Diagonal Varaition Term Paper

7/30/2019 Diagonal Varaition Term Paper

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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OWERRI

P.M.B 1526 OWERRI IMO STATE

A TERM PAPER

ON

DIAGONAL VARIATION, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WAVE LENGTH

AND WAVE NUMBER, GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT AND OIL WINDOW

BY

NAME: UZODINMA CHIEDOZIE .A

REG. NO.: 20081614795

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO

DR. NWAGBARA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE

GLY 503

(GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION METHOD 3)

FEBRUARY, 2013


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DEDICATION

I dedicate this piece of work to Almighty God and to my parents.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to appreciate my parents Mr. & Mrs. Uzodinma for their prayers, financial

and moral support in my academic life. May God always strengthen and bless you.

More especially to my lecturer, Dr. Nwagbara for this opportunity given to us to

research and prove ourselves. And to all lecturers may God bless you all.


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Table of contents

Title Page - - - - - - - - - - - 1

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - 2

Acknowledgement- - - - - - - - - - 3

Table of Contents- - - - - - - - - - - 4

Chapter One

1.0 Introduction- - - - - - - - - - 6

1.1 Diagonal Variation- - - - - - - - - 6

Chapter Two

2.0 Difference between Wave Length and Wave Number - - - 7

2.1 Wavelength - - - - - - - - - - 7

2.2 Wavenumber- - - - - - - - - - 8

2.3 Wavelength Vs. Wavenumber - - - - - - - 8

2.4 Wavenumber to Wavelength Conversion - - - - - 9


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Chapter Three

3.0 Geothermal Gradient - - - - - - - - 10

3.1 Heat Sources - - - - - - - - - - 11

3.2 Heat Flow- - - - - - - - - - - 13

3.3 Direct Application- - - - - - - - - 13

3.4 Variations- - - - - - - - - - - 15

Chapter Four

4.0 Oil Window- - - - - - - - - - 20

References


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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 DIAGONAL VARIATION

Information on diagonal variation of mountain waves could be useful since the

effect of, for instance, diagonal convection is uncertain. Convection could disrupt

stable airow of mountain waves, add to the mountain peaks forcing waves, or

modify wave modes and amplitudes (Georgelin et al., 1996).

Mountain waves can modify downwind convection; however mountain-wave

clouds can also occur above convection, covering the mountains, as if the wave

source region could be higher than the mountain surface.

Sea- breeze convection could also form an additional effective mountai n.

Gravity waves above convection are usually categorized as convection waves,

separate from mountain waves, and waves above orographic convection have also

been interpreted as a type of convection wave. However, waves above convective

rolls over mountain s (vertical wind tens of cm s 1 or more, on timescale of

several hours, and disappearing with a turbulence layer for horizontal wind near

zero) often appear typical of mountain waves (Worthington, 2002).


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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WAVE LENGTH AND WAVE NUMBER

Wavelength and wavenumber are two very important concepts discussed in

physics and various other fields. Wavelength is the distance between two

consecutive points which are in the same phase. Wavenumber is the number of

wavelengths in a given distance along the propagation of the wave. These concepts

are very important in fields such as electromagnetics, analytical chemistry,

physical chemistry, waves and vibrations and various other fields. In this article,

we are going to discuss what wavelength and wave number are, their definitions,

and finally the difference between wavelength and wavenumber.

2.1 Wavelength

Wavelength is a concept discussed under waves. The wavelength of a wave is the

length where the shape of the wave starts to repeat itself. This can be also defined

using the wave equation. For a time dependent wave equation (x,t), in a given

time, if (x,t) is equal for two x values and there are no points between the two

values having the same value, the differenc e of x values are known as the

wavelength of the wave.

Another definition for wavelength can be given using the phase. Wavelength is the

distance between two consecutive points of the wave that are in the same phase.


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The relationship between wavelength, frequency, and velocity of a wave is given

by v = f where f is the frequency of the wave and is the wavelength. For a

given wave, since the wave velocity is constant, the wavelength becomes inversely

proportional to the frequency.

2.2 Wavenumber

Wavenumber is another very important property of a wave. Wavenumber is

defined as the number of wavelengths in a given distance. There are two main

wavenumber measurements. First one is the number of wavelengths per 2 meters.

This is widely used in physics and mathematical models of the wave as well as

quantum mechanics. This wavenumber is denoted using k and it is also known as

the angular wavenumber.

The other form is the number of wavelengths per 1 cm. This definition is widely

used in chemistry. This wavenumber is usually denoted by (the Greek letter

Nu), and it is known as the spectroscopic wavenumber.

The units of the wavenumber vary depending on the definition used. If the first

definition is used, it is measured in radians per meter. If the second definition is

used, the wavenumber is measured in per centimeter.

2.3 Wavelength vs Wavenumber

Wavelength has only one definition whereas wavenumber has two different

definitions for angular wavenumber and spectroscopic wavenumber.


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Wavelength is measured in distance units, but wavenumber is measured in

reciprocal distance units or radians per distance units.

The wavelength and wavenumber are two forms, which describe the same entity.

In some places, it is more convenient to use one form instead of the other.

2.4 Wavenumber to Wavelength Conversion

The study of electromagnetic radiation covers a large range of wavelengths. It

spans from nm or Angstroms for visible light to meters for radio waves. Each

region of the spectrum has its own terminology for expressing the wavelength of

the radiation. A rather unique unit of measure occurs in the infrared and near

infrared region of the spectrum. The wavelengths are measured in wavenumbers

(cm^-1). In order to work across a wider range of the spectrum, it is helpful to

convert from this odd reference system to a system that is more standard for

discussing wavelength.

The typical method of expressing wavelength of radiation is by expressing it as a

unit of length like m or nm. Reporting wavelength in units of wavenumbers only

occurs in the near infrared and infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It

is a measure of length but not in the same format you are used to seeing it. The

conversion to other more traditional units of measurement is not complicated but

does require your understanding of the relative sizes of the units used.


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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT

The geothermal gradient is the rate of change of temperature () with depth (), in the

earth. Units of measurement are F/100 ft or C/km. In the geosciences, the

measurement of T is strongly associated with heat flow, Q, by the simple relation:

Q=K/, where K is the thermal conductivity of the rock.

Temperatures at the surface of the earth are controlled by the Sun and the

atmosphere, except for areas such as hot springs and lava flows. From shallow

depths to about 200 ft (61 m) below the surface, the temperature is constant at

about 55F (11C). In a zone between the near surface and about 400 ft (122 m),

the gradient is variable because it is affected by atmospheric changes and

circulating ground water. Below that zone, temperature almost always increases

with depth. However, the rate of increase with depth (geothermal gradient) varies

considerably with both tectonic setting and the thermal properties of the rock.

High gradients (up to 11F/100 ft, or 200C/km) are observed along the oceanic

spreading centers (for example, the Mid-Atlantic Rift) and along island arcs (for

example, the Aleutian chain). The high rates are due to molten volcanic rock

(magma) rising to the surface. Low gradients are observed in tectonic subduction

zones because of thrusting of cold, water-filled sediments beneath an


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existing crust. The tectonically stable shield areas and sedimentary basins have

average gradients that typically vary from 0.82.65F/100 ft (150C/km).

Measurements of thermal gradient data in Japan range widely and over short

horizontal distances between to 0.6.4F/100 ft (100C/km). The Japanese Islands

are a volcanic island arc that is bordered on the Pacific side by a trench and

subduction complex. The distribution of geothermal gradients is consistent with the

tectonic settings. In the northeastern part of Japan, the thermal gradient is low on

the Pacific side of the arc and high on the back-arc side. The boundary between the

outer low thermal gradient and the high thermal gradient regions roughly coincides

with the boundary of the volcanic front.

The geothermal gradient is important for the oil, gas, and geothermal

energy industries. Downhole logging tools must be hardened if they are to function

in deep oil and gas wells in areas of high gradient. Calculation of geothermal

gradients in the geological past is a critical part of modeling the generation

of hydrocarbons in sedimentary basins. In Iceland, geothermal energy, the main

source of energy, is extracted from those areas with geothermal gradients .2F/100

ft (0C/km).

3.1 Heat Sources

Temperature within the Earth increases with depth. Highly viscous or partially

molten rock at temperatures between 650 to 1,200 C (1,200 to 2,200 F) is


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postulated to exist everywhere beneath the Earth's surface at depths of 80 to 100

kilometres (50 to 60 mi), and the temperature at the Earth's inner core/outer core

boundary, around 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi) deep, is estimated to be 5650

600 kelvins. The heat content of the Earth is 1031 joules.

Much of the heat is created by decay of naturally radioactive elements. An

estimated 45 to 90 percent of the heat escaping from the Earth originates from

radioactive decay of elements within the mantle.

Heat of impact and compression released during the original formation of the

Earth by accretion of in-falling meteorites.

Heat released as abundant heavy metals (iron, nickel, copper) descended to the

Earth's core.

Latent heat released as the liquid outer core crystallizes at the inner core boundary.

Heat may be generated by tidal force on the Earth as it rotates; since rock

cannot flow as readily as water it compresses and distorts, generating heat.

There is no reputable science to suggest that any significant heat may be

created by electromagnetic effects of the magnetic fields involved in Earth's

magnetic field, as suggested by some contemporary folk theories.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_E31_Jhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_E31_Jhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_E31_Jhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_E31_Jhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin


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3.2 Heat Flow

Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface. Total heat

loss from the Earth is estimated at 44.2 TW (4.42 1013

watts). Mean heat flow is

65 mW/m 2 over continental crust and 101 mW/m 2 over oceanic crust. This is 0.087

watt/square meter on average (0.3 percent of solar power absorbed by the Earth),

but is much more concentrated in areas where thermal energy is transported toward

the crust by convection such as along mid-ocean ridges and mantle

plumes. The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must

be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) in order to release the heat

underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle

upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is

by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans

due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents.

The heat of the Earth is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW .[16] The

global geothermal flow rates are more than twice the rate of human energy

consumption from all primary sources.

3.3 Direct Application

Heat from Earth's interior can be used as an energy source, known as geothermal

energy. The geothermal gradient has been used for space heating and bathing since
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_plumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_plumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-sustainability-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-sustainability-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-sustainability-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-sustainability-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_plumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_plumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_crust


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ancient Roman times, and more recently for generating electricity. As the human

population continues to grow, so does energy use and the correlating

environmental impacts that are consistent with global primary sources of energy.

This has caused a growing interest in finding sources of energy that are renewable

and have reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In areas of high geothermal energy

density, current technology allows for the generation of electrical power because of

the corresponding high temperatures. Generating electrical power from geothermal

resources requires no fuel while providing true baseload energy at a reliability rate

that constantly exceeds 90% .[10] In order to extract geothermal energy, it is

necessary to efficiently transfer heat from a geothermal reservoir to a power plant,

where electrical energy is converted from heat .[10] On a worldwide scale, the heat

stored in Earth's interior provides an energy that is still seen as an exotic source.

About 10 GW of geothermal electric capacity is installed around the world as of

2007, generating 0.3% of global electricity demand. An additional 28 GW of

direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating,

spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications .[1] Because

heat is flowing through every square meter of land, it can be used for a source of

energy for heating, air conditioning (HVAC) and ventilating systems using ground

source heat pumps. In areas where modest heat flow is present, geothermal energy

can be used for industrial applications that presently rely on fossil fuels.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-IPCC-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-IPCC-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-IPCC-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-IPCC-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_electrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_gradient#cite_note-Geothermal-10


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3.4 Variations

The geothermal gradient varies with location and is typically measured by

determining the bottom open-hole temperature after borehole drilling. To achieve

accuracy the drilling fluid needs time to reach the ambient temperature. This is not

always achievable for practical reasons.

In stable tectonic areas in the tropics a temperature -depth plot will converge to the

annual average surface temperature. However, in areas where

deep permafrost developed during the Pleistocene a low temperature anomaly can

be observed that persists down to several hundred metres. The Suwaki cold

anomaly in Poland has led to the recognition that similar thermal disturbances

related to Pleistocene -Holocene climatic changes are recorded in boreholes

throughout Poland, as well as in Alaska, northern Canada, and Siberia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropicshttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/depthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrosthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82kihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82kihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82kihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82kihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrosthttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/depthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature


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In areas of Holocene uplift and erosion (Fig. 1) the initial gradient will be higher

than the average until it reaches an inflection point where it reaches the stabilized

heat-flow regime. If the gradient of the stabilized regime is projected above the

inflection point to its intersect with present-day annual average temperature, the

height of this intersect above present-day surface level gives a measure of the

extent of Holocene uplift and erosion. In areas of

Holocene subsidence and deposition (Fig. 2) the initial gradient will be lower than
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonic_uplifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(sediment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:300px-Geothermgradients.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(sediment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectonic_uplift


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If that rate of temperature change were constant, temperatures deep in the Earth

would soon reach the point where all known rocks would eventually melt. We

know, however, that the Earth's mantle is solid because of the transmission of S-

waves. The temperature gradient dramatically decreases with depth for two

reasons. First, radioactive heat production is concentrated within the crust of the

Earth, and particularly within the upper part of the crust, as concentrations

of uranium, thorium, and potassium are highest there: these three elements are the

main producers of radioactive heat within the Earth. Second, the mechanism of

thermal transport changes from conduction, as within the rigid tectonic plates,

toconvection, in the portion of Earth's mantle that convects. Despite its solidity,

most of the Earth's mantle behaves over long time-scales as a fluid, and heat is

transported by advection, or material transport. Thus, the geothermal gradient

within the bulk of Earth's mantle is of the order of 0.3 kelvin per kilometer, and is

determined by the adiabatic gradient associated with mantle material (peridotite in

the upper mantle).

This heating up can be both beneficial or detrimental in terms

of engineering: Geothermal energy can be used as a means for

generating electricity, by using the heat of the surrounding layers of rock

underground to heat water and then routing the steam from this process through

a turbine connected to a generator.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(geology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_conductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_mantlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peridotitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peridotitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_mantlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_conductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-waveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(geology)


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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 OIL WINDOW

There are three stages to oil formation. The first is called diagenesis. This stage

involves the biological, chemical, and physical alteration of organic material

before heating begins to affect it.

The second state is the thermal alteration you are referring to, known as

catagenesis. This stage generally takes place between 50-200 degrees C (122-392

F).

The third stage is called metagenesis, and is high temperature alteration. It is also

known as the gas window. It ranges above 200 degrees C.

The temperature required to alter organic material is produced by gradual burial

and the geothermal gradient for the area of burial. As heat comes from the earth's


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mantle it warms the crust. Areas with thin crust have high heat gradients, while

areas with thick crustal material have a slower geothermal gradient.

The oil window is often referred to as the period of time during which it is believed

that a source rock was buried deep enough to cause catagenesis. The burial history

is studied using several methods (including vitrinite reflectance values and bottom-

hole temperature measurements) and this gives petroleum geologists some idea

when oil might have formed in a particular basin. Combining this with

understanding of what structural or stratigraphic changes have taken place, a

prediction is made of where the oil might have migrated to, away from its source

rock.


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The Frozen Time, from the Polish Geological Institute

Hunt, John M. , 1996, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, WH Freeman & Co: New York, 743 pp.
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