as farm equipment, off-road
machinery, and heavy equipment were not covered under the proposed regulations.
Heavy-duty vehicles span several GVWR classes: tractors (often called combination tractors) are
contained mainly within classes 7 and 8, and vocational vehicles span from class 2B through class 8.
Vocational vehicles also comprise a range of vehicle types, including various types of buses. Please
refer to the figure below for the regulated category of vehicles:
Figure 3.4: Regulated category of vehicles in Canada
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For Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles, the proposed regulations would include emission
standards for CO2, N2O and CH4. For CO2 emissions, the standard would be a fleet average CO2
emission standard for all vehicles of a company’s fleet. CO2 emission standard is based on a “work
factor” which can be defined for each vehicle sub-configuration as:
Work Factor = 0.75 × (GVWR – curb weight + xwd) + 0.25 × (GCWR – GVWR)11
where
GVWR is the gross vehicle weight rating
xwd is 500 pounds if the vehicle has four-wheel drive or all-wheel drive and is 0 pounds for all other
vehicles
GCWR is the gross combined weight rating
In case of vehicles equipped with spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines, a company may
elect to use the CO2 emission target values based on one of the following formula’s, whichever is
applicable:
(a) for vehicles equipped with a spark-ignition engine: (0.0440 × WF) + 339
(b) for vehicles equipped with a compression-ignition engine and vehicles that operate without an
internal combustion engine: (0.0416 × WF) + 320
where WF = work factor as described above
11 Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
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Alternatively, a company may elect to use the CO2 emission target values set out in the one of the
following tables:
Table 3.22: For 2014 to 2017 model years
Model Year Engine Cycle Alternate CO2 EmissionTarget (grams per mile)
2014
Spark-ignition engine (0.0482 × WF) + 371
Compression-ignition engine (0.0478 × WF) + 368
2015
Spark-ignition engine (0.0479 × WF) + 369
Compression-ignition engine (0.0474 × WF) + 366
2016
Spark-ignition engine (0.0469 × WF) + 362
Compression-ignition engine (0.0460 × WF) + 354
2017
Spark-ignition engine (0.0460 × WF) + 354
Compression-ignition engine (0.0445 × WF) + 343
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
Table 3.23: For 2014 to 2018 model years
Model Year Engine CycleAlternate CO2 Emission
Target (grams per mile)
2014
Spark-ignition engine (0.0482 × WF) + 371
Compression-ignition engine (0.0478 × WF) + 368
2015
Spark-ignition engine (0.0479 × WF) + 369
Compression-ignition engine (0.0474 × WF) + 366
2016 to 2018
Spark-ignition engine (0.0456 × WF) + 352
Compression-ignition engine (0.0440 × WF) + 339
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
In case a company elects to use the CO2 emission target values set out in one of the tables above, the
applicable targets continue to apply for all the model years referred to in that table.
For vocational vehicles and tractors, the proposed regulations would include heavy-duty engine
standards for CO2, N2O and CH4, and separate vehicle standards for CO2.
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Table 3.24: CO2 Emission Standards for vocational vehicles
Class of Vocational
Vehicle
CO2 Emission Standard (grams
of CO2 per ton-mile) for the
2014 to 2016 Model Years
CO2 Emission
Standard (grams of CO2 per
ton-mile) for the 2017 and
Subsequent Model Years
Classes 2B, 3, 4 and 5 388 373
Classes 6 and 7 234 225
Class 8 226 222
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
Engine emission standards for vocational vehicles vary based on vehicle class and fuel type and are
measured in g/bhp-hr.
Table 3.25: Vocational vehicles CO2 Emission Standards for compression-ignition engine
(diesel)
Vocational compression-ignition engine (g/BHP-hr)
Model Year Light heavy-duty Medium heavy-duty Heavy heavy-duty
2014 to 2016 600 600 567
2017 and after 576 576 555
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
Combination tractors are further categorised by vehicle weight class, roof height and cab type.
Emissions are measured grams of CO2 per cargo ton-mile (g/ton-mile).
Table 3.26: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards
Class of Tractor Characteristics
CO2 Emission Standard
(grams of CO2 per ton-
mile) for the 2014 to 2016
Model Years
CO2 Emission Standard (grams of
CO2 per ton-mile) for the 2017and Subsequent Model Years
Class 7
Low-roof (all cab styles) 107 104
Mid-roof (all cab styles) 119 115
High-roof (all cab styles) 124 120
Class 8
Low-roof day cab 81 80
Low-roof sleeper cab 68 66
Mid-roof day cab 88 86
Mid-roof sleeper cab 76 73
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Class of Tractor Characteristics
CO2 Emission Standard
(grams of CO2 per ton-
mile) for the 2014 to 2016
Model Years
CO2 Emission Standard (grams of
CO2 per ton-mile) for the 2017
and Subsequent Model Years
High-roof day cab 92 89
High-roof sleeper cab 75 72
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
Table 3.27: Combination tractors CO2 Emission Standards for engines (in g/BHP-hr)
Model YearMedium heavy-duty
engines
Heavy heavy-duty
engines
2014 to 2016 502 475
2017 and after 487 460
Source: http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2012/2012-04-14/html/reg1-eng.html
As per the norms, Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles and heavy-duty incomplete vehicles of
the 2014 and subsequent model years - excluding “vocational vehicle” - must have N2O and CH4
emission values that do not exceed 0.05 g/mile for N2O and 0.05 g/mile for CH4 for the applicable
useful life of the vehicle. Also, every heavy-duty engine that is a compression-ignition engine of the
2014 and a spark-ignition engine of the 2016 and subsequent model years must have N2O and CH4
emission values that do not exceed an emission standard of 0.10 g/BHP-hr for N2O and 0.10 g/BHP-
hr for CH4 for the applicable useful life of the engine.
The norms have also set standards for refrigerant leakage. In case of a heavy-duty vehicle, which is
equipped with an air conditioning system that uses a refrigerant other than HFC134a, the adjusted per
cent leakage rate of that refrigerant, rounded to the nearest one-hundredth of a per cent, must not
exceed 1.5 per cent per year. This would apply to pickup trucks, vans and tractors for systems with
refrigerant capacity greater than or equal to 734 grams. For systems with a refrigerant capacity of less
than 734 grams, the standard would equal 11.0 grams per year.
Conformation to the standards for different category of vehicles would be measured as follows:
Class 2B and Class 3 heavy-duty vehicles : using prescribed test cycles on a chassis
dynamometer, similarly to existing procedures for light-duty vehicles
Engines: using prescribed test cycles on an engine dynamometer
Tractors and vocational vehicles: computer simulation model (GEM)
Compliance with the vehicle standards for tractors and vocational vehicles and tractors would be
assessed using a computer simulation model (Greenhouse gas Emissions Model). The simulationmodel testing is conducting by assigning a pre-determined payload and engine size to vehicles. As a
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result, Canadian manufacturers will not be disadvantaged compared to US manufacturers due to the
higher average payloads in Canada. EPA Certificates would also be accepted to demonstrate
compliance with the emissions standards.
CO2 emission credit system
The proposed regulations would include a system of emission credits to help meet overall
environmental objectives in a manner that provides the regulated industry with compliance flexibility.
The CO2 emission credit system:
i. Companies can generate, bank and trade emission credits
ii. Companies would be allowed to manufacture or import vehicles and engines with emission
levels worse or better than the standard, provided that their average fleet emission level does
not exceed the applicable emission standard
iii. Credits would be obtained by companies whose average fleet emission levels fall below the
applicable standard, while deficits would be incurred by companies whose fleet emissions
exceed the applicable standard
iv. Credits may be applied by a company to offset a past deficit for up to three model years prior
to the year in which the credits were earned, or may be banked to offset a future deficit for up
to five model years after the year in which the credits were obtained
v. Credits may also be transferred to another company
vi. Optional early credits for all 2013 model year vehicles and electric vehicles of 2011-2013
model years
vii. Credit multiplier of 1.5 for advanced technology vehicles and early credits
A company would not be allowed to obtain additional credits more than once for the same type of
GHG emission reduction technology. Other features of the regulations include:
Alternative phase-in requirements for pick-up trucks and vans and for engines
Low-volume exemption (imported or manufactured less than 100 vehicles)
Under the proposed regulations, manufacturers and importers would be responsible for ensuring that
their products comply with the proposed regulations and would be required to produce and maintain
evidence of such conformity. The policy sets out the range of possible responses to violations,
including warnings, directions, environmental protection compliance orders, ticketing, ministerial
orders, injunctions, prosecution, and environmental protection alternative measures.
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3.2.4 European Union (EU)
EU has set ambitious climate and energy targets for 2020. These targets, known as the "20-20-20"
targets, set three key objectives for 2020:
A 20 per cent reduction in EU greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels
Raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 20 per
cent
A 20 per cent improvement in the EU's energy efficiency
As a part of this program, in 2011, EU announced setting stringent emission performance standards
for new light commercial vehicles. The regulation applies to new motor vehicles of category N1, i.e.,
vehicles designed and constructed for the carriage of goods having a gross vehicle weight of less than
3,500 kg (7,716 lb) and a reference mass of less than 2,610 kg (5,754 lb). M2 and N2 vehicles were
included for monitoring purposes only. N1 vehicles in Europe account for approximately 10 per cent
of all light-duty vehicles. EU regulations introduce different emission limits for compression ignition
(diesel) and positive ignition (gasoline, NG, LPG, ethanol,...) vehicles. Diesel vehicles have more
stringent CO standards but are allowed higher NOx. This regulation sets the average CO2 emissions
for new light commercial vehicles at 175 g CO2 /km in 2017 and 147 g CO2 /km in 2020 as
compared to average emission level of approximately 185 g CO2/km in 2009. EU is currently
conducting extensive studies for development of emission standards for HDV.
Table 3.28: EU Emission Standards for Light Commercial Vehicles
Category† Stage DateCO HC HC+NOx NOx PM PN
g/km #/km
Compression Ignition (Diesel)
N1, Class I
≤1305 kg
Euro 1 1994.1 2.72 - 0.97 - 0.14 -
Euro 2 IDI 1998.01 1 - 0.7 - 0.08 -
Euro 2 DI 1998.01a 1 - 0.9 - 0.1 -
Euro 3 2000.01 0.64 - 0.56 0.5 0.05 -
Euro 4 2005.01 0.5 - 0.3 0.25 0.025 -
Euro 5a 2009.09b 0.5 - 0.23 0.18 0.005
e -
Euro 5b 2011.09d 0.5 - 0.23 0.18 0.005
e 6.0×10
11
Euro 6 2014.09 0.5 - 0.17 0.08 0.005e 6.0×10
11
N1, Class II
1305-1760
kg
Euro 1 1994.1 5.17 - 1.4 - 0.19 -
Euro 2 IDI 1998.01 1.25 - 1 - 0.12 -
Euro 2 DI 1998.01
a
1.25 - 1.3 - 0.14 -Euro 3 2001.01 0.8 - 0.72 0.65 0.07 -
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Category† Stage DateCO HC HC+NOx NOx PM PN
g/km #/km
Compression Ignition (Diesel)
Euro 4 2006.01 0.63 - 0.39 0.33 0.04 -
Euro 5a 2010.09c
0.63 - 0.295 0.235 0.005e
-
Euro 5b 2011.09d 0.63 - 0.295 0.235 0.005
e 6.0×10
11
Euro 6 2015.09 0.63 - 0.195 0.105 0.005e 6.0×10
11
N1, Class III
>1760 kg
Euro 1 1994.1 6.9 - 1.7 - 0.25 -
Euro 2 IDI 1998.01 1.5 - 1.2 - 0.17 -
Euro 2 DI 1998.01a 1.5 - 1.6 - 0.2 -
Euro 3 2001.01 0.95 - 0.86 0.78 0.1 -
Euro 4 2006.01 0.74 - 0.46 0.39 0.06 -
Euro 5a 2010.09c 0.74 - 0.35 0.28 0.005
e -
Euro 5b 2011.09d 0.74 - 0.35 0.28 0.005
e 6.0×10
11
Euro 6 2015.09 0.74 - 0.215 0.125 0.005e 6.0×10
11
N2
Euro 5a 2010.09c 0.74 - 0.35 0.28 0.005
e -
Euro 5b 2011.09d 0.74 - 0.35 0.28 0.005
e 6.0×10
11
Euro 6 2015.09 0.74 - 0.215 0.125 0.005e 6.0×10
11
† For Euro 1/2 the Category N1 reference mass classes were Class I ≤ 1250 kg, Class II 1250 -1700 kg, Class III> 1700 kga. until 1999.09.30 (after that date DI engines must meet the IDI limits)
b. 2011.01 for all modelsc. 2012.01 for all modelsd. 2013.01 for all modelse. 0.0045 g/km using the PMP measurement procedure
Source: http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/ld.php
As per the regulations, the indicative specific emissions of CO2 for each light commercial vehicle,
measured in grams per kilometre, will be determined in accordance with the following formulae12:
From 2014 to 2017:
Indicative specific emissions of CO 2 = 175 + a × (M – M 0)
where:
M = mass of the vehicle in kilograms (kg)
M0 = 1,706 kg
a = 0.093
12
REGULATION (EU) No 510/2011 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 11 May
2011
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From 2018, the value of M0 will be adjusted annually to reflect the average mass of new light
commercial vehicles in the previous three calendar years. The specific emissions target for a
manufacturer in a calendar year shall be calculated as the average of the indicative specific emissions
of CO 2 of each new light commercial vehicle registered in that calendar year of which it is the
manufacturer. For the calendar year commencing 1 January 2014 and each subsequent calendar year,
each manufacturer of light commercial vehicles shall ensure that its average specific emissions of CO
2 do not exceed its specific emissions target. As per the regulations, manufacturers must meet their
average emission targets in 70 per cent of their vehicle fleet in 2014, 75 per cent in 2015, 80 per cent
in 2016 and 100 per cent from 2017 onwards.
Other features of the regulation:
Super credits: Vehicles of CO2 emissions below 50 g/km will receive super-credits. Each
such new light commercial vehicle will be counted as:
3.5 light commercial vehicles in 2014
3.5 light commercial vehicles in 2015
2.5 light commercial vehicles in 2016
1.5 light commercial vehicles in 2017
1 light commercial vehicle from 2018
The regulation limited the maximum number of new light commercial vehicles, with specific
emissions of CO 2 of less than 50 g CO 2 /km to 25,000 per manufacturer for calculation of
super-credits.
Pooling: Several auto manufacturers may form a pool to jointly meet their CO2 emission
targets. The duration of agreement for a pool was limited to five calendar years. Commission
should be informed of any changes to the membership of the pool or the dissolution of the
pool.
Excess emission premium: ‘Excess emissions’ refers to positive number of grams per
kilometre by which a manufacturer's average specific emissions of CO2 , taking into account
CO2 emissions reductions due to approved innovative technologies, exceeded its specific
emissions target in the calendar year. In case a manufacturer’s average specific emission of
CO2 exceeds its specific emissions target, excess emission premium will be imposed on a
manufacturer or pool manager. The excess emissions premium will be calculated as:
(a) from 2014 until 2018:
(i) for excess emissions of more than 3 g CO 2 /km:
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((Excess emissions – 3 g CO 2 /km) × EUR 95 + EUR 45) × number of new light commercial
vehicles
(ii) for excess emissions of more than 2 g CO 2 /km but no more than 3 g CO 2 /km:
((Excess emissions – 2 g CO 2 /km) × EUR 25 + EUR 20) × number of new light commercial
vehicles
(iii) for excess emissions of more than 1 g CO 2 /km but no more than 2 g CO 2 /km:
((Excess emissions – 1 g CO 2 /km) × EUR 15 + EUR 5) × number of new light commercial
vehicles
(iv) for excess emissions of no more than 1 g CO 2 /km:
(Excess emissions × EUR 5) × number of new light commercial vehicles
(b) from 2019:
(Excess emissions × EUR 95) × number of new light commercial vehicles
3.3 Issues and challenges faced in Implementation of HDV regulations
Diverse configurations and applications of HDV makes it difficult to set their fuel efficiency
standards. In order to inform the development of the regulations and build consensus amongst a range
of stakeholders such as industry representatives (manufacturers, carriers and other vehicle owners and
operators), environmental non-governmental organizations, provinces and territories, as well as other
government departments, a number of stakeholder working group meetings were organised. With
interest of each stakeholder different from the other, governments around the world faced stiff
questions from various stakeholders, mostly industry concerning regulations.
3.3.1 United States:13
i. Baselines: Navistar raised its concern regarding inclusion of Selective Catalytic Reduction
(SCR) in the baseline technology, stating that SCR-equipped engines used to construct the
baseline do not meet the NOx standard and therefore do not comply with the 2007 Heavy-
Duty Highway Rule. Therefore, standards built on this baseline technology are infeasible.
EPA responded by stating that feasibility requirement implied that all designated technology
had to be available before the effective date of regulations. In addition, Navistar and other
manufacturers could resort to the alternative standards for an engine, which required a 3 per
cent improvement over the engine’s performance by the effective date. The agency also
pointed out that sufficient lead-time is available with the manufacturers for compliance.
13 Source : Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick: “Improving Fuel Economy in Heavy- Duty Vehicles”
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ii. Technologies in vocational vehicles: For class 2b – 7 vocational vehicles, the proposed
standards were associated with improvements in engine fuel intensity and anticipated
improvement in rolling resistance. Some stakeholders observed that fuel-saving technologies
potentially could apply to other vehicle components, including transmissions, advanced drive
trains, weight reduction and improved auxiliary systems and urged the agencies to set the
standards, which will force adoption of these technologies for new vehicles. The agencies
declined, because to do so would be tantamount to picking technological winners.
The agencies also received comments from vehicle and tire manufactures that development of
new tire designs and proving they were safe and effective on the wide range of vocational
vehicle types required at least six years. The agencies left the requirements unchanged in the
final regulations stating that sufficient range of products was available to lead to significant
reductions in rolling resistance.
iii. Categorisation: In the notice of proposed rulemaking, in order to prevent vocational vehicles
from being modified to serve as intercity combination trailers, the agencies classified all
vocational vehicles with sleeper cabs as “tractors”. This classification was removed based on
numerous objection raised by various stakeholders arguing that the agency had
underestimated the cost and difficulty of making vocational sleeper cabs suitable for intercity
use. The dissenters pointed out that the associated costs were at least as great as the savings
available from access to the less stringent regulation.
iv. Alternative-fuelled vehicles: Producers of alternative fuelled trucks stated that credits for
some alternative-fuelled vehicles, such as all-electrics or natural gas vehicles, should be much
larger as compared to their diesel counterparts since they use no petroleum. The agencies
stated that this issue will be revisited in the future.
3.3.2 Canada
i. GHG-reducing technologies: Environment Canada received comments that Canada can have
more stringent regulations than US by adopting additional technologies, such as automatictransmissions that were not considered under the US regulations. However, the agency
proposed the same suite of technologies as the US
Post finalisation of US regulations, the agency conducted a study of the Canadian fleet to
assess whether the proposed regulations take into consideration the range of applications of
heavy-duty vehicles and their alignment with the US norms.
ii. Low-volume importers: Some stakeholders raised concerns that in case of companies
importing small number of vehicles and engines, it is difficult to meet standards even with
inherent flexibilities of the program. Taking a note of this, Environment Canada is seeking
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comments on a proposal to provide CO2 exemption to companies importing or manufacturing
less than 100 vocational vehicles and tractors. For engines that have CO2 emission levels
greater than applicable emission standard, the agency is allowing companies to import them if
these engines are covered by a US EPA certificate and are concurrently sold in greater
number in the United States than in Canada.
iii. Low rolling resistance tires: A number of stakeholders expressed concerns with regards to
safety in usage of low rolling resistance tires, especially in winters, to comply with the
proposed standards. However, there was no data, which suggested that low rolling resistance
tires bear any additional safety risk than conventional tires. Transport Canada, is proactively
undertaking additional tests to measure the safety performance of low rolling resistance tires
and will, in consultation with Environment Canada, undertake safety activities, if required.
iv.
Applicable regulated entities: Since many importers were importing engines built by a
different company, some engine manufacturers and importers expressed the desire to have the
engine manufacturer be the responsible regulatee even in cases where the importer on record
is not the manufacturer. However, the proposed regulations apply to all importers of engines,
regardless of who manufactured the engine, or where it was manufactured.
v. Less stringent payload restrictions: Environment Canada received queries on whether the
fact that Canadian province have less stringent payload restrictions for tractor trailers
compared to the US interstate limit should be taken into account for development ofregulations. The agency responded that since the proposed standards do not constrain the size
and power of vehicles and compliance with the proposed standards will be assessed with a
simulation model that uses a fixed payload, Canadian manufacturers will not be
disadvantaged compared to US manufacturers due to potentially higher average payloads in
Canada.
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4 FRAMEWORK FOR DEFINING STANDARDS FOR DIESEL
(ENGINE DRIVEN) TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA
India currently has standards to reduce air pollutants from motor vehicles. However, there are no
standards to reduce fuel consumption of motor vehicles in India. Efforts are already underway for
development of fuel consumption standards for passenger vehicles in India. Though passenger
vehicles in India are smaller in size and consume less fuel than their western counterparts, the Indian
commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) often consume more fuel. Further, the commercial vehicles
consume around 31 million tonnes of diesel (equivalent to retail value of approximately Rs 180,000
crore) every year. Therefore, PCRA has embarked the process of development of similar fuel
consumption norms for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses.
In order to develop the framework for defining standards for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses,
it is imperative to understand the long term objective or vision for setting up these standards, the
various approaches which could be adopted to define these standards, the pros and cons of various
approaches, limitations or constraints in setting up the standards using these approaches and
implementation challenges.
4.1
Fuel consumption roadmap vision
More fuel efficient vehicles lead to fuel savings for the country in general. Mandatory fuel
consumption standards are meant to encourage manufacturers to prioritise the improvement of fuel
efficiency in vehicle development. Moreover, the provision of information on vehicle fuel economy to
prospective vehicle buyers should also be central to any strategy to encourage improvements in
average fuel economy of the country. In addition, fuel consumption standards programme should
motivate the manufacturers to improve fuel efficiency beyond the target values required as per fuel
economy standard and induce consumers to purchase fuel-efficient vehicles. Accordingly, the
objectives of fuel consumption standards for diesel (engine driven) trucks and buses are two-fold:-
1) Fuel savings or Economic benefits for the country by reducing fuel consumption
2) Facilitate the buyers in making fuel-efficient purchase of these commercial vehicles
As a first step, various stakeholders shall jointly agree upon a Fuel Consumption Roadmap vision. For
instance,
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“To reduce fuel consumption per kilometre by 12 per cent to 20 per cent in new diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses in India by 2020, and by 30 per cent to 50 per cent by 2025, in order to significantly
reduce GHG emissions and diesel consumption, compared with a baseline projection.”
In US, the proposed NHTSA standards represent an average per-vehicle improvement in fuel
consumption of 15 per cent for diesel vehicles (6 per cent to 24 per cent range) and 10 per cent for
gasoline vehicles, by 2017.
4.2
Approaches for defining fuel consumption standards
Fuel consumption standards are mainly set as fuel consumption targets based on the average of the
total fleet of vehicles sold (corporate average fuel economy). Fleet average fuel economy standards provide flexibility to manufacturers to achieve the target across the sales mix rather than with each
individual vehicle sold. The fuel consumption standards typically include
Approaches to the design of fuel consumption target values,
Stringency of the target,
Timing of introduction,
Compliance roadmap
Within this general approach based on the corporate average of the total fleet of vehicles sold, thereare two main categories of possible approaches to the way standards are defined:
1) Absolute target value across all vehicles and all manufacturers regardless of size, weight,
etc. of the vehicle fleet, represented as:
a single target for all manufacturers; or
a uniform percentage improvement for all manufacturers with separate target for each
manufacturer
2) Attribute-based target values across all vehicles for each manufacturer, where the target
varies depending on the average weight or size of the vehicles sold by a manufacturer. The
different ways to align the targets with vehicle attributes are:
Continuous function or curve : target values are estimated as a continuous function of
vehicle attributes i.e. corporate averaging across categories
Target value in each category : Vehicles are separated into discrete categories by vehicle
attribute and manufacturers must meet separate standards for their vehicles in that
category – i.e. no corporate averaging within each class of vehicles.
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Table 4.1: Pros and Cons of approaches to the way standards are defined
S No Approach Pros Cons
(1)
Absolute target - Absolute
across all vehicles and all
manufacturers regardless of
size, weight, etc. of the
vehicle fleet
Easier to develop andimplement
Perceived to discriminate betweenmanufacturers
a) Single Standard Approach
Focuses on improvement of
the average fuel efficiency of
each manufacturer’s fleets,
and thereby the total fleet,
regardless of a possible shift
in the sales-mix over time
Perceived to discriminate between
manufacturers - Manufacturers selling
larger or heavier (and typically less
fuel efficient) vehicles must make
greater changes to meet the standards
b)Uniform Percentage
Improvement Approach
Focuses on significantimprovement from all
manufacturers, regardless of
their starting point or relative
position in the market
Perceived to discriminate betweenmanufacturers - Unfair to
manufacturers that have already made
significant efforts to improve fuel
efficiency
(2)
Attribute-based target
Attribute-based target values
across all vehicles for each
manufacturer, where thetarget varies depending on
the average weight or size of
the vehicles sold by a
manufacturer
Provides greater fairness
among manufacturers,
because the targets are linked
to a particular vehicle
attribute regardless of theaverage weight or size of
their vehicles
Average fuel economy of new vehicles
can still increase if the vehicle sales
mix shifts towards bigger and/or
heavier vehicles (depending upon
slope of the target value curve).Implicitly encourages manufacturers to
increase the size or weight of vehicles
to take advantage of less stringent
targets.
a)Continuous function or curve
Approach
Provides more flexibility to
manufacturers, allowing them
to improve fuel efficiency
more cost-effectively
Inequalities may exist depending on
how the target value curve is set for
the continuous curve approach, or if
differences exist in applicable
technologies and marginal costs for
improving fuel efficiency along thetarget value curve.
b)Target value in each
category
Addresses inequalities
because of single target value
curve for all vehicle
categories
May be inefficient to reduce fuel
consumption in certain vehicle
categories where fuel economy-
improving technologies may be
costlier.
Target values need to be determined
based on detailed technology analysis
across vehicle categories, leading to
higher costs for governmentsdeveloping these standards.
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Both Japan and the United States have adopted Attribute-based target HDV standards based on
vehicle categories. For India, based on the pros and cons of approaches to the way fuel consumption
standards are defined, the attribute-based continuous curve approach (with separate standards for
trucks and buses) is the best option in the first phase of implementation of the standards. This
approach will provide enough flexibility for manufacturers without being unfair or cost ineffective to
any manufacturer, while ensuring that the target is achieved. Instead of targeting fuel consumption
reduction across all vehicle categories (i.e. across various GVW categories), the manufacturers can
focus on reducing fuel consumption based on a target value determined as the average of the attribute
(vehicle weight or footprint or others) of the vehicles that it sells, weighted by the sales of each model
using a continuous curve standard. Thereafter, in the second phase of fuel consumption standards,
attribute-based continuous curve approach can be implemented for various categories of vehicles.
4.2.1 Attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach
To develop fuel consumption standards based on Attribute-based continuous curve or category-based
attribute standards, an appropriate attribute for developing standards is required. Vehicle weight and
footprint14 are commonly used attributes for designing fuel consumption standards of passenger
vehicles (footprint used as an attribute in US while vehicle weight used as an attribute in EU and
Japan). Other vehicle attributes which could be used are engine power and interior volume, but they
are not widely used.
For trucks and buses, gross vehicle weight (GVW) and payload are more appropriate attribute than
vehicle weight for developing fuel consumption standards. However, fuel consumption norms based
on GVW as an attribute do not give manufacturers an incentive to reduce vehicle weight, because
reduction in vehicle weight will be offset by an increase in payload and thus would not change GVW.
In fact, payload can also be an appropriate attribute for developing fuel consumption standards as it is
more easily understood by consumers.
Possible attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach for fuel consumption standards for
diesel trucks and buses are:-
1) Vehicle Weight
2) GVW
3) Footprint
4) Payload
14 Footprint indicates vehicle size and is equal to wheelbase times track width.
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Table 4.2: Comparison of attributes for Attribute-based continuous curve approach
S No Attribute Pros ConsCountries
using
(1)
Light Duty Vehicles
(LDVs)
a) Vehicle Weight
Strong correlation between
vehicle weight and fuel
consumption
Implicitly encourages
manufacturers to increase
the weight of vehicles
US, EU,
Japan
b) Footprint
Can encourage
manufacturers to reduce
weight of vehicles
Implicitly encourages
manufacturers to increase
the size or footprint of
vehicles
Not directly proportional
to fuel consumption Difficult to set up target
values based on footprint
US
(2)Heavy Duty Vehicles
(HDVs)
a)
Gross Vehicle Weight
(GVW)
Strong correlation with
fuel consumption as GVWreflects
No incentive for
manufacturers to reduce
vehicle weight, because
reduction in vehicle
weight will be offset by
an increase in payload
and thus would not
change GVW
US, Japan,
China
b) Payload
Parameter reflects usage of
vehicle
More easily understood by
consumers
Can encourage
manufacturers to reduceweight of vehicles and
increase payload carrying
capacity
Implicitly encourages
manufacturers to increase
the size or footprint of
vehicles
Not directly proportional
to fuel consumption
Potential for unfairness to
manufacturers selling
vehicles with low
payloads
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4.2.2 Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach (with
categories)
Both Japan and the United States have adopted Attribute-based target HDV standards based on
vehicle categories. As there are large differences in applicable technologies for light, medium and
heavy commercial vehicles, categories can reasonably be assigned according to gross vehicle weight.
However, creating too many categories is not a good option because the number of vehicle types in
each category would be too small to develop appropriate target values. Further, the administrative
costs for developing target values would also increase for a larger number of categories.
The recommended categories for developing preliminary fuel consumption standards for diesel
(engine driven) trucks and buses are:-
Table 4.3: Categories for Attribute-based continuous curve approach
Vehicle Categories Category Name Category details
Trucks
Category - I Light Duty Vehicles GVW ≤ 7.5t
Category – II Medium Duty Vehicles 7.5t < GVW ≤ 16t
Category – III Heavy Duty Vehicles GVW > 16t
Buses
Category - I Light Duty Vehicles GVW ≤ 7.5t
Category – II Medium & Heavy Duty
VehiclesGVW > 7.5t
4.2.3
Testing procedures and Test cycles for measuring fuel consumption
Commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) are typically classified by attributes Gross Vehicle Weight
(GVW) and footprint. Introducing Attribute-based target fuel consumption standards for trucks and
buses is a complex task because fuel consumption of trucks and buses depends on many factors apart
from the sheer vehicle weight or footprint, such as average transported payload, road gradients, drag
and rolling resistance from vehicle, engine characteristics, gear ratios and type of transmission, and
auxiliary power demand. Further, fuel savings and the impacts of technologies on fuel consumption
are highly dependent on whether these vehicles are mainly used for urban driving (such as delivery
trucks or intra-city buses) or long-haul (mainly highway) shipments or inter-city buses. Urban and
regional delivery and transportation services are dominated by small and medium freight trucks and
buses, typically up to a gross vehicle weight of 16t; long-haul trucking and inter-city transportation
are mostly carried out with large trucks and buses up to a gross vehicle weight of 40t. Urban and
regional delivery is characterised by lower average speeds, frequent acceleration and deceleration, and
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frequent stops. Long-haul services are mostly carried out at high and fairly constant speeds, so
improving aerodynamics and reducing rolling resistance are key measures.
In order to define reasonable and meaningful fuel consumption standards, all these factors need to be
taken into account for each segment of vehicles. Therefore, standard driving test cycles are required to
test the vehicles for fuel consumption and pollutant emissions incorporating many, if not all, of these
factors for various categories of vehicles.
The basic input for comparison of fuel economy and development of fuel consumption standards is
fuel economy data of various models of vehicles. In order to compare fuel economy of different
vehicles in a consistent and unbiased manner, a systematic approach must be used. The fuel economy
and pollution emissions15 estimates are usually measured in a “homologation” laboratory under
predefined test conditions for a range of standardised driving cycles or test cycles to simulate typicaldriving conditions. There are numerous possible configurations of trucks and buses; homologating
each vehicle configuration is not realistic. Further, the layout of a vehicle in the testing laboratory
requires substantial investment. Therefore, several other methods are used to test vehicles for fuel
efficiency and pollutant emissions. In order to measure fuel economy, typically four different
approaches are considered:
(1) Vehicle testing using chassis dynamometer in a homologation laboratory
(2)
Engine testing using engine or bench dynamometer in a homologation laboratory -
Given the size and weight of trucks and buses, often only the engine is tested on a bench
dynamometer to measure fuel economy and pollutant emissions.
(3) Computer Simulation - Computer simulation of the whole truck (typically in combination
with engine testing on a bench dynamometer) is a favoured option by industry. The
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model (GEM) simulation tool developed in the US adopts this
strategy, complementing the vehicle modelling tool with engine dynamometer tests.
(4) On-road testing of vehicles
15
Such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), particulate matters (PM) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx)
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4.3 Key Technology areas for improvement in fuel consumption
For establishing the fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses, a detailed consultation process
with vehicle and engine manufacturers in India is required to be undertaken to evaluate various engine
and other automotive technologies, which are commercially available or will be available in the next
5-10 years. These technologies have to be evaluated on the parameters such as impacts on fuel
economy, ease of integration into the MD/HD truck manufacturing process and associated costs.
Some important considerations while evaluating these technologies are the road conditions and
emission standards in India, which might limit the impact of technologies due to practical reasons.
International Energy Agency (IEA) has classified some of the technological measures to improve fuel
efficiency into:
Engine: including auxiliary aggregates such as cooling, power steering and the braking
system;
Drive-train: transmission, including any hybridisation system;
Vehicle: chassis, bodywork (including fairings and other aerodynamic devices), trailer and
tyres;
ITS/ICT: intelligent transport systems and information/communication technologies to help
drivers optimise in-use fuel economy.
Driving pattern of commercial vehicles employed for inter-city use is characterised by lower average
speeds, frequent acceleration and deceleration, and frequent stops. Optimisation of fuel efficiency in
such cases can be achieved by improving engine and drive-train efficiency and introducing
technologies such as “idle-off” and hybridisation. Long-haul services are mostly carried out at high
and fairly constant speeds, so improving aerodynamics and reducing rolling resistance are key
measures.
Table 4.5: Truck fuel economy improvement technology matrix
Category Technology Fuel improvementpotential
Technologycost range
(USD)
Marketready
Engine Variable valve actuation 1% to 2% 300 to 600
Engine Sequential turbo/downsizing Up to 5% NA
Engine Speed control (injection) Up to 5% NA
Engine Oil and water pump with variable speed 1% to 4% NA
Engine Controllable air compressor 3.50% ~200
EngineSmart alternator, battery sensor electricaccessory drive
2% to 10% NA
Engine Start/stop automatic 5% to 10% 600 to 900
Engine Dual fuel systems 10% to 20% ~33 000
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Category TechnologyFuel improvement
potential
Technology
cost range
(USD)
Market
ready
Engine Pneumatic booster: air hybrid Up to 4% 800 to 1 000
Engine Turbocompound (mechanical/electric) 4%/7% ~3 000/8 000
EngineBottoming cycles/waste heat recovery(e.g. organic Rankine)
1.5% to 10% 15 000 to 16 000
DriveTrain
Eco roll freewheel function 1% NA
DriveTrain
Automated manual transmission 4% to 6% 4 500 to 6 000
DriveTrain
Full hybrid15% to 30% urban
4% to 10% long haul30 000 to 33 000
DriveTrain
Flywheel hybrid15% to 22% urban
5% to 15% long haul~4 500
DriveTrain Hydraulic hybrid
12% to 25% urbanAvg 12% long haul ~13 000
Vehicle Low rolling resistance tyres 5% 300 to 500
Vehicle Aerodynamic fairings 0.5% to 5% 1 500 to 1 700
Vehicle Aerodynamic trailer/boat tail 12% to 15% 4 500 to 5 000
Vehicle Single wide tyres 5% to 10% ~1 700
Vehicle Light-weight materials 2% to 5% ~2 000 to 5 000
Vehicle Active aerodynamics Up to 5% ~1 600
ITS/ICT Predictive cruise control 2% to 5% ~1 900
ITS/ICT Driver support system 5% to 10% NA
ITS/ICT Acceleration control Up to 6% NA
ITS/ICT Vehicle platooning Up to 20% NA
Notes: Text in italics indicates short-haul, medium freight trucks; shaded text indicates long-haul, heavy-duty
trucks; remaining pertains to all truck types.
NA = not applicable.
Sources: IEA, 2010a; Hill et al., 2011; Cooper et al., 2009; Duleep, 2011; Law, K. et al., 2011; NRC, 2010a.
Most of the technologies listed above are already commercially available or will be available within
the next five to ten years. The above table indicates there is sufficient scope for improvement in fuel
efficiency of trucks and buses by utilisation of commercially available technologies.
In US, M&HCV norms (for MY 2014-2018) are based only on improvement in engines and rolling
resistance of tyres. Even by considering only two attributes, the US is targeting improvement of
around 12 per cent - 17 per cent in pickup trucks and vans, 6 per cent - 9 per cent in vocational
vehicles and 10 per cent - 23 per cent in tractors. The US is working on next set of norms wherein
targets will be based on improvement in the whole vehicle, which will be significantly stringent than
the present norms. As per ICCT estimates, approximately 20 - 30% fuel consumption reduction is
possible using off-the-shelf technologies and technologies that will be available in the 2015-2020
timeframe.
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Table 4.6: Key Technology Areas for improvement in fuel consumption using off-the-shelf
technologies and technologies that will be available in the 2015-2020 timeframe
ParticularsLight HD
Truck
Medium HD
Truck
Heavy Combination
Tractor
Large Transit
Bus
Engine 2-5% 4-10% 8-12% 4-7%
Transmissionand driveline
3-7% 4-8% 2-5% 2-5%
Aerodynamics < 2% 2-5% 8-12% < 2%
Tires 2-5% 2-5% 8-12% 2-5%
Light weighting 1-2% 1-2% 1-3% 1-5%
Hybridization 15-20% 15-25% 5-7% 20-25%
Note: For each vehicle type, the overall FC benefits that can be achieved are highly dependent on the assumed
baseline levels, drive cycles, payload, etc.
Source: ICCT- Anup Bandivadekar presentation on “Heavy-Duty Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Regulatory
Developments around the World”- 3rd July, 2012
4.4 Developing Fuel consumption standards for India
One of the pre-requisites for development of fuel consumption standards is collection of baseline data
for various models of buses and trucks under pre-defined test conditions. As discussed in the earlier
section, for establishing the baseline for fuel consumption standards, fuel consumption or fuel
economy data under standardised test conditions is required for each model of buses and trucks for all
manufacturers for the baseline year. The fuel consumption baseline data is required as per the selected
unit in which standards will be defined. For instance, units for vehicle standards can be Litre per
kilometre, Litre per tonne-kilometre, Litre per 100-km, etc. and for engine standards, Litre per kWh,
Litre per kilometre, Litre per 100-km, etc. Further, fuel economy standards can also be developed
instead of fuel consumption standards with units as inverse of fuel consumption units (like km per
litre, tonne-km per litre, etc.).
One of the biggest challenges for developing fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses is non-
availability of any reported fuel economy data of trucks and buses, either by manufacturers orgovernment bodies like ARAI (except engine testing data). For the purpose of illustrating the
framework for developing the fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses, we have relied on on-
road data collected from our interactions with a few stakeholders (including fleet operators) and
secondary research of information available in public domain. However, this data is inconsistent in
terms of various parameters like payload under which fuel efficiency is measured (full-load / half-
load), average driving route conditions, etc. and is only illustrative for the purpose of illustrating the
framework for developing the fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses.
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Since the baseline data has to be collected under pre-defined test conditions, the data we have used to
indicate the baseline has to be further refined by elaborate testing of different categories of trucks and
buses as defined in the earlier section. Our illustrations for vehicle and engine fuel consumption
standards in this section are limited by the availability of fuel efficiency data for trucks and buses in
India. For our illustrations, we have defined fuel consumption in Litre per 100-km for vehicle
standards and fuel efficiency as km/l for engine standards.
4.4.1 Vehicle standards
Fuel consumption for various models of trucks and buses are plotted in the charts below based on the
on-road data collected for each of them. In case of trucks, we have plotted fuel consumption in
L/(100-KM) against GVW and payload of the corresponding vehicle. Trucks are designed to carry
freight and therefore, establishing standards based on payload for trucks is an appropriate attribute-
based fuel consumption metric. The green line at the top of data points in the charts above indicates
hypothetical standards for the baseline year. All data points below the green line indicate compliance
by each of the commercial vehicle manufacturer (for all models) in the baseline year.
Figure 4.1: Baseline fuel consumption data for trucks (for illustrative purpose only)16
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
16 Note: Data shown in the charts in this section is for illustration purpose only since it is based on the on-road
data for various models of buses and trucks. For defining of standards, the baseline data in above format has to
be collected for a particular model year of all categories of buses and trucks under defined test conditions.
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Figure 4.2: Baseline fuel consumption data for buses (for illustrative purpose only)
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Establishing fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses is significantly challenging because of a
wide range of tasks they are designed to perform. The proposed standards have to be structured suchthat the size and power of heavy-duty vehicles is not constrained. The targeted fuel economy
improvement for various categories of trucks and buses is indicated in the table below:
Table 4.7: Targeted fuel economy improvement in 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only)
Vehicle
CategoriesCategory Name Category details
% improvement in
fuel economy till
2020
% improvement in
fuel economy till
2025
Trucks
Category – I Light Duty Vehicles GVW ≤ 7.5t 12%-14% 30% - 35%
Category – II Medium Duty Vehicles 7.5t < GVW ≤ 16t 14% - 16% 35% -40%
Category – III Heavy Duty Vehicles GVW > 16t 18% - 20% 45% -50%
Buses
Category – I
Light Duty Vehicles GVW ≤ 7.5t 12%-14% 30% - 35%
Category – II Medium & Heavy Duty
VehiclesGVW > 7.5t 16%-20% 40% - 50%
We have indicated two set of targets, one for the year 2020 and other for 2025. The targets for 2020
are relatively less stringent since they are mainly based on improvements in engine technology. The
targets increase in stringency after 2020 since additional suite of technologies would be considered for
achieving the target standards for 2025. These targets are also in line with the ICCT estimates
regarding fuel consumption reduction using off-the-shelf technologies and technologies that will be
available in the 2015-2020 timeframe as discussed in previous section.
The fuel economy target for each manufacturer is determined from the sales-weighted average of the
attribute, e.g., fuel consumption target based on sales-weighted average GVW for the manufacturer.
0
10
20
30
40
0 5 10 15 20
L / ( 1 0 0 - k m
)
GVW
L/(100-km) vs. GVW
= 1.6406x + 3.312
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The slope of this curve is the key factor in determining whether an incentive exists to sell heavier
vehicles. A relatively flat curve means that heavier vehicles are not given much leeway with their
targets. In general, a heavier vehicle has more scope for improvement in fuel consumption. The slope
should typically be set for creating an incentive to reduce vehicle weight. The slope of the
hypothetical standard line in 2020 and 2025 needs to be flatter for adequate stringency for all classes
of manufacturers.
Figure 4.3: Fuel consumption targets for trucks 2020, 2025 (for illustrative purpose only)
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
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Figure 4.6: Engine efficiency targets 2020 (for illustrative purpose only)
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Taking cognisance of the HDV policies across the globe, we have considered that improvements in
engine technology will account for major share of fuel economy improvements until 2020.
As indicated in the graphs above, the hypothetical standard line for engine efficiency for 2020 is:
Hypothetical standard line for 2020
LCVs: Fuel economy (km/l) = 23.916 x exp (-0.01 x Engine Power kW)
M&HCVs: Fuel economy (km/l) = 8.2016 x exp (-0.003 x Engine Power kW)
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4.5 Estimation increase in fuel consumption by 2020, 202517
4.5.1
Case I : Current fuel economy scenario18
Fuel economy of buses and trucks has almost remained stagnant over the last five years. Change in
emission regime from BS III to BS IV in some of the cities of the country has made the job of
balancing the emissions and fuel economy tough for the bus and truck manufacturers. For estimating
the diesel consumption in the country up to 2025 under Current fuel economy scenario, we have
considered no improvement in the fuel economy of buses and trucks as compared to baseline data.
Trucks, under Current fuel economy scenario
The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new trucks sold from 2015-
16 onwards (i.e. during the proposed period for fuel consumption regulatory regime, in case fuel
consumption standards are not implemented). As the number of new trucks on road (sold in or after
2015-16) increases, their share in diesel consumption will increase from 5.09 million tonne in 2015-
16 to 72.76 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 287 billion in 2015-16 to Rs 4,110 billion in 2024-25, in
value terms).
Table 4.8: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New trucks” purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario)
Year Truck salesFuel consumed /truck purchased
in the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed bytrucks purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
Total fuel consumed
(trucks purchased fromFY16 onwards)
(in mn
tonne)
(in Rs
billion)
2015-16 1,156,771 5,284 5.09 5.09 287
2016-17 1,276,046 5,248 5.57 10.66 602
2017-18 1,395,322 5,219 6.06 16.72 944
2018-19 1,514,597 5,194 6.55 23.26 1,314
2019-20 1,633,873 5,173 7.03 30.29 1,711
2020-21 1,753,148 5,155 7.52 37.81 2,136
2021-22 1,872,423 5,139 8.01 45.82 2,588
2022-23 1,991,699 5,125 8.49 54.31 3,068
2023-24 2,110,974 5,112 8.98 63.29 3,575
2024-25 2,230,250 5,101 9.47 72.76 4,110
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
17 We have not assessed business as usual approach for estimation of fuel savings as we could not get any inputs
on expected fuel improvement over the next five to ten years from the vehicle or engine manufacturers.
18
For estimation of diesel consumption in value terms, we have assumed the price of diesel as Rs 47 per litre
until 2025 (approximately equivalent to current diesel retail price in Delhi)
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Buses, under Current fuel economy scenario
The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new buses sold from 2015-
16 onwards (i.e. during the proposed period for fuel consumption regulatory regime, in case fuel
consumption standards are not implemented). As the number of new buses on road (sold in or after
2015-16) increase, their share in diesel consumption will increase from 0.74 million tonne in 2015-16
to 9.36 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 42 billion in 2015-16 to Rs 529 billion in 2024-25, in value
terms).
Table 4.9: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New buses” purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Current fuel efficiency scenario)
Year Bus sales
Fuel consumed /
bus purchasedin the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
buses purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
Total fuel consumed
(buses purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
tonne)
(in Rs
billion)
2015-16 132,071 6,752 0.74 0.74 42
2016-17 140,596 6,711 0.78 1.53 86
2017-18 149,120 6,674 0.83 2.35 133
2018-19 157,644 6,642 0.87 3.23 182
2019-20 166,169 6,613 0.91 4.14 234
2020-21 174,693 6,586 0.96 5.10 288
2021-22 183,218 6,562 1.00 6.10 344
2022-23 191,742 6,541 1.04 7.14 403
2023-24 200,267 6,521 1.09 8.23 465
2024-25 208,791 6,502 1.13 9.36 529
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
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Table 4.11: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New trucks” purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime)
Year Truck sales
Average
Fuel
Efficiency(km/l)
Fuel consumed /
truck purchased
in the year p.a.(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
trucks purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
Total fuel consumed
(trucks purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
tonne)
(in Rs
billion)
2015-16 1,156,771 6.4 5,150 4.96 4.96 280
2016-17 1,276,046 6.4 5,073 5.39 10.34 584
2017-18 1,395,322 6.7 4,881 5.67 16.01 904
2018-19 1,514,597 6.9 4,706 5.93 21.94 1,239
2019-20 1,633,873 7.4 4,411 6.00 27.94 1,578
2020-21 1,753,148 7.6 4,254 6.20 34.14 1,929
2021-22 1,872,423 7.7 4,196 6.54 40.68 2,298
2022-23 1,991,699 8.1 4,015 6.65 47.33 2,674
2023-24 2,110,974 8.4 3,849 6.76 54.09 3,055
2024-25 2,230,250 9.1 3,563 6.61 60.70 3,429
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
Buses, under Fuel consumption standards regime
The table below provides estimates for the annual diesel consumption by new buses sold from 2015-
16 onwards (i.e. during the proposed fuel consumption regulatory regime). As the number of new
buses on road (from the fuel consumption norms regime) increase, their share in diesel consumption
will increase from 0.73 million tonne in 2015-16 to 8.04 million tonne in 2024-25 (Rs 41 billion in
2015-16 to Rs 454 billion in 2024-25, in value terms). Therefore, implementation of proposed norms
is expected to limit the consumption of diesel by buses in 2024-25 to around 8.04 million tonne as
compared to 9.36 million tonne in absence of any norms.
Table 4.12: Estimated annual diesel consumption by “New buses” purchased from 2015-16
onwards during 2015-16 and 2024-25 (under Fuel consumption standards regime)
Year Bus sales
Average
Fuel
Efficiency
(km/l)
Fuel consumed /
bus purchased
in the year p.a.
(in litres)
Total fuel
consumed by
buses purchased
in the year p.a.
(in mn tonne)
Total fuel consumed
(buses purchased from
FY16 onwards)
(in mn
tonne)
(in Rs
billion)
2015-16 132,071 5.5 6,604 0.73 0.73 41
2016-17 140,596 5.6 6,517 0.76 1.49 84
2017-18 149,120 5.8 6,301 0.78 2.27 128
2018-19 157,644 6.0 6,100 0.80 3.07 173
2019-20 166,169 6.3 5,762 0.80 3.87 218
2020-21 174,693 6.5 5,579 0.81 4.68 264
2021-22 183,218 6.6 5,508 0.84 5.52 312
2022-23 191,742 6.9 5,296 0.84 6.36 359
2023-24 200,267 7.1 5,099 0.85 7.21 407
2024-25 208,791 7.6 4,760 0.83 8.04 454Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
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regime achieve a sizeable share in overall vehicle parc). The quantum of fuel savings will increase
from 0.14 million tonne in 2015-16 to 13.37 million tonne in 2024-25.
Table 4.13: Estimated Fuel savings20
from the proposed program
Fuel savings from trucks Fuel savings from buses Total Fuel savings
YearDiesel savings
(in mn tonne)
Value at
constant price
(in Rs billion)
Diesel savings
(in mn tonne)
Value at
constant
price
(in Rs billion)
Diesel
savings (in
mn tonne)
Value at
constant
price
(in Rs billion)
2015-16 0.13 7.3 0.02 0.9 0.14 8.2
2016-17 0.31 17.8 0.04 2.2 0.35 20.0
2017-18 0.71 39.9 0.09 4.8 0.79 44.7
2018-19 1.32 74.7 0.16 8.8 1.48 83.5
2019-20 2.36 133.2 0.27 15.5 2.63 148.7
2020-21 3.67 207.5 0.42 23.7 4.09 231.2
2021-22 5.14 290.5 0.58 32.8 5.72 323.3
2022-23 6.98 394.4 0.78 44.0 7.76 438.4
2023-24 9.20 519.8 1.02 57.4 10.22 577.2
2024-25 12.05 681.0 1.32 74.5 13.37 755.5
Total 41.88 2,366.0 4.69 264.7 46.57 2,630.7
Source: PCRA, IMaCS Analysis
India imports more than 80 per cent of its crude oil to meet the domestic demand, therefore, fuel
savings from the proposed program can have substantial positive impact on the economy of the
country over medium to long term. With transport sector being the major driver of oil demand, even a
small change in fuel consumption pattern in the sector can save substantial savings in terms of oil
consumption. The proposed program will also result in significant reduction in emissions as well.
With other countries around the globe formulating norms for HDVs and global automotive
marketplace becoming highly integrated, such programs are the need of the hour for a country like
India which is making significant efforts to establish the country as a major auto manufacturing hub in
the world.
20 For estimation of diesel consumption in value terms, we have assumed the price of diesel as Rs 47 per litre
until 2025 (approximately equivalent to current diesel retail price in Delhi)
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4.6 Implementation roadmap - Draft time schedule for implementation of the
program
I Planning Phase 1 Year
a) Preliminary study to develop a framework for fuel consumption standards
b)
Finalise strategy for testing of fuel efficiency of trucks and buses under standard
test conditions (chassis dynamometer or engine dynamometer or computer
simulation or a combination of these three methods)
c) Development of test cycles for testing of trucks and buses
d)Setup of testing infrastructure for testing of trucks and buses to collect fuel
efficiency data under standard test cycles
e) Design fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses - both engine standardsand vehicle standards
f) Decide schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards
g)Develop methodology for measurement of fuel efficiency of trucks and buses
(post implementation)
h) Define fuel economy information and labelling mechanism
i) Define policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards
II Consultation Phase 6 months
j)Consult with various stakeholders on policies framed and schedule of
implementation of fuel consumption standards
k) Based on consultations, finalise:-
• Fuel consumption standards for trucks and buses - both engine standards and
vehicle standards
• Schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards
• Fuel economy information and labelling mechanism
• Policy measures for implementing the fuel consumption standards
III Implementation Phase 6 months
Decide fuel economy certification process and compliance monitoring
mechanisms
Vehicle testing and monitoring as per strategies developed for implementation
Targeted enforcement of fuel consumption standards:- 2015-16
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As discussed, lack of availability of standardised data is the biggest challenge for development of fuel
consumption norms in India. Fuel economy details of various vehicle models of trucks and buses are
neither disclosed by the manufacturers nor collected by testing agencies like Automotive Research
Association of India (ARAI). Implementation of vehicle and engine standards would require
collection of baseline data of all existing models of Diesel (Engine driven) trucks & buses as well as
diesel engines under pre-defined testing conditions. Therefore, the focus in the initial phase i.e. the
Planning phase should be on developing the fuel consumption framework and testing strategy for
testing of diesel (engine) driven trucks and buses. This phase will involve defining test cycles and
standard test conditions under which fuel economy data would be recorded. This phase will also
involve defining policy measures for implementing fuel consumption standards. ARAI, being the
premier automotive technology institution in India, will have to play a pivotal role in design,
implementation and enforcement of these standards.
In the Consultation phase, focus shall be on bringing various stakeholders including OEMs, testing
agencies, government bodies and other related institutions on board to hold discussions on policies
and schedule of implementation of fuel consumption standards and build consensus across various
stakeholders. This phase would involve detailed discussions on fuel consumption standards and
practical considerations in implementation of these standards. The discussions would also involve
review of policy measures, which would accelerate the process of acceptance of fuel consumption
standards. Tax incentives such as reduction in excise duty (currently at 12% for trucks and buses) for
models compliant with finalised fuel consumption standards will promote the use of fuel-efficient
vehicles in future. Japan had taken a similar approach wherein they offered incentives such as
reduction in Acquisition tax and Tonnage tax for vehicles, which were compliant with the 2015 fuel
efficiency standards (refer Table 3.20: Tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehiclesfor
details on tax incentives on fuel-efficient and low-emissions vehicles provided under HDV
regulations in Japan). Based on the feedback and concerns of various stakeholders, fuel consumption
standards and policy measures for their implementation shall be finalised.
The Implementation phase will involve vehicle testing as per defined standards and establishing a
monitoring framework for the program. Considering the existing number of diesel (engine driven)
trucks and buses, significant ramp of testing facilities in India is required for collection of baseline
data and monitoring the program in the Implementation phase. ARAI can be the key nodal agency for
coordinating with various testing facilities and other agencies to facilitate the collection of data and
enforcement of standards in India.
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5 OVERVIEW OF TESTING FACILITIES IN INDIA
5.1 Introduction
During the last decade, India has emerged as an important auto-manufacturing destination for the
global vehicle manufacturers. In the light of demand for global safety, emission and performance
norms, development of world-class Testing, Certification and Homologation facilities was critical for
creating a globally competitive automotive ecosystem in India. Automotive Research Association of
India (ARAI) was the premier government institute providing expertise in the areas of design &
development and know-how for manufacturing & testing of vehicles. However, rapidly growing
automotive industry, along with development of major auto-hubs across India had created a major gap
in testing and R&D infrastructure, which could not be filled by existing government automotive
testing facilities. Since testing and validation infrastructure is critical to the product development,
OEMs started investing heavily in establishing their own testing facilities. Taking cognizance of the
fact and with the aim of addressing one of the most critical handicaps in the overall growth of
automotive industry in India, Department of Heavy Industry came with a program christened National
Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP). NATRiP is the most significant
initiative taken by the Department of Heavy Industry for establishing much-needed world-class
automotive testing, validation, R&D and homologation facilities in India. In addition, several other
engine manufacturers, component manufacturers and institutions have facilities for engine testing
including:
1. Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP), Dehradun
2. Indian Oil Corporation (IOC)
3. Bosch Technical Center India, Bangalore
4. Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
5.2 Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI)
ARAI was set-up in 1966 as a co-operative industrial research association established by the
automotive industry with the Ministry of Industries, Government of India. ARAI is the leading
institute in India providing technical expertise in R&D, testing, homologation and framing of
vehicular regulations. Located in Pune (Maharashtra), ARAI has state-of-the-art technology,
equipment, laboratory facilities and highly qualified and experienced personnel. ARAI is amongst the
few institutes in India, which has capabilities of conducting Engine dynamometer, computer
simulation as well as chassis dynamometer testing of heavy-duty vehicles.
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5.3 National Automotive Testing and R&D Infrastructure Project (NATRiP)
NATRiP is one of the most ambitious programs in automotive sector on setting up of world-class
automotive testing and R&D infrastructure in India. The program aims to provide globally
competitive automotive ecosystem in India by deepening manufacturing, encouraging localized R&D, boosting exports, converging India’s unparalleled strengths in IT and electronics with automotive
engineering sectors. NATRIP aims at facilitating introduction of world-class automotive safety,
emission and performance standards in India and also to ensure seamless integration of Indian
automotive industry with the global industry. NATRiP envisages an investment of Rs 1718 crore
(about USD 380 million) in independent automotive testing centres within the three automotive hubs
in the country, at Manesar in Northern India, Chennai in Southern India and Pune & Ahmednagar in
Western India.
Table 5.2: List of NATRiP testing centersS. No. Center Location
1 International Center for Automotive Technology (iCAT) Manesar
2 National Automotive Test Tracks Indore
3 Global Automotive Research Center Chennai
4 National Institute for Automotive Inspection, Maintenance & Training (NIAIMT) Silchar
5 National Center for Vehicle Research and Safety (NCVRS) Rae Bareli
6 Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI) Pune
7 Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE) AhmednagarSource: http://www.natrip.in
NATRiP has planned up-gradation of ARAI and VRDE facilities with and investment of Rs 270 crore
and Rs 46.50 crore respectively. Powertrain Vehicular Test Lab, Passive Safety Lab, Fatigue test lab,
Client Workshop and General store and Maintenance workshop are some of the facilities planned at
ARAI under NATRiP. Up-gradation of facilities at VRDE includes setting up a state-of-the-art
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) lab and multi-friction braking test track (ABS testing). Details
of facilities at other centers are given in the tables below.
Table 5.3: Details of testing facilities at iCAT, Manesar
Lab FacilitiesSchedule
Readiness
Powertrain
Vehicular test lab
Testing of vehicles, Engines and powertrains for their performance with
respect to power, efficiency and emissions etc.
Mileage accumulation, different types of engine/chassis dynamometers,
controlling and measuring equipment and instrumentation
Dec-13
Active & Passive
Safety
Testing of vehicles for Active Safety requirements like brakes, speed
governors, lighting etc
Testing for Passive Safety requirements such as seats, seat belts, air bags,
crash, pedestrian safety, etc.
Jun-13
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Lab FacilitiesSchedule
Readiness
Steering Pad
Water (Flood) Track
Test Hill Track
Completed
Completed
June-13
Source: http://www.natrip.in
Global Automotive Research Center, Chennai is proposed to have certification facilities to conduct
the performance testing of full range of vehicles. It will also house a centre for excellence for Passive
safety, EMC AND Automotive infotronics.
Table 5.4: Proposed testing facilities at Global Automotive Research Center, Chennai
Lab FacilitiesSchedule
readiness
Powertrain Lab
Mileage accumulation chassis dynamometer Commissioned
Vehicle emission test cell
Engine emission test cell
Climatic vehicle test cell
Instrumentation
Shed and other supporting facilities
Dec-13
Advance safety
passive Lab
Crash core facility
Frontal impact testing
Offset impact testing
Side, rear and pole impact testing
Static, dynamics and corkscrew rollover testing Car to car impact testing
Sled testing
Dec-13
Pedestrian and occupant safety Lab& airbag testing Mar-13
Infotronics Lab Netintercomm Validation test bench
Generic tools for calibration, measurement and diagnostics of ECU’s
and measurement from external sensors
Fleet validation test bench
Rapid prototyping
Single ECU test bench
Dec-13
CAE/CADSoftware Lab
Aiding the engineering tasks
Create, modify, analyse or optimise a design
EMC Lab Vehicle Semi Anechoic chamber for performing EMC test on Vehicle
from 2 wheelers upto HCV
Jul-13
Components
Laboratory
Photometry Lab – Testing and certification of lighting, light-signalling
devices for motor vehicles and reflex-reflectors for automotive vehicles
Bulb testing lab – Testing, calibration and certification of bulbs
Certification – safety related components and tilt test platform
Shipment will
arrive at
GARC in Jan-
2013
Fatigue Lab Electrodynamics vibration shaker with climatic chamber Commissioned
MAST (Multi Axel Shaker Table) with climatic chamber and UTB
(Universal Test Bench’s) Jun-13
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Lab FacilitiesSchedule
readiness
Testing Tracks Oval Track
Test Hill Track
Breaking Surface Track
Steering Pad
External Noise Track
Dec -13
March -13
May -13
Feb-13
Jan-13
Source: http://www.natrip.in
National Automotive Test Tracks (NATRAX), Indore is envisaged to be a proving ground set-up on
4,140 acres for comprehensive testing and evaluation of all type of vehicles. The facility will have all
types of surface type to test vehicles against varying terrains and stringency.
Table 5.5: Proposed testing facilities at National Automotive Test Tracks, Indore
Lab FacilitiesSchedule
readiness
Powertrain Lab
Vehicle test cell – chassis dynamometer testing
Emission Analyser -
Installation
and
commissioning
on-going at the
site
Vehicle Dynamics
Lab
Kinematic and compliance test rig – for testing of small cars and LCV May-2013
Damper test rig and steering test rig April-2013
Elastomer test rig – characterisation test for suspension bushes and
engine mount
April-2013
Steering test rig – for performance testing, static strength test and
endurance test on both manual and power steeringApril-2013
Testing Tracks
High speed track
Dynamic platform
Straight braking track
Hill Track
Fatigue track
Gravel and off-road
Dry handling circuit
Comfort track
Handling track – 2 & 3 Wheelers
Sustainability track
Wet skid pad
Aqua Planning in curve
Noise track
General Road
Dec -14
Jun-13
Jun-13
Jun-13
Dec-13
Dec-13
Dec-13
Jun-13
Mar-14
Mar-14
Mar-14
Mar-14
Jun-13
Mar-14
Source: http://www.natrip.in
At National Institute for Automotive Inspection, Maintenance & Training (NIAIMT), NATRiP has set
up a Hill Driving Training Institute, Mechanics Institute and Inspection & Maintenance Center (I&M)
at two campuses of Dholcura and Jaffirbund.
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Table 5.6: Proposed facilities at NIAIMT, Silchar
Lab Facilities Schedule readiness
Mechanical training
institute
Diesel engine lab
Gasoline engine lab
Diagnostic and repair lab
Auto electronics and systems lab
Dec-12
Inspection and
Maintenance station
Inspection of fitness certification of Light and Heavy duty
vehicles
Dec-12
Source: http://www.natrip.in
National Center for Vehicle Research and Safety (NCVRS), Rae Bareli is being planned to house a
full-fledged homologation and performance test facility for agricultural tractors and off-road vehicles,
develop capability for specialised vehicles driver training and the National Accident Data Analysis
Center.
Table 5.7: Proposed testing facilities at National Center for Vehicle research and Safety, Rae
Bareli
Lab FacilitiesSchedule
readiness
Powertrain Lab Homologation and basic R&D of tractors and off-road vehicles Land
acquisition for
setting up of
facilities in
process
Noise Vibration
Harshness
Homologation (tractors)
Fatigue and
Certification Lab
Homologation and basic R&D of tractors and off-road vehicles
Accidental Data
Analysis Centre
(ADAC)
Designed for regional research programs and creation of Regional Data
Accident compiling networkCommissioned
in Feb-11
Test Tracks Oval Test Track
Braking Surface Track
Fatigue Track and Wet Immersion
Test Hill Track
External Noise Track
Dry and Wet Field
Off-Road Circuit
Multipurpose Training Circuit for Tractors
Expected to be
ready after 24
months of
possession of
land
Source: http://www.natrip.in
5.4
Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE)
Established in 1980, under the aegis of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO),
VRDE was the first automotive testing facility in India. The institution is capable of undertaking
innovative development of vehicles incorporating latest technologies. The National Centre for
Automotive Testing (NCAT), a separate division of VRDE, provides one stop solution to all vehicles
testing and evaluation requirements of Defence Services as well as automotive industry. National
Centre for Automotive Testing (NCAT), consists of test tracks, emission, photometry, EMI / EMC
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and safety laboratories with support infrastructure to provide a one stop solution to the testing
requirements of Indian Automotive Industry & Defence Services. NCAT is an approved agency for
testing and evaluation of vehicles and their sub systems / components for certification for compliance
to various national and international standards and regulations.
Table 5.8: List of testing facilities at VRDE
Testing Lab Facilities
Engine Testing Facility
Facilities available for testing of engines and study of all parameters under
various test conditions and endurance
Hydraulic Dynamometers for testing up to 1000 hp
Eddy Current Dynamometers up to 1000 hp
Thrust cradles for measurement of thrust up to 200 kg
Instrumentation
The NCAT maintains well-equipped Instrumentation laboratory for the
measurement of on-road performance parameters of the vehicles as per the
legislative requirements and custom specified tests. The major testinstrumentation facilities are.
Non-contact optical speed & distance measurement systems EEP-2,
EEP-3, Micro EEP-10 and DAS 1A
Pass by noise measurement system Ex. M/s Bruel & Kjaer,
Denmark
Gyro platform for pitch, roll and yaw measurement
Measurement of steering wheel Ex. M/s Datron Messtechnik,
Germany
Steering torque / angle measurement system
Dynamic simulation software – ADAMS
Correlation software ‘n code’ Ride quality meter
Fuel flow meters (positive displacement type)
High speed multi-channel data acquisition systems
Draw bar pull measuring Equipment
8 – Channel thermal array recorder
Electro-dynamic vibration shaker
Emission Laboratory
Measurement of mass emission (HC, CO & Nox) of SI and CI
vehicles and heavy-duty CI engines
Measurement of particulates from diesel engine vehicles
Smoke level measurement of diesel engines.
Power & SFC measurements
Testing & certification of gas analyzers and smoke meters
Idling emission measurements
Evaporative emission determination from gasoline vehicles
Photometry Laboratory
Assessing photometric, Colorimetric and Visibility parameters like
luminous flux, reflectance / transmittance, haze, retro-reflection,
colour, luminance, illuminance, optical distortion, etc.
Evaluation of all types of automotive lamps, signalling devices and
reflex reflectors for certification as well as research and
development purposes
EMI/ EMC Laboratory
OATS measuring 60 meters diameter complying to ANSI C63.4
EMI receiver from frequency 5 Hz to 40 GHz for peak / quasi peak /
average measurements
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Test Track Details
Sand track
Wading Troughs
Gradient (7o, 10 o, 15 o, 25 o & 30 o)
Cross Country track
Step Climbing facility
Ditch crossing facility
Source: http://drdo.gov.in/drdo/labs/VRDE/English/index.jsp?pg=facility.jsp
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ANNEXURE I: ILLUSTRATIVE SPECIFICATIONS OF DIESEL
ENGINES FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES IN INDIA
Diesel Engine Classification
Engine
Size
Power
RatingApplications Features
Small
less than 188kilowatts,
or 252horsepower
Automobiles and light trucks
Agricultural and constructionapplications
Small stationary electrical-powergenerators
Mechanical drives
Most commonly produced dieselengine type
Typically direct-injection, in-line, four- or six-cylinderengines
Medium
188 to 750kilowatts,or 252 to
1,006horsepower
Heavy-duty trucks
Direct-injection, in-line, six-cylinder turbocharged and
aftercooled engines
Largegreater than
750 kilowatts
Marine
Locomotive and mechanicaldrive applications
Electrical-power generation
Direct-injection, turbochargedand aftercooled systems
Illustrative specifications of Cummins diesel engines for trucks and buses in India
EngineEngine
Model
No. of
CylinderDisplacement
Bore x
Stroke
Rated
Power
(HP)
Peak Torque
(Nm / RPM)
Emission
Norms
B5.9 MechanicalBS III
B5.9 130 6
5.9 Litre
102 x120
130 @2500
490 @ 1500 BS-III
B5.9 155 6102 x120
155 @2500
605 @ 1500 BS-III
B5.9 180 6102 x
120
180 @
2500
675 @ 1500 BS-III
B5.9 215 6102 x120
215 @2500
800 @ 1500 BS-III
ISBe
ISBe 140 4
4.5 Litre
102 x120
140 @2500
550 @ 1700 Euro ¾
ISBe 140 4102 x120
140 @2500
550 @ 1100 Euro 5
ISBe 150 4102 x120
150 @2300
580@ 1400 Euro 6
ISBe 160 4102 x120
160 @2500
600 @ 1700 Euro 3/4
ISBe 160 4102 x120
160 @2500
600 @ 1100 Euro 5
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EngineEngine
Model
No. of
CylinderDisplacement
Bore x
Stroke
Rated
Power
(HP)
Peak Torque
(Nm / RPM)
Emission
Norms
ISBe 180 4102 x
120
180 @
2500700 @ 1700 Euro 3/4
ISBe 180 4102 x120
180 @2300
700 @ 1400 Euro 6
ISBe 185 4102 x120
185 @2500
700 @ 1200 Euro 5
ISBe 205 4102 x120
205 @2500
760 @ 1400 Euro 5
ISBe 210 4102 x120
210 @2300
760 @ 1400 Euro 6
ISBe 160 6
6.7 Litre
107 x127
160 @2500
800 @ 1200-1700
Euro 4
ISBe 210 6107 x127
210 @2500
800 @ 1200-1700
Euro 4
ISBe 225 6107 x127
225 @2300
850 @ 1200-1700
Euro 5/6
ISBe 230 6107 x127
230 @2500
900 @ 1200-1700
Euro 3
ISBe 245 6107 x127
245 @2500
925 @ 1200-1700
Euro 4/5
ISBe 250 6107 x127
250 @2300
950 @ 1200-1700
Euro 5/6
ISBe 270 6107 x127
270 @2500
970 @ 1200-1700
Euro 3
ISBe 285 6107 x127
285 @2500
970 @ 1200-1700
Euro 3/4
ISBe 285 6107 x127
285 @2300
1020 @1200-1700
Euro 5/6
ISBe 310 6107 x127
310 @2300
1100 @1200-1700
Euro 5/6
ISLe
ISLe 280 6
8.9 Litre
114 x144.5
280 @2100
1055 @ 1100 Euro 5/4
ISLe 290 6114 x144.5
290 @2100
1055 @1200-1600
Euro 3
ISLe 310 6115 x144.5
310 @2100
1200 @1200-1600
Euro 3
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EngineEngine
Model
No. of
CylinderDisplacement
Bore x
Stroke
Rated
Power
(HP)
Peak Torque
(Nm / RPM)
Emission
Norms
ISLe 320 6116 x144.5
320 @2100 1350 @ 1100 Euro 5/4
ISLe 340 6117 x144.5
340 @2100
1445 @1200-1400
Euro 3/4/5
ISLe 360 6118 x144.5
360 @2100
1550 @ 1400 Euro 3/4/5
ISLe 375 6114 x144.5
375 @2100
1550 @ 1400 Euro 3
ISLe 380 6114 x144.5
380 @2300 1700 @ 1300 Euro 4/5
ISLe 400 6114 x144.5
400 @2300
1700 @ 1300 Euro 5
ISMe
ISMe345
6
11.0 Litre
125 x147
345 @1900
1700 @ 1200 Euro 3/4/5
ISMe380
6125 x147
380 @1900
1825 @ 1200 Euro 3/4/5
ISMe420 6
125 x147
420 @1900 2000 @ 1200 Euro 3/4/5
ISMe440
6125 x147
440 @1900
2080 @ 1200 Euro 3/4/5
ISF 107 4
2.8 Litre
94 x100
107 @3200
280 @ 1600 Euro 4/5
ISF 129 494 x100
129 @3200
310 @ 1600 Euro 3/4/5
ISF 148 494 x100
148 @3200
360 @ 1800 Euro 3/4/5
94 x 161 @