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7/24/2019 Didactica Especifica II Children
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TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN
Variation at primary level
English Language Teaching and attitudes to authority to teaching and to
learning vary from culture to culture. There are characteristics which young
learners share: Young learners are beginning their schooling, so that
teachers can mould their expectations.
s a group they are more di!erentiated than secondary or adult learners
They are "een and enthusiastic without inhibitions.
Their learning is lin"ed with their development of ideas and concepts.
They need physical movement.
#easons for teaching English at primary level:
The need to expose children to an understanding of foreign cultures so that
they grow up tolerant and sympathetic to others.
The need to lin" communication to the understanding of new concepts.
The need for maximum learning time for important languages
The advantage of starting with early second language instruction so that
later the language can be used as a medium of teaching.
Second language learning at a young age
$hildren have more opportunities to learn and they are learning all the time
without having the worries and responsibilities of adults. Explanations for
better learning:
The brain is more adaptable before puberty and they are not aware that
they are learning.
$hildren have fewer negative attitudes to foreign languages and cultures
and they are better motivated.
$hildren%s language learning is more integrated with real communication.
$hildren devote more time to language learning.
The earlier they start, the more they understand.
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Teachers need the language& basic competence is essential. 'pportunities for
foreign language access vary from country to country. Teachers need
competence in primary teaching methodology. (e need to emphasi)e the
role of story, dance, and roleplay and puppet activity. They need to centre
much of their teaching on topical rather than formal organi)ation.
HAT IS GOOD !RI"AR# !RACTICE$
*t is clear that greater "nowledge and understanding of theories of child
development a learning, they ways in which children learn a foreign language
and studies of the "inds of classroom conditions which promote foreign
language learning will contribute to our understanding of good educational
practice in the teaching of English to young learners.
Ho% do c&ildren t&in' and learn$
The most well+"nown aspect of iaget-s theory holds that all children passthrough stages before they construct the ability to perceive reason and
understand in mature rational terms.
The three stages: sensori+motor birth to /0 months1, concrete operational
/0 months to // years1 and formal operation period // years onwards1 are
established by means of cognitive tas"s. The concrete operational period is
sub+divided into the pre+operational where concrete operation are being
prepared for the operational where they are established and consolidated.
iaget-s wor" was critici)ed. $hildren do not pass through stages of
development in which they are unable to learn or be taught how to reason
-logically-. #ather it was the unfamiliarity of the tas"s that led to failure.
iaget was interested in the structure of mature thin"ing while 2runer
describe the di!erent processes that are implicated in problem+ solving. 3or
iaget children do not need a teacher1
iaget and 4ygots"y di!ered in their views on the nature of language and its
e!ect on intellectual development. iaget argued that language exerts noformative e!ects on the structure of thin"ing mental actions and operations
are derived from action, not tal" 4ygots"y argued that in the beginning
speech serves a communicative function& and transforms the way in which
children thin", learn and understand. *t becomes an instrument or tool of
thought. The means by which planning and self+regulation to achieve goals
ta"es place. Thus speech comes to form what 4ygots"y referred to as the
higher mental processes. These processes are formed in social interaction.
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2oth 2runer and 4ygots"y place more emphasis than iaget on the role of
language, communication and instruction in the development of "nowledge
and understanding. 4ygots"y placed instruction at the heart of human
development, de5ning intelligence itself as the capacity to learn through
instruction. central tenet of his theory is the )one of proximal development
671, de5ned as -the distance between the actual developmental level as
determined by independent problem+solving and the level of potentialdevelopment as determined through problem+solving under adult guidance o
in collaboration with more capable peers.
This emphasi)es the social nature of "nowledge ac8uisition. *n this way, the
child internali)es the processes re8uired for wor"ing out a particular tas".
2runer introduced the concept of L99 Language c8uisition 9upport
9ystem1 e proposed that for language development there needs to be a
child component. The interactional partner provided structure or framewor"
which 2runer referred to as -sca!olding-
(eature) o* primary practice+ ,-./01-.203
/+Teacher autonomy:
;+ child+centred curriculum and methodology.
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B+#eading literature for enCoyment.
E!ective teaching occurs where a whole class listens and engages "in a
8uestion and answer session, in small groups teaching in which a high degree
of interaction is possible and in one to one setting where a child may receive
individual help and support.
Ellis suggests eight features of classroom discourse important in secondlanguage development:
The teacher%s use of language: 8uantity of inta"e concrete to abstract1, an
input rich in directives total physical response, children follow instructions in
a game1, and input rich in extending utterances teachers provide a model fo
children by expanding their utterances1. Types of activities: a need to
communicate purposeful communication1, here and now principle refers to
the need to move from the concrete to the abstract in order to support
children-s understanding of the propositional content of a message.1. The
learner-s use of language: independent control of the idea, the performance
of speech acts, and uninhibited practice. *n the third group, Ellis suggests tha
9L7 is more successful if children are free in the foreign language learning
context to initiate interaction and respond to others- use of language. To
ensure that children have the opportunity to use a range of language
teachers must include a variety of tas" types based on games, collaborative
problem+solving, or information gap activities.
ow can children be helped to learn a foreign languageD child-s
concentration span increases as they grow older. $hildren cannot concentrate
on one thing for a long period and lessons should be divided into a series of
activities lasting no longer than 5ve or ten minutes. The ability to "eep on
tas" and to ignore distractions is a symptom of the child-s intellect. 4ygots"y
argued that mature mental activity involves adaptive -self+regulation- which
develops through social interaction, helping children to discover how to pay
attention, concentrate and learn e!ectively.
(ood argues that activities or interactions are more li"ely to enable a child to
memori)e items since they are more meaningful to the child tas"s with
concrete support1
I) t&ere a 4e)t %ay to teac& primary E(L$
Two models of classroom practice which has a great inuence on the
development of a pedagogy for young learners: the classical E3L practice
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model is characteri)ed by a presentation and practice model focusing on
8uestions of language and communication, the teacher controls the input,
tas"s are design to generate discourse in speci5c items, the wor" of the
classroom is orientated towards communication practice1 and the
mainstream primary practice model more appropriate to the educational
need of children which focuses on 8uestions of curriculum content and
cognitive development, syllabus orientated to topic, the teacher creates alearning environment which facilitates language ac8uisition and
communication, the teacher provides contextual support , learners explore
topic through a se8uence of problem+solving1.
Implication) *or t&e training o* primary ELT teac&er)+
9pecialist s"ills of primary teachers:
$hoose an appropriate topic.
lan these activities in se8uence.
naly)e the language demands of these activities in terms of discourse,
s"ills, functions, structures, lexis, and pronunciation
naly)e the language needs of the pupils using the same "inds of
category
@atch these demands and needs to identify language problems.
@odify activities which may be linguistically exacting -sca!olding-1
7evelop an understanding of language processes in tal", listening,
reading and writing.
develop a wide of activity types for s"ills wor" and match these to
speci5c text types, recogni)e narrative, description or instructions1
*n terms of curriculum content and learning at primary level, teachers should
"now about: the role of di!erent determinants of curriculum design such as
curricular content, cognitive development, learning s"ills, language
development. The range of learning activities which might be described as
conventional in the young learners% classroom the relation of ELT to the rest
of the curriculum and to local education philosophy.
*s 2ritish primary practice exportableD 'ne of the most important factors to
consider in exporting aspects of primary pedagogy to other countries is the
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The communicative approach has techni8ues such as information+gap
exercises, using meaningful language. *n a content+based approach, the
purpose is learning other things, exploring the world, 5nding out information,
recording it or participating in activities for sheer enCoyment& stories, songs,
drama. "ey is attitude and motivation. $hildren learn better if they have a
positive attitude. *nterest becomes a crucial factor in deciding on classroom
practices.
The main tool is content. ctivity approach: children decide to explore
something or to do something a proCect, an activity1 to stimulate and
motivate the children. *t could be imaginative. The children need to use
language in order to carry out the activity. ccuracy is achieved through a
desire to do something well rattler than because the teacher demands it. nd
5nally, through doing activities, the children-s language and s"ills develop.
(hen designing activities, there are seven criteria: *nterest: exciting,interesting and motivating to these children1 $hallenge provide a suitable
challenge, not too diGcult, but not simple.1 urpose focus on the tas"1
Language use: need to use language to complete the activity1 Language
input oral or written1. $onceptual appropriateness develop their thin"ing1
promotion of learning combine interest activities1
Lessons planning two stages+ 3irst decide on a theme which will motivate and
interest the children. 2rainstorm- and write down ideas for activities. 9econd,
planning the series of tas"s to be done at the end of the unit.
#O6NG CHILDREN LEARNING LANG6AGES
paradox in the development of young children is their ability to establish
their 5rst language when they are unable to understand anything about the
system which they come to use with such competence. Learning language is
not easy. Hrashen argued that the early years of childhood provide a critical
period for learning languages. $hildren learn a second language in much the
same way as they learn their 5rst language. 9ocial and cognitivedevelopment depend upon children being drawn into interaction with others
and both are set on course in the very early days as parents tal" to children
while attending to their needs. The parent-s voice, facial expression and
gestures call out responses from the baby and provo"e responses from the
adult. #esearch shows how the spontaneous playing with sound is developed
around the third and fourth months, and begins to die away around the sixth
and seventh, when babies concentrate on the production of a smaller sounds
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rticulation control1. *nteraction ta"es place through gesture and facial
expression and through deliberate action. Young children communicate by
reaching and pointing. arents also use facial expressions, gesture, action,
tone of voice to support the meaning of what they say. @eaning becomes
attached to form 5rst -words- the same happens with the second language1.
s children begin to crawl or shuIe and then to wal", more information
becomes available through sight, hearing and touch. 2etween /; and /0month, children establish their 5rst words and respond. 3rom two years they
begin to put words together.
T&e )e7uence o* development o* t&e 8r)t language
articular features of the 5rst language appeared. 'ne+word utterances
communicated di!erent meanings through intonation and gesture. Then
telegraphic appeared these are "ey words, the ones which carry meaning1.
Two classes in two words utterances open and pivotal. @orphemes aregrammatical elements from which words are constructed. 2rown examined
morphemes and showed that although the development varied between
children, the route through which they developed was common to all.
$hildren use certain structures before others that are common features in the
development of a 5rst language. The development of the use of language is a
result of innate cognitive and linguistic abilities
C&ildren9) e:perience) o* t&e u)e o* language
Tal" is based on something in the environment that ta"es children-s attention
arents- tal" refers to obCects present and to distinctive action, they use
higher pitch of voice, slower and clear articulated speech, grammatical
modi5cation or simpli5cation and fre8uent repetition. This behavior helps the
child to understand. -@otherese operates as intuitive language lessons and
urges them towards communicative competence. $hanges in a child-s
competence in using language were accompanied by changes in the adult-s
tal", so that as children matured the adults adCusted their own language.
Learning to communicate t&roug& tal'ing
arents negotiate meaning to understand their children. *t is through the
construction of conversations between a child and parent, where try to
communicate particular meaning. rocess of incorporation helped to extend
children-s "nowledge of the language. *t is through established routines of
carrying on conversations about here and now events that helped children to
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recogni)e how tal" relates. $haracteristics of interaction in the home were
related to aspects of children-s use of language and level of achievement in
school. Two approaches: in one parents interacted with their children, helping
them to express their thin"ing by negotiations. $hildren tended towards
greater achievement in school. This interaction is supportive. The other was
characteri)ed by imposition by the parents of the topic under discussion, with
little recognition of the children-s attempts to contribute to the exchange andthe parents assumed tutorial role. Teachers- tal" predominates and that
opportunities for children to communicate and extend their ideas are limited.
#oung c&ildren learning to u)e a )econd language
There is a natural order through which grammatical structure develops in the
5rst and second language. There are some universal processing strategies
that both used. $hildren reconstruct rules for a second language by imposing
rules from their 5rst language on what they hear, and then try to produce tal"in the second language guided by those rules but the rules are di!erent.
;ecoming attuned to a )econd language
3rom three to seven, children use the language but they are still unable to
see it as a system with rules that can be applied. ?p to /0 months to two
years old there is a preparation of the essential basis for the development of
language. The relationships between parents and their babies is important,
from such young children develop s"ills and expectations. 2y the age, theyare able to communicate well, their articulation is developed. Jevertheless
children will need time to adCust to and become familiar with the environmen
in which the second language is used and form relations with others, so they
feel secure and con5dent and are able to ta"e part in activities.
(rom 8r)t to )econd language
$hildren developed s"ills and strategies in learning to use their 5rst language
that can be apply to learn the second. $hildren, have well+developedstrategies for learning language to assist them in ac8uiring a second
language. Hnowledge of the children-s 5rst language should alert teachers to
features of the second language. They might o!er appropriate information
through their responses, repeating phrases that give clues to help children
change their expectations.
C&ildren9) )trategie) in learning language
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3irst children learn through imitation and repetition. Then they combine
words, showing creativity in the production of -telegraphic speech-. Through
such and repetition, children recogni)e how utterances arc structured and
understand rules. $hildren also imitate and repeat short phrases attached to
through imitation phrases are learned and continue to be used as unanaly)ed
wholes that are formulaic. $hildren-s use of formulaic speech, that is is an
important strategy. *mitation, repetition and formulaic speech lead toincorporation.
T&e teac&er9) role in promoting )econd language development
Teachers are involved in helping children to ac8uire a second language, they
need to examine their tal" with children and consider to what extent they are
providing children with conditions similar to those through which the 5rst
language develops. $onditions in -schools cannot be the same as those at
home, if only because of the greater -number of young children with whomthey must tal".
THIN5ING TO LEARN
Young children are powerful learners. They begin communicating using their
body language, gestures and smiles. The thin"ing child learns to master the
ac8uisition of language. $hildren are curious, creative and able to as" and
respond 8uestions. eg: (hy do people dieD1 Heeping a child-s early
8uestioning spirit alive is the "ey important to success in learning. Toencourage a thin"ing child you can introduce them to complex and abstract
ideas. ll children are born with potential, and we cannot be sure of the
learning limits of any child. owever, many children fail to ful5l their
potential. The causes of failure are diGcult to diagnose. @any causes stem
from cognitive confusion. $hildren su!er from this when confronted with
messages and demands which seem to ma"e no sense. They fail because
they can%t overcome bloc"s to learning and they haven%t learnt how to learn.
$hildren need help to achieve their potential and to identify ways in which
they can become e!ective learners. ll children are at potential in their
learning with the capability of exploring experiences and of creating new
ways of exploring. ll children are also at ris" of not seeing new ways, not
"nowing how to travel or missing new opportunities.
There are two approaches to teaching, thin"ing and learning s"ills& one is to
develop a program to teach thin"ing s"ills and the other is to teach thin"ing
and learning s"ills through all areas of the curriculum
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A )peci8c program
*n the past, speci5c subCects were identi5ed as those that develop the ability
to learn. 3or example Latin, but those students who learned became good at
it, and "nowledgeable about grammar, history, but they did not become
better thin"ers and learners. *t is said that @aths is good for logic and good
lessoning, but there is no evidence that mathematicians are better thin"ers.
There is a research which that suggests that children cognitive development
can be enhanced through an approach to 9cience Education. *t showed that
levels of success can be raised through speci5c programmes, li"e creative
thin"ing courses, philosophy program and instrumental enrichment.
Or t&in'ing acro)) t&e curriculum$
This approach infuses the teaching of thin"ing s"ills into all aspects of the
curriculum. This involves children in active learning situations that extendtheir higher order thin"ing processes. Lower levels of thin"ing involve
"nowledge, comprehension and application& and higher levels involve
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. These levels represent the complexity and
challenge thin"ing about any topic. The learning child is a thin"ing child.
9uccessful learning involves helping children to move on to higher levels of
thin"ing. These are metacognitive control. Thin"ing is seen as an information
processing capacity that involves input, output and control. *t is through the
exercise of control that higher levels of thin"ing can be developed.@emory is trained by ma"ing patterns out of the information given, and
repeating them until they become internali)ed. These patterns can be
processed in di!erent ways: verbally listening and repeating the
information1, visually seeing visual patterns or pictures1, logically seeing a
pattern of logical or mathematical relation1, physically physical
representation of body gesture1, musically melody, rhythm1, personally
lin"ing information to personal experiences1, socially learning with and from
others1.
"ultiple intelligence)+ umans are uni8ue in their ability to process
information.
Lingui)tic or ver4al intelligence: speci5c areas of the brain are
responsible for di!erent aspects of language use. Thin"ing involves the use o
words and concepts, and cognitive development is lin"ed to conceptual
development. 'ne way of helping children to develop their thin"ing is to
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organi)e concepts using concept mapping. There are other ways: explaining
their opinions, giving instructions, doing crosswords and word games, writing
letter and poetry.
Vi)ual
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"etecognitive Intelligence orintraper)onal intelligence+is the most
important aspect of human intelligence. *t is the access to our own thoughts
and emotions, to what we thin" and feel.
t 5ve, they are beginning to distinguish appearance and reality. They
develop metacognition through understanding more about the mind and
brain, di!erent elements of personality, what they believe. This is a "ey facto
in the success of learning, in "nowing how to plan, predict, remember, and
5nd out. ctivities: "eeping a diary, understanding your feelings and moods.
&at doe) re)earc& Into learning tell u)
!iagetemphasi)ed the view that thin"ing was an activity. (e should allow
children to have thin"ing time. To encourage children to higher levels of
thin"ing, we need to challenge their ideas
;runer+emphasi)ed the role of the teacher. *t was not enough to let childrenthin" wor" and play on their own. They need someone to sca!old their
learning, to lead them on to higher levels.
Vygot)'y+found that social interaction was the "ey to success in learning.
(e *earn more in collaboration with others parents or other children1 than we
can by ourselves. (e all have a )one of proximal development, referring to
our potential for learning, given assistance by others. The role of the teacher
is to try to reali)e this potential in students.
Lingui)tic t&eori)t)+emphasi)ed the value of tal" in the development of
thin"ing. (e need to give children the opportunity to articulate their ideas,
through tal" and writing. The act of creating and communicating meaning
forces us to thin" and rethin" what we want to say.
Curriculum re)earc&+explored the way children construct their own
theories. $hildren are blan" slates on which to write, or empty vessels to 5ll.
Cognitive re)earc&+focused attention on the complex nature of thin"ing.The mind has been li"ened to a community of intelligences. (e have a multi+
mind. (e all have di!erent thin"ing and learning styles.
!)yc&ologi)t): emphasi)ed the "ey role of self+esteem and our sense of
mastery over what we thin" and do. (e are better motivated when we thin"
we are going to do well, when we are con5dent in our abilities. (e need to
build a sense of can doM in our children
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!&ilo)op&er)+children share natural sense of wonder about the world.
Through the use of reason, they can translate their curiosity into ideas,
theories and hypotheses about the way the world wor"s.
=6ESTIONING
*t is at home that a child 5rst learns the power of as"ing 8uestions, they are
usually -partners in dialogue- with their parents. (hen these children enteredschool their conversations fell. Teachers initiated most conversations and
as"ed most 8uestions, children get fewer turns, as" fewer 8uestions, ma"e
fewer re8uests for information, use less elaborated sentences. They are
tal"ed at, rather than tal"ed with. Teachers use 8uestions in order to
motivate, to test "nowledge, and to promote reection, analysis or en8uiry.
Kuestions are supposed to o!er intellectual challenge, to encourage students
to thin". #esearch shows that most 8uestions teachers use are closed, factua
8uestions with "nown right answers, ma"ing low levels of cognitive demandthat do not encourage children to persist in their thin"ing and learning.
Teachers as" *ots of 8uestions. The more the children were 8uestioned the
less initiative they showed in their responses. good 8uestion provides an
intellectual challenge, which stimulates the -cognitive conict- and help
children move on to a more advanced stage in their development. good
8uestion provides sca!olding to new learning.
6nproductive 7ue)tion):
/+ 9tupid 8uestions: are thoughtless. They triviali)e what is emotionally and
intellectually complex and provo"e a thoughtless response.
;+ Too complex 8uestions: too big or too abstract to be tac"led. 7o you
believe in NodD1 *t could be productive to create a context, and to have
moved from the "nown to the un"nown.
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demand less complex and thus lower- levels of thin"ing. 'ne strategy is to
as" 8uestions that ma"e increasing cognitive demands on students, to move
from simple "nowledge through 8uestions that as" for explanation and
application, then analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Good 7ue)tion): s" fewer, but better, 8uestions, see" better answers and
encourage children to as" more 8uestions. 'ne characteristic is that it avoids
the trap of a yes+no response. (hat do you thin"D (hyD1. good 8uestion
o!ers a challenging of thin"ing and invites and open+ended, thoughtful
response. They are productive for they generate something new.
T&in'ing time
*n 8uestioning we should learn to value silence. 9ome teachers wait only one
second for an answer. *f the answer isn%t forthcoming within a second,
teachers tend to interrupt by repeating the 8uestions, or as"ing another
8uestion or another child. *ncreasing thin"ing time, wait timeM, can result in:
students giving longer answer, o!ering to answer, willing to as" more
8uestions and their responses become more thoughtful and creative.
-1 !au)ing+means giving time, thin"ing time, and opportunities for re+
thin"ing and re+stating an idea.
>1 !rompting and pro4ing: gives verbal encouragement, by -reecting
bac"- to chee" whether we have understood, what the student has said.
robing: encourage deeper exploration.
Jon+verbal reinforcement includes eye contact, facial signals, and body
gestures.
?1 !rai)ing+gives positive feedbac", supporting the hesitant, rewarding the
ris"+ta"es and valuing every contribution.
=ue)tioning )'ill): they are seven: using the appropriate level for the class
distributing 8uestions around the class, prompting and giving clues, singpupil-s responses in a positive way, timing 8uestions and pauses between
8uestions, ma"ing progressively cognitive demands through se8uences of
higher+order 8uestions, using written 8uestions.
Alternative) to 7ue)tion)Teachers who model thoughtfulness will
encourage their children to exhibit more thoughtful behavior. Teachers who
o!er their own thoughts and ideas will create an environment in which
speculation, hypothesis and argument can ourish.
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igher order thin"ing involves imposing meaning, 5nding structure in
apparent disorder.
Thin"ing is tal"ing it through with yourself when you have a problem. Hinds: a
speculative statement erhapsO1, a reective statement You seem to beO1
a state+of+mind statement * don-t understand1, a re8uest for information *%d
li"e to hear what you thin" about1, an invitation to thin" * want you to thin"1.
Encouraging c&ildren to 7ue)tion: if we want pupils to be active and
adventurous thin"ers we need to encourage them to as" 8uestions. s
children become older this becomes less easy. There are two ways of trying to
establish a climate of en8uiry for teachers to: model a 8uestioning mind by
thin"ing aloud and as"ing good 8uestions, value and provide opportunities fo
students to as" 8uestions. *f children, themselves, identify what they want to
"now by as"ing a 8uestion, then they are much more li"ely to value and
remember the answer.
/+ ssessing the ability to 8uestion: one way is to give them an obCect and
as" them to list 8uestions about the obCect. nother way is to ta"e a subCect
of study and as" many 8uestions as they can about the topic. third way is
to choose a text and to create 8uestions about it.
Creating a 7ue)tion) cla))room+ there can be problems in creating and
en8uiring classrooms. The 8uestions of children can be challenging and
unsettling. 2ut teachers don%t have all the answers, but is "een to helpchildren to be independent, creative and curious. $lassrooms activities design
to create 8uestions for thin"ing:
9tudy 8uestions: help them identify what is signi5cant in their learning.
#eading review 8uestions: as" your pupils to as" 8uestions about the story
they are reading or listening to.
otseating: a student chooses a character and the others brainstorm
8uestions to as" the child+in+role.
Twenty 8uestions: students choose an obCect, and the others have ;P
8uestions to 5nd out the answer. 'nly -Yes- or -Jo answers are allowed.
Kuestion and answer: students devise 8uestions to 5t a given answer.
2loc"busters: create a board of letters and the students devise 8uestions for
each letter on given theme.
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ny 8uestionsD 9tudents as" or write down any 8uestion and each 8uestion is
given to an -expert- partner to answer.
*nterview 8uestions: 7ecide on someone to interview and devise 8uestions.
Kuestion your classroom: devise 8uestions to stimulate thin"ing and
discussion about obCects.
Heep a 8uestions box, board or boo": create 8uestions, store them in a box,
choose one and discuss it.
DISC6SSING
Tal' and t&oug&t
4erbal thin"ing can be regarded as the internali)ation of speech. 4ygots"y
argues that a better approximation to verbal thought lies in egocentric
speech. 3rom an early age, children develop theories about what they "nowand experience. These ideas become the basis of their actions and
responses. They help the children to anticipate, comprehend event and
create order out of what would seem to be random.
"odelling1 recreating t&e %orld in %ord)
'ne way of helping this construction of understanding is to tal" with
ourselves about our experiences, to model the world as we understand it in
words. 4ocali)ation gives substance to thin"ing.
Examples of talking things trough:
7e5ne the problem: say what the situation is, where you are, and where you
hope to get.
lan a course of action: tal" through a step+by+step approach to a problem,
outlining what one hopes to achieve and the stages one hopes to go through.
@onitoring the situation: to chec" the progress of a plan by as"ing.
#eviewing the outcome: to verify that the tas" has been achieved by testing
the results.
Self- questioning: ll successful learners have metacognitive s"ills that
involve developing an awareness of their own learning. *f children are made
aware of their own learning then they are in a better position to improve it.
2y modelling examples of tal"ing things through we can show children ways
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in which they can articulate their ideas. (e learn more by 8uestioning
ourselves.
T&oug&t and dialogue
$hildren need opportunities to en8uire into their own views and ways of
thin"ing and through dialogues with others, to discover di!erent perspectives
and points of view. *t is through dialogue that the private world of the self isextended, and we are able to overcome the egocentricity of thought by being
helped to 5nd more reective ways of thin"ing. (hat di!erence a learning
conversation from ordinary tal" day to day chat1 is that it involves higher
order thin"ing. learning conversation contributes to understanding. *t helps
them express ideas. 9ome strategies that teacher uses to encourage
students to articulate their thin"ing through dialogue: de5ning the purpose of
the activity, inviting opinions about the topic, 8uestioning the topic,
summari)ing, evaluating outcomes and reviewing the whole process.
&at i) di)cu))ion$
*t can be informal situation where tal" between people occurs or in a group
interaction where members Coin together to address a 8uestion of common
concern, exchanging di!erent points of view. This is called community of
en8uire. The central function of discussion is the improvement of "nowledge,
understanding andQor Cudgment. $onditions: tal" and listen to one another,
respond to what others say and try to develop "nowledge. @oral dispositions:discussion has to be order, reasonable, truthful, free to expression, e8ual
opportunities, and open+minded.
Teac&ing t&roug& di)cu))ion
*n classroom discussion, children tend to tal" directly to the teacher,
competing for attention. They need the teacher%s approval, and they tend to
be fearful of ta"ing ris"s. Teachers have di!erent roles:
s an expert: sustaining the attention of individuals or groups, leading themto higher levels of understanding, this means sca!olding the steps to learning
and understanding so that they achieve their potential.
s a facilitator: organi)e situations where children are wor"ing in groups.
9tudents are free to explore ideas but the teacher may intervene when
students donRt understand.
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s a participant: the purpose is to get students to tal" and listen to each
other and help them feel independent and e8ual in their responses.
COGNITIVE "A!!ING
$ognitive maps are made out of words, ideas and concept and they are
useful for learning. They relate ideas and concepts, identifying "ey words to
learn and remember. @emory is a process of ma"ing lin"s and associationbetween new information and existing "nowledge. *t depends on "ey words
and "ey concepts that are transferred from short+ term memory into long+
term memory. *t is through the lin"ing of information to existing patterns of
"nowledge that we create new forms of understanding. (e are able to assess
many memories because all we need is to remember the "ey ideas, words or
images and we recreate what we remember from these. (e transform our
perceptions into concepts that are ideas. concept is an organi)ing idea and
helps us to classify and order thought and experience. Teacher has to explainand give examples of it so that the children come to a communicative
understanding of the concept.
Concept development
4ygots"y identify two levels: concepts are developed through perceptual
and practical experience in everyday activity. The higher level are scienti5c
concepts which are theoretical and structured and depends on the use of
language and learning& they are powerful because they are applied todi!erent contexts of learning.
iaget argued that concepts are organi)ed into schemas which are mental
representation of things or ideas, and it it through this we process
information.
Concept mapping
'ne way of introducing children to the language concepts is to describe
concepts as any words that mean something li"e places, names of people,ideas. concept is a word you can picture in the mind and means something
The best way to introduce concept maps is to construct some of your own,
5rst with general topics and then with topics of studies. Listing words and
concepts is a useful activity to encourage uency and exibility of ideas and
to provide a good basis for writing and for classi5cation. *n a concept map, a
"ey word or concept is one that is lin"ed to many other and serves as a focus
point for ma"ing connections for other parts in the pattern. dvantages: "ey
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idea is de5ned, the important ideas are highlighted or nearer the center, the
lin"s between ideas are shown, visual patterning helps you to review.
The purpose: to explore what we "now, identify the "ey concepts, showing
lin"s between ideas, to help planning, to aid evaluation. $ognitive maps help
children articulate their ideas. They provide a tool for planning and assessing
They stimulate active thin"ing, develop cognitive s"ills of analysis.
(orm) o* mapping
Hierarchical:shows a hierarchy of ideas and the relationship between them.
Knowledge: it wor"s when there are a lot of facts to learn history1
Graphic organizers: provides a good focus for co+operative learning and
engage students in processing information of ideas.
$ognitive mapping a powerful aid to memory, understanding and conceptdevelopment. $oncepts are organi)ing ideas that helps us ma"e sense of the
world and a child%s learning is develop through organi)ing ideas into
framewor" of understanding. Nraphic organi)ers help students to represent
thin"ing in visual form to relate new information to prior "nowledge. @apping
can ta"e many forms. $ognitive mapping provides a focus for group
discussion and a means to facilitate co+operative learning.
DIVERGENT THIN5ING
(e become creative when we are able to loo" at things from a new
perspective. ny learning that is not routine needs creativity. $reativity will
be needed to help develop, adapt and apply understanding. (hen "nowledge
is complete, we have no need to process it& there is no need to thin" things
through. To develop new ideas and design solution to problems re8uires
creative thin"ing. *ntelligence alone is not enough to reali)e learning
potential.
Creativity@ intelligence plu) ac&ievement
$reativity leads to di!erent learning styles and levels of achievement.
high creativity S high intelligence: children exercise themselves control and
freedom.
high creativity S low intelligence: they are in conict with themselves and
with the school environment.
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low creativity S high intelligence: they are addicted to school achievement.
low creativity S low intelligence: they are engaged in defensive social
activities.
A))e))ing creative t&in'ing+ we become creative when we can vary and
extent the focus of attention when we are able to see and thin" of
possibilities beyond the given information. (e have di!erent capacities forcreative thin"ing and these are expanded through practice. Three "inds of
tests:
drawing test: where students are as"ed to create a design from a simple
drawn shape. *t is useful for uency, exibility, originality and elaboration.
4isuali)ation test: students are as"ed of a given drawing and try to list as
many items the drawing may represent.
4erbal test: to generate creative ideas from a given verbal stimulus.
Developing creative t&in'ing+ creativity can be trained and develop, it ha
to do with serious and sustained e!ort.
$o#T is the most creative thin"ing programme which consists of a number of
tools applicable to many teaching situations:
$3: $onsider all factors: aims to expand the focus of attention.
3*: 3irst important priorities: directs the attention to priorities. Jot all
factors are of e8ual importance. 7eciding on priorities re8uire planning,
analysis or evaluation.
@*: lus, minus, interesting points: aims to force us into thin"ing about any
situation before coming to a Cudgment. *t involves listing all the good, bad
and interesting points.
$9: $onse8uences and 9e8uel: invites children to speculate and to predict
along a time scale into the future.
N': ims, goals and obCectives: identify the purpose of our thin"ing and
learning. *t explains the distinction between aims, goals and obCectives.
$: lternative, possibilities and choices: encourage children to loo" for
alternatives, to be alert to the multiplicity of possibilities and support the
belief that they always have a choice.
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'4: 'ther points view: it re8uires the ability to listen to the others point
view and to understand their feeling and ideas.
!rovocation+ a provocative statement stimulates creative thought, response
or discussion.
COO!ERATIVE LEARNING
eer tutoring means that children wor" in a structured way with a more able
partner. 3or 4ygots"y, social interaction has a central role in a child%s
education. *t is through being with others that we learn, could be parents,
friends, siblings, teacher. (ith others, we can do more and achieve more than
we can do on our own. $hildren learn best when they wor" with others. The
best condition is when children have a challenge that extends their cognitive
range. The challenge doesn%t have to be too diGcult or too easy. This
potential exists in the )one of proximal development and in the s"ills, ideas
and experiences of the social context in which he is immersed. 9o the teache
has to provide the social and cognitive framewor" for learning.
Learning in pair)+eer tutoring bene5ts:
. The tutor: the helping child. lthough they are teaching things they have
mastered, they gain intellectual bene5ts from putting their s"ills and
"nowledge into words, 5nding new meanings. *t also helps the child to
understand more about the process.
.The tutee: the child who is helped. e is given extra individual attention,
with regular feedbac" on his e!orts. Nood teaching involves giving help when
the learner faces diGculty. $hild tutor is ready to o!er help and give speci5c
concrete suggestions. $hildren are not so good as adults at sca!olding the
learning process of others, they "now less about the process of learning.
. The teacher: the mediator of the learning. 9he needs to support both the
tutor and the tutee, to ensure that a positive relationship is being developed.
aired reading: > 9teps: /+ the tutee selects a boo". ;+ the tutoring child
chec"s if the boo" is within the tutee%s competence.
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aired writing: aving a response friend to share the 5rst draft of a piece of
writing can be useful for correcting mista"es. 2ut children need guidance on
how to be a good writer and how to be a good response friend. 9o children
need opportunities to teach and to learn from each other. They bene5t from:
/+ e8ual partners in terms of age and ability. ;+ tutor partners, who are more
able, such as older students or adults.
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with a teacher who focuses on their particular needs. $ognitive coaching can
be summed up as teaching for transfer, see"ing to teach the indiviaul
students transferable s"ills of learning.
Cognitive apprenti)&ip+encourages students to be engaged in the
disciplined and productive mental word. Three "ey element: challenging
tas"s: re8uire mental e!ort, contextuali)ed tas"s: have a purpose and
coached tas"s: assist learning.
$ognitive coaching isn%t time+consuming. The ideal is to ma"e cognitive
coaching part of the routine.
There are di!erences between good and poor learners. Nood learners tend to
focus on tas"s, as" 8uestions about their learning, solve problems, and
persevere when they fail. oor learners tend to: lac" the ability to concentrate
on tas"s, lac" a purpose of learning, and give up easily. The aim for teachers
is to device ways in which poor learners can practice the strategies of good
learner.
There are six strategies to be e!ective for poor learners:
Focus and follow through: the aim is to help children to ta"e more time, to
attend more and to hold the focus of attention long enough to allow thin"ing
processes to wor". *n focusing we try to direct the student%s attention to the
important feature of the problem or learning situation. 3ocusing is part of
cognitive coaching when it ma"es a cognitive demand on the child. *t ma"esa cognitive intervention by creating a perceptual focus on the elements of the
situation and conceptual demands for articulated response.
#eciprocal teaching: is a "ind of interactive game between the teacher and
the learner in which each ta"es it in terms to lead in teaching the other. Teach
is to learn twice, the best way for children to learn a process is to get them to
teach it. *t consists of four activities: summari)ing, 8uestioning, clarifying and
predicting. Summarizing:is important in speci5c teaching contexts, such as reading. *t
is a way of synthesi)ing the meaning of a complex message. *t is useful as a
process of review, as evaluation. The ability to provide a good summary is an
advance high order s"ill. *t involves cognitive processes such as: Cudging with
ideas are important, applying rules for condensing information and practicing
the communication of "ey ideas. 9ummari)ing can be spo"en or written.
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Explaining:it needs to have clear structure comprehensible for the others1
clear and appropriate language, varied voice using gestures1, and uency
pacing is important1.
!odelling:needs to be structured for understanding so that it can be
transformed into images and verbal guides to subse8uent performance. *t
involves performing an action that can be processed in the learnerRs mind. *t
is a means of assisting performance.
ositi"e feed#ack: on performance is a powerful means of assisting learning
3eedbac" can ta"e many forms such as teacher response, test data, self+
assessment.
$oaching refers to a range of strategies used to assist learning. The aim is to
create independent learners who have the capacity to coach themselves and
other.
REVIEING
Sel*1e)teem+ is not related to family education& it comes from relationships
with those who play a signi5cant in the child%s life. *t is formed by the person
assessment of the self+picture which are reected bac" from other. 9elf+
esteem is a sense of self+respect. 9elf+esteem by itself is not enough for it can
encourage self+satisfaction. (hat is needed is to lin" self+esteem to self+
awareness and to create in children mastery orientation.
"a)tery orientation+refers to a sense of self competence that children
develop from an early age and moulds their approach to learning. $hildren
who are mastery oriented are curious, they want to learn and develop the
resilience to cope with failure and frustration. The styles of helpless or
mastery oriented behavior is not related to intelligence but is a personality
characteristic, a way of viewing one+self and one%s capacity to be e!ective
with people and circumstances.
There are three ways in which teaching children to learn can help enhanceself+esteem and mastery orientation: personali)ed learning related learning
to personal interests1, reviewing achievement identify their areas of success
and see where and how they can improve1, self+ assessment encourage self+
regulation to increase control of the learning process1.
!er)onalied learning+is collaborative approaches to learning in which
students are encourage to lin" the content of the curriculum with their own
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personal concerns. The teacher tries to personali)e the topic by helping the
students appreciate how the topic is relevant to their lives. The teacher sells
the topic and gets the students involved by brainstorming.
Revie%ing ac&ievement+it is a time to assess how the child is doing, to
recogni)e achievement, to establish needs and show that these needs are
understood and discuss the next step in learning. *n review sessions daily,
wee"ly, termly and annual1 the aim is to help the child become better learner
The review encourages children to spea" freely about their learning
experiences.
Sel*1a))e))ment+one aim is to help children move from an external point o
reference to internal one. *t is useful for helping children discover what they
are good at and to help them identify areas of wea"ness so that they can
begin to thin" about ways to improve.
There are tools for independent learning: inner meaning having a purpose
about learning1, self+regulation plan your wor"1, feeling of competence
feeling con5dent1, feeling of challenge how to deal with diGculty1,
communicating the ability to communicate1, setting target setting personal
goals1, being aware of self+change "nowing that you can change1.
Creating a learning environment
(ays to create e!ective communities for learning:
In t&e cla))room+ a supportive group is li"e a tribe. The themes of
identify, support and community help to create a great environment of
learning. The aim of a tribe is to develop positive peer regard, and create a
supportive climate to improve the self+image. There are rules paying
attention to another%s words and feeling, giving respect, appreciating others,
avoiding hurtful gestures, choosing when to participate in group discussion
and having the right to silence1.The "ey aim is to foster a sense of inclusion.
$ircle time: is a central activity to build a community, sitting in a circle, withthe teacher, and leading the group in a sharing activity. Everyone can see
each other%s face and tal" person to person. *t is important that the teachers
model the norms.
In t&e )c&ool: teachers and schools have clues to improve the chances of
success. 'ne "ey is the lin" between e!ective schools and teaching and
learning strategies.
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*mproving schools: a perfect school changes constantly, the "ey is the 8uality
of the changes and the way which they a!ect every individual. reas that
relate to e!ectiveness and improvement:
9chool improvement planning: schools adopt a planned approach to change
and improvement. *mprovements within the classroom depend on
improvements outside the classroom. 9chool development planning must
focus on -the total school-.
9chool ethos: is the climate of the school, and is expressed in personal
relationships. They are the expression of norms, beliefs and values. n
e!ective school has a positive ethos.
*mproving learning and teaching: a good school is -learner centered-.
Teachers should maximi)e learning opportunities for individuals providing
opportunities for independent learning, supported learning, peer learning and
extended learning. E!ective teaching is a complex activity which needs the
professional s"ills and personal 8ualities imagination, creativity, sensitivity1
the teaching and learning is e!ective when: the students show progress,
positive attitudes to school, motivation, good attendance, and teachers have
professional development, there is no sta! absence, 8uality of teaching,
monitoring student progress.
E!ective schools+ places where children succeed: indicators of 8uality and
e!ectiveness:$ompetence and character:good schools combine e!ective teaching clear
goals, good curriculum1 with sociali)ation of students positive behaviour,
good wor" habits1. Teachers focused on the needs of their children in
preparation for their adult life.
High expectations% monitoring standards and rewarding results:all students
can be motivated to learn. To maintained high standards they must be
monitored and reinforced by rewards.School leadership:e!ective leadership is essential for success. The best
leaders adapt to their local context. They set and maintain a clear direction,
facilitate the wor" of sta!, etc.
$lear goalshare with all the community, the purposes must be ta"en
seriously and translated into action. To establish priorities is important.
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$reating professional work en"ironments: sharing a sense of control, a
satisfaction from being part of the group and school.
&ositi"e students-teacher relationship:students and teacher should create
appositive relationship. *t can be formal and informal extracurricular
activities1 relationships.
'esource to facilitate teaching and learning:ade8uate resources and theiruse for the maximum e!ect
(orking in the communit): neighbours, local business, other organi)ations
will to help the school.
Sol"ing pro#lems:schools have obstacles to success, identifying their
problems and search for solutions. They tend to be solution+focused than
problem+focused.
*eing unique:innovative and open to change, they allow exibility in
planning.